The Count of Monte Cristo Summary

Alexandre Dumas Biography

Playwright, Author, Journalist (18021870)
Alexandre Dumas is a celebrated French author best known for his historical adventure
novels, including The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo.
Synopsis
Alexandre Dumas was born on July 24, 1802, in Villers-Cotterts, France. He adopted the
last name "Dumas" from his grandmother, a former Haitian slave. Dumas established
himself as one of the most popular authors in France, known for plays and historical
adventure novels such as The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo. He died
on December 5, 1870, in Puys, France.
Early life
Alexandre Dumas was born Dumas Davy de la Pailleterie on July 24, 1802, in VillersCotterts, France, to Marie Louise Labouret and General Thomas-Alexandre Davy de la
Pailleterie. The Dumas family name was adopted from Alexandre's grandmother, an
enslaved Haitian woman named Marie-Csette Dumas. His father was the Marquis
Alexandre Antoine Davy de La Pailleterie. Thomas-Alexandre took the name Dumas
when he enlisted in Napoleon's army, where he acquired the dubious nickname "Black
Devil."
Thomas-Alexandre rose to the rank of general at the age of 31, the highest rank of any
black man in a European army. In 1797, he distinguished himself at the battle of Adige
when he surprised and defeated an Austrian battery. Thomas-Alexandre left the armed
forces following a disagreement with Napoleon over his Egypt campaign. He
was imprisoned for nearly two years and died shortly after his release.. After her
husband's death, Marie Louise Labouret worked hard to provide an education for her son.
Dumas attended AbbGrgoire's school before dropping out to take a job assisting a local
notary.

Writing Career
In 1822, Dumas moved to Paris and immersed himself in literature. He worked as a
scribe for the ducd'Orlans (later named King Louis Philippe) during the 1830 revolution.
He began writing plays, both comedies and dramas. Dumas's Romantic styleoften
compared to that of his contemporary and rival, Victor Hugoproved to be exceptionally
popular.
Dumas was a prolific writer of essays, short stories and novels, as well as plays and
travelogues. He achieved widespread success with the novels The Count of Monte
Cristo and The Three Musketeers, initially published as serials. These novels made
Dumas a household name in France and a popular author throughout much of Europe.
With the money he earned from publishing his novels, Dumas purchased land and built
the Chteau de Monte Cristo in Port Marly, Yvelines, France. This home (which is now a
museum) was intended to be a sanctuary for the author, and he spent much of his time
writing and entertaining there before debt overtook him, forcing him to sell the property.
He fled to Belgium in 1851, and later to Russia, to evade creditors. Dumas continued to
publish books, including travel books on Russia, during his period of exile.
Personal Life
Dumas had a son, also named Alexandre, with Marie Laure Catherine Labay. His son
followed in his literary footsteps. In 1840, Dumas married actress Ida Ferrier, but
continued his affairs with other women. He had at least one daughter, Marie Alexandrine,
out of wedlock, and dated much younger women in his old age.
Death and Legacy
Dumas died on December 5, 1870, at his son's home in Puys, France. He was buried in
the cemetery of Villers-Cotterts. In 2002, his body was moved to the Panthon in Paris,
where Dumas rests among such other French literary greats as mile Zola, Victor Hugo
and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

The Count of Monte Cristo Summary

Short Summary
The novel begins with the handsome young sailor Edmond Dantes. He has just returned
from a journey aboard the Pharaon. The Pharaon's ship owner, M. Morrel, rushes out to
meet the ship. He finds that the captain has died en route, and Dantes has assumed the
post with admirable skill. He thus plans to make Dantes officially the next captain of the
ship.
Dantes future is thus promising. His father's financial situation as well as his own will be
greatly ameliorated. In addition, Dantes has plans to marry the beautiful Mercedes who
has awaited his return from sea with great anxiety and love.
Dantes will not get the chance to realize his bright future, however. His success has
earned him three conspiring enemies. They write a letter falsely incriminating him in a
Bonapartist plot (the royalists are currently in power). These three enemies are Danglars,
Fernand Mondego, and Caderousse. Danglars will become captain of the Pharaon once
Dantes is removed, Fernand aspires to win Mercedes' love, and Caderousse is a jealous
neighbor of Dantes.
Perhaps the conspiracy would not have been so successful had not the denunciation fallen
into the hands of the public prosecutor, Monsieur de Villefort. This man has nothing
personal against Dantes, however, he has Dantes incarcerated as a most dangerous
criminal. His policy against Bonapartists must be extremely vigilant in order to counter
the reputation of his father. His father is a known Bonapartist, and Villefort is paranoid
that this fact shall hurt his career among the ruling royalists. Thus, he throws Dantes, an
innocent man, into the Chateau D'If.
Political regimes change, yet Dantesis forgotten. M. Morrel attempts to have him freed,
yet to no avail. In prison, Dantes loses hope and decides to starve himself to death.
Thankfully, the prisoner in the next cell was building a tunnel to escape. Miscalculations
bring the Abbe Faria, to Dantes cell instead of freedom. The two become friends, and the
learned Abbe teaches Dantes all his vast knowledge of literature, the sciences and
languages. The Abbe also reveals to Dantes the location of an immense treasure on the
Isle of Monte Cristo. He hopes Dantes will retrieve this treasure should he escape. When
the Abbe dies, Dantes replaces his body with the Abbe's. The Abbe's body bag is thrown
into the sea. Dantes is free at last, after fourteen years of imprisonment. Dantes is saved
from the sea by Italian smugglers.
Dantes' only reason for living now is to have vengeance upon those who threw his life
away. He becomes a smuggler for a time, and finally has the opportunity to retrieve the
treasure spoken of by Abbe Faria. He shall use this treasure to calculate the downfall of

the four men who imprisoned him. Dantes', now the Count of Monte Cristo, shall
calculate his revenge over the next10 years. He has already waited fourteen years, thus he
has learned the virtue of patience. These men deserve to suffer. Their downfall shall be all
the more destructive if his revenge is not brash, but calculated. Over the next ten years,
Monte Cristo conditions himself, and learns of all the details of his enemies past. He also
amasses a circle of servants who are forever indebted to him. Using his immense fortune
he buys back freedom of men such as Peppino. Luigi Vampa, the great Italian bandit is
also indebted to the Count. These men owe the Count their lives, and will prove
indispensable to the Count's plans for revenge.
Before exacting revenge, however, the Count rewards the one family that remained true
to him. He saves the Morrel firm from financial disaster by providing a diamond and a
new ship to the family anonymously.
The count is now ready to exact revenge. He understands his duty to act as divine justice.
When the Count is ready to enter Parisien society, and to destroy his enemies, he does so
through contact with Albert de Morcerf. This is the son of Count de Morcerf, a new title
given to the very same FernandMondego who conspired against Dantes. By winning
Albert's trust he is introduced to all his former enemies, including Danglars, Count de
Morcerf, and Monsieur de Villefort. These men are at the center of social and political
life in Paris and are very rich. Monte Cristo's arrival in Paris causes a great stir, for his
fortune is immense. None of his enemies recognize him however. In fact, they are all
eager to associate with this great man. Mercedes, now the Countess de Morcerf,
recognizes him, yet she does not reveal his identity to anyone.
The Count of Monte Cristo also disguises himself as an Abbe and returns to find
Caderousse still a poor man. He gives Caderousse a diamond, yet he knows this shall not
bring Caderousse happiness. Caderousse's greed is far too great. The diamond is part of
Caderousse's slow punishment. First, Caderousse kills a jeweler, his wife, and is then
thrown into prison. The Count, disguised as a Lord Wilmore, later helps Caderousse
escape from prison. Caderousse then attempts to rob the count, still not knowing that it is
Dantes. During this robbery attempt, Caderousse is murdered by his
accomplice,Benedetto. As Caderousse is dying, the Count whispers his identity in
Caderousse's ear. Caderousse then cries out to God.
FernandMondego became a military hero and had married Mercedes who had given up
hope to ever see Dantes again. Mercedes was unaware of the treachery of her husband.
They have a fortune, and exist in Parisien society as the Count and Countess de Morcerf.
The Count destroys Morcerf by revealing his military treachery to all of Parisien society.
Monte Cristo had bought Haydee as a slave. This girl was once the daughter of Ali Pasha
who was betrayed by Morcerf. She testifies that the Count sold her into slavery. Her
father had been the Count de Morcerf's benefactor. Morcerf had killed her father,
surrendered her father's Greek City to the Turks, and sold his wife and daughter into
slavery. When this news is revealed to Paris, the Count de Morcerf is thus ruined. His
wife and son flee, and he shoots himself.
Monsieur de Villefort had married twice. He has one daughter by his first wife and a son
by his second wife. Valentine is his daughter. The Count destroys de Villefort by
introducing Andrea Calvacanti into society. Benedetto, alias Calvacanti, is the son of

Monsieur de Villefort and Madame Danglars. Long ago, Villefort had attempted to bury
the newborn baby alive, but Bertuccio, now Monte Cristo's servant had dug the baby up
and saved it. Villefort's crime is revealed in a court of law, since Calvacanti is on trial as
an escaped convict. Villefort is thus destroyed. His wife as treacherous as he had also
poisoned his entire family. Her motive was to gain a fortune for her son. The Count
however, had saved Valentine, since MaximilienMorrel, the son of M. Morrel was in love
with her. Villefort goes insane.
Danglars had become a rich banker. He has a wife and daughter. His wife is of noble
birth, yet when Danglars married her, her repute as a woman was suspect. The Count
destroys Danglars by opening credit with him for six million francs. Right when Danglars
needs this money, the Count also takes a receipt for five million francs from him to cash.
Danglars can no longer uphold his firm. He follows Danglars to Italy, once Danglars flees
Paris. (Danglars has been alienated from his wife for years, and his daughter runs off, as a
result of a failed marriage contract to Andrea Calvacanti. Monte Cristo had also arranged
this failed enterprise. Danglars thus had no reason to stay in Paris.) Danglars tries to
redeem his five million francs from Monte Cristo's firm in Italy. Once he does this,
Monte Cristo's bandits follow him, and they destroy him financially by holding him
captive and requiring him to pay vast sums of money to survive on a little food. Danglars
is left with nothing and his hair turns white during his brief captivity with the Monte
Cristo's bandits. Monte Cristo does not fail to inform Danglars his true identity.
Thus, the Count's revenge is now complete. He has succeeded in his quest for slow
revenge. His enemies have suffered for their sins. He has one last meeting with Mercedes.
Mercedes shall lead a life of prayer in a convent, for her son has gone to rebuild his
future in the army.
The Count of Monte Cristo had assumed the role of Providence by destroying all that had
been built by his enemies during his long years of imprisonment. He must now leave.
After leaving much of his belongings to MaximilienMorrel and Valentine, to whom he
wishes eternal love and happiness, he leaves aboard a ship with Haydee his own new love

SETTINGS
Time
The Count of Monte Cristo takes place during the years post of the decline of Napoleons
empire. The story begins in 1815 and ends in 1844.
Place

The setting of the novel is all throughout Europe; the novel begins in Marseilles
(France), but then leads to other locations such as Monte Cristo (France), Rome
(Italy), and Constantinople (Greece).

CHARACTERS
Edmond Dants - The protagonist of the novel. Dants is an intelligent, honest, and
loving man who turns bitter and vengeful after he is framed for a crime he does not
commit. When Dants finds himself free and enormously wealthy, he takes it upon
himself to act as the agent of Providence, rewarding those who have helped him in his
plight and punishing those responsible for his years of agony.
Lord Wilmore - The identity of an eccentric English nobleman that Dants assumes
when committing acts of random generosity. Lord Wilmore contrasts sharply with Monte
Cristo, who is associated with Dantss acts of bitterness and cruelty. Appropriately,
Monte Cristo cites Lord Wilmore as one of his enemies.
Abb Busoni - Another of Dantss false personas. The disguise of Abb Busoni, an
Italian priest, helps Dants gain the trust of the people whom the count wants to
manipulate because the name connotes religious authority.
Sinbad the Sailor - The name Dants uses as the signature for his anonymous gift to
Morrel. Sinbad the Sailor is also the persona Dants adopts during his time in Italy.
Other Characters
Mercds - Dantss beautiful and good fiance. Though Mercds marries another man,
FernandMondego, while Dants is in prison, she never stops loving Dants. Mercds is
one of the few whom Dants both punishes (for her disloyalty) and rewards (for her
enduring love and underlying goodness).
AbbFaria - A priest and brilliant thinker whom Dants meets in prison. AbbFaria
becomes Dantss intellectual father: during their many years as prisoners, he teaches
Dants history, science, art, and many languages. He then bequeaths to Dants his vast
hidden fortune. AbbFaria is the most important catalyst in Dantss transformation into
the vengeful Count of Monte Cristo.
FernandMondego - Dantss rival for Mercdss affections. Mondego helps in framing
Dants for treason and then marries Mercds himself when Dants is imprisoned.

Through acts of treachery Mondego becomes a wealthy and powerful man and takes on
the name of the Count de Morcerf. He is the first victim of Dantss vengeance.
Baron Danglars - A greedy, envious cohort of Mondego. Danglars hatches the plot to
frame Dants for treason. Like Mondego, he becomes wealthy and powerful, but loses
everything when Monte Cristo takes his revenge. Danglarss obsession with the
accumulation of wealth makes him an easy target for Monte Cristo, who has seemingly
limitless wealth on hand to exact his revenge.
Caderousse - A lazy, drunk, and greedy man. Caderousse is present when the plot to
frame Dants is hatched, but he does not take an active part in the crime. Unlike Danglars
and Mondego, Caderousse never finds his fortune, instead making his living through
petty crime and the occasional murder.

Grard de Villefort - The blindly ambitious public prosecutor responsible for

sentencing Dants to life in prison. Like the others, Villefort eventually receives
punishment from Dants. Villefort stands out as Monte Cristos biggest opposition, as he
employs his own power to judge people and mete out punishments.
Monsieur Morrel - The kind, honest shipowner who was once Dantss boss. Morrel
does everything in his power to free Dants from prison and tries to save Dantss father
from death. When Dants emerges from prison, he discovers that Morrel is about to
descend into financial ruin, so he carries out an elaborate plot to save his one true friend.
Louis Dants - Dantss father. Grief-stricken, Louis Dants starves himself to death
when Dants is imprisoned. It is primarily for his fathers death that Dants seeks
vengeance.
Maximilian Morrel - The son of Monsieur Morrel. Brave and honorable like his father,
Maximilian becomes Dantss primary beneficiary. Maximilian and his love, Valentine,
survive to the end of the story as two good and happy people, personally unaffected by
the vices of power, wealth, and position.
Albert de Morcerf - The son of FernandMondego and Mercds. Unlike his father,
Albert is brave, honest, and kind. Mercdss devotion to both Albert and Dants allows
Monte Cristo to realize her unchanging love for him and causes him to think more deeply
about his sole desire for revenge.

Valentine Villefort - Villeforts saintly and beautiful daughter. Like Maximilian Morrel,
her true love, she falls under Dantss protection.
Noirtier - Villeforts father. Once a powerful French revolutionary, Noirtier is brilliant
and willful, even when paralyzed by a stroke. He proves a worthy opponent to his sons
selfish ambitions.
Hayde - The daughter of Ali Pacha, the vizier of the Greek state of Yanina. Hayde is
sold into slavery after her father is betrayed by Mondego and murdered. Dants purchases
Haydes freedom and watches her grow into adulthood, eventually falling in love with
her.
Signor Bertuccio - Dantss steward. Though Bertuccio is loyal and adept, Dants
chooses him as his steward not for his personal qualities but because of his vendetta
against Villefort.
Benedetto - The illegitimate son of Villefort and Madame Danglars. Though raised
lovingly by Bertuccio and Bertuccios widowed sister-in-law, Benedetto nonetheless
turns to a life of brutality and crime. Handsome, charming, and a wonderful liar,
Benedetto plays the part of Andrea Cavalcanti in one of Dantss elaborate revenge
schemes.
Madame dVillefort - Villeforts murderous wife. Devoted wholly to her son Edward,
Madame dVillefort turns to crime in order to ensure his fortune.
Julie Herbaut - The daughter of Monsieur Morrel and sister of Maximilian. Angelically
good and blissfully in love, Julie and her husband, Emmanuel, prove to Monte Cristo that
it is possible to be truly satisfied with ones life.

Emmanuel Herbaut - Julies husband. Emmanuel is just as noble and perpetually happy
as his wife, Julie.
Madame Danglars - Danglarss wife. Greedy, conniving, and disloyal, Madame
Danglars engages in a never-ending string of love affairs that help bring her husband to
the brink of financial ruin.

EugnieDanglars - TheDanglars daughter. A brilliant musician, Eugnie longs for her

independence and despises men. On the eve of her wedding, she flees for Italy with her
true love, Louise dArmilly.
Louise dArmilly - EugnieDanglarss music teacher and constant companion.
Lucien Debray - The secretary to the French minister of the interior. Debray illegally
leaks government secrets to his lover, Madame Danglars, so that she can invest wisely
with her husbands money.
Ali - Dantss mute Nubian slave. Ali is amazingly adept with all sorts of weapons.
Luigi Vampa - A famous Roman bandit. Vampa is indebted to Dants for once setting
him free, and he puts himself at the service of Dantss vengeful ends.
Major Cavalcanti - A poor and crooked man whom Dants resurrects as a phony Italian
nobleman.
Edward dVillefort - TheVilleforts spoiled son. Edward is an innocent victim of
Dantss elaborate revenge scheme.
Beauchamp - A well-known journalist and good friend to Albert de Morcerf.
Franz dEpinay - Another good friend to Albert de Morcerf. DEpinay is the unwanted
fianc of Valentine Villefort.
Marquis of Saint-Mran - The father of Villeforts first wife, who dies shortly after her
wedding day.
Marquise of Saint-Mran - The wife of the Marquis of Saint-Mran.
Jacopo - A smuggler who helps Dants win his freedom. When Jacopo proves his
selfless loyalty, Dants rewards him by buying the poor man his own ship and crew.

Ali Pacha - A Greek nationalist leader whom Mondego betrays. This betrayal leads to
Ali Pachas murder at the hands of the Turks and the seizure of his kingdom. Ali Pachas
wife and his daughter, Hayde, are sold into slavery.
Baron of Chteau-Renaud - An aristocrat and diplomat. Chteau-Renaud is nearly
killed in battle in Constantinople, but Maximilian Morrel saves him at the last second.

Chteau-Renaud introduces Maximilian into Parisian society, which leads to Maximilian

and Dants crossing paths.
Peppino - An Italian shepherd who has been arrested and sentenced to death for the
crime of being an accomplice to bandits, when he merely provided them with food.
Monte Cristo buys Peppino his freedom.
Countess G - A beautiful Italian aristocrat who suspects that Monte Cristo is a
vampire.

THEMES
Revenge
Revenge is everywhere in The Count of Monte Cristo. No matter what the situation, no
matter who is speaking, it lurks in the corners, propelling the story forward. We wait on
tenterhooks, wondering...
Fate vs. Free Will
The characters in The Count of Monte Cristo don't spend too much time worrying about
the "free will" part of the equation. Usually they only stop to consider the repercussions
of their decisions wa...
Perseverance
Conventional wisdom says good things come to those who wait. At book's end, the Count
of Monte Cristo seems to agree; in fact, he couldn't make his thoughts any clearer: Wait
and hope, he tells Val...
Justice and Judgment
It's no coincidence that one of the main characters in The Count of Monte Cristo is a
prosecutor. Dumas wants to see you thinking long and hard about justice and judgment,
whether it be human or di...
Transformation
In The Count of Monte Cristo, the transformed becomes the transformer. Edmond,
irrevocably changed during his time in prison by forces outside of his control, learns to
transform the world around h...
Hatred

As a wise man once said, "Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to
suffering." OK, that was Yoda, and Yoda's not technically a man, but you get the point.
Hatred is powerful stuff, a...
Ambition
There's nothing wrong with ambition. Really, we wouldn't get much done without it. In
the case of The Count of Monte Cristo, though, the ambition in question would more
accurately be called over-am...
Manipulation
Manipulation is a bit of dirty word. Nobody wants to feel like they've been manipulated
by anyone not by Fate, by God, or by their parents.

HAIKU
A haiku in English is a very short poem in the English language, following to a greater
or lesser extent the form and style of the Japanese haiku. A typical haiku is a three-line
quirky observation about a fleeting moment involving nature.
The first haiku written in English date from the early 20th century, influenced by English
translations of traditional Japanese haiku, and the form has grown in popularity ever
since. Many well-known English-language poets have written some haiku, though perhaps because of their brevity - they are not often considered an important part of their
work. Haiku has also proven popular among amateur writers, and additionally in schools,
as a way to encourage the appreciation and writing of poetry.
Haiku are the subject of various journals, books and competitions.

English haiku:

are three lines long

either are 17 syllables long, especially with lines of 5, 7 and 5 syllables (the
traditional form);or are about 1014 syllables long, with the second line usually the
longest. Some poets want their haiku to be expressed in one breath
are about, or mention, an aspect of nature

make a quirky or surprising observation about some fleeting experience - usually an

otherwise ordinary or trivial-seeming one. Often it expresses a sudden insight

often juxtapose two things - e.g. something large and something small, something
natural and something man-made, or two unexpectedly similar things

are often divided into two sections, usually at the end of the first or second line, and
indicated by a punctuation mark, broken layout (e.g. extra space between words or
lines), grammatical break, or caesura (similar to the Japanese kire)

are in the present tense

are impressionistic, leaving much to the imagination

are contemplative or wistful

do not rhyme

use elliptical 'telegram style' syntax, avoiding words such as 'and', 'but', 'like'

use little or no punctuation, sometimes with unusual layout in place of punctuation

(e.g. indented lines, extra space between words or lines)

do not start lines with capital letters

use adjectives sparingly

do not use abstract nouns

do not have a title.

Variant forms
Although the vast majority of haiku published in English are three lines long, variants
also occur.

One line (monoku)

The most common variation from the three-line standard is one line, sometimes called a
monoku. It emerged from being more than an occasional exception during the late 1970s.
The one-liner was lent legitimacy by three people:
Marlene Mountain was one of the first English-language haiku poets to regularly write
haiku in a single horizontal line;
Hiroaki Sato translated Japanese haiku into one line in English;

Matsuo Allard wrote essays in its favor and published several magazines and chapbooks
devoted to the form.
The single-line haiku usually contains much fewer than seventeen syllables. A caesura
(pause) may be appropriate, dictated by sense or speech rhythm, and usually little or no
punctuation. It has been practiced by Marlene Mountain, John Wills, and Matsuo Allard,
and has been used more recently by poets such as M. Kettner, Janice Bostok, Jim Kacian,
Chris Gordon, Scott Metz, Dennis M. Garrison, Charles Trumbull, Stuart Quine,[citation
needed] and many others.

pig and i spring rain

Marlene Mountain (Frogpond 2.3-4, 1979)
an icicle the moon drifting through it
Matsuo Allard (Bird Day Afternoon, High/Coo Press, 1978)
Mountain (formerly Wills) also writes collaborative one-line linked haiku and sequences.

One word
At its most minimal, a single word may occasionally be claimed to be a haiku:

tundra
Cor van den Heuvel (the window-washer's pail, 1963)
core
John Stevenson (Live Argain, 2009)
Four or more lines
Haiku of four lines (sometimes known as haiqua) or longer have been written, some of
them "vertical haiku" with only a word or two per line. These poems mimic the vertical
printed form of Japanese haiku.

she watches
satisfied after love
he lies
looking up at nothing
beneath
leaf mold
stone
cool
stone
Marlene Wills (the old tin roof, 1976)
The highly prolific poet John Martone (b. 1952) specializes in vertical haiku along the
lines of the examples above.

Circle
Haiku have also appeared in circular form (sometimes known as cirku)[17] whereby the
poem has no fixed start or end point.

Fixed form
In the "zip" form developed by John Carley, a haiku of 15 syllables is presented over two
lines, each of which contains one internal caesura represented by a double space.

buoyed up on the rising tide

a fleet of head boards bang the wall
John Carley (Magma No 19, 2001)

A fixed-form 5-3-5 syllable (or 3-5-3 word) haiku is sometimes known as a lune.[20][21]

History
Arguably the first English haiku was In a station of the metro by Ezra pound, published
in 1913, even though it is only two lines long. During the Imagist period, a big number of
mainstream poets, including Pound, wrote what they called hokku, usually in a five-sixfour syllable pattern. Amy Lowell published several hokku in her book "What's O'Clock"
(1925; winner of the Pulitzer Prize). Individualistic haiku-like verses by the innovative
Buddhist poet and artist Paul Reps (18951990) appeared in print as early as 1939 (More
Power to YouPoems everyone Can Make, Preview Publications, Montrose CA.).
Inspired by R. H. Blyth's translations, other westerners including those of the Beat period,
such as Jack Kerouac and Richard Wright, attempted original haiku in English.