Skempton and Hutchinson

STATE OF-THE-ART REPORT ETAT ACTUEL DES CONAISSANCES STABILITY OF NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS STABLITE DES TALUS NATURELS ET DES FONDATIONS DE REMBLAIS SYNOFSIS Eth proper vtngthe in the field and ag geasured in conventional 1atoratory teste; °: ethos pacers velopment of elo during the past. tro deca clay slop yet been analysed quantitatively. Sn clay errata. 2, ITRoDUCTION ‘The scientific otudy of earth and rock Slopes bee applications ranging fron prob- Yous in pure geomorphology to the predic~ ‘ion of peabilicy for civil engineering purposes and the design of r measures where a landslide has destroyed or {s threatening property, coununications or ‘the lives of people, Pron whatever point of view the oubject te approached a proper understanding 18 required of four interrelated groups of topice: ification of the (2) recognition and ol Various types 02 atic morphological f Geological setting; their rates of die Placement, and sme causes of failures (44) classification and precise description of the waterials involved in mase~ nts, and the quantitative int of their relevant propertieny 291 A syates of classification of landelias are recogniticn of five basic types and eix complex forme of aovenent, ine ytesecor theiy geotechnical characteristics and their mode of orsain, fin'properticn of clays are reviewed with particular enphaoio on possible diac peability-analyeto currently in use einen considered in goue detail ané fiela data are presented relating to the {ede concluded that great progress has been made Yn the sotentific study of landelia ‘Dut many uncertaintles stil] remain and gone type: by A. W. Skempton Prof. of Civil Engineering Imperial College of Seience and Technology 1gton, London, UK. ‘ond J. Hutchinson John Neville Wimbledon, London, UX. in clay elope de proposed involving “dlaya are d eaoribed eusparined Fourteen analytical case and related prooesseo in of mase-noverant have not (444) methods of caloulating the stability of a slope in terme of the type of failure, real or anticipated, ant the aateriel propertie (4x) correlation between field observa~ $ions and the rosulte of stability "3 on Beasured pro~ ‘hie fourth topic lies at the heart of pubject. Unless and until @ corpue of ani Yyticel cave recorde has been established, adequate ceientific knowledge of any clase of Jandelide or type of material cannot be sa to exist. so fer as 4 poooible within the limite of feingle paper the ‘authors have endeavoured fo review these aspects of the subject in terae of clay slopes. Sone restriction 3 Clearly necessary ina field which, in ite entirety, covers an exceptionally broad range.SKEMPTON and HUTCHINSON ‘TYPES OF LANDSLIDES AND OTHER MASS- MOVEMENTS ‘gaic activity.” Tho manner in whion glope yields. to tede Zoreea ie, sontrotied’ multitude of factore, of which geol- hydrology, topography, chiaate and ‘are’ the gore important fingo of variation poostile ie factors, it ie hardly surprie- ing that in combination they ahould give rise to wase-novenente of such variety as fovzeaior rigorous cleseification. “thrae hroad_subdivisions, nanely frozen ground Poanomena, creop aut Iandozides, Bay be jgnized, however (Hutchinson, in pr‘ Retention bere will be concentrated on ast of these, as dsveloped on olay alopé ‘The generic tore, landslide, eabraces thoe Gown-olope movenonts of soll or rock wnich occur prigarily as a result of shear failure at the douniariee of the moving In the following on attempt 19 made to ieo- Ante and define thoi t movenents, generally p in-unity, are the Boot Feadlly distinguishable. ‘Nese are regarded ac the basic types of landslide on slopes: the more important of these are tliustrated @iegrammatically in Pig.1. The renaining characteristic landslide forme are in gener- ai gultiple or complex sossstlages of basic types. Some frequently occurring types of multiple apd coaplex landelides are illustrated in Fig.2. jegorising the various types of Land Gost weight 19 given to the abape of the Boving in down-elope section at the tine of failure. The ratio D/L (Fig.3) relating the maxinua depth of the elide to its maximus initial sown-slope extent, 0.8 useful meaoure of thie property (Skeapton 19538 & 19530). Landslides of aiilar D/t ratio oan, how aver, bi ery differently during and rer-fetluré. Thus recognition is also je of the iaportance of the form of the 19 after failure, Doth in downslope ection and in plan.” Rates of landelise Rovenent are, as will be shown subsequently, extremely variable and do not appear to fora @ useful baois zor prinary aubdivieion, Some Basic Types of Lendslide on Clay Slop 20 falls are typical: inthe steep slopes of, for instance, artificial excavations oF eroding river banka. Such falla are uoual- iy’rather inoignificent and few are desorib- eG in the literature. ‘two phasoa of fail~ ure can generally be distinguished. 42 @ oonsequence of the renoval of lateral eupp- ort, bulging occure at the slope foot ant ‘Yonaion cracks open behind its crest. th developnent of these oracke brings about @ of stress in the root ‘SOME BASIC TYPES OF MASS~ MOVEMENT ON CLAY SLOPES aus. i Rownenat suns (sue, sume] Fcc nce slab slide Rows Se snow tow ‘ellluetion sheet & lobe Fig. ‘The wajority of slopes oteep enough to be subject to falle are found in the stronger, over-consolidated clays. Ao the ly'intact, 0 fed ones usually fall pack ‘a thinner clay. par- tHoularly on a near-vertical slope, may vopple forvarde. Exouples of clay fate from the walle of oteep-eided excavations in over-congolidated 292NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS fiooured clays are given by Bazett, Adame & Natyae (2961) for the crust of the Leda Clay in the St. Lawrence valley and by Skempton 2" uakocheile (1965, Pig.3» let failure and Figs6) for the brown London Clay at Bradwell, Eacex. The Bradwell cose well illustrate: the critical effect of water in the tension cracks, A fall which cocurred ina resid= ual in Hong Kong, rormed of decomposed granite, se iiluetraced by Lumb (1962, Mgc3),' In this inotance the fall was defined by relict joint and fissure curfaces. MULTIPLE and COMPLEX LANDSLIDES MULTIPLE RETROGRESSIVE SUDES ‘etatonal SSLUMP- EARTHFLOW SUDES IN COLUVIUM = ‘alluvial slope . pstabie landslide debris LATERAL SPREADING BOTTLE ~ NECK SLIDES “in slope The curved surface of failure, being com cave upwards, impart a back-tilt to the slipping maes wach this einks et the rear and heaves at the toe (Fig.l). Such elides ar relatively ed, n Higher. valu ratio to be_associat- ed-with the steeper slopes. The deeper, oped rotational slips thus ‘ally develop on the slopes of cuttings ang on actively eroding cilft Circular rotational slips occur typically _BWilopes of the more unifora clays. AU in 29: PLAN L = maximum length of slide thekness of tice slope D = maximum 5 = moximum breadth of slide Landslide proportions Fig. 3 slips of thie form-movenent can take pla without distortion or shearing of the tail ing ¢-s1ippedmasses ere character. fotscully unbroken except at the toe, wher ‘Gver-riding commonly occurs. ‘the numerous circular rotational slips reported from out slopes, that at Ledalen, ©. (Sevaldeon 1956) 46’ one of the ost completely dooumented (see Fig.22). This Hillure ceourred ina railway cutting through slightly over-consolidated intact clay: the eireulay ghape of the elip surface wae con firmed by borings. Approximately ciroule= slips an cuttingo through normally consolid~ ated clays are relatively common. They aze exenplified ty the failures at Congress Street, Chicago (Ireland 1954) (see Pig.29), and in’ the Bau Brink Cut, Norfolk (Skespton 945). Tergaghs and Peck (1948) suggest that clides in varved clay deposits may also be approximately circular providing that the porewaver preseure in the oilt layers ie anconsequential. In naturel slopes failures which appear t9 lhove been of eiroular rotational type have decurred in cliffe of over-consolidated, fiesured London Clay at Walton, Bi ib98) and at Warden Point, Kent ( 1968). An approximately Circular, though shallower, elide in a natural slope of over- consclidated, intact clay til] at Seleet, Yorkshire, 4s described ty Skexpton & Brown (1961) (ese Pig.23). Soder sfomer valet ole /ACSTANpapailier Uaaon. 5 a5 amyl fora I yuptace radonSKEMPTON and HUTCHINSON dated clays in which a deer geneity nua deen pradiiced by weathering. Gilsctropy of the Unwenthered strata eles Sheluence! the fora of these slips, As Zoveneats. on non-circular failure gurface: ore necessarily accospanied by ai G-the alipping sapeea,. th Sroken to soae oxte r: ap (Ritenie 1958). Several of tho eiipa ‘sbusied by collin’ (1846), well exenplifiea ty that at Earrage do Grosbois, France, (biged) Sn Juraseic clay, were’ of non-ciroular‘type ae was the alip'in a railway oute Hing tbrough the Weald Clay at Sevencak Kent, investigated. by Toso (1948). A-oertk~ Bny photograph of tho oroae-section of @ Rofneireular rotation slip near Fort Spokane, Washington, 10 given by Jones, ot ale (i961) Pigs) a France Grosbois Dam, oes) Sip. in foundation trench, ‘tr can Fig. & Shellow rotational of both circular fend non-circuler Zorn, ate common on slops of moderate inclinatzén in weathered or col- gories of shallow rovationel elip on London Clay slopes are given by Hutchinson (19678). Yallure iz pre-deterainea by the prevence of a heterogeneity within the elope. The Sevelopaent of a single rotational slige 10 thereby. prevented ané-a tranolational ole Sent introduced into the alide sovesente. Sn general. the onaller the dopth to the ileterogenesty the greaver the translational Slesent willbe.” fhe heterogeneity usually consists cf » weak acil Layer or ovructurel feature or e boundary between, for exenpley clay ane rock or setveen weathered and une weathered naterials (a) Compound elidee. compound olides reflect the presence of | hetero~ geneity at aoderate depth beneath a slop. Tn'such cases the failure surface is formed of a conbination of curved and planar ell tents and the slide rovesents have a part= Totational, part-trarslational character Aietortion and shearing accoapany the sliding moveuents and the slide Basses are correspondingly broken. Gocd examples of compound olides are provided by failures at Gradot, Yugoslavia (Suk} Je & Vidoar 1961), (eo ’Fig.25), and the ‘Mirenar! slip on the coast of Kent (Hutchineon # Hughes 1968). Both alides owe their tera to the presence of a fire rock stratuc inzediat iy beneath the layer of over=consol id: fiesured clay in which the failure w 4 further example, though with a etronger ‘translational component, io the olide at Bekkelaget, Oslo (Bide & Bjerrum 1954). There a rotational slip in‘ higher groufd at the Tear of the olide was accompanied by tranelational aovenent of an adjoining slab of flatter ground. Severe distortion of the blide maesee was limited to the zone between ‘hese elements. In thio case, the dominant hoterogenesty wae a zone of norgally consoli~ dated, soft, quick clay located beneath the ated. wostnéred sisface crust of the olay aeposit. |, ¢ ie ie phere ieee Copparieon of ‘these threo” congoub el 1dve sugeeote that, the degree of breakup of the! Slide wngoea to controlied got only by the dogree of non-cireulariay of the failure Surface, but algo to conoideratie extent by the nature of the strata involved in tho movement, Thue an the sort clay at Bokkel: get disturbance of the alide a Gooaiises and suildinge in the to F lip in the London Clay, the slide aa wore severely troken in the vicinity of the heel of the slide where 8 major graben wao formed. ‘Seaward of this, the masses wore relatively little disturbed. In the Gradot elide, however, which involved fairly rigid tuffe and conglomerates, the slide Basses broke up to a high degree and filled ‘the valley with debrie.® (>) translational slides, Transla~ tional glides generally result from the presence of a-heterogeneity Located at shallow depth beneath the elope. In such situations, the failure ourtace tends to be relatively planar and to run roughly parallel to the Slope of the ground (¥ig-1). Slide nove: Bonts, are therefore. predosanantly-transle- ional Block slides occur typically in in situ material which is fairly hard and joints ho block involved separates froz its parent nage on stoeply inclined joints or fissure and olide ae & unit on a well-defined plane of weakness. Ao in a Tock lide, thio nay be Formed by a bedding or joint plane or by a pre-existing fault, shear surface or shear zone, Block slides in Triassic marle and "the Vajont compound rock elide may be considered aa occupying an extreme position in this spectrum. 294NATURAL SLOPES AND eandstones, in which the planes of failure fore doterained by faulte, occurred during The opening out of the Cofton tunnel, near Hiraisgheny Bngland (leCallue 1930)-’ dood _ Gronplee of block siices. in unweathi Svereeoneclidated and jointed clays st Yal~ deruoy Italy, are given by Hou (1966). Tt {Srevident that the proportions of bio« 40 used by Sharpe tirely different foras of EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS Sharpe (1938). ‘The tera ‘earth?low' £0 desoribe two en= Barthflows. 6 (a) faye.* She term is here ow movemento of softened, m: ‘ion develop typically in eiséen-are controlled largely by the, spas je toe of a slide. Such an {he of the discontinuities which bound the jown developing on the far side of a elazp bleck and D/L ratios thus vary widely. je Townehip, Ohio, in Plate IVB of (1938). an earthflow in a gore ai Slab glides are a characteristic type of State of developsent at Blaina, south {ranslational feilure in nore weathered, fo iitustrated in Pig.5. Barthtlows transistlopas. Guch slides cove with 1it- aro tianeitignal betmean_elides-and_nueticoe {ie'sletortion, predoninantly ae a single ‘They differ fron the 11 in their amalier fakdown. ‘Thus earth~ Unit, 2hey-comsonly ecour in a santle of weathered or colluvial material, the depth Of which chiefly contzole the fora of the failing dase, and rarely, if ever, have D/L Tatioe-greater than 0.1 (Skempton’2953) Exogples of slides in this category on low ‘angie slopes on London Cla: Hutchinson (29674). tho failure in ly inclined reoidua? 2011 wantle eft vy rain at Caneleira, near Santos, Pig.24) (Vargeo & Pilcher 1957), are given by eteop~ jebris. hore typieal of slab Slopes, The Caneleira glide illustrates the triggering of trenolational failures by transient, porched ater tables following heavy rainfall. In contrad Jo exexples of slob slides in weathered or reaiddal slope mantles nay be mentioned the landslide at Purre, Norway (lutehineon 1961). This was broadly of Slab type, but involved chiefly in gitu bateriaie and failed on a thin, gently Snelined layer of quick olay. 2e1e4 Flows. fea’ and Tittle und Soraihology. Sonaideration thee Shieh renule tron. th 1"eprie wantied ol fake gore of -sovonent. 2xasri Soleanse. mudfiows (Serivenor 19294138 1338) apien con have average speede of uP 3 and ine torrential eudflows. or cousoniy laving speeds cf G1 g/see, which. the events Sharp f fobies. (1953) and Curry (1966) appear to exeepiify~ which undoubtedly comprise a fora of jesovenent are categorised either ao wrenglows or sudfiovs (Fig.l). -Aloo, alm frozen ground 13, periglacial e included ‘apart of origin, ‘many characverietice in coumon’ with qudfiowa, “In no cave where observa- js are available does the aechanion of flowe correspond to that proposed bY 295 degree of structural clude auch that ie 7 from which they originate. coanonly retain a considerable pert jetation cover and in- jognieable of the «lide Pig.5 Landelide at Eleina, March 1954 (») Like in form ani Verying generally bevw Rates of sudflow mo Table 3) end can ve flowe commonly de Mudtiows, Mudflows are glecter~ mnve ourface inclinat:ono yn about 5 and 15°. ee Here referred to ap ‘earthflowe’ and tretrogressive quick clay (bottleneck) eliaeSKEMPTON ond HUTCHINSON nargillaceous debrie becones eoftened by water and trey consist typically of the 2]- sorted remnants of tsis deorie in a eoft, clayey matrix (Fig.e). ¥ig.6 Seotion of mudfiow material, Beltinge, Kent Such flows are often well~develoy dare slopes of fissu: flows also cocur in ntact clay interbedi ater-bearing sand. ‘this case the clay ey debris to provided by undersining of the clay beds by Seepage erosion in the sand layers (Hutchinson 19858, and in presa). Varved or lazinated deposits are naturally Particularly prone to develop mudfiows in thie may (Logget & Bartley, 1953). ante of the distribution of nt in @ audflow at Beltings on the London Chay cliffs of north doth on, approxinating to plug flon.*’ in the softer Bldflona.it seeae Lifely that, the cevecente grinding’ sroe Soundary abean willbe. increas ingly supplemented oy Viscous acveuente witale'the flow, Surface observations of 296 other coastal mudflows in S. mgland, originating fron over-consclidated fissured clays and glacial deposits, suggest that a discrete sheared failure sirface at their Doundaries 16 8 genoral feature of thi flows. ‘concluded from these £ ‘@iptinction between slides (2936), whieh 4 ie not generally true (Hutchineon Te 4inge that 1 land flows drawn by Sharp central to hin olassification of Bent 196585, From @ consideration of the plan proportion of audflows 1% seoas desirable to dieting wieh Detween an elongate variety and a lob- fate one (Pigs1). The Sluagullion gudflon (Crandell @ Varnes 1961), with a length to breadth ratio (Pig.3) of’ the order of 19, ip a good example of th and af it. “chausu, ‘Japan, (Fukuoka 19534 Thea: 3/321). Baturaliy develop goat fully whe: ‘ip the cages entioned, there ig Iittle or no erosion at the tee of the mudfiow. In eituations where the. toe Gf a gudflon sufsere appreciable eroascn, buch we on tyre of sudflow generally mple of this type iu the coastal midflow at feltine, Kent, already mentioned, which hae an 1/3) ratio of about 5. ~~ (0) Solifluotion lobes and _sheets, Reoont observationg on Towel? porietac Solifiuction features have extended conei- derably the generality of the conclusione Feached earlier about. the sechanies of aud~ flow neasurenente. Although 1ittle evidence hao been found for the occurrence 9 ing in connection with contemporary Fiction, it 1e now evident thet extensive Shear surfaces are aguoctated with certain foes solifiuction features 1m Southern Tneland and soy idee! be widespread. on Clay slopes, ‘Those sheare were fare dio- covered during the investigation of noli- Hluction lobes below the scarp of the liythe Kent. Bede near Sevenoak: ‘the lobe: gu Bilt and clay, are typle~ guly 10 to 15 Fett thick and have clear! glacial. “Subsequently the underlying aad Buch gore extensive fedienselian eolifluc~ Hon sheet was ipo found to be underlain yr urfaces, even where the ground slopes at only 3 or Ke. 1969; Skenpton & Fetley 1967). The engin eering Suportance of these observations, particularly on such flat elopes and * The published sovemente of the younger Slumgulion eudfiow, Colorado (Crandell & Varnes 1961), although measured only at the surface and Rot interpreted in this way, tay be inferred also to be of plug flow type,NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS gropnica: further exasples of sheare” peneath f fon lom-angle slopes in London Clay and huret Clay are given by Weeks (1969). talle of @ trial pit :n a solifluction sheet on an approximately 5° slope of London Glny et Boughton Hill, Kent, are shown in De- wigs 2.2. Some Brasples of Multiple and Complex Lands} ~ Among the variety of nore complex land~ slides on Clay slopes, certain frequently occurring types say be recognized. In gen- tral, these exhibit a multiplication or Coabination of te base types of landelides feseribed previously. Peds Successive sive, Successive rote= ‘loner elie consist of an avonbly of snaivai ybaliow rotational slips (Fig.2). st They are-oheracteristic of the later 6 Of the free degradation process on slop bf over-coneolidated, fissured clay, which for tne London Clay occur on elopes‘of bet~ ween about 13° and 8° inclination. Both jo develop: the former produces-ateps across the elope, she latter a wosaio of obollow rotational slips ie reproduced in Pig. . A photograph Similar elipe on an 84° London Clay slope at High Heletow, Kent, io given in Hutchinson (15670, Pig.3). The landelide at Sarukujoji, jegtion of which is given in 1965), may Fepresent an si~ slipping in waich The individual aov jegin to interact, fand to evolve towards | multiple translation~ el type of wovement. wuLt- 2.242 Multiple retrogressive glia iple olides develop fros single Tatiures by ‘the ocourrence of further, retrogressive iailures witch interact to fora a common devel 8lip eurface. Predouinantly rotation~ ‘al and predosinantiy tranelational varieti een be Fecognived (Fig.2)+ ron Not ropes becal ap sutoe S| — ‘merging IM cloy with fine up to OR ek on platens Le Section ot the upper port of Boughton Hil, Kent ser AO Weeks 89 Fig. 7 297SKEMPTON and HUTCHINSON An early stage in the development of 2 Bultiple rotational elie ie illustrated by the conatal landollde in Clicocene cleyo a? Seagrove Bay in the Tele of Wight (Skespton 1946), "A more fully developed exenple ie provided by the coustal land~ idee involving the Chalk and the Gault clay tone Warren, Kent (¥ig. 2g), the ‘acter of which wa (2953). “Phis type ognieed by Ton: of landelide clearly becoses sore tranention~ a1 in overall character as the number of com ponent rotational slips increases. Contemp~ brary activity at Folkestone Warren conprii chiefly the renewal 0” sovenent in the ol slipped fingured clays. In the absence of a coapetent cap-rock, the scarp formed at the rear of ine initial rotational Slip tenas to be degraded eo rapidly by shallow elipe, feile and sus-flowe that thi retrorrowsive development. oF @ further deep-seated slip 15 usually Inhibited (Hutenineon 1965a, and in press). The londelides on the Neskle River, Alberta (Naomith 1964), in which the osat of failure lies in heavily over consolidates, otiff fissured lacustrine silts and clays, appear to be of aultaple rotational type. “A further exagple of Such s slip is provided by the failure 500) maximum average slope A- B= 132° depth to slip surface = 5- thm | average velocity daring [period _Neov._¥ ally Tn guch a eituation, wth at Sandneay Norway, seated 3 a layer trength parazetere on the elip Of oversconeolidated, otsit fieaured West i _ o @ | | S3amiy | 22miyr | | 283 [Bday || ie. = Sm wes velo Section through part of Sarukuyoji Landstide , Japan from —M. Fukuoka (in iitt, 1965) surfaces remaining conotant at their residual values, the influence of varying ground-water pressures on the inciaence Sf the slides can be gore clearly discern~ ea. Th the Warren, all the deep~ Seated Fenewale of govenent known during the past 130 years have occurred within the period of maxinus seasonal ground-water pressures from December to Merch (jiutehin= Son 1969). Multiple rotational alides cccur most frequently on actively eroding slopes of fairly high relief, in which a thick stratum of over-consolidated, fisuured olay or cleyzehale is overlain by u considerable layer of more competent rock. Failures of ‘this type are rare and poorly developed in clitte formed predominantly of etift, 298 Fig. 8 interstadial or interglacial clay (Byerrus 1967). In both the last two cove a till forme’ the cap rock. Freaoninently tranclational fores of multiple retrogregoive elie generally aovelop from slab elides, and are controlled by Sisiler factors.’ It i probable that the lower. the cohesion of the sliding mae: the enalier ané gore mimerous the individ ual retrogressive fatiures will be. The nore coheeive type of auitiple tranclational. failure, nith a moderate degree of subdivie~ ion, i6'exeaplitied vy the landolides at Jaokfiela, shropehire (Henkel & Skeupton 1954) ‘and at Portugese Bend, California, (Werrian 1960). The predominantl y, Aeposite involved in the retropreseive slide fat Vibetad, Norway (liutehineon 1965b), how over, hed little cohesion and the elide waNATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS suvdivided to u correspondingly nigh decree. 2.2.3 Qusecearthflons. Slusp-enrth: are 'a fairij comson Wye of comlex_ a Mislent wnion oecusiea @ position trunoi~ Giulvbetueen fotalional slfaee or eiuape, Jovate sudflonc. hoy develop typical ws fosational slide of eonsigerable aie~ lusewent, mere the tov of tae eli pring, JARS{s" Meh broxen ty over-riding. In the foseuge ef mater, Mie dearia then softene iy geysiope ante an earehfion and perhaps See sheets nae been followed vy some 10,000 yeare of virtually free degradation of over- Eteepened clayey or shales elopes. An exanple of auch a colluvial deposit and MteInnerent inotabslity 19 provided by the Aceount of movenente at Walton's wood ,Stait~ Ordenizes given ty Skenpton & Petley (1967), fee Figedor Slow movenente, apjroxiaete1y Of multiple translational type, one canviex Of old slip ourfaces sn tne colluvium were Sccelerated by the conctruction of a motor~ Syentuali into a mudfiow. May eubenkment ocroce Lt. Another striking~ Jy slailar example of colluvial elope, at f Landslide near Berkeley, California, wnich Weirton, W. Virginia, io furniened by C°APRE Geacntrates the initial wtaces of eluap ae = col e tverane A Piatn 7 OF anos sme etonte tuts Lee amon iesaas Portugese Bend Lands! flee Meream 96D! end earthflow developaent, is illustrated by Varnes (1955, rte.28): A later stage, in whieh pfoneuced earthflow 1s in prosress, tu iilucerates by ta: landelige at Blaina, already sentioned. 2.2.4 QUides in colluviug. Although every clipped-aass 7 Tie? sense, colluvium, te fe Conventent in this context to use this ford in tne wore rectrictea sence of gaterial tuts a9 sifted and weathered that indi Tidugl sli;sed cagves are not longer distin Quisnable. Coluvius in this-erue 40 proba~ Sly cout ty;icully developed in the weoumi~ Istion zones oelow freely degrading eliffe (inteninson 67a). A pre-requisite of Ligh reaturge 2 a yeTioa of strong erosion, to projues the cliff, followed ny & long periol of little of fo erosion during whieh Elligviue can aecuuulute at the foot of the Cliff in step itn ite weather=ng and degra~ Gatton. Sueh conditions are widespread, for Gaanpic, inureas where severe aeltewater Foskon uring tae Petr tne Pleistocene 299 olonis Tn ooth tncse veces the ‘a2. (2967). cveroge wlocty 157-859 = 20he © B mle steund supe 8-8 = 72 ff nip sutace = 65 | 00 te ide autora err & Orewa Fig. 9 colluyius has over-ridden granular ellaviun, Genosi tea durine erosion of the slopes. Ground water levels in this alluvsus afd the Edjacent Fock are low: tre stability of the colluvial slopes is controlled oy algy PeT- ened ater taoles within tiem. Other types of elides in colluvius involve fhe renewal ef movements in debris wrich ie Ecsociuted with individual old slides, uoun ails of lerge ize, rather than wita a gen~ erally developed accumulation gone. Althougs Gf coumon occurrence few exazsles have ovel Geccrived in the Iater:ture. The landslides hear Portland, Uregon (Clarke 1904) and at Yor, Japan (Taniguert & Watari 1965) appear belong to this category. 2.2.5 Spreading failures. don lateral spreading in clay slopes are a particular type of Fetrogreseive tranelatio- hal slides Ghey ere characterizes by the Eentle slopes snvolved, the broad front and Eiplasty ef the moveaenta, woich are usually Coupleted within a few minutes, aud the Paslures by sud~SKEMPTON ond HUTCHINSON ton of graben and horst structure: @ produced in the sia CF Terzaght & Peck (1948) ascribe such tatiures joae depth beneath the oe otratua of taides 2 thie type ures ere acting. P Appear to ve frequent in varved clay deposite, ab exeaplified by the failures along the Hudson River valley (Newland 1916), Quick clay depoaite oan ciso fail in thia way, for instance at skottorp, Sweden, wher water pressures in an underlying sand 1: ‘considered to be the likely cause o: slide.” The deeper parte of fi leo vary ‘took Secheniem explaining thetr formation wa proposed (Odenstad 1951). The recent slide ‘St Turnagain Heighte, Alaska, provides a further ex ple of a spreading failure in quick ‘There too, higi pore pressures in of loose sand, in this case generated in reoponse to earthquake shocks, are believed to have played an i t part in the fullure (Seed & Wilson Taile in come ‘Opes way fail in otr- 24246 guiek eday e114: Siantantes quieting i “ tain of the ways already mentioned (0+. Bekkelaget, Furre), there is one type of _slide whioh is peculiar only to quick clay, ihe "bottle-neck’ type of retrogressive uultiple rotational failure, such olisee In with en intial rotational alip-in the nk of Geposite. The slipping mas is in part Fenguldad. £0 the consistency of a ligula which rung out of the cavity, carrying fla Of the stite, weathered crust. the steep yr searp io left unsupported and @ further Fotational alip takes places ‘This Sn turn decones sutficiontiy renoulded to flow out into the otream bed, aad retrogresaive slip continue Until a table scarps (Hig.2)s “the retroar rapid and uoually has « greater late! extent in the doposite anay fron the Bt than in the weathered, ratner otronger forging the bank, Hence giving thoes lips thelr characterdatic bottle-neokes. shape in plan. bed ana de eventually redeposited.. Such slides are coauon in the Late-and_Post= Glaclaa serine clays of Norway and Eastern a Uilonvaxer’ (Bserrus 1954) and Hicolet (crawford) & Eden 1957). Studies of @ number of quick clay slides in Norway have shown that an Japortant factor 4n the developaent of quick conditions and the incidence of quick clay elides 18 the Leaching of the marine clay deposits by the upward flow of ground-vater under artestan jure frou the underlying bedrock when ‘lise at shallow depth. 300 clay ridgeo and a retrogreseive failure Land- ‘trean incised into quick faerie) ‘The renoulded clay flows doen the strean and are well exeuplified by the failures 2.3 Rates of Landslide Movenent. A qualitative description of the aovements typically associated with a landelide ha been given by Terzagh! (1950). He diet= inguishes tiret a general condition of cr which continues fairly steadily until the elide-producing agent begins to reduce the factor of safety of the slope. Prom then until failure conotitutes the phase of pre failure wovenent, in which the rate of Com- elope movement incr rate until the Land gonsiderably sore failure are finally. ‘atability or of pos ‘This framework ip used in the @ which follows. Mudfiow wovemente are treated separately. 2.3.1 @ A121 slopes are subject to ofesp although tn many cases thie ie a0 geall ie to be vivtualiy unsvasurable® fercaghi(loc.cit.) distinguishes usefull: at gu iy botne or mantic creep and cont anu The former to confines to the surfa: of fluctuating ground. ter Sy ineude: io highly ‘On clay elopes the ‘eparec available data quggest that mantle creep may range from less than Owl on. up to a few can. per year. In moderate cligateo significant sovementa may extend fog depth Of a auch ao 2'e,"(Terzagnt & Peck 1967). Volume chi pwelling and drying prob the eajor part of the enaller creep wove~ mente observed, which are thus likely to \>/ increase with slope angle and goi1 oollota content. “The higher creep rates probably. occur as a result of freeze-thaw action and would more properly be regarded as peri~ Blncial soLifiuction movements, creep results only from gravity forsee and is therefore of relatively constant Fate (Terzaghi, loc.git.), Tt 18 likely that such creep will Be oF most significance at Gepth, below the zone of mantle creep. from drained laboratory tests on clays, contiquing, Long-tera creep is known to take place at Stresses thet are only a fraction of thelr peak strength (Bohop 1966). Clear field evidence of nase creep haa yet to be obtesned. In the types of creep discussed 80 far there io believed to be a continuous gradation between the stationary and the moving mater- inland hence no development of 8 e) surface, Whether mantle er change into some fore of t we do not know, but thie 6 2.342 engineering porn’ Ere-fetlure sovenente. From an ‘View great interest attaches to those aoverente which precede and lead up to the failure of a slope. These warn of the danger of eliding nd may event= ly fora a baeie for the prediction of failurNATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS ful pre- two years preceding the slide, Some exapples of the rather few ui failure measuresente in the literature a given in Table 1. Te displacement-tine Gurve for @ exeli retaining wall end slope The magnitude of the displacement occurring in brown London Clay at Kensal Green, before failure depends primarily on the 40 thiskneos of the Zone in which the developed (Terzaghi 1950, covering the 13 years before collaps dhown in Fig.0. ing slip surface is 6 fant o. the type of clay. From the above oxanples it will be ecen borne ‘ou ‘that pre-failure soveuents are character Seed by accelerating and finally relatively ion in which the cli high rates of woveneat. In the cas and the pre-fail exjlored these average severs) ou/aay during the week preceding fiilure and reach a few Gecinetres/day on the act day. Pour of igsured clays and it-de probable more highly etree! of the Gbta River Valley, elope of the evertu Valonts?tngueh only in atoll pare a-clay epeeabinity Se 'belag’ explored w2ents Meee See bcaues or"the Putney of Atatall ing: downslope acvesent setere anich reper sbrdb at eovetent avelistie forme | could’ be ] 20 Forwers 3 1 movement 5 | aval 2 tral level observations 1 _Fature : sere -------->> = Bn tba Ba Flite occurred atter 29. years wor WT original ground 00. surface {aporox) 1 20) London Clay a A fr ~ casa er eeu caren = Blue London Clay 100 Kensal Green cutting ‘after Skempton (1964) Fig, 10 301SKEMPTON and HUTCHINSON arranged to give autoratic warning of an 41 ped in the sensitive or quick clay eliaes in pending slide. Although sone moveuente have hich remoulSine can produce been observed, the data ie ae yet inouffic loss of strength on the clip. aurfa ent to pergit such an glare eysten to be failw Uuirt (GBtallvaxonmi t:én 1962). Of eliges in clay slopes, those involving cose advance tonarde the prediction of quick elaye are Probably” the faateses Meir gioje failures has been sade by Saito (1965). Sate of wovenent dortne fantusn se etare te Liulied observations of pre-failure moves” be typically seamen oe5 Manet Se Stnts of slopes and walle’in Japan ono that SpreLdiea satatee’ on saeetate oth ieee exhibit phases of secondary and. verei= gover erdy‘ase ores ip eater ary creepy auch ao found for aetale (Sully, qithacetdetns irotmeaza ne Ios," fFdm watch an estipate of the time to pervalhutes ‘By conerase, coneeenn isllute ie aade by eapitical aeans. Soue Siiageo in re1atsvely noadeen teraniques of meaaurite pre-faiiure move Slay or reeid eit ty Gents in slopes are discussed by Terzaghi & seldom attain a epeed of more than 0.3 a/min. fete (seh: Spd say nove’ alc Sore cloniy (Gerzagnt fee, Se. 22:5 Movements during fatture. tye opera 2 oi langalHicn during talture Ts controlled” —_s1ideo on fetture surfaces of high overei? Eilefijay’te nature of the clay in wich “ineiinationaill naturally. senge Se Se rant. Tuearing ta taiing place and Sy "tne shape upla'sovenen tacos are dn teee ss nee Tobie + Pre-Folure Movements Time betore slip Tvs ts brits Bays dey Yo f wt eenent oe Dearipion | RAGE Pale oF riowment oni pared ar =| Me Syrs_| mens |¢ Ome) 7 days | taay | 5 Kensal Green | small wall | 2emiy > Sanye | Wamky [Sem ii | nd soe Gere = - t Ooigawa forge rt wal | =| | Samp) > 20em @ | Bila | 1 emg | 10 ety Dosan | edu size | = | - | - [3 entay | Soanbay) >20m (2) | landstide Gradct Ridge [very tare | - | - | - | 2] 22] >Bbm | eal | Vojont exireray lrge|~ | Tere | TO ane 250 em vert wy | fst cmb | Gey | 20 enka Feerences (1) Goning ab © mcnred or 50 dep ety Site" as 3) Sie & mar 1861 i} set * see {Querall. steepness of the feilure surface, circular or sore particularly compound slides TPihe’ clay hac a fintctopped or pertectiy’ ©" when zelecee er there place byt plastic atress-strain curve after failure, Gelayed interna fas) Such ae gay be approxizated to in a till, tne ‘slide will oxperierce no tendency to" ace celerate with increasing enear displacement 2.3.4 Poet-failure movements. After fail- and will"nove clowiy down-slope unti i+ ure'the clip surface in Bost clays will be Feaches a stable position with a factor of ‘at, or very close to, thesr residual strength safety close to 1.0. Conversely, if the and further posssble'changea in shear pi shear resistance reduces appreciably once -metere are negligible. A comuon feature of the foak strength io passed, the elide will © ————~— ww OP” A CORDON Teatuve Of accelerate and te carried pact the stable pooition By 3t8 own mosentum, coming to rest * A further development of thie mechanten, with a factor of cafety rather higheF than in which a void 19 produced at the heel. of 1,0 on the residual strength. Slides in the elide, is put forward by Mencl (1966) Stiff fieoured clay exnibit this behaviour to explain the catastrophic trantformeeion Yo some degree, but itis most fully develo- of the movenents during the Yajont elide, 302NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS movenente on such slip curfaces i¢ their Boseraie cr low epess, This applies Whether tne soveaent: are brougnt abou! Seasonm) pore-pressure changes or by alteration in the losing of the slip: tues. The post=failire Bovesents of ceveral ols elines are given in Table 2. Specss of Rovenent range fron sero_to b.p/yr.. Yove= Bertsof this type ave particularly cha terietie of eliges 11 heavily. over-concoli— Autre claye, uo the cases in Table 2 i1lus- Tole 2 Sre_Exomles of Fate Fire Movements oo Too Thee Tagen [co Fm eet caereries a 8 eee enin Mtawrna ie 8° memes 1 soe (81 Ta tenes (arson con 0} Rane etna cam) sew (3) clides in normally coneolidated or quick cluye generally exhibit no pout-failure Sovenente. Thio 1¢ partly becauce the: Bomenvun during ¢liding Ane caused the clip ped mage to over-ride strongly to @ position Of falrly high factor of safety. Also in Such clays the renoulded gaterial in tne Blip surface tiu:, once it has reconéoli~ duted, a strength greater than that of the original undisturbed clay. Measurements of the distribution of velocity with depth in poot-fallure movewente 1: Stife, fisoured clays indicate that genera liy the major yart of the goveuent taker place by sliding ona busal slip surface or withing marrow shear zone (Gould 196C). 2.3.5 Mudfow movenente, Muafiow movenen are ina eroad vense the post—fuilure cov Wente of"@ very broken and softened tyye of translational glide, and the coments cade in the previous sub-uection will apply. Sone examples of mudfiow govewents are’ civen in Table $+. As would be expected fron {heir softened naturs, these mudflow: renera~ Lly Aave rates of aovenent higher thar. thoce exhibited by lnndalizes after failure. The werage audflow rates quoted thus range from * Although not described ae such by investigators, the nass-novenents a and Mount Chast are here categorised ae suaslows. 5 to 25 w/yr, broadly according to the ine tensity ef erosion of the audfiow tongue. The movements of some, and probably a aajo~ rity of Budflows are highly seasonal. The coastal gudflows in Table 3, for snotance, are alnost stationary tor the greater part of the year, accomplishing most of thelr annual goveaent within 2 or > months. The Slumgullion mudflow on the other hand 16 renaraable for the virtual constancy of its Speed of moveaent (Crandell & Varnes 1161). As previously mentioned the movements of certain audfiows have been shown to approxi. mate to plug flow. nem pe esac J 12) son on 859) (A) Bsn arson comm) cua Unter thie heading we comment on the tpee ef clay conmoniy encountered in slope prob- ems nd ada some notes on basic shear strength properties together with reuarke on Various factors leading to discrepancies between the gtrength of elaye in the fLelé and iavoratory. ere Dap. Sore : pis 3.1 Tyres of Clay 3.2.2 Terzagli's Grouping. In 1936b fer fagha put Lorsars-a threefold growying oF are which te simple ané practicul froa eeotechnicul yoint of view, 35 three groups are: soft intact claye Stifr intact elaye stiff fiseured clays. The majority of clays fall readily into one om otner of these groupe, though there are Douns to be sose tranci tional cases and examples can be found in a fourin grou sort fissures claye. 303‘SKEMPTON ond HUTCHINSON Inplicttly Terzaghi referred to eaturated ayes Ae the elip eurface in aoe? land= thie feetriction, and where necessary it 10 euey to add the qualification that the clay ie partially saturated. ‘The dtetinetion between ‘eoft' and ‘etife! clay was based by Tlerzaghi primarily on Tnguidity index; the soft clays having e Liquidity index equal to or greater than about 0.5 whereas for otiff elaye the index ie typheally close to zero. “For sedinen- tary clays ne further stated that soft eleye are noraally- or lightly over-coneo- Isgated, whereas the otif! claye are chara- stertetically heavily over-consolidated. We accept thie distinction but ad@ that the cohesion intercept, :xpreseed in teras of effective stress,is cero or very analy in soft clage (for example, c'< 50 1b/ft™ or G.25 t/ae) whilst for atifr claye the interceptpia apprecsable (typically 0! > 200 lb/ft? or t/a"). Sinllariy, provided ‘the clay se suturated, the undrained ehear etrength c of soft clays 18 usually, not more thn about 500 1b/ft" or 2.5 t/ae, Wnereac fo stiff claye ¢ commonly exceede 1000 1b/ft* or 5 t/a. The upper Limit of otift clays ie not eacily stated in quantitative terme. Tentatively it'gay be said that ‘hard claye' or ‘olay shales' have an yndrained ehear etrength above 4000 1b/ft” or 20 t/a”. They nave well-developed diagenetic bonds (Bjerrus 1967) but can still be worked up with water to forma paste. Shales and suetones, in contr re so indurated that they resist @isintegtation in waver, i.e, they are weak rocks. grouping recognised the equal ‘Terzagnt In importance of streng:h and ctruoture. tuct clays, in hie ow words, are "free from joints and fiosures’. In contrast @ clay which 19 figoured (using thie tera in @ broad sense) contains a network of otruc~ {ural discontinultses comprising one or gore of the folloning tyves! small (typically less than 6 ing. or 15 om,)y more or 1 randomly orientated, aatt-textured fissure gengu strictu; larger and nore systematic, Joints, feniliar in aany rocke; slicken- Sices, similar in size to fissures and often having @ rendom oriertation, but with poli- hed, striated surfaces: lasinatione (such es those in a clay srale) aleo relatively small, but showing a preferred orientation sub-parallel to bedding (Skempton, Senueter & Potley 1969). ‘The discontinuities in clay top-soiis are described by reser (984). ‘The foregoing groups of clays can each be sub-divided on the bavie of varying degrees of plasticity, The liquid limit provides the’ best single index property in tmie context as it refleote toth the amount and the Ruture of the clay sinerale present. The following divisions have been suggested by Skeapton (1969): LL. sandy or eilty clays < 30 clays of low plasticity 30-50 clays of medium plactictty 50-90 elaye of high plactics ty > 90 deve can also be classified according to |thelr origin or node of formation, For our precent purpose it ie sufficient to rec: Bias five trond clascess” these are 10063 Below with a brie! description of each ciee- Bory. 3.1.2 GLaye produced by roo! hering in alti. Sertevty speaking any olay proieee” ‘By weathering, and wnicn remaine in place, should be classified as ‘residual’; but in practice this term ay be reotricted to Claye derived fron deep and intenae weathering of rocks, especially of igneous rocks in tropical climatic zones. These reeidual Clays can exhibit relict structures of the parent rock, such as joints, where the weathering has not been complete, and. they Usually nave drying cracke near the ourface. Between these zones reeidual claye may be virtually free from tructural asecontinii- Hes. Typically they have eufficsent crreng- th to be placed in the group of stiff clayas Elope failures in residual claye often taxe place after exceptionally heavy rainfall. Consequently their relevant strength pro” perties are those of the oley in a eaturated OF near-saturated condition. Possibly in jone residual ‘the cohesion intercept Bay then decrease cubgtantially eo that, ut the tige of failure, they could becoze soft intact claye. In the zone of seasonal vard- atione slickenside, well as drying cracks, Boy develop in residual clays of high liquid Another class of weathering, typical of Temperate cligates, resulta 19 the forms Hon of clays from afgilleceous reckes oe pending on the degree and eepth of weathering, tid on the nature! ofthe parent Pooky a mide Variety of aateriais can be produced: the claye usually nave renfee struccare or cone fiuaured or elickensided (prosatly © unequal Yolune changes during meaheringls whtlet recaining sufficient strength tor8¢ Broupes with the atiff cleyer tn'uoet ce they are’ referrea to by even: ter ed onsle' or, gore speeificaly, Keuper Warl''eter’ 18d “drying crust! Of wort clayey in which cheaical Physical changes have taken places 40 Eequentiy grouped with the et1¢f"thvoured clayes ‘iow weathering of more competent rocks ie a comson condition on slopes in comparative- dy Young valleye. The mantle then cones cts eosentially of a’ sandy or clayey top-eoil overlying @ layer of rock fragnente in a matrix of finer material. Very little $6 kmown of the geotechnical properties of thei clay soi1s, but the available data (Carson 2967) ugecet that when approaching saturation, 304NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS An the winter after heavy rain, the cobs Sion intereept ie rather low. They are certainly net intact, and therefore it scene best to place them tentatively in the group of aoft fissured clays. 3.2.3 ofin the Sedimentary claye. Claye deposited fan aitwisl plain, ina lake jea can be placed-in.the wide cate Most, but not e2) normal Contain few structural discontirui tices their coheaion intercept ie zero or very Sunil; and thes? sensitivity to remoulding itaoderates They are typical examples of foft intact clays, Seme normally consolida ted or even come over-consolidated clays Bely seneitive to disturbance. the ‘quick Clays", the properties Ofwnieh are go distirctive that they give fiee to a special category of landclides. Over-consolidated sedimentary clays, with fan uppreeiable conesicn intercept, range Gros those with no etructural discontinus~ {ies to thoee wnich are densely fiscured. Very broadiy 4% suena true to sey that the Tisher the elay fraction or liquid limit, ini the gore heavily the cley is over= Consolidates, the nore likely is it that the elay mili be fisured (ueing this term inthe Loose sense). Conversely the etift intact sediaenvary cloye appear to be those with a more eilty composition. ‘The charactertetic 3.te4 Glacial clays. JP RGre are the voulder clays oF clay tille,, They often have a rather or stlty elay matrix, but even when the batrix hae a high clay content there may be ho structural discontinuities. Probably. the till wae so completely renoulded during Ble formation that any structures in the perent clay nave bien obliterated. Moet Pile‘are conpact and belong to the group of etiff intact clays. andy Soft intact clay tills are also know, hon ever, and they were presumably formed’ under S"pelatively email thekness of ice or under ice whien wae partialy buoyant. Pissured Clay"tille seen to be uncommon, except vaere they have been disturbed by poot-deposi~ tonal govements such ac landeliding or Inter tee advances. 15 Perigiactal claye. In regions which had’ pefighacial climate during the Pleis~ tocene period, many hill sides and old yaliey elopee'are mantled with solifluction depooite, typically uo to 2 or 3m. thick, and on flatter ground evidence is seen of joturbation. Claye affected by these processes are usually renoulded to vary~ The degrees, and although when in gotion down-slope, or when "stirred" by cryoture- ation, they must have been soft, they now appear ae moderately stiff. Some of these Soliflueted clays contain aliekenside but othere, perhaps tie masority, pre a heterogeneous thougs almost structure= 305 rigre) dese fabric. “tn aueh EPReLipped auecea’ cr velump block"; aeply~ {hg no Fedical overall change in the ley Int the other extreme are the audfiows, in ‘which the clay fae bec ftened ard Fenoulded ae to have lost all, oramoot all ‘eraces of ite original form and properts It'can then be described as a soft ntact, heterogeneous clay; except eurface drying cracke in the dry et Colluviel clays constitute a wide range of Bateriale derived by the combined actions of weathering, earthflow and aultiple elid~ Theee clays are often very neterogenc~ eontaining enali Fock fragments ané fuméroue elip surfaces, an¢ the matrix at or may not be clickensided. They blanke the elope down which they are or nave been moving; and may epread out for considersble Giozances beyond the toe of the buried D Tock slope. In gone cases the landform ie thet of @ iandelide of the alump-earthflow types but in otner cages, perhape of greater age, there ie little topographical expressin. The'colluvial clays seen generally to hive anoderate to stiff consistency. Similar materiel aay constitute the debrie fron @ landelide where, as a reoult of very large movements, the mace has becone totally or largely éieintegrated. 3.2 In thie ection, after sone introductory notes on effective strese and pore pressures, a brief gurvey 18 sade of such topics ae Strece-strain curves, failure criteria, the effects of anisotropy and undrained strength. ie Shear Strength Properties 3.2.1. Effective Strese. In accordance with the principle Tersally stated Tercognt (19360) the effective ptre ine civen direction within an element of saturated coil ie ote a ony where Of is the total strees acting in chat Girection and uy 18 the pore water pressure fn the element.” Por all saturated ooils thie statement ie exact within the limite of the moot refined experimental methods of Shvestigation so far eaployed. If, however, the eoil ie partially saturate there will be a pressure Ug in the air roids, bonewhat greater than the pressure Uy the water phase. The effective etresiSKEMPTON and HUTCHINSON then given by the expression (Bishop 1959) ote -[ +2 = lug = yl] os (2) where % 49 u coefficient to be determined Cxperdmentally.. When the soi] 18 fully situreted = 2 and oO =o Yy hen the voids contatn only air, % = 0 and o -o-uy Fes GfTeaturdelon incteasea'e® the fecese ‘and the coeffioe (ug = ty) becomes saal: fet X"tenas to unity. Thus for ooi2s with a high degree of saturation (e.g. more than 90 percent) the error in neglecting the product (1 =X) = ay) de epalle In a partially the water table @ 52:2 Plezonetric read, ieplacement Simplified shear strength properties ‘Skempton pietoneter of the nygraulie type wit Bre the pore waver Preemure wy bute revel if they do ‘sir voide, probably high of moderately high degree of satu at the time of failure. In these conditions ty and Fiezonetere of either type wilt Sive aBproxizately the ease reatings fully"saturated eoile there te no aabigu! ty: the pore pressure can only be the pore water pressure, and this will be read by any properly’ functioning piezoneter. Por the great aajority of elope proble then, it seme thet the effective etreas at any point below the water table can be taken ae o "O-u where u is the piezonetric pressure. ie often written in the for we Yn where h ie the prezometric head and Xy 16 the dencity of water. thie Giants Lanse poate effecive normal stress of clay 1960 } Fig. 1! 306NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS 3.203 Typicad airess. in Fig.32 for normally ~ and over-consoiidated clay. teeted under drained sonditions.. Both show a peak strength corresponding to the maxiaun Shear gtrese the material can resist, at a Given effective stress normel to the direct fon of shear. With increasing displece after the peak atrength has been attaines the eb until at Liett of resistance 1s known as tho residual strength. Soft etlty claya may show little difference between paak and residual. With higher clay te the difference tende to incre the lip surface. consolidated) clay in otrength frou peak to residual, r partly fFoa the particle orientation effect nd aleo fro an inorease in water content Gue to dilatancy within the zone of shearing. These effects increaer with clay content and the degree of over-consolidation. extend in number and cagnitude until @ con nugue, undulating principal slip surface ie” formed (Skeupton -965). Continued dis~ placenents produce sone fiattening of the Slip surface and couse a further sual) reduction in strength. sured in revereal, shear box teste a cut plone give resulte which tend to be Blightly lower. When the opportunity presente itself samples Qan be taken acroes u natural elip surface, eves fron an old landslide, ana the shear Strength along the surface 'can then be neasured in tho laboratory by carrying out pton & Petley (1967) ral elaya there is ent. between the Teasonably good agres Fesulte 0 obtained ari the residual otrength Bensured by reversal teste on initially un= sheared material, me, trem the 1inited amount Moreover it that the of experience 90 far evailabl Strength seagured on laboratory including a natural elip surface ‘roxinatel: ron stability analsa: re post-failure have occurred, or are still taking place, long the slip surface. in those cases ‘equal tc the atrength calculat~ Much work neverthe) on the geasurement of residual strength. Recent teste using the torsion (ringjehear apparatue, for example, indicate that before a strictly constant strength ie reached very darge, Steprac metre: wento (of the order of one sary, on a perfectly plane and thie ‘ultigate® residual may be appreciably lower than the etrength in Feveral oF cut=plane teste, Ambiguities also exiot in the detersination of peak strength; which 1s influenced by Tate of shearing, orientation with respert to bedding and probably, in fissured clays, by the size of the sample being testes. The effects of these various factore are mention~ ed laters Stnss-strain cures showng ferent deters of britenes ‘the residual strength 3.2.4 Beitulencos. Kegarding the otr airain curves ohowa in Pig. 12, that curve (a) repre brittle clay in contr brittle clay represente: oF this aifverence ie au Sh elation to the peak, « such dower recidual atrengsh than clay (a)y a distinction widen can readily be expressed by @ ‘brittleness index' (Bishop 1967). weed) 3 °F are respectively the peak Sorc aa SRS"Sesfalel sfcangtios "ae gndpe oe? the Sironsvetrain curve io aige'ofgnftoan Sues fot ahanpier tne aifteronte, betee curves-(b)-and (<) both with the same value of T,. Bishop (Joc-cit)has introduced an enery-parameter’to quantify the ratio of the work done in shearing from peak to residual and the work done if tne clay con tinued shearing at peak strength. 307sop las ‘SKEMPTON ond HUTCHINSON 3.265 Patlure criterion, The Coulomb- feriegnt criterion failure etates that the shear otreng:n cn any plane ine eoi] te related to the effective noreal strese on that plane by the e:pr vere ct (the coe (the angle of shea: saterial paraneters of the sot! in tte con Gition at the tise of failure. Unless Specifically definee the parageters c' and Br reger to the peal atrengin. The pare evera correapontine te Fesidual strength denoted bye," tnd B'+ eneral thie failure criterion so in ‘aooordance with experisental regulte than any of the sore elaborate roraulations ot present available (Bishop 1966). However, two qualifications aust be tae. Firstly, the parancters c! and #" are not necessarily constanto independent of ot. In otner words the eetual failure envelope boy be curved,rather than a straight line as implied by’eqn.(5). Lt as therefore Geoirable to test the clay over a France of effective norma etrees eavracing the values ofg! likely to act inthe praceical proble. Unies tho curvature of the failure envelope ia unuaually pronounced o* and f" can then be taken as the paraneters corresponding to the best linear fit over the relevant stress range, Exactly the same recarke apply to the reatdual strength envelope. Secondly, the oritericn is two-dimensional ‘and can take no account of boundary conéit- fons on what soy be called the ‘lateral planes’, Thus in an element within @ Sontinuum subjected to princspal etresi @'>05'>a4 the criterion 1eade toa uhique*eXpréssion for failure in teres of and G%'', and the paraneters c' and f*, thaependent o¢¢,"or of any restraints in the direction of gs! + ‘The ‘plane strain! condition with no deform ation of the lateral planes (i.e. the planes norasl to O') is inportant as thio Pather closely to the kinematics of wany Landelides. Laboratory etudies on Su nda ehow that the values of f" calculated fron the Uoulomb-Tercaghi criterion are usually higher in plane train than in tri- trial Zolpfeseen Gatenget = gti" the difference decreasing atfoet €0,2ere, for Yoose eundos “oye aecinting’ to a°°or 50° For dense sande, I: is aleo found that the shear-box test, intespreted in the convent~ ional manner, gives values of J" a fen Gegrees loner than plane strain tests over the full range of porosities, and therefore lower than the triaxinl test in the case of Loose sand (see, for example, Cornforth 1961), Such complete investigations for clays have not been cade~ se know of only two results comparing the strength in plane- Strain and triatial compression. Por re~ Boulded Weald Clay Henkel & Sade (1966) find the plane-strain atrength to be 5 per cent higher, ani Duncan and Seed (1966) desonatrate fan increase of about 12 per cent for un- Gigturbed Sen Pranciaco Bay aud, # gort, silty clay having a high value of "(35° in triexial compression). ow oyotenatic comparison have been nade between the peak strengthe aa seagured in shear box testa md triaxial compreaeion teste on clays. If, ao 19 commonly the case, the box samples are sheared horizontel~ dy Ue. paraiiel to beading in a deposit not affected by folding) the comprestion samples should be inclined at such an angle ‘that the failure plane is also approxizately horizontal, in order to make a valid com parison of’recults.. Testa of thio kini in biue London Clay are aungarieed in Table 4. They show that the shear box gives elizhtly higher valuea of c' and i than the. insiinod triaxial teste but the differences ere Scareely significant. oe oe fo Lane cay ten Wey tee Aer a Sansa? Sesame” [tm [se [ooo | aie | # ee ae a eee ae e jtriaxat | tn | mcbned | 690 | or Ta fea > won [oe Pe sat few | s | orem ow | ot When clay 1s ohearing along a pre-exioting slip surface, ac in the residual condition, the Kinenatice are also? precisely twe~ dimensional Many comparisons have been strength along cut planes in ed in the shear box and in th triaxial apparatus, The reeulte are always Adenticel within the limite of experimental error (unpublished teats by Ded. Petley at Imperial College). -2,2-6, Antootropy. Some anteotropy gust be expecied“n slays ae a consequence of thei? mode of formation (e.g. deddine and one~ Aimensions! consolisation in sedimentary Geposite) and the presence of discontinuities which wnich may exhibit a more or lese pro- hounced degree of preferred orientation. Extraordinerily little work has been carried out, however, to investigate the msgnitude of the effect of anisotrony on the peale Strength paraneters c' ani ("Deets on blue London Clay (Table 4) indicate appreciably lover values of both paraneters when the clay 38 sheared in @ horizontal direction as compared with results obtained 308NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS ton teats on samples mith plan across bedding and the predi horizontal fiseuree characteristic of this Clay. In larger epecimens the effect of Hosures wey be wore pronounced. When a pre-existing alip surface ie present irength along thie surface te at or Slose to residual and ie therefore, in General, far lower than the strength in any other direction. vee, be ven OE , 4G 3.2e7+ Undrained strength. The undrain strength of a cley tf deterained by tests 5,5), in whieh no overall vater content change {e allowed to occur curing application of yur the shear stresses, Stress-otrain curves in undrained tests mey exhibit all degre of variation fron brittle to plastic Sehaviour, depending on the nature of the fend got norselly- or lightly over~ aidated clays #ffer a considerable Tose in strength when renoulded. The pensitivity (S¢ = ratio of undisturbed to Peaoulded undréined strength) ie comsonly In the range 2 to 6 for such cleye; while the "quick" clays often have sensitivities higher than 50 and are liquified vy re~ Boulding at their natural water, content. Over-coneolidated clays, ani stiff clays goneraliy, show iittie Senetstvity: indeed the elinination of sual) fissures by remoulding may lead to a somewhat ereat— ef strength than the clay possesses in ito naturel state. When @ saturated clay ie subjected to o Change in magnitude of en equal all-round fotet pressure, without any change in water content, the unérained otrength in » given ‘ins unaltered. Thus the ‘conditsone behaves, in sngee in totel stress, ase ne fies- 05). Belerwell known consegudnce of The'east thet a change in all-round Freopure causes a practaelY equal change TiSpore. pressure, previced the olay 10 forlyTeaatateds” snd’ the effective cheese ce therefore redein unaltered. zp, the nore ganereh sane were cbancen in He total etfensesd, > grease 4:2 Uadelied strenern dependent of these otre ee {hough they have not been allowed to cause any change in water content. However, experigents ona non-prittle clay of low wsitivity (Skenptoa & Sora 1963) snow Glrterences of undrained strength not exceeding 3 per cent despite substantial unequal changes in the principal total 8h (at constant water content), and eins periments on sensitive clays (Ladd & Lanbe 1954 ant Noorany & Seed 3965) reveal maxiguz differences of about 10 per cent. 309 ‘Thus for practical purposes we can at with little error that the undrained strength of eaturated clay retains & inva particular direction, Sndependent of any changea in total stres provided no alteration in water cont Takes place ao a result of these stres change: ‘The effects of antectropy on undrained Strengths may be appreciable. Not only are the paraneters c! and likely to be dependent to some extent on orientation, a weave seen, but in addition the pore pressure reaponse to a given stress chance Will vary with direction ase result of anisotropic consolidation pressure (Hansen 2 Gtboon 1943). for three norealiy- or Lightly over-consoligates clays. (Ko <1) are plotted in Pigsi3, The strength variat~ fone?in the clay fro Neiland, Ontario (20°1965) are siziler to those predicted by Huneen and GSbacn, hile the clay from carte, Sweden (Jakobsen 1952) snows the influence of bedding ae wells fhe San Prancisoo clay (dancan £ seed 1966) se intersediate in benevicur. On a brond view it could be said That the strength glong. planes parallel t bedding, invall three clays, is about 60 to Bs percent of the strength oyae eacureé in conventional teste with apectuens having & Vertical axis, an ao the axio of the Specinene approaches the horizontal. the fength retnine tore er Lean a thie retuced Yor the heavily over-consolidated London Clay the variations exhibit a different pattern (Pig 13). The strength parallel to Bedding ie aboot 80 per cent of cy + bat ange tom nt satan on btn 6 Linn Cay Wey (Aaa 182) Gay rhb Effect of orientation en undramed strength Fig 13ere: SKEMPTON ond HUTCHINSON aller inclinations of the specimen quite rapidiy; in the clay at a shallow depth at the fraySbury site (Agarwal 1967) and nearly 50 per cent greater than cy in deep samples from Ash— ford Conaon (wlird, Mareland & Sanuels 1965). These relatively high undrained strengthe gf,foe Rorizontal axis specimens very pre— ably reflect the high lateral in situ con- soliaation pressures (Ko>1) in the London Clay (Skempton 1961). In teats of this kind there is naturally a considerable scatter among the regulte fron a given site and aleo between different sites in the same clay. ,Data at present available for the une arained strength parallel to bedding in London Clay, expressed as a ratio of the strength of vertica fare wet out in Table 54 for faxie the strength rhe Feeding a value Just greater than ¢ won| eee Later [0m | aewee we ite [on | oT asiet | a Clays having a moderate degree of over- consolidation are gore or less isotropically consolidated (Ko 1.0). “They would be ex= pected to show little effect of specimen orientation, unless 1 ding had a strong Anfluence on c' and g", ‘Such Saotropic clay undoubtedly exist, es shown ty Jakoteon (2965) and’ ane (1367). oon Field sured in the leborator; can differ from the field or in eitu etrengt Bad or indifferent sampling 3.3.2 Sampling. Athos are the woot sbvigue.ssurce_af erres. Aso geneYatisation, Sanpiing will tend to Teduce the strength of a clay; though 4t should at once be pointed out that ror other such as size of epeciaen and rate 9 be gre: situ strength, soft clays even the sost perfect eampling Rethods will lead to some reduction in une 1nd_Laborator; drained strength, duo to the changes in total atr inevitably associated with Tenoving the sample fron the ground (Skeapton & Sowa 1965, Ladd & Lambe 2964, Woorany & Seed'1965)." Mechanical aisturb- fence, which can be wininieed by cutting blocks from a trial pit or by using thin wall piston sanplers in borenoles, aust be a further source of strength reduction in The effective sti 3 soft clays. 8 par sneed uc! untrained strengthe Stitt intact claye are Batertale to ‘the undrained strength of etit? fissured clays moaured on borehole samples aay be lees than the Strength of specimens triswed fron nend-cut blocks (Ward, Maroiand & Sanuele 1965) ory when the clay ie not so herd ani brittd, there may be'no difference (Skenpton # Rochelle 1965). Here again the paraneti ec! and f are probably not sensitive to einor sampling disturbance, aenociated with sampling, and jarily rather mall eice of seaple used in laboratory testing, can to sone ex tent be overcone ty Beaguring the shear etrength of claya in situ, Large c.sar bar teste nade in trial pits offer * promieing sethod (Hutchineon & Rolfeen 1962, Bishop & Little 1967, Marelend & Butler 1967) be ‘6 in boreholes of at le factory ‘hear strength of (looper & Butler 1966). it for measuring the London clay ‘The use of the vanevt in situ unérained strength of soft clays 19 Well Known (see, tor example, Cadline Odenstad 1950) ani speosally designed vanes are now being employed for investigating strength variations within anisotropic clays (hae 1967), 3.3.2 Sample Orientation. The vast gajor- ity'or Seaauronents concefning the strengeh ide (4) on triaxial compre cimens with a vertical axis, (ii) jon shear box epecinens with e horizontal shear plane or (141) by means of in eitu vane teste meaouring an unsrainea-etrangth jeontrolled essentiatly by the atrengtn on 'Y Wwertical planes. Prom what hee been eaid b. jalready on the subject of anisotropy it 10 I that the strength along @ elip eirface 1@ ground may vary considerably fron ‘tory strength agaoured by any of these procedures, due solely to differences in orientation. Ideelly, samples should farge to contain « representative selection of ail the mrticles and all ‘the discontinuities in the clay. intact clays, except clay tille, the ordinary leboratory specimens are probably acequate for practical purposes, from thie point of a0 bulb Se than veiwr ag op me AE: NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS view. When testing tills, however, it ie often necessary to discard or ignore the Targer stones and boulders. ‘This ie regret~ able, but the errors involved sre likely to be rather sual as tke properties of the till will be controlled chiefly by ite matrix (typieally grading from fine gravel to clay aide eatersel) and, fortunately, the matrix io uoually insensitive to 4: and free fron structure! discontinuiti For fissured clays the aize of play an iuportent role. Sot Felating to the undreined otrength of Lon~ Gon Clay ie given in Table 6 for triaxial, npecimens of various eizea, ell tested with a vertical axis. Sample is taken type of apecisen mostly used in routine testing. A vide scatter is usually Found anong the results due principally to fissures wich aay or sey not be present in the trength of a considerable i theres fore be taken. Ang.an obvious fissure are dis torthat extent, the 1d" x 3” teste cay be regarded ae giving ar average value for a nventional intact ctrength. The true in- taot atrength 19, in fact, mich ert ae shown by teste on onli pieces of clay car Tully selected as being entirely free from any Hosures Teast cme) are ant eT | ote At the eite of the wrayabury tests summarised In Table 6 the average fissure size is about Lie'ine, It io therefore to be expected that darge specimens ouch as those with u diuneter of 12 ins and a heigtt of 24 ine would in~ Slude a fairly representative fiesure patvern, and give a atrengtn rot very different fron that of the olay. sn this case about 65 per cent of the cenventional intact etren— gth'and 35 per cont cf the true intact strength. Intergediate eige specimens may approach the An’ sity condition but with wide fissure spacing even the 12" x 24" opecimens could be too stall, Results from plate teste in any couper Ales the plate and pile t out at greater depths in the London Clay. mhere figuring 38 not so inte! Nevar- Theless the data in Table 6 suggest thet, other things being equal (e.g. orientation fand rate of testing) the in’ eitu undrained strength of London Clay Te around 65 to 75 per cent of the conventional 1$” x 3" tri- Qxial compression strength. Less ie known concerning the effect of ple oize on the effective strese parasstere Et'and @' of #taft fieoured clay. Por Barton Clay (Mareland & Butler 1967) the peranctere obtained in triaxial tests on TESS" (vertioal) epeciaens are 230 1d/aqtt, pt = 24° and on 3" x 6" or 5" x 10" epecinens ct = 150 1b/eq.tt. pt = 25.5° but in gitu teate using @ 2 ft square shear box, With & horizontal plane, give Br = 27° 2 pressures ce! = 170 1b/egett over the range of effective nor typically encountered in landelide prosiene (ony. 500 1b/ag.tt. to 2500 1b/oq.2t) tere ie little digference between the strenztne in the large shear box and those obtained fron 14" triaxial epecimene, The latter ere, however, considerably less than the strength of amali intact pieces of the clay. Sisilar- iy, the ntact strength parameters of the blue London Clay at Wraysbury (Bishop 1967) c' = 1500 1b/aqeft. ft = 26” in contrast to the following results fron ips gpecimena with the mue orientation 670 Yw/egett. B = 22.5° At the eane ite, tests to measure the otrength along flesure end joint surfaces (Skeapton, Senuster £ Petley 1969) leas to ‘the paraneters: 10 lb/egeft. Bt = 185° ano as? importance toSKEMPTON ond HUTCHINSON Sajuf) Rate of Shearing. Very little lnfsragtion-Te-avatieble‘on the effects of Fate of ghesring, or time to failure, on the trength of clays in terns of effective Bishop & Henkel (1957) report drain. is on remoulded Weald Cley in which the Hae to failure (ise, t0 peak strength) w varied fros 1 day to 2 weeks. The proport- Yonel decrease in etrength over this range was practically the same for normally~ and dvereconsolidated clay, amounting to about, StS per cent per lo cyole of time (Pig.l4). 1 Twat cay i ores wan | | | sp seeegn FAK ay tm Fen lo | ety tram Corbege Mase oa —}— | (2) Untrane ts os ee aa | Fig. 14 Residual strengtho, on cut planes, have been neath tests at Imperial College) at rate: ranging from 2 oms/year up to 20 see Pig, 15, The decrease in strength varies fron Os5 to'2 per cent per log oyele of shearing rate, It Ay intereating to see what these resulte iaply in practioa) terae.” ‘The drained atfength ofa clay ir megoured in laboratory fests usually with a tive to (peak) failure of the order day.” If the etrengeh falle Sis‘por cent per tog cyoie of tine airengin corresponiize to 8 tae t ofS years wilt be 9 oratory value, 87 per to on. thus in done Peek strengtha aay well be 20 or 15 percent Tower then laboratory values due to this Pheologicel efvects The variation in residual strength is such less, Kesiduel gtrergthe are measured in the laboratory at rates of shear typically of the order i eo per day. An exceptionally Slow Tate of wovenent in nature ie 1 0a per year, yet from the reoulte in Fig.35 the Gorresponding strengtn would be only 2 per cent less than the laboratory value; while F915 ‘the ptrength at rateo approaching 100 en/ doy might be not more than 5 per cent above the laboratory value. The effects of aifferent ties tofailurr on ‘the peak undrained strengths of three cia} are shown in Pige14, Por the Canbrige. clay (Casagrande & Wilson 1951) the strength falls by about 6 per cont per Log cycie of time. “Brown London Clay (Skeapton & La~ Rochelle 1965) exnibitsa rather greater drop in strength, and this 19 due principally to ‘the migration ef pore water into the shear zone from less highly etrained regions :n the clay. The soft normally-coneolidated Fornebu clay (Bjerrum, Sigons & Torblaa 1956) cone @ very considerable drop in strength with increasing tine tofeilure (at least 14 per cont per log cycle of time) caused cascntially by increasing pore pressures. Undrained tests, in routine work, arc usually carried out at arate of strain leadinr to failure in about 15 minutes. 4 failure in the field taking place in the ghort tine of one day would develop an undrained strength 10\per cont legs than the 15 ainute laboratory value inthe Cambridge clay, about 1? fer, cent less in brown Lonaon Clay and 30 per" a the relevant strength of the latter cley wnt ‘This particular clay may be exceptionally per he can be serious errore in stability calculation: ~ ‘ji testing unless appropriate correction rectors are determines ana applied. 3.5.5 Softening. The removal of load ty excavating o cutting will initiate « provese of softening. Owing to the low permeability of clayey especially if intact, the final Btate of equilibriua under the reduced effective stresses (the long-tera condition) may not be attained until many years after ex- jeavation. Rapid ronoval of material by Nandelide or erosion at the toe of a elope 312NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS Le equivalent to exsavation. With intact elaye the con! In'water content 10 pre ih plow drained teste on carried out over th? range of effective pressures nich will obtain in the long: {era field condition. In stiff fsegured clays, however, lateral expansion followsng the load reduction may Cause some opening f fiugures and an {Rereame in Gase permeability. Terzaght (igseb) drew attention to the fact that the intact pieces of clay ere sufficiently rong to allow a fissure to remain open, evenat conaigerabls depths, and softening fun then proceed trom the face of the open unger zero effective stress, reduction in averaze Th turn allows sore deforma- otner fissures then open up and the process continues. Load must pooner of later be transferred back on to fhe previously softened clay and soy Eventually, unless overall failure inter enes, the strenrth of the clay mass could (In'the lisat fall to tne normally-consolid~ ‘ated value. strength, which tiona. to" occur: If the softened eley 1c not sheared ' will resin eoeentially constant, in moet clays, but ct will tend to sera, Hence the effect of internal softening of stiff fissured Clays may in the course of time result in Gtrengthe far lower taan thoce measured in Conventional drained teste. If, in Addition, the doftencd clay is sheared past ite peak, #" will ales decrease and the Gsserepancy will be stil greater. ‘The water content of partially saturated claye can be substantially increased by heavy and proloneed rainfall. Thus it te Receweary to give aople opportunity for the absorption of water when measuring the strength of these claye. In end-of-conetruction problems in. Saturated elaye there ic, by definition, a negligible overal: water content change. Nevertheless, ae previously mentioned, softening ea decur locally in over~ Consolidated clays at a Tegult of internal Bieration of pore mater (Skempton & Unkochelie 1965). “In principal, thie effect should find expression in the results of undrained tests carried out with e tine to failure appropriate to the practical conditions: e.g. eeveral days rather than the very short period of, say, 15 minutes Usually allowed in routine testing once @ clay nas betn broken up by Landslid= {he and/or weathering its strengta can be greatly reduced by rainfall or ground water Seepage. Colluvial Glopes and slide debris 313 show the influence of thie process, wnch 18 in pome reepeots eimilar to the softening of etiff fiecured clays, and the resulte are irked in’ earthflows and aulflows. 411 no 3.3.6 Progressive Pailure. In general the Patio of eirength te hour erreso io far fron uniform along the length of @ potential slip eurface, Therefore the peak strength, ina faret-tine clide, must be reached ot Some pointe before others. Moreover, unleso ‘the clay ie an ideally plastic non-brittle hatersel, the strengtn at these pointe sust a further soverents take place, and when overall failure finally occuro the mobilised strength will be less then the average peak strength along the olp surf- face. The more brittle the clay the greater the difference i likely to be. ‘he probles of progressive failure nas lone been recognised, and has been discusced in peveral recent papers (Haefels 1965, Peck 3S67, Turnbull & fivoreley 1967, Byerrus 1967, Bishop 1967), but no quantitative hethode are yet available for predicting ite magnitude an practace. once a progressive failure is initiated it may proceed quite rapidly. Indeed, if ali Cond! tions remained etrictly constant, only the rheological decrease in etrength could introduce a time effect. There are, nevertheless, numerous records of cuttinge and naturel slopes reaaining stable or undergoing only very slow creep sovesente for many yeare before the final period of accelerated movenent leading to failure. Thee uey be referred to ae ‘delayed failures',, they eany and probably elways do contain a component of true progressive failure but in addition other factors are Likely to be involved, euch as pore pressure Chances, softening and opening of fissures, and ale the gradual liberation of re- coverable strain energy (Bjerrum 1°67). STABILITY ANALYSIS. Although coneiderable advances in slope ptabiiity studses have been aade, particu Tarly during the pact two decader, these have been confined very largely to the Fotntional, compound and tranelationa) types ef Landslide. Falls have eeldor deen investigated quantitatively and no stability analyeie eeeme yet to have been fade of @ flow, Still less attention hae Deen paid to other forms of mass-novenent in-eley elopes such as creep, ana valley bulging.SKEMPTON ond 2 Limit Equilibrium Methode In principle the question of elope behaviour could be decided ty making an analyse of the dietribution of aseplacenents or etre ‘throughout it.. At present, however, there ig generally insufficient knowledge of the tn 8 and etrese-deforaa~ Uion-time properties of soile to make thie approach practicable. As a result it ie general practice to ase litt equilibrium Hethods to asveas the security of gol elope: In all methods of 1isit equilibriun analysis, @ condition of incipient failure te postur continuous elip ourfact of Or ageumed ohare. A quantitative eotinate of the fucter of safety of the slope with respect to shear strength, preferably defined as the ratio of the available shear strength of the 90:1 to thut required to malrtain equilipriue (Bishop 1954), is then obtained by examin— ing the equilivrius of the soi] mase above thie rupture surface, The problem 18 usually asuused to b¢ one of plane etrain. ‘The error involved in applying a two- a onal stabsist; anulyeis toa three dimensional landelige will be on the eafe aide. Kenney (1956) hac shown that the nagnitude of thio error 16 unlikely to exceed 10%. In practice, the actuel value of F for a slope te known only st the moment of failure, when st 10 equal to unity. Thoroughly investigated case records of slope failure thus assume great importance ae they proviae the ‘only opportunity of cneoking the reliability of our uothode of stability analys: 4.2, Short~Term and Long-Term Conditions When a cutting ts mad» in eaturated soil, the change in pore pressure in an eleaent of the adjacent soil ie given by (Skeapton 1954) du = 2[Ao5+ 40-405]... (6) ion can (Ao, +405) ao + (As 41(A0,-A05) 1D on of the cutting in pore Prescure. The assccittes shear etresi leo bring about a reduction of pore pressure unless 4 10 greater than $, neglecting the effect of changes in'direction of the principal etreeses (Bishop & Bjerrum 1960). The stuce ut whien the wil HUTCHINSON Pore presoures resulting from the formation of the cutting, ao defined by equation (7)+ are fully developed ie referred to ao. the short-term or end-of-construction con With the passage of time the balance pore pro themselves until eve age flon pattern appropriate to the Lope profile. ‘Tae final stage 19 to ds the long-term conditions, It 46 weparated from the short-tera condition by 8 period of pore pressure redietri tuticn, ‘These changes in pore pr representative point during and after the excavation of a cut in elay are Silustrated for the values A= 1 and A= 0, together with the sesociated changes in factor of safety, in Figs]6. In the more permeable soile, such ao sande and gravels, the period of pore preseure adjustment is very short and, except unter conditions of transient loading, stability problens will fall into the long-term category.” In claye however, particularly Af they are intact, the wags permeaeility Ao 0 low that the intermediate period of pore prescure adjustment may last for Honths or yeare after completion of the cutting, It is necessary, therefore, so such soils to deciae whether a given ability problen ie to be categorised ai ehort-tere, long-term or intersediate. 4,3 Effective end Total Stress Methods of Analyeie Whatever method of limit equiliprium analysis is used to arrive at the factor of safety of a clay slope, it se evident that this cannot be calculated without knowledge of the appropriate values of the shear strength of the clay. Phe determine tion of the appropriate etrength paranetere conotitutes the chief! probles of elope ptabslity analysio: it ie discussed tn Section }.. Throughout the present Section At ie aosimed that these are known. 0 Go) where F is the factor of safety defined earlier. It follows that in order to make a stability analyoic in terme of effective stresses tt ic necensary to know the magnitude of bota the total normal stress G, and the pore pressure u at all pointe of the actual or potential failure surface. In el but opeciel cases, is statically indeterminate: its magnitude can be approximated to however, to @ eufficient Gegree of accuracy, ty the available mettode of analysis. The values of u are ueuslly 314NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS Initia PW Equpotent| ie | As (Steady seepage) Fina) 6 Charges in u and F arising from the exavation of a cut in clay otter Bishop timated from of effect- meaeured by plezometers or An ana.yoie in term fan, cn principle, be made at any tine during the life of a lope (Fig.16). In’ practice, however, cuch analysee are uoually made for s.opes in the long-term ‘condition, when the pore pressures u are Bost easily determined. 4.3.25 Yota)_atress anslyeie, In terme of fetal stresare the thoar strength mobiliees Under conditions of limiting equilibrius te, for'B,* Or pee oe) 315 8 Bjerrum (1960) Fig. 16 The facte that in thie case the mobilised shear otrength ie independent of the total normal stress on the lip surface ani that the pore presoure does not need to be arately measured lead to considerable simplification in the correaponding nethode of etabslity analyeie. The condition that (0 obtaine in the iaboratory only for ubdrained teste on saturated samples, interpreted in terme of total stresses, aid 10.8 Girect consequence of the principle of effective atreas, Application of the total oF Py= 0 method of stability ie in“the field must therefore be Liested to thore casee where similar ‘conditions apply. It te thus restricted etreSKEMPTON and HUTCHINSON to elope stability probleme in saturated claye in which ineufficient tine ne Glapsed ince foraation of the elope for any overall change of water content to oceure Mechanics of Stability Analyste “fh compreheneive and critical examination of tne gany sethods of stability analysis how available, honever desirable, te not atvespted nere. We merely make some brief | Gommente on those metiods which we have founé-wost ueeTul+ Tae methods are divides according to the of the fallure eurface.. The effects. of partial eubgergence, other externa: loads and neson eracke (Tergazhi 1943; Bishop 1954; (dereaghs a Peck 1967) are not considered. be In effective variation in Ye of fundam where the Lip surface nell Yeportance, and in general when the elope profil> ie irregular or when differing shear paranstere obtain on Various parte of tne failure surface, it is convenient to proceed by the pethod of Slices, ‘Thie may be dispensed with how ever, Sf preferred, in total stress analyses involving regular slope profiles. 4.4e] Giroular slip surfaces. ——— (a) Ettective stress (ctf') analysis A method which t sufficiently accurate host purpose 1e that given by Bishop (1954) and generally terged the Bishop Simplified Method (Pige17). This is derived by equating the moment about O of the weight Fig. 17 of soll within ABCD with the moment of the Shear forces acting on the elip ourface. The normal effective force (P= ul) on the dave of the elice considered, denoted by PI, to found by resolving vertically. Thence, aeouming that(In= Kgej)= 0, the following expression fof P fe*obtaine: P soe ae (w= up) ana} 4 +++ Q0) whore m_ = cones (1+ Sanaaptanb') ere my 4 (2 ) an) Ao the term F appears on both aides of equation (10) the solution has to be obtained by « process of successive approximation. Convergence 1s very rapid and the ean be carried out easily by hand or by computer. (Little & Price 1958). Valuee Of By can be read off e chart for any asouded value of F (Janbu et al. 1956 ‘Terzugnt & Peck 1967). 4 Gimenesoni fore of the Bishop Simplifies Method, permitting repid evaluation of the factor Of eafety for simple slopes, ie presente? by Bishop & llorgenstern (1960). “This been extended to” the rapid by Morgenstern (1963). Equation (10) can be rearranged in the form: 1 F + Dore Pr tans)... (12) mere P! se given by the expresoion: etl ain a up. Stine wee (23) Baran coe Whitman & Bailey 1967) Both numerator and denominator of equation (13) can become zero or negative for lon» Values of P, the former when, in addition, pore preoeures are co nigh that? us cr SRK > Xe and the latter when of hao high negative Yaiues ouen ao gr the toe of @ deep faliure burface. In either case unrealistic Local Values of P" gre obtained. ‘The second case Yo of the greater practical importance but Oeeure eo Seldon as scarcely to affect the Uisiity ofthe sethod. in general the error resulting fron uge ofthe Bishop Siaplsfied wethod se 7 of eee and 16 usually unger 2% (Whitnan & Bailey 100 we (4) cits). epler but considerably lese accurate Bethod of analyaie for circular elipe 16 316NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS of provided by the Cenventional Method* uat~ (krey 1926). In this, after Sng eomente ac before, the forces on Silce (Piel?) are resolved ina dir Rormal to ihe slip surface and the as tion ie made that: Seas fo. 14430000 = (Eg yyy) #inno vee (25) ‘the safety factor ie then given by the 2 "1+ (Weosy ~ ul j*) sree” co 2)axe] = te) This te identical with equation (12) with Pi gefined by the expression: HY = W cosa ul ve QT) In other words, the total normel force P and the shear force S on the base of a Glice are eiaply taken as W cost and Weind Feepectively. It 19 evident that P' in ion (11) will become zero or negative when: 2 (as) ZS cout — Af this ratio = 0.5, PU will be 4 ive for values of qin excess of 45° tendency to under effective forces acting parte of the slip. fon steeply inclined surface, the values of F obtained by the Gonventional etiod are also, in general, timated. Bishop (1954) demonstrates that thie erron increases with increasing central angle ie eubtended by the arc of faflure and with increasing pore pressure us? Some comparisons of analyses of Circular lendelides in natural slopes, Sade by both the Bishop Simplified and the Gonventional Nethode (Table 7)**, show that + thie method in aleo referred to eli Wnere ae the Pelieniue Method, the U.S.B.R. Nethea and the Orasnary Method. % Kjaerneli & Sigona (1962) point out that the error of the Conventional Hethod also jewith the inclination of failure are. data for fare taken from pheli # Ssmons for the other ed at Imperial e elides at Lodalen and Sevaldson (1956) (2962), respectively. langoilaes are college. the Latter-may woll-under-estiaate the factor of eafety by over 20%. In more Gxirene cases the-error can Five muck above thie (Sienop loc.cit.)« ve? ee a (a) Chevier a — sng) Northett ee: om 10 a oT oom | METZ | om [ t oa wom |Z Toy | 2 : ee ry et ee (a ane ae vee cote | ane ee 100 19 soitury | EE atta Aer et oti | oe = — on jem) 10 pe exmel enje cox wr paramears ene 19 gm F, #10 (>) Poter_otr = 0) analyeie. under By eee eee Le raat saree fe moiiveed ie simply cy/P (equation (9))- The fact that thie ie independent of the horse: ctrese on the elip ourface results Thee great simplification. Merely equating nomentt, ae before, yielde the exprepeion Tor P. If the Bethod of elices 18 used thie has the form: pe Bek ‘Seine Thie ie exact, and ie easily adaptatle to irreguier slope profiles and non~unifor: sheer strength conditions. Dimensicnie: forms of the fy = 0 analysis for sinple slopes have been developed by Taylor (1937) for the case where c, i8 constent with depth end by Gibson & Morgenstern (1962) and Hunter & Schuster (1968) for the case of cy increasing linearly with depth. Taylor's work is extended to some acre complex situations by Janbu (1954). as) 317SKEMPTON and HUTCHINSON 4:42 Honsetreuler elip surfaces, nan employe the aethod of slices and by aa Feeolving horizontally yielde the expres (a) Eefective stress (c'f") ansivete sient Of the beverai sethoas of mon-cirouTer analyeie now available, that developed by PAC. Norgenatern'é price (:365; 1967) ts"one of pe s,, Zhzorz) ay the sost-oatiefactory. 12 eaploys the SW tan ‘iad of elices ana athesiee ali the : undary and equilibrius consitione, includ~ the symbole are as used previously (?%g.17) ing soment equsiiuriua of the individual except for fo which te a correction faster slices. Ae'a result me difficulties ef depending on°the shear paranetere ani tne cgleulatson are such ce to require the use form of the elipy ane: terre eeeren a ety of computer. In order to sake the problen influence en the’ fervor ee weteee ee es Stutieally determinate the assumption ie Yertical shear forces between the slices, Bade that the forces E (or 8!) and X on the For a stability enciyore te eney oe Sides of the elices are related by the effective stresses, introduction of the expression? appropriate expression for shear strength leads to the following expr [se ub) tans] wnere \ to a scale factor detersined in Fm foe Zee The setdedon ang f(s) f0°an eveitrery Erwan Einction concerning the aietsibution of foe incerbal forsee. "Pop uch aoigtion £2 oa wy £0 exaaint the ieptied weet ee 1% the oil sage above the failure "BFe Ay By (A+ sang sang) Surface and’ to engure, by suleatue shetee orene function f(a}e' tae aie te we @) prysteally adsieatels. 7 ae + (22) and =, 16 given by equation (11). The accuracy of the Morgenstern-Price Method as not yet deen fully explored. The Equation (22) reduces to the expression for Ligited available date suggest that the the Bishop Simplified. Method (equation 10) yalue px Fogheainea se vaually affected by gulviplied by tno correction faster fr. . <=) lees than 6% by various reasonable aesuape ‘tons concerning the function £(x) The few results of stability analyses of \ Application of the Norgenetern-Price non-circular olip eurfabes in Table Te | Metnoa "to circular elip aurfaces giv foepeet thet fae? aseeteet of ape ealt Teproninersiy"une'auge/resereeraeeies Method 16 usually intersedsate between that [Bishop Staplicies teincas of the Moree: i | Metnode. Other methods of analysie for non-ciroular | slip surfaces, ‘of waick we have 20 expert >) nce, ave been ‘develozed by Kenney (1956) Nonwesreutar-fe-> aaetyooy aporae EE and Honveitier (1965). to have been made. A seai-enpifica method of aking euch an analyeia ie provided. by ‘The Conventional Method of analysie hae substituting the average undrained shear already 'been described in connection with strength en’ the base ef aaeree tor: circular slip surfaces, for which tte'use equation (21) (danbu, at ae soso : was discouraged. Experience indicate: however that. this simple and rapid method 4.4.3 Planar elides in infinite elope: gan prove reaarkgbly suscesesul sf applies to non-circular Surfaces, especially if a (a) Effective stress Subnihtial portion of the elip aurface to the forven Eeting Te the sete ataL ES predominantly planar, The few exanples of on'a planar surface of faciare an on ineite Such analyaee collected in Table T suggest te elope are enews in FIgtiee Potaaie that the Aocuracy Of th: method decreases, ase ‘the internal fosren ot she Tae ee with increase of che ratio ¢/L, defined in any eliee are equal aed oprous enaee teen Table Trand by Janby at al. (1356). fore cancel outs Tt Le then easily. shown : fiat, the factor of uafety againet sliding Thig eethod becoues exact for planar slip ia given by! urfases in hozogeneaue toile, providing that the horizontal component of any pao! + (Bz 0088 -u) tang? external los ie zero, since the ump SST eee (24) Yon expressed ty equation (15) se then Fe vin oof preciuely realieed; o¢ being conevants Thie reoult io aloo given by the Conventional A rather gore accurate aethod of analysing Ronwcireular slip eurfaces fairly replaly Ady hand ie given by Janu, et al. (1956), * In these, f ie taken = 1 in the Morgenotern- Price Method. -xact in these conditione. Method whieh 318NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS Fig 18 ‘two special cases of steady seepace sey be Bontioneds Yor horizontal flow out of the elope us Bye ots 2(¥oos'p - ¥,) tans? Bz sin fp cone (seer: 1948) and: see (25) Por the more common case of flow parallel to tne slope and the ground-water table at a vertieal height mz above the slip surface (rig.18), v= Vyne con ant: ott 2 c0s%f ( ¥- a ¥,) tang" Be win conf (Skeapton & De-ory 1957) (») total streee (f,= 0) onalyete. the antety caetar oP ae rattanee stopee aguinat eiiding under py = 0 conditions i Biven by the exprecs.ont Pe (26) (27) 5. ANALYTICAL CASE RECORDS (Prom the scientific and practical pointe view the study of analytical case re. corde ie suprenely important. Our know in clays can be uring the properties ‘lly controlled con- of tect, using these properties in f stability analysie, and seeing to what xtent the resulte agree with field ob watson Much progress along these lines has beer de, especially in the past fifteen yeare bince, fer example, the firet specialist gonference on elope stability hel at Stockholm in 1954. Yet a general survey no doubt that future work. Jn~ of the Literature Leave have scarcely been touched analytically. Deveriptions ure frequently incomplete in fone or several aepects. Occasionally tne Dasic interpretation of the field evideace or test data ie in doubt. In the following pages we summarise » nun- ber of selected case recoras to give an appreciation of the present tate of the eelence. So fur as possible attention 16 drawn to difficulties and gaps in our kiow- ledge. For reasona given above the re~ corge are considered under three main he She: a= 1. ftretetine elddes, short-ters 21 faretitime eliges, long-tera 3. elides on pre-existing clip surface 1e records can be quoted Wo analytical ot Budflons or eolifluction for earthfions, pheet movements. A brief treatment of slope development in clay strata ie given in Section 6. 5.2 Pirettine Slides; Short-ters In thie category we deccribe two cage records, one in soft intact clgy, the other in Fissured clay. There appear to be no fully documented records relating to stiff intact elaye, S.lel Congress Street, Chicago. Detaile of thie aiige Have been publiohed by Ireland (1954). Failure occurred during excavation of an open cut in Chicago for the Congress Street euperhighway an 1952. he elige took the form of a eimple rote tional sovement on a more or lese circu-er elip surface, limited in depth by stiff clay of a Wigconsin age moraine (Pig.29). Apart fron a cover of fill, placed in the Yate 19th century, anda relatively thix layer of eand and silt, the slide was loca ted principally in soft to firm intact cley (typical index properties w = 25, Lh = 32, BL = 18), the upper portion of which had been subjected to sone desiccation before 319SKEMPTON ond HUTCHINSON ‘the wand wae deposited. The clays above the moraine are probably tille laid down by fee eheete under water. Fig. 19 ‘The undrained shear strengths of the clays kere geasured by compression teste on Shelby=tube samples and corrected for saaple disturbance ty eeans of correlations established between the strengths of tube samples gui ef specinens tron hand-cut vlocke (Fock 1940). “Re concerning the obear 3 and £412 layers, but th Pole in the analysis, play @ minor On the most critical ctrole, according to the Pyx O analysis, the calculated factor of safety was 1.1. Ae wae to be expected, the eritieal circle lay further back within the slope than the actual slip surface (Skeapton 1945, 19488). The Chicago claye probably show 1ittle variation in strength resulting from anioo~ tropy. The presence of some cracks and Joints, due to desiccation, in the upper layer of clay may mean that ite lavoratory strength exceeds the field strength. The data already given in Section 3.3 suggest that a 30 per cent reduction te probably sufficient to allow for thie effect even in fan intensely fiscured clay, In the present ‘ease a reduetion cf, say, 20 per cont would ‘seen to be aaple; am from figures given by Ireland qhis reduces the cal~ culated factor of eaZety to about 1.07. Streae-strain curves of the softer claye show little drop in strength after the undrained peak (Feok 1960) but there may be a Feduetion in mobilised gtrength due to pro~ gressive failure along that part of the Slip surface lying w:thin the etiff upper clay. However, a 30 per cent reduction to Gllow for this effec: only brings the calculated factor of safety down to 1.00. The slide oceurred while excavation wae stil taking place. The failure was therefore not delayed: and although the rate of anearing nay well have been considerably slower than in the laboratory teste, we do not thirk That ‘the difference between field and labo~ Fatory strength, on thie account, 10 likely {o exceed the order of 10 per cent. Finally, the Chicago elaya have a rather low sersiti~ vity (St % 4) and the etrengthe ae meacured on hand-cut blocks are probably very clove to the an aitu values. In conclusion, then, the calculated factors jarety range froz about 1.1 with no cor- ‘to about 0.9 with perhaps an cver- allowance for"guoh effects as prom ure, rate of testing and fissures gressive in the upper clay. This result 19 very satisfactory, but etten- tion must be drawn to the great need fcr further case records within the eatecory of firetetime ehort-tern olides in soft Sneact clays. Ae well ee the effects cf Fate of over, the strength in some clays ean vary markedly with orientation and dr- ection Of shearing, and hence also with the type of test, Theve factors are dzscucsed in'Section 3 of the present paper, and have been strongly exphasieed by Kenney (1960). They do not in themeelves anvaliaate tbe principle of the Jy= 0 analyeie, but they Point to the neces¥ity for thorough field and laboratory investigations of short-term Slides 80 that their effect can be gauged in practical terms. Sel+2 Bradweli. (Skeapton & Lakoohelle 1965). “Two slides occurred in the deep excavation for a nuclear reactor at Bradwell, Eevex, in the London Clay. Slide I took place on 24 March 1957 about 5 daye after Completion of this part of the excavation (21g.20) and Slide IT followed at en adjac~ ent section 19 days after excavation. The London Clay is overlain by 8 ft of soft Postglacial maren eley and 32,5 ft of fi2l, placed ae the excavation proceeded. At Slige 11 the fill wae 6 ft thick. “The weather during these operations was dry Bnd continued eo throughout the period leading te Slide 1. Ground water level was Toeates within the maren clay from wnich there ere szall geepage flows on to the bere at the top of the London Clay. In Besex the London Clay hae been over~ consolidated during its geological history by the removal by eroeson of sone 500 ft of overlying sediments (Skeapton 1961). It te a stiff fieoured marine clay of Eocene age with horizontal bedding. Slide 1 wai of clay ‘A few houre xo be The fret sign of instability at the outward bulging and cracking luge above the toe of the elope. later @ large wedge clipped out, 320NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBAI ive with a teneion crack >assing through the fil. Fig. 20 ‘The undrained strength of the clay was neasured on 1d" x 3" triaxial (vertical axis) specimens taken fron borehole sampli and hand-cut block suaples, with a tine ti (peak) failure of the order 15 minute: venificant difference could be found ween the strengths of the two types of Sample, and gufficient tests were made to eotablien firmly the variation of undrained Strength with depth. Average values of the index. properties of the London Clay within the depth involved in the slides are: w = 33, Li's 95, PL = 30, CP = 52 Pave poesible slip surfaces were analysed for Slide I and of these the three sost cri- teal all showed the ectual strength of the London Clay mobilised during the failure to be only 58 per cent (* 2 per cent) of the average strength measired in the laboratory. For Siide Ii the ratic was 52 per cent. In other terma, using the laboratory strengthe the caloulates factore of safety were about IN6 and 1d Teopectively for the two olid At the tine of the preliminary investigations thees reeulte evened to indicate. our- prisingly large discrepancies between 2abo- Fatory and field etrergths, out the differ- fences can now be readily explained. In the firet place, teste with various times to failure showed that pcre water migration takes place within the olay, towards the shear Zone; and in 5 days this effect, together with @ suai] rheological component, brings about a reduction in undrained stren- ath of approxinately 16 per cent as con- pared with the otrength measured in 15 Binute tests (Skeapton & Lakochelle loc. git.), In the second place it is now kiown, Fro work previously described in the prem 321 INKMENT FOUNDATIONS. the undrained strength of or in very large ti- Te-dbout 70 per cent of the strength measured in 1$"x 3" specimene; due to the presence of fissures and other di3~ whieh are by no weang fully There te sent paper, that London Clay size effects work in conjunction, and if this ie correct the ratio of the'5 day field strength to the 15 minute laboratory strength would be (2 = 0,28) x 0.70 = 0.57. The near coincidence of this figure with ability calculations 10 But the results of obviously fortuitous to some extent. der that it establishes paney implied by a caloulates factor of Bafety of 1.8 19 not due to ohortcomings of the P= 0 analysis, and can be explained ino quantitative manner by the highly aisleating Btrengthe obtained in conventional laborsto= Ty teste. Indeed, if soue allowance were ude for progresnive failure and for the possibility of « slightly lower strength Sue to orientation effects, the conclusion could be reached that the field strengtn wao actually a little greater than might be expected when all factors are taken into account. ‘The somewhat lower strength deduced from the delayed fallure of Slide 21 is qualitatively perfectly rational, It amounts to a furcner Feduction of 7 per cont, and there is no @ittioulty in supposing’ that this could be the combined result of email additional pore bre effeote. It rensine only to nention that several lov) Jiyre" 8" > 30°) and the etrece-ctrain curves chow & brittie benaviour. Cutcplane teats one Sanple of Lower Gault (LL © 16), havang an Gprrecsabie content of montnoriiiorite in ite clay fraction, gave what i0_probab'y Glose to a practical lower salt forthe Feoigual gtfengen.of the whole formition: Cpt 0. Bot 12% and S030 unlikely that SThigher vilue coula'be abtaines than vae given by the results of revereul nein teats Ona ganple of Upper Gault (ub = 51) with = Clay fraction conposed eniefly of slate and kaolinite: cy! = 0 By" 199, These reoulte bracket the fielé values of 5.4.3 Walton's Wood, this important eae Pecora WE jeseribed very briefly 26 it has not yet been publiened in full. Dhe section shown in Fig.30 19 derived frou nuncrour boringe end exploratory pate torr ied out during 1962-63 under the direction of ur. KE. Early of Soil Mechaniee Lig. i¢ fence that a slope zn Cartoniferous sus-ton" wa over-steepened by the erogion of © orair. ee channel durin¢ the retreat of the Weich- eelian ice cheet in thie part of Sturrera= are. Weothering, multiple landalsding and thilow heve bee’ uctive ever eines, usted Stabilasatzen wort: were carried out a Jem yearc ogo sr connection with the Mo motor wey. The recultiny celluviua mantles tne tedreex and c;reags out 200 ft. over the filling the channel. In'the ear! ‘3 of development mass movements were bly eecentunted ey solifivetion. [ome WALTON'S WOOD LANOSUDE Fig. 30 328NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS Slip surfaces were discovered at each of, the pointe anrked by a short heavy line in Fie.50. Moat of the colluviua consiate of a noderately stiff cley matrix with frag Bente of mudetone ond sandstone, but within f dietance of several centimetres on either Side of a shear Zone only clay (including sone harder clay pellets) is encountered. Exumination of thin sections by Mr. Early Showed little preferred particle orisnta~ tien in this clay, but he observed that the slip eurface conprices « band 20 to 30 Bicrone wide in which the cley particles fare etrongly orientated approximately in the direction of displacement, and this bund lies within 4 ehear zone'up to about 2'ga. wide containing sany minor eheare. blow dreamed teste in the standard shear box and triexial apjarstus gave the fo2lom ing peak etreneth paraceters for the un- bheared clay er = seo? pt Teota on the vliy surfaces (again in shear box ané triaxial) pave conciotent reoults, cosresponding to the parameters a Ae = as? In both aete of teste no significant aiff erence could be gecr between the strengths in the shear boxes and the triaxial. ¢ o At the time it was aifficu2t to explain the Buch lower 1 on the elip surfaces, as com pared with the peak ‘By the end of 1065, however, Fevereal shear box teste on previously undhearea clay had been carried Out and the final (i.e, residual) strengths Ooteined after five or more reversals were found to agree quite well with the slip surface values (Skeapton 1964). This wae probably the first cocasion on which labore~ tory residual etrength could be correlated with the strength on natural sii surfaces: ane the great ifference between peak and feoidual p" could clearly be attributed, in part, ‘to the effect of particle re~ opientation at large dseplacenent. Typical stress-strain curves and a detailed dzawing by Dr. J.2. Tohalenko of the fabric of a eneat zone have been pubiched by Sgeapton and Petiey (1967). Average values of the index properties of the clay are: we 2, 63. ‘The colluvial slope (Pig.30) has an average {neination of 119, out it coneiste of two Father gloting? portions. The upper part, inclined at 99 contains gultiple slides Turning for guch of tneir length sub parallel to the eloge.. The lower, steeper part hee within st et least two rotataonal Slidesy and these seen to cut across the translations) slides se if they were renoy- ing waterial brought down by a preceding WL = 57, Hs 26, crs 329 phase of movement from the upper part. Preliminary analyses show that for the Fotational eliges IV ané V the values cf fy! correeponding to 0 factor of safety = 1.0 are between 15° and 15.59 ( ng ep! = 0). To analyse the upper slip [and Tit, it hao been necessar; then downhill into the region affected ty slides IV and ¥, The calculations, which are therefore no more than approximaticns, give values of B,' between 13.5° and 14,08, yulte are 5 to 20 per cent higter ured Feosduad Ho partiouler significance Felatively amall order of atecrepancy. 5.424 Sevenoaks Weald (Skenpton & Pet 1367). aearpment south of Sevenccke, in Kent, 1¢ composed of Hythe Beds over~ ijang Atnersiela and Weald Claye (Pir.31). Investigations near the village of Sevenoake Weald revealed a widespread solifiuction sheet extending nore than helf a mile fron, the gecarpent on ground sloping at only 3 or 4°, It ie characterised by an abuncunce of angular chert fragments and pieces of sandetone, brought down from the Hythe bea eer ina very variable matrix of eilt, cand sea clay. ""Eaploration pite through the Sheet ohowed the presence of slip eurfacea in the underlying weathered Weald Clay rur- hing parallel to the olope. Under preent climatic conditions the ground io completely atable, end the sheet hes no fopocraphic expreaoion. Indeed there can be iittie doubt that, on euch flat slozes, there has been no moveaent throughout fost~ glacial times. The sheet was formed during fhe period of the sain Weienselian glaciation when’ southern England was eubjected to Intense periglacial conditions. * The mechanice of golifluction movements on gentle slopes te not underetood, but recent Gnveetigations (Weexe 1969) have proves the existence of basal cheare, similar to those St Sevenoaks Weald, beneath solifluction sheeto on clay elopes at several other cites (oee Pig.7 for an exanple in London Cay). overlying the main sheet immediately below the eteep slopes of the eccarpaent are fuserous Lobes, up to about 1,500 ft. in Tength, aleo consisting of chert and eand— stone fragments ina salty clay matrix. A detailed section of an exploracion pit through one of theee Lobes 19 enown in Pig. 3h. Lying on the lower eheet at tiie sectin is'e fopesl soil, the radiocarbon age of waich (12,000 years B.P,) proves that the Tobe aust have been formed during Zone 11T of the Late-glacial peried, the last phase bf periglacial conditions ending about 10,000 years ago. Y Purther examples of periglacial action on elopeo are given by Laruba & Mencl (1954, 1963).SKEMPTON and HUTCHINSON ee gine set oe Se) =| ecw toe toe "Wool Sectin ot a Solitucted Supe near Sevenoaks Weld, Kent ter Shemoon Pee BT) nd Wee te Fig. 31 It seems clear that tre lobe started ste a otabiisty anslyese of the entire lode. downhill aovenent principally by eliding Shows that an average value of f= 12+ onthe Atherfield and Reala Clays, and then corresponde to's factor of oafery © 1-0 Continued on a layer of ‘gouge’ clay. Tis {with e' = 0). In view of the above mem layer, probably derived fro the Atherfielé tloned teat reeults tne lobe, as a whole, and Weald outerops ani from slope wash, should therefore be stable; and thie isin fontaine mary small fragnents of Hythe Beds accordance with field obeervations. There iaterial and clay pellets. It 19 intensely are, nowever, signe of local inotabslity at sheared. the'toc, where winter water levelo lie very close to the surface, and the values of F" uriaxial tests on elip ourface apecinene Feguired for F = 1,0'in mali elides in this gave the following residual etrength para. region are about 14° to 15°, These calcul Betere (and average values of index proper- tione are approximate, but they are reacon= ties): ably concordant with the fact that the we of the lobe hae not yet reached a position + Us 72, Pe 29, OP= 55) of equilibrium. Atherfield (w= ee = 8 Apt 22% = a5? Rather more valuable information, in the Prevent context, was provided accigentally Weald (n= 25, Lin 65, Fue 26, OP= 60) Ey'the excavation" of tench acroes ¢ 13¢e : . Aljacent and sisilar fo tae one an Fig.3.. cpt = 0 By! = 15.59 ~ 16,5 the Stench nar situated at about the foal ion of the exploration pit show sn ths Gouge (we 34, Tie 71, Pls 3, CFs 58) Higure, and shortly after it reached the : top.ef’ the Weold Clay multiple retrosreesive a ee Sifeing began wnson toon extended thees mands Fed of feet up the slope, The trench evi Piezometric levels in the lobe and the under- gently led to re-activation of the old slip Lying solifiuction sheet rise within a fer surfaces, Analyaes of thece movemente Eve feet of ground surface. Using these levele values of fi," between 15° and 16° (again 330NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS the resuit that the value of B* alone the Slip surface was between 280 and 20° Iwith, sw Ne er = 0) at failure. side eccurred during 1964 monsoon Reversal shear tests on a sample of the clay gave the parameters c,' = Oy fp! = 159. But 30M roverent fuseroue teete on Uppér Siwalik clay irom the Hangla Dam site saow that, for c1aye having sndex propertice of the sane order as Those at the River Seas site, the valves of Jat can vary fron 150 to 20°" (Binnie, Clark SXsxenpton 1961)- horeover the peak’ stren- Git Beogente clive are Aign (evs Wo 1oysed HS 220), atairock ear zone slip st ‘Thue the strength auct have been at or com- paratively close to the residual; a conclu Bion which is not difficult to accept us the Siwailk cleya contain many tectonic one Zones caused by bedding-plane clip éuranc tne folding of the evrata. Rock-slide in Upper Siwalik Strata Rwer Beas Valley , India fle, Henkel Yudhbir (1968) Wo. Residual etrength parancters for cla: ai all the foreroine sites, except Suisury RigTy tase" elven dovine apptoxiante fers with i E.02 Gand_an aecoctates value of je" Fig. 32 More exact analyses would, in general, re~ with (et = 0) for the otrength in te top quare the aneiucion of a email cohesson SettalSheaas chayes a foul whien eopperte Snsercept end a elaently Lower A's SheTwartsity of the lnvoratery seasurenente Sf yeakduel’ strengtn. 5.4.5 River Heao Yoliey (Henkel & Yudhbir 6, SLOPE DEVELOMEENT tobe}. BSTEIRE* Eis ‘Soaston perioa of 1968 wel je Desurgel in Upper Stwalik eirace, We sunmariee here the resulte of field aoetdts OE varies else of the River Bove Savestigations on slope developaent in London ifporinern Indies ‘the strata, of Lower aft G2fEFe°Gna inland elopeoy and in 8 Heletocene ager. coneier of alternating boulder lay valie+ oft sundosonee'(seand Fock!) and nerd. cloyo aoe ana eree eteTeite of the eldde , 6.1 Valley Slopes in Boulder Clay they dup ieuardo the fiver at an ancle of 9 {550.525. “"tne silting block nae ae nigtn Detaite have been given (section 5.2.3) of oe Soe ft. “dt gowed up to 30 ft. duran Blige caused by river erosion at, the foot of he slide: before the feilure. tension 2366 boulder Clay slopes, thie ae a one~ rae sees a te eeen on the auriace of the tera failure, in the eenge that the pore sree ceo ans the cepararion between the, preasures cofresponded. 10 steady groune Sater aoe he elibing mans tock place water flows bul if Left free, from TAver Stone one ofthese tension cracke, 740 Sroolon ine elope, in terse. of a euch Lonrer s1ere eMSsechargine Gown the lope during tise cele, would ve reduced to e corsiaer~ ine'neavy feino'wnich precesed the lide Sly Goeller" inetsnacion ae a result of Bob ater into the cracks. Reothering ant shallow sliding. sorings established that 91iding had taken The inclination at which a slope in rature rorinee ee tiane at a'depth of 45 ft. below finally beoose: etabie against any fcre of lees on SFuat®sanactong inva zone of the’ langaliding is known ac. its angle of Uitsaate ioe age of she Gevfowine index properties: evability,” this ange depends upon the Fey eae ne ogee SE MEiver devel at propertiag of the clay ano. Me erimate and the tae Of the Sige was knowns Ergbna waver conissioney andy in general, it A block analysis, details of wich are given by Henkel & Yuanbir (Loc. cits), leads to T with the low é/i ratios in theee elidee, 3 For drawings of shear gones at Margle tne Conventional (P= W coos) method of bee Skempron (1966) and Skenpton & Petley analysis cance used with very little error (1967), eT). (see 331SKEMPTON ond HUTCHINSON can be with accuracy only trom Held observations. Nevertheless 1t should be sueceptible to rational interpretation by reference to the principles of soil mechan- tot 6.1.1 Peteriee (Skenpton 1953a). In 1948, when planning the ner town of Peterlee, in County Durhas, it became necessary to define the angle of Litimate otability of ‘the slopes of a deep valley and ite tribu~ tary, the sides of which were still in aany plates subject to active landeliding. The valleya were beirg eroded tn boulder claye and, for short lengths, into the underlying Magnesian Limestone where this becure at relatively nigh levels. The area was covered by ice ozeete of the lest (Wetcheeiian) Glaciation and the valleys, in their present form, are undoubtedly Postglacial. Solifitétion, then, ha played no part in modelling ine lope The glacial depooite include layere or leneee of sandy gravel and silt, and the claye are rather vuriable in their content of stones, Index properties of the clay Batrix range from about Li = 25 and PL = 15 to Lb = 40-and PL = 20, with 10 to 30 per cent clay fraction, and the water contents are uaually eloae to the plastic Limit. The valleye have mexinun depths of at least 150 ft. and the "yy which has a Length of 1.5 miles, ascends to ite source on the Polling boulder clay plain in which the Valleys are incised, Downcutting in the tributary valley ie active and as a consequence it 10 V-shaped, with many Slides; some very recent, others tenpo- rarily quiescent. The main valley (exan- ined over a length of 3.5 piles) nae pro- portionately fewer clides and in places & harrow flood plain has been formed. Slope instability comonly takes the fora of translational c1ides, with D/L ratios between 3 and 12 per cent. ‘Thege cocur on slopes which, with a few exceptions, are inclined at anglea between 30° and 35°, irrespective of valley depth. In posit Hone where the valley depth exceeds 130 ft. some examples of deep rotational slides are aleo found. In contrast to the general picture of acti "t lendaliding, slopes wnich fe reaches a condition of ultimate stability are found where the river has not been eroding the toe for a consider able period of time. At one location, for example, it ie known from the age of trees on the flood plain thet the river abandoned the toe of the elope at least 135 years before the inveotigation; ‘and probably a jood deal earlier than this, The slope Fig. 3) inclined et 260, Tt showe aigne of rather activ: oll creep and the is plightiy rounded. Two other Sn eisilar eituations are inelined at 230 and 24°, 332 Where the river ie cutting down through Limestone the overlying boulder clay slopes have been free from river erosion for auch longer. ‘Three etable elopeo in thie type chrestintion’ meng found, $0 have incline tions of 24°, 235 and 21°. In the latter 7@ (Pig.330) the toe of’ the clay slope been steepened, probably by compare aa t= / pine aa aia linet ante foen One __Secnen_ RS Stole Slopes Boulder Clay , near Petree , Co. Duta ste Shenton 82 Fig. 33 tively recent rock falls, but thie has not yet affected the main part of the stable Blope. ‘The back scarps of the massive rotations) slides are obviously not being eroded by the river and are therefore subjeot to free de. gradation, modified perhaps by occasions) over-eteepening by renewed movements of the Glunped mass. Two of these slides must have occurred at leant to centuries ago, as their bearpe have degraded to apparently stable fnglee and trees about 150 yeare old were growing on the slopes until they mere cat Gown a fen years before the investigation in'1948. These otable slopes are inclined at 26° and 270, “Their heignte are arouad 80 Ft. but even so they are well above the valley bottom and thus may be better drained Than’ the elopes behind @ flood plain. The development of valley slopes in th boulder clays can thus be envisaged in the following sequence: (i) Downeutting by the Fiver accompanied by landsliges. The val~ ley grows deeper but not eteeper, and iNATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS ‘The slopes are inclined typi- 3 UL) At a cor in depth around * sliding tedda to take over {ron predomi translational sliding. These deep lide: dnereage (2 Ratural einuosity of the ver, but the valley 1a still roughly V~ ahaped. (143) When down-cutting slacken iy Seeds AGES tle "SHAE obi Sbe Wite 490° flood plain ie forned. Active oliding continues at the oiter bends of the river, Dut ae the seanders nove downstream at a alow rate the slop:tcleowiyre Welien the isplain will be free fron toe erosion for long periods of time before they are once more exposed to undercutting. This Condition of free degradation is associated With slope flattening, presumably caused by weathering and very shallow elides, and eventually @ etabl> angie of about 22° to 26° 48 attained. the time required for the completion of thie phase of slope flat~ tening is not known, but eay be gore than two hundred yearc. (iv) If lert unaictur~ bed the valley sides will then be subject only to soil creep, sheet erosion and other Surface processes vhich bring about the Founding and flattening of slopes at very blow Fates indeed Kineoy 1967)+ Prediction of the angle of ultimate stability dea difsicul: aatter, as 1t dependo on a rather exact Inowledge of piezometric conditions and soi: properties at shallow depths. This io wiy the angle io best erpined trom field observations, On the other hand an approximate quantitative explanation of the stable angle can be derived. Thus using the analysis expressed by equation (26) we may agsuae, for example, thet sliding takes place at a depth of 5 ft. and thet during heavy rainfall the (perched) water table is 2 7%. below the surface. Then, if B" = 30° ana o'= 20 1b/aq.ftey wnich seem reaonable parazetere, the slope angle for limiting equilibriua 18 22°, 6.2 Slopes in London clay Studie of natural slopes in London Clay Bay conveniently be considered under two headings; coastal cliffe ana inland olopes. 6.2.1 Cogotel clitte (Hutchinson 19678) Under conditions of fairly strong marine erosion the cliffe are subject to rote~ tional or compound sliding on deep or Soderately deep slip surfaces. Where the Fate of eFosion ia lese severe the typical ‘tern ip dominated by shallow slides and Budfiows. The slores of all these ercding oliffe are cnaractersetically irregular, wigh average incliratione between about 15° ana 308, At various places elong the coast, defences nave been constructed which pre~ Vent further erosicn at the foot of the cliffs, If no further stabilization worke are carriea out, such as drainage or grauing, the slopes then enter the phase 333 of free degradation. Bight slopes in thie category have veen gurveyed. Their incline Hons range fron 13° to 20°" and. they show of instability, in the fore How rotational slides involving either the whole or part of the slopes These defended cliffs have deen free. zron taurine erosion for perioss of about 30 to 350 youre nore a » particularly in sotuari hao retreated fron the old cliffs wnichy generally, have been Left fo flatten their’ slopes undiaturbed by ste Biiisation scasureas” Surveys of ten of these freety degrading sbandonea eliste now inclinations of 845° to 13°, Slope steeper than 9.5° are otil1 unatable, and are characterised by successive shallow Fotational elips; while the flatter slop exhibit well garked undulations watch algost Sertainay repreant the subdued Feaaine of Gulescent aucogseive elipa. These slopes, at 6.5% to 9.5%, gay be Fegarded ao being Fig. 34 in @ transitional state, approximating the condition of final equiiierius, The abandoned cliff beneath Hadleigh Castie, in Essex (Pig,34) provides an excellent exaaple illustrating the degradation zone, largely occupied by eugcessive slips (aver age inclination = 11.5°), and the accuau- lation zone, where aateriale prougnt down Trou the upper parte of the alope are being Geposited ao colluvium, which ie slowly, advancing over tne marsh, The castie was originally built about 1232, and possibly there existed at that tise an-ara of the estuary navigable to the cliff foot. There ib, however, a duggeation from historical cords that @ strip of marsh had beer formed by the 14th century. ‘Thue until nore information 19 available we shall ascuge that the cliff was abandoned about 600 yeare ago. Sone idea of the rate of recession of the crest of the slope can be gained from theSKEMPTON ond HUTCHINSON castle ruins; ag indicated in Fig.34 thio eounte to winut 70 £2, in roughly 180 y Por the other sites historical information has not been collectes, in general, now= ever, the givsnea in she Thaseo estuary Fegion were citensive and had been reclaimed for agricultural use not laver than the 27th ani Ith centuries. hue 1 may be supposed that soet or provably a1) the abandoned slopes nave been free {rom marine erosion fora sinisus period of about 200 year The gaxigum period 19 wore aifficult to feces, but it cannot date back earlier than the time when the Postglacial marine transgression first approached present sea level; very approxizately 2000 years ago. The observed slopes of eroding, defended and abandoned elifis are plotted in Pig.35, ‘They demonstrate a general tendency for the inclination to decrease with increasing ordere of magni tuae of time; and it is worth Fepeating that tne elopes inclined at 6.5° to 9.5 , characteriae’ by undulations, aust be very'close to ultisate ptaciiity againet any fore of landslidirg. © Fig 35 At io also of interest vo note that, et least In'some cases, the ultiaate angie appears to ce anticipated approximately by the slope of tne accumiation cone, ae sxown at Hadleigh Castle (Pif.36] and by Soservations Jy Carboniferous mudstones in Yorkanire (Huteninoon 19878 + 6.2.2 Observations by Inluna slopes Skosscon and Delors (1951)» greatly extended by futeningon (9078), have shown that many Shaaud elopea in Lonaen Clay or eoliflueted Lonaen Clay are unstable even though they ure not currently suvjset to etream erosion. 334 Two clearly differentiated types of ineisbiity can be noted: successive elipe and trans Yational vlad slides. thallon, oarkesly non-eiroular alies also occur whieh tay be @ variant fora of the clab-like sovements. In'aadition the unauletions, previously een~ tioned, are cosmon, ‘Tranelational slab eligesare found et inclinations ranging Troz #°t0 10°. ‘Their snape augceste that failure is taking place on pre~ exinting aolszivetsen © nit punning parallel to the surface; e-g. a9 at Rougnton Wii (Pig.7)3 although at thie particular section the slopes are too gentle tor present day in= stability. Successive slipe have been cbeerved on slopes inclined at angles between 9,5° and 120, with one exception at 8.5 . Those slopes are so eipilar to the abandoned cliffs in thes form of instability and range of inclination that we conoiser then to be closely equivalent, ‘and infer that postglacial erosion has renoved the solifluction gantle leaving a elope easen= tally in the London Clay. Undulations occur at inclinations from £.5° to 10.5%, the lower linit on these inion: slopes being identical with that on the aban~ doned clitte. It seeno, then, thet while the minigun unstable angle. 19 8°, this is almost certainly asso~ elated with Zenewed govenente on sclifiuetion slip surfaces; and the angle of ultinete stability of London Clay iteelf ic around We have algo obeerved that the saximux stable Slope in London Clay 19 about 109, eee Fir.35. An overlap of 1° or 90 can easily be accounted for by modest differences in the position of ground water level as between one site end Brother. There is no great difficulty in deriving @ quantitative explanation of these field Servations provided it 9 assumed thet tre Berength of the clay has fallen to its rzsi~ duai value, ‘This indeed will be the cas? on b solifluction slip surface, and with c,' « 20 1b/eq.ft, fp" = 13° aovenent can take place at an inclination of 8° if grounc vater level is near the eurface of the slope (i.e. in equation (26) a 4e approximately 1.0). The slightly steeper inclination of 3° for Un-soliflucted London Clay presuaably re"vecte the presence of 9 series of curved but inter~ linking s1ip surfaces rather than a continu~ ous planar shear. ee whether fn othe Featduel the case It woa2d ve of great interest to the"anglee of uitisate stability Glaya Gan be correlated with the Strengehy as seese clearly to be with London clay. 7 byen silent disturbance of slopes at tnelr ultinate angie can, of course, leo yore’ renenal of sliding.NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS RESUME On ougsbre un sys: glissenente on pentes argileus fame de claesifieation des od tt on asetingue eing principaux types et six fomes complexes de mouvenert. Les argiles sont Agerites suivant leur caracteristiques afotechniques et leur mode de formation. On passe en revue les propriétds de résistance au cienillenent dee orgiles, mottant 1° accent eur lee aésaccords possiblea entre les résistances sur le terrain et celles A6terminges lore d'eseais de Laboratoire conventionnele. On réqune quelques aéthodes Gvanalyoe de otabilité présentenent utilisées Enoui te on présente en quelque détail 1" analyse de quatorze cas et ausei des données ee rapportant h la formation deo pentee on couche 1. On eonelut que de grand argileus progrés ont été faits durant les deux aernibren décennion dane 1'étude scientifique dos glivsenents de terrain ot des phénonbnes associés dans les pentes argileuses, mais que beacoup @"incerti tude deneure et que certains types de mouvement mat if nlont pas encore #06 annlyeée quanti tativenent. REFERENCES AAS, G. 1967 Vane toate for investigation of anisotropy of undrained strength of clays. Prog: Geotechnical Conf. (Oslo) 1,3-€. AGAR#AL, K.B. 1967 The influence of size (2 Orsentation of samples on the ferength of London Clay. PhiD. Theois, University of London. ANON, 1896 Serious subsidence of the cliff N10, 236-37. BAZEDT, DeJsy ADAMS, J.L. & MATYAS, BL. gation of a alide in’e eavated in fissured Frog, Sth Int. cont. soil _weoh. (Paris) BUWWIE, G.M., CLARK, J.P.P. & SKENPTON A.W. 1967 ‘he’ effect’ of disaontinut ties ta clay bedrock on the designs of dace in the Mangia Project. Trane. 9th Int, Cong. Large Dame (Inten- BISHOP, A.W. 1948 Some factors involved an the design of a large earth daz in the Thames Valley. Broo. 2nd Int, Conf. ofl Weck. (Rotter BISHOP, A.W. 1954 the use of the slip in the etability analysis of BISHOP, A.W. 1959 The principle of erfective stress. reknisk Ukeblad 106, 859-63. BISHOP, A.W. 1966 the strength of ocile ‘aa engineering, gaterials. Geotecnnique 26, 91-126. BISHOP, A.W, 1967 Progressive failure, with epecial reference to the wechant causing it. Proc. Geotechnical Cont. (Oslo) 2, 3-10 BISHOP, A.W. & BJERRUM, L. 1960 The relevan xiel test to the BISHOP, A.W. & HENKEL, D.J. 1957 he ‘Beadurenent of sotl properties in tne Tongon, Arnold. BISHOP, A.W. & LITTLE, A.L. 1967 The influence of eize and ofientation of the ample on the apparent strength of the London Clay at Maldon, Pros. Geotechnical Cont. (Oslo) 1, 89-96. BISHOP, A.W. & MORGENSTERN, H.R. 1960 ‘Stability coefficients for earth slopes. Geotechnigue 10, 129-50. BJERRUM, L. 1954 Stability of natural slopes in quick olay. Proc. Suropean Conf, on Stability of Barth Bigue’ 3, 101-19. ee RIERRUM, 2. 1967 Prosreastve fatlure sn slopes of over-consolidated plastic clay and clay shai Journ. Soil Mech, & Pound. Div. ASCE,SKEMPTON and HUTCHINSON hy 1. 1958 jar atrenjth BOERRUM, Ley SIMCKS, ¥. The effect of tine 6 of a ooft eerine clay. Proe. Cont. Earth Precaure Drobler: ruasels) I, 1am Se. BREFER, Re 1964 of sole. New York, Wiley. CADLING, L. & ODENSTAD, S. 1950 bore Broc. Roy. Swedien Geotech. Inat. *: CARSON, M.A. 1967 The evolution of straight Gebris-pantied hill slopes. Ph.D. Theais, Cambridge University. CASAGRANDE, A. & WILSON, $.D. 1952 Eftect of rate'of loading on the strengt! 0: Babric and minera) ansiye:e The vane Claye and shales at constant water cantent. Geotechnique 2, 251-63. A chenononal londs}2ue. CLARKE, D.D. 1904 m1 s SB, 322-97, “biecussion 396-412. ‘COLLIN, ments spontanée deo As 1846 118: fe ereileux. Cariiian-Gocury & Dalnont translation published 1956, Universi: Toronto Press). (English of COOLING, L.F. 1945 Developsent and score of 011 mechanics. In The principles end application of oi? chante, London, Inet. Civ. Eee CORNFORTH, D.H. 1962, Plane strain failure oharacteristice of a saturated cand. FhiDs Theoisy Univerelty of London. ORANDELL, D.R. & VARNES, DJ. 1961 wovement Of the Siuagullion earthfiow near Lave City, Colorado. U,S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 424B. te CRANFORD, 0.2. & EDEN, ¥.J. 1957 Report fon, the Nicolet ianéeliae oF Novenber 1955. National esearch counelt Canada, Div. oT Buttars; Neseareh, Internal kepor fer eee ota CURRY, R.R. 1966 Observation of Alpine gudflows 31 the Tenmile Range, Central Colorado. Bull. Gest. soc. anerien 27, 771-76. DIAPPOLONIA, £., ALPSESTEIN, Re a DIAFPOLOIIA, 0.3. 1967 Behaviour of @ colluvie) elspa. dourn, Soil Neck. s Found. Div. A.C + aE, ATH TS DELORY, F.A. 1957 Lorg-term stability of slopes. in overacencél fguted ‘elaya Prebe thesia, Univ:raisy of Londen. bos 1966 DUNCAN, J. & OBED, Strength variations along failure surfaces in clay. sourh. BIDE, 0. & BJEKRULL, 1. 1954 Boxkelaget. Earth Stopes (Stockiole) 2. I-Tny and Geotechataue ‘B+ 6-100. Soi) tech. “108. & Vound. Div. 4.5.C.B. ‘The eide at | ESU, F. 1966 Short-term stability of Lopes in unweatnered jointed cleys. Geotechnique 16, 321-25. PUKUOKA, Mf. 1953 Landelides in Japan. pros; 3rd_Ini, onf. Soil Mech. (Zurich) yer. ce PURUOKA, BM. 1965 (Personal communication). GIUSON, R.E, & MORGENSTERN, Wek, 1962. A note on the stability of cuttings in normally consolisated clays. Geotechnigue 12, 212-16. OUTAXLVSKONMIT?Ls 1962 kasriskerna i Gotablvdalen. Statens Offentiiga Utreaningar 1962:¢% Tnrikesdepurtemcntet, Steckfoln. Sete 1960. a stuay of shear fatiure marine vedisente. ToheaTve soils (boutd Bins ‘The sores - 1948 -(Rotter= HASPELI, Rs 1965 Creep and progressive fellire'in snow, so'l, rock and ice. }roc, 6th Int. Gon?. Soil Kech. (Nontren! ) WANSES, J.B, & GIUSON, Re. 1949 Unaraines shear Strengths of 'aniestropically con bolsgates ciaye. Geotechnique 1, 189-204. RENKEL, D.J. & SKEUPTON, AeW. 1954 A Innd~ elide at Jackfield, Shropshire, in an over=consol idated clay, Proc, Buropean Conf. Stability of Fart ‘Slope (stocknoln] “T, S0sT0r ang Geotecnnigue 5, 131-37. EL, Ded. & WADE, Neil, 1966 Plone strain Teste n'a saturated renouldes els; oe Sansa Div. he + Si, HENKEL, 3.J. & YUDHBIR 1966 The etatitity of Moped in. the Siwalik rocks in Inian. Bros. nt Int. Cong, Hock Mech. (Lie20n) cil HOOPER, JA. & BUTLER, P.G. 1966 Sone numeri¢al results concerning the ehear strength of London Clay 336NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS Geotechnique 16, 262-304. HUNTER, J.H. & SCHUSTER, R.L. 1966 Stabiity fof sizple cuttings in norsally consoli~ Gates clay. Geotechnique 18, 372-70. HUTCHINSON, J.N. 1962. A landelide on a thin layer of quick clay at Furre, Central Norway: Geotechnique 11, 69-94. HUTCHINSON, J.N. 1965 a The stability of cliffs Composed of soft rocks, with particular reference to the cosste of South-east England. Ph.D, Dissertation, Cambridge University. HUTCHINSON, J.N, 1965 b The landslide of Pevruary, 1959, at Viostad in Nandelen. Publ. Horwegia’ Geotesh. Inst., No-61, HUTCHINSON, J.N. 1967 a The tree degradation ‘of London lay clits. Proc. Geotechnical Cort. (Oslo) 2, 123-16. HVECHINSON, J.N. 1967 b Discussion on jesaion 2. Fee. Geotechnical Cont. (Oslo) 2, 163-84. HUTCHINSON, J.N. 1968 Field meeting on the gosstal landalides of Kent, 1-3 July 1966. Proc. Geol, Assoc., 79, 221-37. HUTCHINSON, J.N. 1969 A reconsideration of ‘the coastal jendelides at Folkestone Warren, Kent, Geotechnique’ 19, 6-38. HUTCHINSON, J.N. Mace novenent. In EnoySlopasdia of earth sciences (ed. Riv Peineeiage) New forks Neimbore (ir pre HUTCHINSON, J.M. & HUGHES, Mod, 2968 The pppttoation or eioropaleontsiocy to the focation of @ deep-seated olip curface in the London Clay. deotechnique 18, 508-10. HUTCHINSON, J.N, & ROLFSEN, EN, 1962 ‘field anear vox teate on quick elay. Geologie und Bauwesen 26(1), 31-42. HIDA, K. 1938 he audfiow that occurred ‘near the explosion creter of Mt, Bandai on May 9 & 15, 1938, and some physical propertien of’ volcant! sud. ult, Barthquake Hes. Inst. Tokyo Univ. Fe osbtet the efecto ry) IRELAND, H.0, 1954 Stability analysie of the Congress Street open cut in Chicago. Georechnique 4, 163-68 JAKOBSON, B, 1952 The lendelide at Surte on the Gita River. Proc, Roy, Swedish Gectech. Inst. No.5. JAKOBSON, B. 1955 Isotrepy of claye. 337 Geotechnique 5, 23-28. JANBU, Ne 1954 Stability analysis of slopes with aa Harvard peranetere. No.46, JANBU, N., BJERRUM, L. & KJAERNSLI, B, 1956 Volledning ved Idening av fundanenter- Angsoppgaver. Fubl. Horwegian Geotech. Inst. No.6, JONES, F.0., EMBODY, D.R. & PETERSON, W.L. 1961 “Langolides’ along the Columbia Hiver Valley, northeastern Waanington. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper KENNEY, T.C. 1956 An examination of the ethods of caloulating the stability of slopes W.Se. Thesis, University of London. KBNYEY, T.C. 1965 A review research on strength and of soft sensitive clays. Canadian Geotech. Journ. of recent consolidation By 97-13. KERR, PLP. & DREW, Iu, 1967 Clay mobility, Portuguese lend, Gaiifornia. Bedford, Mase., U.S, Air Porce, Cambridge Research Lab. KIRKBY, M.J, 1967 Meuourenent and theory Of boil’ creep. Journ. Geology 25, 359-78. 1962, XJAERNSLI, By & SIMONS, WN. Stabiiity investigations of the Aorth bank of the Drammen River. Geotechnique KREY, H, 1926 Erddruck, Srdwiderstand und ‘nhegtinigkett des Baugrunde Ste LADD, C.C, & ZAMBE, T.", 1964 The strength of undisturbed cley detersined trom Unarained teste. Proc, Syap. Laboratory Shear Testing of Soller thine} Sateen Spectat Techn Fubin. 361, 542-71. LEGGED, R.P, & BARTLEY, MAW, 1953. An. ‘engineering study of glacial deposits at Steop Rock Lake, Onterio, Canada. Beonomie Geology 46, 513-60. LIMILE, Ack, & PRICE, V.E. 1958 The use of ‘an electronic coaputer for elope stability analyo: Geotecnnique 8, 113-20. 10, K.Y. 1965 Stability of slopes in ‘anisotropic 9043 12, 147-67. LOB Sourn. Soil Mech, & Found. Div. A.S + SME, B5=108. LUND, P, 1962 The properties of decomposed granite. Geotechhique 12, 226-43. MeCALLUM, R.T. 1930 the opening-out of Goftoh Tuniel L.M.S. Railway.SKEMPTON and Min, Proc. Inst. civ. Eng. 251, sb)-e1. MARSLAND, 4. & BUTLEK, MoE. 1967 juenente on atiff Tiesured Barton streneth Clay fro Fawley, Hampenire. Pros. Geotecnniga) Conf. (Oslo) 1 139-46. MBNOL, V. 196 Mechanics of landslides ‘with non-circular elip surfuces wit bpecial reference to the Vaiont slice. Gentecnnigue 36, 329-37. MEHXIAM, Re 1960 Portuguese Bend Lano~ ‘lige, Palos Vera Calirornia. Journ! Geol. 68, 140-53. MURGENSTERN, WR. 1963 Stability charts for earth elopes during rapid arawscwn. Georecnniate i, snd. HORGENSTERN, W.R. & PRICE, V.E, 1965 The falyese of the eteoility of general slip surfact Geotecnnique 15, 79-93. MORGENSTERN, N.R. & PRICE, VE. 1967 & numerical gethoa for solving the Qquations of stability of general clip surfaces. Computer gourn. 9, 388-93, MULLER, L. 1964 ‘Yajont Valley. Rock Mecho, & Eng. Geol. NASUITH, H, 1964 Landslides and Pleisto- cene deposite in tte Meikle River Valley of Northern Alberta. Bansdien Geotech, Journ. i, 155-66. WERLAND, D-H. 1914 ‘solideted sediments Bull, IY, State Museum NONVEILER, E. 1965 The stability analysis Df slopes with a olip surface of general. shape. Broc, 6th ints Conf. Soil Mech. (Montreal) The rock elide in the 2, 148-222. delides in uncon= 181, 79-205. NOOKANY, I. & SEED, H.B. 1965 Birength characteristics of soft clays. Sourne Soll Mech, & Found. Div. A.S.C.E. ODENSTAD, S. 1952 The landslide at SkOttorp on the Lidan River, February 2, 1946. Proc! Roy. Swedish Geotech, Inst. No.4. PECK, R.B. 1940 Sampling methods and Laboratory tests for Chicago Subway soils. Proce Conf. Soi] Mech. & its Applica PEOK, 2,5, 1967 Stability of natural slop Tourn: RITCHIE, AcM. 1958 Recognition and iden- Sot] Mech, & Pound. Div. A.S.0.E. 338 HUTCHINSON Uifteation of landslides. In Landslidea_ana engineering practice (ede egies ene Highway Ree. Board Special Report 29. SAITO, K. 1965 Poreeasting the time of Occurrence of a elope failure Broo, €tn Int. Conf. Soil Mech. (wontrea) ) 2, baT-ale SCRIVENOR, J.B. 1929 The audetreans ("Lanate"} of Gunong Keloet in Java. Geol. Mag. 66, 433-34. D, H.B, 1968 Landelides during earth= quakes due to soil liquefaction. fourns S081 Weon. & Pound. Div. 4.5.0. ia, SHS, 1053-1122. SEED, HB. & WILSON, 5.D. 1967 The ‘Tarnagain Heights landelide, Anchorage, Alaska, Sourn, Soil Mech. & Pound. Div. A.S.C.E. Ey Si, 325! Be SEVALDSON, RsA, 1956 The slide at Lodalen. Geotechnique §, 167-82- SHARP, RP, & NOBLES, LH, 1953 Mudflow Of'1941 at Wrightwood, Southern California. Bull. Geol, Soc 54, 5 Anerioa SHARPE, ¢.P.S, 1938 Landslides and related ‘phefonena: a study of mass-movenents of So ee i oe eee Oe ' } SKEMPTON, A. W, 1946 Earth stability of slope: In The principh soil mechanics, Ofy.Ene. ‘and ay 8 = 0 anaiysie retical oaeie (Rotter SKEMPTON, A.W. 1948 a The of etnbility ana ite th eo ond Inte Conf. Sos an} TET SKENPTON, A, W. 1948 b The rate of sof} ing of stiff fisgured clays, with epecial reference to Lonion, Clay. Pros. 2nd Int, Conf, Soil Mech. (Rotter SKEMPTON, A.W. 1953 a Soil mechanics in relation to geology. Eroc. Yorks. Geol Soc. N.S. 29, 33-62. jwesion on: SKEMPTON, A.¥, 1953 b Dis in road engineer- soit deabsitty provi 26 Proc. Inet. civ. Eng. 2(2), 265-68. SKEMPTON, 1.¥. 1954 The pore-pressure coefficients A and By Geotechnigue 4, 143-47.NATURAL SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS SKEYFTOR, A.¥. 1961, Horizontal et ‘in an’ over-conaclidated Bocene Brot Sun inte Conf, Sos} Mech. (Farie) 2, 351-58. SKEMPTON, A., 1964 of clay slope. Gaotechnigue id, 77-102. SKBUPTON, A.W, 1966 Some observations on Tectonic shear zones. Bros. let int, Cong. Rock Mech. Long-tera stability (L4ebon) SKEMPTOX, A.W. 1969 The consolidation of ‘clays by gravitational compaction. Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc, 124 (in prees) SKEMPTON, A.W. & BORN, J.D, 1961 4 land~ slide in boulder :lay at Selset, York- sre Geotecnmiqve 12 280-95. SKEMETON, A.W. & DELORY, FA. 1957 Stabi- Lity of naiural slopes in London Clay. Proc, 4th Int. conf: Soll Mech. (Lonaon) SKEMPTON, A.¥. & LAFOCHBLLE, P. 1965 the Bradwell elip, a short tors failure in London Clay. Geoteonnique 15, 221-42. SKEMPTON, A.W. & PEDLEY, DJ, 1967. the shear strength along’etructural dis: Qontinuities in ctift clays. Proc. Geotechnicel Cont. (Oulo) 2 , 29-46 SREMPION, A.W., SOHLSTER, Rube & FEDLEY, 0.3. 196¢ Joints and fissures in the'London Cley at Wraysbury and Bagware. Geotechnsque 19 (in press). SKEMPTON, A.W. & SOMA, Ves 1963 the behaviour of saturated clays during Ling and teoting. Geokecnnique 13, 269-90. SUKLJE, L. & VIDMAR, S. 1962 a A landolide ‘to! 1ong-tera'creep. Proc. Sth int. con!. Soll Mech. (Paris) SULLY, A.H. 1949 Metallic creep. London, Butterwor TANIGUCHI, 7, & WATERI, M. 1965 Land ‘slide t ful ano it counterme Soil'£ Foundation 5,7-25. 1937 stability of earth Journ: Boston Soc. Civ. Eng. 24 ,197- TERUAGHI, XK. 1936 @ The shearing resis tance of saturated soils Proce et'int. Cont. Soti mech. riage, Wass: oo 339 TERCAGHI, K, 1936 b Stability of sloses of natural clay. dbia"1y 161-655 TERZAGHI, K. 1943 Theoretical soi} Bechanica, ‘ork, Wiley. TERZAGHI, K, 1950 Mechanios of landelta In Application of geolo, sneer ¥ sos, Amerion. And Harvard soll sechanice series 36. TERZAGHI, K. & PECK, R.B. 1948 Soi2 gechanics in enginesring practice. New Yorks Wilepe ence TERZAGHI, K. & PEOK, R.B. 1967 Sota sechanics in enginecring practies.2a New York, Wiley. TOUS, A-H, 1948 The present scope and powsidle future development of 9031 Gechanice in Britian relimay cfvi2 engineering construction and maintenance Eroc. 2nd Int. Cont. Soil Mach. (Rotter= Seay 4, 2-37. TOUS, A, Hl. 1953 Kecent research into coastal landslides at Poll Warren, kent, England. Proc. Sra'Int, Conf. Soil Mech. (Zurich) TURNBULL, WJ. & HVORSLEV, M. J. 1967 Special probleme in elope etatility Journ, Soil Weon. & Pound. Div A. 5. VARGAS, M. & PICHLER, B. 1957 Residual soil and rock slides in Santos (3razil) Proc. 4th Int. Conf, Soii Neon. (Lonson) VARIES, Dad. 1958 Tn Landslides and enginesring practice Acie ree ae rates VOX WOGS, A. 1953 the subsoil of Switzer ness ' Proc, 3rd Int Conf. Soil Mech. (2ui Landslide types and WARD, W.H., MAKSLAND, A. & SAMUELS, 1965" Properties of the London Clay at tne Ashford Comson ahaftt in-eity and undrained utrengtn teste. Geotechnique 15 y 21-44. WEEKS, 4.6, 1969 The otability of natura ‘lopea in south-east England as affected by periglacial activity. Quart. Journ, Eng. Geol: (in press). WHITAKER, T. & COUKE, RR. 2966 An. investigation of the shaft and base Teeistance of large bored piles in London Clays

Skempton and Hutchinson

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Skempton and Hutchinson

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like