Physics revision- topic 1

1.1

Define weight as the force on an object due to a gravitational field:

When an object comes in the presence of a larger mass such as a planet the larger mass exerts
a force on that object
Weight force is a gravitational force exerted due to the gravitational field surrounding the object,
thus weight is the force on an object due to a gravitational field.
The mass does not change anywhere, it is the amount of matter.
The local value for weight varies due to:
o
the variation in thickness of earths lithosphere
o
Formula:
W or F= Weight force (N)
W = mg
m = Mass (kg)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (ms-2)

1.2 Define gravitational potential energy as the work done to move an object from a very
large distance away to a point in a gravitational field:
Gravitational Potential Energy is the work done to move an object from infinity to a point within
a gravitational field.
At infinity the gravitational potential energy is zero and decreases as a mass gets closer to the
centre of a gravitational field
Formula:
Ep = Gravitational Potential Energy (J)
G = Gravitational constant (6.67x10-11)
Ep = G m1m2
m1 = Mass of Planet (kg)
r
m2 = Mass of Object (kg)
r = Distance between the two masses (m)

The negative sign occurs because the Gravitational Potential Energy of a mass as it approaches
infinite distance from the Gravitational field is always negative.
1.3

Explain that a change in gravitational potential energy is related to work done:

For Gravitational Potential Energy to change the object must move closer or further away from
the centre of the gravitational field
Work must be done on the object to make this change in distance, thus a change in
Gravitational Potential energy is related to work done.
For an object of mass m at a height h above the earths surface, the gravitational potential
energy Ep is given by: Ep mgh

2.1
Describe the trajectory of an object undergoing projectile motion within the Earth's
gravitational field in terms of horizontal and vertical components:
Galileo showed the vertical and horizontal motion of a projectile could be treated independently
To find the actual position and velocity the horizontal and vertical components are added
together.

Projectiles:
Any object that is thrown, dropped or otherwise launched into the air
The object follows a parabolic path which, without factoring in resistance, is symmetrical
During flight the projectile experiences the force of gravity and acceleration due to
Gravity

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The Trajectory:
The path that a projectile follows during its flight
Can be broken down into two separate and independent motions:
Vertical Motion - affected by constant acceleration due to gravity
Horizontal Motion - experiences no acceleration

Vertical Motion:
uy = u sin
The object, subjected to acceleration due to gravity, rises up, stops momentarily then
falls down
When it hits the ground it is travelling at the same speed at which it left
Equations:
vy = uy + ayt
vy2 = uy2 + 2ay y
y = uyt + ayt2
Horizontal Motion: ux = u cos
When pushed horizontally, ideally, it experiences no acceleration in its direction of
motion. Thus a projectile travels sideways in uniform motion
Equations:
vx = ux
x = uxt

3.1
Explain the concept of escape velocity in terms of the gravitational constant and the
mass and radius of the planet:
Definition: The minimum velocity required by an object to escape the gravitational pull of the
Earth or other planet

Formula:
G = Gravitational constant (6.67x10-11)
M = Mass of planet (kg)
r = Radius of planet (m)

Explanation:
o The above equation shows that Escape velocity depends only on the Gravitational Constant,
Mass and Radius of the planet, not on any properties of the projectile.
o An object projected at this velocity would never come back down
o During the rise the objects Kinetic Energy is converted into Gravitational Potential Energy

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4.1

Outline Newton's concept of escape velocity:

Explanation:
o Newton predicted that an object projected horizontally from
a high mountain would undergo projectile motion as shown
in the above diagram
o If the velocity of the projectile was increased enough, a
speed would be reached where the object would fall around
the Earth, i.e. orbit it.
o If the speed exceeded the escape velocity the projectile
would spiral away from the Earth and stretch into an
elliptical shape.
o Even faster velocities lead to the projectile following a parabolic or hyperbolic path away
from the earth escaping it.

Describe Galileo's analysis of projectile motion:

Galileo showed that:
All masses fall at the same rate, regardless of weight
If Air Resistance is ignored, acceleration due to gravity is the same for all objects regardless of
their mass
All projectiles move in a parabolic shape
Horizontal and vertical motion are separate; by using an inclined plane

5.1
Identify why the term g forces is used to explain the forces acting on an astronaut
during launch:
Definition: G force is a measure of acceleration force using the Earths gravitational
acceleration as the unit.
A positive g force is one that is directed from the feet to the head (upwards), whereas a negative
g force is in the other direction (downwards).
The sensation of feeling more weight than normal is a positive g force, whereas feeling less
weight is due to negative g forces.
To help astronauts withstand extremely large g forces during lift-offs, they lie down and also
special cushions are utilised. Fighter plane pilots wear g suits to reduce the effect of the g
forces when manoeuvring.
The forces experienced by Astronauts during launch are these g-forces.

G forces =

apparent weight ma+mg rock et acceleration+9.8

=
=
real weight
mg
9.8

6.1 Compare qualitatively low Earth and geo-stationary orbits:

Geo-stationary Orbits
Orbital radii altitude of approximately
35800km (higher than low Earth orbits)
Orbital velocity of approximately
11000kmh-1 (slower than geostationary
orbits)
The satellite appears to be stationary in
the sky when viewed from the surface of
the Earth

Low Earth Orbits

Lower orbital radii altitude
Higher orbital velocity of approximately 28000km/h

Do not have a fixed position

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Physics revision- topic 1

Their periods are the same as that of the
Earth.
Easy to track since each satellite
Does not experience orbital decay
Have a limited view of the Earths surface
Situated above the equator
Examples: Communications satellites,
Weather satellites, Specialist Telescopes

6.2

May orbit the Earth many times per day

Harder to track as they are constantly moving
Experiences orbital decay
Able to view the Earths entire surface over several
orbits
Can be made to pass above any point on earth
Examples: Studying weather patterns and
geomapping.

Account for the Orbital Decay of satellites in low Earth orbit:

Atmospheric drag caused by Earth's Atmosphere
Decays the orbit of a satellite by slowing it down causing it to lose altitude and velocity thus
slowly spiralling towards the ground.
Amount depends on density of Atmosphere and size of satellite
These satellites orbit at lower altitudes where the atmosphere is denser, thus these satellites
experience higher levels of atmospheric drag than other satellites in higher orbits.

Present Information and use available evidence to discuss the factors affecting the strength
of the gravitational force.
The Earths lithosphere varies in structure, thickness and density. Continental crust is thickest
under mountain ranges.
The Earths globe is flattened at the poles.
The spinning Earth also affects the value of g. At the equator, the spin effect is greatest
resulting in a lowering of the value of g. As you travel from the equator to the poles, the spin
effect on g shrinks to zero.
6.3
Define the term orbital velocity and the quantitative and qualitative relationship
between orbital velocity, gravitational constant, mass of the central body, mass of the
satellite and the radius of the orbit using Kepler's Law of Periods:
Definition of orbital velocity: The instantaneous speed and direction of an object in uniform
circular motion along its path. In one revolution the object moves:

Formula: orbital velocity

V=

GM
R

v=

2 r
T

V = orbital velocity
(ms-1)
G = 6.67x10-11
M = mass of the
planet (kg)

Keplers Third Law of Periods: The ratio r3/t2 was the same for every planet.

r = the radius of the

r GM
orbit (m)
= 2 . Mlerationdue gravity the projectile following a parabolichyperbolic pathaway the earth escaping
2
T = the period of the
T
4
orbit (s)
G = 6.67x10-11
3

From Keplers law of periods, we get the relationship between the period of an orbit and the
velocity along that circular orbit:

2 r
r = radius of planet, T= period or
T into
Discuss issues associated with safe re-entry
the Earth's atmosphere and landing
v=

7.1

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Physics revision- topic 1

on the Earth's surface:
Extreme Heat:
Spacecraft has significant kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy. This must be lost.
The Spacecraft experiences friction with molecules of the atmosphere as it re-enters, this
generates huge amounts of heat. The Spacecraft's Kinetic energy is converted into heat. This is
minimised by:
Blunt shape for re-entry, produces a Shockwave as it moves through the air, this
shockwave absorbs most of the heat
Ablation - Covering with ceramic material which is vaporised (ablated) during re entry
Taking longer to re-enter the atmosphere, thereby lengthening the time needed to
convert heat to energy.
G Forces:
G forces- units of gravitational acceleration. A force of 5g is equivalent to acceleration five
times the acceleration due to gravity.
Greater angles of re-entry result in greater g-forces experienced by the astronaut.
Humans cannot tolerate g-forces greater than 8g but 3g is the maximum advised.
If the acceleration is in the direction of the persons head they may experience a black out.
Astronauts lie down so that blood is not forced away from the brain, fully supporting the body.
The body is supported in as many places as possible
Ionisation Blackout:
As heat builds up around the spacecraft, atoms in the air ionize forming a layer around the
spacecraft
This layer causes a period of no communication with the spacecraft known as Ionization
Blackout approximately 4-16 minutes
Reaching the Surface:
Parachutes released in last portion of spaceships descent to slow it down before splashing into
the ocean
Space shuttle has wings which allow the pilot to control its descent, underbelly provides blunt
surface for protection.

7.2
Identify that there is an optimum angle for safe re-entry for a manned spacecraft into
the Earth's atmosphere and the consequences of failing to achieve this angle:
The Re-entry Angle:
Optimum angle between 5.2o 7.2o
Angle too shallow spacecraft will bounce off due to
the compression of the atmosphere beneath
Angle too steep spacecraft will burn up on re-entry,
due to too much heat being created

8.1
Analyse the forces involved in uniform circular motion for a range of objects,
including satellites orbiting the Earth:
Centripetal Force:
o A centripetal force is required for objects to move in uniform circular motion
o This force is always directed to the centre, perpendicular to the velocity of the moving object

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Physics revision- topic 1

o

Causes the object to continually change direction to follow a circular path

Formula:
Fc =

m = Mass (kg)
v = velocity (ms-1)
r = radius of motion
(m)

mv2
r

Examples:
o Satellite orbiting the Earth - Centripetal Force comes from Gravitational attraction between
Earth & the satellite
o Car driving around the corner - Centripetal Force provided by friction between the tyres and
the road
o Moon revolving around earth- moon to earth gravitational pull

9.1
Discuss the effect of the Earth's orbital motion and its rotational motion on the
launch of a rocket:
Rotational Motion:
o Rockets launched from the equator, towards the east - takes
advantage of Earth's Rotational Velocity
o Leaves at its own velocity plus the velocity of the Earth's
rotation

Orbital Motion:
To reach outer planets:
o Launched in the direction of Earth's orbit, leaves at Earth's orbital velocity (30 kms -1) plus its
own velocity.
o Moves in an elliptical orbit allowing it to reach outer planets.
To reach inner planets:
o Launched in opposite direction, leaves at own velocity minus the Earth's
o Moves in elliptical orbit closer to the sun allowing it to reach inner planets

10.1 Present information on the contribution of Goddard to the development of space

exploration:
Measured the fuel values for various rocket fuels, such as liquid hydrogen and oxygen.
Launched the worlds first multi-staged liquid-fuel-powered instrument rocket.
Launched the first liquid-fuelled supersonic rocket.
Developed pumps for liquid fuels, as well as rocket engines that have automatic cooling
systems.
Proved that a rocket will work in a vacuum, that it needs no air to push against (i.e. space).
Proposed and explained how the use of rocket propulsion could be used to reach high altitudes.

11.1 Analyse the changing acceleration of a rocket during launch in terms of the Law of
Conservation of Momentum and the forces experienced by astronauts:

Rocket engines differ in that both fuel and oxygen supply must be carried. Modern rockets use
both solid and fuel propellants.

Law of Conservation of Momentum:

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Physics revision- topic 1

The total momentum of a closed system remains unchanged
The momentum of the gases shooting out of the rear of the rocket is equal but opposite to the
momentum of the rocket itself
Backward momentum of gases equal in magnitude to forward momentum of rocket
Since change in momentum = impulse (Force x time), at any one second interval the backward
force on the gases equals the forward force on the rocket
As the rocket moves, its ` decreases significantly, thus its velocity increases significantly
(acceleration)
Forces

Experienced by Astronauts:
Two forces acting on an astronaut during launch, upward thrust and downward weight force.
If the thrust remains constant, the rate of acceleration of the rocket will increase as it ascends
Rockets mass also decreases as fuel burns and
weight decreases at higher altitudes. The
acceleration of rockets will increase steadily and the
astronaut will experience building G forces
A rockets acceleration at the point when they are
initially launching is described by newtons second
law:
The trend is that acceleration reaches a climax just
before all the fuel is exhausted; this is when G forces
are at the highest. At this point, rockets experiences
weightlessness for a few seconds and the second
stage will start burning causing maximum thrust
T mgbut at a lower level. This repeats itself.
again

a=

A = acceleration
T= thrust
mg =force (mass x gravity)
m = mass
The apparent weight of the person is the value of the contact force applied to them. Therefore,
the apparent weight of the person is given by m(g + a) which is greater than their true weight
mg.

12.1 Describe a gravitational field in the region surrounding a massive object in terms of
its effects on other masses in it:

Gravitational field- a field in which any mass will experience a gravitation field.
Any mass, regardless of its size, will have a gravitational field around it.
When a mass is placed within another masses gravitational field it will experience a force
towards the massive object
This force of attraction is dependent on the mass of the objects and the distance between them.
The strength of the gravitational field around a big object is proportional to the square of the
distance from the centre of the object.

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Physics revision- topic 1

12.2 discuss the importance of Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation in understanding and
calculating the motion of satellites:
Formula
v = orbital velocity (m/s)
G = Universal Gravitation Constant
(6.67x10-11)
me = Mass of earth (5.97 X 1024)(kg)
re = radius of earth (6.38 X 106) (m)
Description:
h= altitude in orbit, in m
o It is shown that the orbital velocity is dependent on the mass and radius of the earth as well
as the altitude from earth.

V=

Gm e
re+ h

Motion of Satellites:
o Occurs when centripetal force required to keep satellite moving in circular orbit equals
gravitational attraction
o When the gravitational attraction is greater than the centripetal force, the satellite spirals
inwards
o When the gravitational attraction is less than the centripetal force, the satellite spirals
outwards
o Satellite orbiting closer to central planet has shorter orbital period and higher orbital
velocity

12.2.1 Define Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

F=G

m1 m2
d2

F = Force of attraction (N)

G = Universal Gravitation Constant
(6.67x10-11)
m1 & m2 = Masses of the two objects (kg)
r = distance between the two objects (m)

Newton said that objects attract every other object in the universe. He proved this by devising
the formula above.
As shown in the formula above the attractive force's strength is determined by: the mass of the
two objects, the distance between their centres,.
Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation allows us to calculate gravitational force, orbital velocity
and orbital periods of satellites

13.1 Identify that a slingshot effect can be provided by planets for space probes
The Slingshot Effect:
Involves moving a probe in a hyperbolic orbit to gain velocity from the Gravitational Field
Probe approaches planet from in front, swung around by planet's gravity
Planet loses kinetic energy while the probe gains some. This speed gain is enough to throw the
spacecraft back out again. away from the planet. By controlling the approach, the outcome can
be manipulated.
For space probes:
Sometimes employed by deep space probes to save fuel

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Physics revision- topic 1

As seen above, the space probe swings around the planet, changing direction and increasing
speed. Vf > Vi

identify data sources, gather, analyse and present information on the contribution of
one of the following to the development of space exploration: Tsiolkovsky, Oberth,
Goddard, Esnault-Pelterie, ONeill or von Braun.

Considered the theoretical father of rocketry, he theorised many aspects of space travel and
rocket propulsion before others, and played an important role in the development of Russian
space programs
Influenced by science fiction, he began to introduce real technical problems into his writings,
and his dream was for humanity to become a space civilisation
He demonstrated the reaction principle by experimenting with a cask filled with compressed
gas; he discovered that the movement of the cask could be regulated by alternating the
pressure of the gas released from it
He outlined how a reaction thrust motor could demonstrate Newton's Third Law to allow humans
to escape the bounds of Earth His drafted design for the first rocket involved an explosive
mixture of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, which produces condensed and heated gases;
these gases a.re cooled and rarefied with the resulting exhaust providing the thrust
He also speculated on a multi-stage approach to spaceflight; as each individual stage consumed
its fuel, it would be discarded to keep the overall weight to a minimum; he recognised that it
would require a tremendous amount of fuel for the rocket to reach escape velocity .
He wrote over 50 scientific papers, and although he did not create any rockets himself, his
fundamental principles remain basic to contemporary astronautics

14.1 Outline the features of the aether model for the transmission of light:
The Aether Model:
19th Century - like all waveforms light needed a medium through which to travel
Called this medium the Luminiferous Aether.
Properties:
Filled all of space, stationary in space
Perfectly Transparent
Filled all matter
Low Density
Great Elasticity

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15.1 Describe, evaluate the Michelson-Morley attempt to measure the relative velocity of
the Earth through the aether:
Analogy:
When you drive a car through the air, wind is generated. The direction of the wind is in the
opposite direction to the motion of the car.
The Experiment:
Designed to detect Aether using light and interference, with an interferometer (observer) on a
turntable
Single beam of light split in half by half silvered mirror
One ray travelling across the Aether wind, another travelling through it, same distance & return
Because of the Aether wind produced by the moving Earth, light would be slowed down heading
into it
When beams meet, interference pattern produced, should change as table is rotated through
90
No such change, thus no difference in speed
Null result no Aether wind was detected. If the aether wind exists, the rays would travel
at different
velocities; when the apparatus is rotated, the interference pattern should be seen to shift, and
the relative velocity of the aether wind can be determined by using this shift.

15.2 Discuss the role of the Michelson-Morley experiments in making determinations

about competing theories:
It provides experimental support for the theory of relativity
At the Time of the Experiment:
Did not sway scientific belief at the time of the Experiments

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Null result seen as indication that the model needed improvement

Various modifications offered, each resulting in predictions failing to be proven

Einstein's Relativity:
Einstein proposed theory of relativity with its own predictions and it disproved the aether. If it
were not to be violated then, light must travel at 3 108 ms 1
Important in helping others decide between the competing theories, along with comparative
success of relativity experiments

Inertial Frames of Reference

An inertial frame of reference is one that is either stationary or moving with a constant
velocity. You
cannot perform any mechanical experiment or observation that would reveal to you whether yo
u were moving with uniform velocity or standing still.
A non-inertial frame of reference is one that is undergoing acceleration.
16.1 Outline the nature of inertial frames of reference:
An inertial Frame of Reference is one in which Newtons First Law is obeyed. These are at rest or
moving with a constant velocity. They involve no acceleration.
16.2 Discuss the principle of relativity:
Einstein principle of Relativity:
o
All steady motion is relative and cannot be detected without reference to an outside
point.
o The speed of light is constant regardless of the observers frame of reference.
o The Aether is not needed to explain light, and in fact, does not exist.
Principle applies only to inertial frames of reference
Within an inertial frame of reference you cannot perform any experiment to detect your motion
without referring to another frame of reference.

For example, if you held up a string with a small object tied to the end, the object would
hang so that the string was vertical. However, if the vehicle in which you were travelling
in accelerated, the object would swing backwards so that the string is no longer
vertical.

16.3 Describe the significance of Einstein's assumption of the constancy of the speed of
light & identify that if c is constant then space and time become relative:
The Speed of Light:
The speed of light has to be constant for the Principle of relativity to hold true
If the speed of light were not constant, differing speeds of light in different frames of reference
could be used in determining our motion
Thus violating the Principle of Relativity.

Since

distance=

speed
time

then,

the distance and time witnessed by both observers must be different.

Relative Space & Time:
Classic physics - space (position, displacement, velocity etc.) are relative to an observer, time is
absolute passing identically for everybody
Theory of Relativity - for speed of light to be constant time and space must both be relative
Time passes differently for different observers depending on their relative motion

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Showed that there is no absolute frame of reference, all are equivalent

17.1 Explain qualitatively and quantitatively the consequence of special relativity in

relation to:
Relativity of Simultaneity:
Two events judged by one observer to be simultaneous, not generally judged to be simultaneous
by other observer in different frame of reference in relative motion
Whether or not two events are seen to be simultaneous depends on position relative to the two
events
Equivalence between Mass & Energy:
Mass can be converted to energy and energy can be converted to mass under extraordinary
circumstances.
Equation; E = mc2 expresses equivalence between mass and energy, when an objects mass is
at rest, there will be rest energy.
rest energy- the energy equivalent of a stationary objects mass measured
within the objects rest frame.
Length Contraction:
Length of an object measured within its rest frame is called it's proper length (L o)
Observers in other frames of reference in relative motion always measure this length (L v) to be
shorter

Time Dilation:
Time taken for event to occur within it's rest frame is called proper time (t o)
Observers in different reference frames in relative motion always judge the time taken (t v) to be
longer.
There is a light clock on a train so that the light beams will run the length of the train. The
observer on the train will see the light go up and down but, the observer outside will see a
longer journey.

Mass Dilation:
Mass of a moving object increases as it's velocity increases - mass dilation
The rest mass (mo) of the object compared to the relativistic mass (m v) of the particle is much
smaller.

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18.1 Discuss the concept that length standards are defined in terms of time in contrast to
the original metre standard.
Length by Original Standards:
When the SI units were set up the meter was defined as the distance between two lines scribed
on a single bar of platinum-iridium alloy
Length in terms of Time:
One meter is the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in one 299792458th of a second

19.1 Discuss the implications of mass increase, time dilation and length contraction for
space travel:
Time Dilation:
Allows travel into the future at high speeds, but not back to the past.
Astronauts travelling in a relativistic spacecraft will age slower than people back on earth, which
means they can comparatively live longer during space travel and people on earth will pass
away before they return. (Twin paradox)
Length Contraction:
As a space craft speeds up, the apparent distance to objects ahead decreases. This means trips
on a relativistic spacecraft will appear to cover less distance to observers in the spacecraft.
Could possibly allow travel to distant stars etc.
Mass Dilation:
As the speed of a spacecraft increases to the speed of light, its mass will increase up to infinity
and hence restricting the velocity it is able to achieve.
Travelling at a constant velocity (constant thrust), mass increases causing acceleration to
decrease as the thrust becomes less and less effective requiring more fuel.
20.1 Analyse and interpret some of Einstein's thought experiments involving mirrors and
trains and discuss the relationship between thought and reality:
Einstein had two main thought experiments:
Looking at himself in a mirror on a train moving at the speed of light
Bouncing light from the roof to the floor and back in a moving train
Mirror Thought Experiment:
Einstein wondered whether he would be able to see his face normally in a mirror he held in
front of his face if the train was travelling at the speed of light.
He decided that he would be able to, because he was in an inertial frame and should have no
way to determine he was moving at c.
Although if this was correct, a stationary observer would see light travelling away from
Einsteins face at c, but as the train was also moving at c, the observer would see light travel
twice the distance in the same amount of time.
Einsteins interpretation of this was that the time observed for light to travel that distance had
changed increased (time dilation), so that a stationary observer would see light travelling at
c.
Light Bouncing Thought Experiment:
Inside the moving train, the light is seen to travel straight up and down from the roof to floor
and back again.
From a stationary observer however, the light is seen to travel a much longer path, but in the

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same amount of time, which would result in a changed speed of light (going against Einsteins
theory)
Again his interpretation was that time had to increase (dilate) so that c remains constant.

20.2 Analyse information to discuss the relationship between theory and the evidence
supporting it, using Einsteins predictions based on relativity that were made many years
before evidence was available to support it:
Time Dilation:
GPS reset clocks to maintain Earths time
Muons half life of 2.2s; observed half-life of 400s
Length Contraction:
Muons travel 100km in the atmosphere; observed as 577m
Mass Dilation:
Particle accelerators showed that particles cannot go faster than the speed of light.
Energy and mass equivalence (E=mc2):
Nuclear reactors use very little mass to create lots of energy. The products of a nuclear reaction
have less mass after the reaction and the energy yields are proportional.

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