PresidentialColumn

WhatHappenedtoBehaviorism
ByHenryL.Roediger,III
Tags:Behaviorism,HenryRoedigerColumns,HistoryofPsychology

Theyear2004marksthecentenaryofB.F.Skinnersbirth.Idoubt
thatmostmembersoftheAmericanPsychologicalSociety(andevena
smallerproportionofallpsychologists)willpaymuchattention.After
all,hasntbehaviorismpassedfromthescene?Dontweliveinthe
ageofthecognitiverevolution,whichstillroarsalonganddominates
mostsubfieldswithinpsychology?Doesntthefieldofanimallearningpsychology,the
spawninggroundofbehaviorism,belongtothe1950s,thesameeraasblackandwhite
television,threeTVchannels,andantennasonthehouse?ManyreadersinAPSwouldprobably
answeryestoallthreequestions.Ifthisistherightanswerandasyoullsee,Idont
necessarilythinkitisthenwecanaskwhathappened.
Letsgobackahundredyearswhenpsychologywasanewfield.Thefirstlabsdatefrom1879
orthereabouts(letsnotrevisitthiscontroversy),andin1904,Skinnersbirthyear,thefieldwas
strugglingtoemergeasascience.However,themethodswerevaried,andthepapersinjournals
wereoftenlongonobservationandspeculation.Carefulexperimentationwasinshortsupplyif
notabsentaltogether.Somepapersborderedonmurkynonsense.InSt.Louis,fromwhereI
write,therewasafamousWorldsFairin1904andanassemblageofmanyofthegreatest
scholarsoftheday,includingpsychologists,gatheredwiththeaimofprovidingastateoftheart
setoflecturesontheirfieldsand,ofcourse,toshowthefieldofftoitsbestadvantage.
Examinationoftheirtalks,reportsofwhichwerepreservedforposterity,permitsacapsule
summaryofthestateoftheart100yearsago.Illexaminethesecontributionsinanupcoming
column.

In1913,nineyearsafterSkinnerwasborn,JohnB.Watsonpublishedhisfamouspaper
PsychologyfromtheStandpointofaBehavioristinPsychologicalReview.Itwasbriefbut
powerful.Watsonsaidthatpsychologyshouldriditselfofintrospectivestudiesofmentalevents
thatwerenotdirectlyobservableimagery,memory,consciousness,etal.andstudybehavior.
WatsonendorsedthestatementofWalterPillsburythatpsychologyisthescienceofbehavior
andwentontosaythatIbelievewecanwriteapsychology,defineitasPillsbury[did],and
nevergobackonourdefinition:neverusethetermsconsciousness,mentalstates,mind,content,
introspectivelyverifiable,imageryandthelike(1913,p.116).Headystuff!Tostudyonly
behavior!OlderpsychologistsprobablyjudgedWatsonassomewhatoffhisrocker,butyounger
psychologistsflockedtohim,andhispositioncontinuedtoattractstrongadherentsoverthe
years.Ifpsychologywastobethescienceofbehavior,thenitsgoalswouldbe(asSkinnersaid
yearslater)thepredictionandcontrolofbehavior.Behaviorcontrol!Howexciting!
Behaviorismwasintendedtomakepsychologyanaturalscience.Duringtheyearswhen
behavioristideaswerebeingdeveloped,theywereinharmonywiththephilosophicalpositionof
logicalpositivismbeingchampionedinphysicsandelsewhere.Conceptsshouldbedefinedby
theoperationsusedtomeasurethem,tokeepsciencetightlygroundedtoobservabledataandto
removeflightsofspeculativefancy.
Thedecadesthatfollowedrevealedbehaviorisminascendancy,andtheanimallearning
laboratorywasthehotbedofstudy,thewhiteratandthepigeontheorganismsofchoice(withan
assumptionthatallorganismsandallbehaviorsobeysimilarlaws).
EdgarChaceTolmanchampionedthemethodologyofbehaviorismandcontributedimportant
work.Someofhisconcepts(latentlearning,cognitivemaps)stillappeartoday,eveninthe
cognitiveliterature.Pavlovsbooksweretranslatedinthe1920s,andClarkHullbegan
publishinghisimportantseriesofPsychologicalReviewpapersinthelate20sandearly30s.
Hullsmostfamousstudent,KennethSpence,alsobeganhisimportantworkinthe1930s.Edwin
Guthriepublishedhisideasontheroleofcontiguityinlearningandthenotionofonetrial
learning.In1938,B.F.SkinnerpublishedTheBehaviorofOrganismsandlaunchedhisoperant
approach,whichbecamethemostfamousbehavioristpositionandtoday,amongmany,seemsto
representbehaviorism.OneofmyfavoritecoursesasanundergraduatewasThePsychologyof
Learning,taughtbymyundergraduatementor,DavidG.Elmes,usingabookbyJamesDeese
andStuartHulseofJohnHopkinsUniversitywiththattitle.
Now,returningtobehaviorism,letsconsiderthecartoonviewofthehistoryofpsychologythat
manycognitivepsychologists(whichistosay,mostofthefieldthesedays)seemtobelieve.In
thiscaricature,theHistoryofPsychologyissomethingliketheHistoryofWesternCivilization
andgoesasfollows:EarlypsychologistslikeWilliamJameshadgreatideasandspeculations,
andpsychologistsstudied,asbesttheycould,cognitivephenomenalikeimagery.(Jamesetal.
correspondtotheancientAtheniansSocrates,PlatoandAristotle,perhaps).However,later,
duetoWatson,Skinnerandtheirilk,theDarkAgesdescendedthereligiousorthodoxyof
Behaviorismblanketedthelandandsmotheredcreativethoughtaboutcognitivephenomenaand
othertopics.Finally,theRenaissanceoccurredbeginninginthe1950swhentheexperimental

workofGeorgeMiller,DonaldBroadbent,WendellGarnerandothers,aswellasthewritingsof
NoamChomsky,ledpsychologyfromthedarkagesandintothelightofthecognitive
revolution.Themovementpickedupsteaminthe1960sandUlricNeissersgreatbook,
CognitivePsychology,bothnamedthenewfieldandablysummarizeditscontentin1967.
Behaviorismwasstilllivelyduringthe1960sandearly1970s,sothisstorygoes,butasviewed
todaythiswasonlyasarearguardintellectualmovementthatwasinitslastgaspofpopularity.
Bythe1990sthedominationofcognitiveapproachesacrossalmostallareasofpsychology(even
animallearning!)wasnearlycomplete.LookattheadsintheAPSObserverasonemeasure
howoftendoesoneseecognitiveorcognitiveneuroscienceinanadrelativetobehavioristor
animallearning?
So,backtomyoriginalquestion,whathappenedtobehaviorism?Herearesomepossible
answers.IllletpeoplewiserthanIgradethemanddecideiftheanswershouldbesome
combinationofthesealternatives,ornoneoftheabove.
Onepossibilityisthatthedeclineofbehaviorismrepresentsanintellectualrevolution,andyoung
scientists(likeyouthinalltimes)liketheheadyfervorofarevolution.So,withbehaviorism
havingbeeninascendancyinpsychology,especially(andmainly)Americanpsychology,forso
long,thetimeforanewintellectualrevolutionwasripe.Theanalysesoftheearlycognitive
psychologists(Broadbent,Miller,Garner,etal.)wererigorous,provocative,andopenednew
intellectualvistas.Manyproblemsthatweresomewhatoutsidethepurviewofbehavioristic
analysesperceiving,attending,remembering,imagining,thinkingwereapproachedina
radicallynewway.Inthistelling,nothingreallyhappenedtobehaviorism;itwasnotreally
showntobewronginanyrealsense.Rather,thecognitiveapproachsimplygenerated
adherentsattheexpenseoftheestablishedorder,openednewtechniquesandmethodsofstudy,
andcreatedexcitementthatattractedgraduatestudentsawayfromanimallaboratories.(Some
typesofcognitiveanalysesthatseemedsogreatinthe1960sseemtobegrowinglonginthe
toothnow.Forexample,metaphoricalmodelsandboxandarrowdiagrams,sopopularatone
time,seemquaintcomparedtocognitiveneuroscienceapproachestomappingbrainnetworks
underlyingcognitiveperformance).Inbrief,cognitiveanalysessweptthedayasbeingmore
excitingandinterestinginopeningnewarenasofstudy.
Asecondpossiblereasonisthatbehavioristicanalyseswerebecomingtoomicroscopicinthe
1970s.Asinmostfieldsastheydevelop,researchersbeganstudyingmoreandmoreaboutless
andless.Ratherthanfocusonthecentral,criticalproblems,behavioristicresearchersbegin
lookingatevermorerefined(thatistosay,picayune)problems,withexperimentalanalyses
increasingincomplexityalloutofproportiontothegainsinknowledgethattheyenabled.(Itis
remarkablehowmanyofthefundamentallygreatdiscoveriesinmostfieldsareoftendirect,
simple,straightforward,sothatafterthefactotherscanwonder,whydidntIthinkofthat?).
ThenumberofparametersandepicyclesintheHullSpenceapproachballooned.Examine
FersterandSkinnersponderousSchedulesofReinforcement(1959)relativetothemoredirect
writingofSkinnerinTheBehaviorofOrganisms(1938).Inthisversionofhistory,therewas
somethingwrongwithbehaviorisminthe1970sand1980sitbecametoofocusedonspecific
problemsandlostthebigpicture.

Anotherwayinwhichbehaviorismlostisthatmanypsychologists(especiallycognitive
psychologists)donotfocusonthelearninghistoryoftheorganism.AsJohnWixtedwrotetome
incommentingonthiscolumn,researchershaveforgottentoexplainwhywebehaveaswedo.
Muchofwhatwedoisafunctionofthepriorconsequencesofouractions.Andwelearnfrom
thoseconsequences.Cognitivemodelsareoftenasurrogateofthatlearninghistory(theyreferto
amagiccomputerintheheadwithoutconsideringwhatisresponsibleforitscomputational
abilities).So,totheextentthatcognitivepsychologyandcognitiveneurosciencedontcare
aboutthelearninghistoryoftheirsubjects(and,forthemostpart,theydont),behaviorismlost.
Athirdansweristhatthereis,thankyou,nothingwrongwithbehaviorismtoday.Thepremiseof
theanalysisatthebeginningofthiscolumnissimplywrong.Behaviorismisaliveandwelland
nothinghashappenedtoit.TheJournaloftheExperimentalAnalysisofBehaviorisstilla
livelyoutlet(andeditednowbymycolleague,LenGreen),asistheJournalofAppliedBehavior
Analysis.BothjournalsarepublishedbytheSocietyfortheExperimentalAnalysisofBehavior,
whichhasbeengoingstrongsince1957.TheprimarymeetingofbehavioristsistheAssociation
forBehaviorAnalysis,orABA,whichhasover4,200membersin2003,andatthe2002meeting
therewere3,200registrants.Countingaffiliateorganizationsaroundtheworld,therearesome
12,000members(JackMarr,personalcommunication).ABAhasgrowntremendouslyoverthe
yearsandstillattractsaround250newmembersayearjustintheU.S.TheSocietyforthe
QuantitativeAnalysisofBehaviormeetsbeforeandduringABA,withitsownmathematically
sophisticatedmembership.Muchoftheworkreportedatthesemeetingsisbasedonresearch
withhumans(andnotjustpigeonsandrats,asinthestereotype).
Whytheenthusiasm?Becausebehavioristicanalyseswork!Weknowhowtoalleviateor
eliminatephobiasthroughextinctionbasedtherapies;weknowthepowerofatokeneconomyin
regulatingbehavioronamentalward;wecanreduceproblematicbehaviorsandincreasethe
probabilityofdesiredbehaviorsbyjudiciouslyprovidingandwithholdingreinforcements.Even
forproblemsthatcognitivelyorientedpsychologistsstudy,behavioristictherapiesarethe
treatmentsofchoice.Foranautisticchild,Lovaassbehavioristictechniquesprovidethegreatest
(indeed,sofartheonly)hope.(Theoryofminddebatesaboutautismarefine,butnotifyouwant
therapiesandtreatmentgotobehaviorism).Similarly,forstutteringandaphasia,asinteresting
astheiranalysisbypsycholinguistsmaybe,thetreatmentscomelargelyfromthebehaviorists
labs.Inthefieldofneurobiologyoflearning,thecentralparadigmisclassicalconditioningand
themaintheoreticalmodelistheRescorlaWagnermodel.Andbehavioristicanalysesexistin
selfmanagementprograms,inindustry(OrganizationalBehaviorManagement),insports,in
parentingguides,andofcourseinanimaltrainingprogramsforpetsandforzoos.Anywherethat
predictionandcontrolofovertbehavioriscritical,onefindsbehavioristicanalysesatwork.In
sum,thisanswermaintainsthat,althoughmostpsychologistsdontknowit,behaviorismstillis
aliveandthriving,albeitperhapsnotasmuchinthemainstreamofthefieldasitoncewas.
Anotherframingtothepreviousanswer(owingtoEndelTulving)isthatthereareseveralvalid
sciencesofpsychology.Hewrotetomeinanemailcommentonanearlierdraftofthiscolumn
that:Itisquiteclearin2004thatthetermpsychologynowdesignatesatleasttworather
differentsciences,oneofbehaviorandtheotherofthemind.Theybothdealwithliving

creatures,likeanumberofotherbehavioralsciences,buttheiroverlapisslim,probablyno
greaterthanpsychologyorsociologyusedtobewhentheworldwasyoung.Noonewilleverput
thetwopsychologiestogetheragain,becausetheirsubjectmatterisdifferent,interestsare
different,andtheirunderstandingofthekindofsciencetheydealwithisdifferent.Mosttelling
isthefactthatthetwospecieshavemovedtooccupydifferentterritories,theydonottalktoeach
other(anymore),andthemembersdonotinterbreed.Thisisexactlyasitshouldbe.
PerhapsthemostradicalanswertothequestionIposedisthatbehaviorismislessdiscussedand
debatedtodaybecauseitactuallywontheintellectualbattle.Inaveryrealsense,all
psychologiststoday(atleastthosedoingempiricalresearch)arebehaviorists.Eventhemost
cognitivelyorientedexperimentalistsstudybehaviorofsomesort.Theymightstudyeffectsof
variablesofpushingbuttonsoncomputers,orfillingoutchecklists,ormakingconfidence
ratings,orpatternsofbloodflow,orrecallingwordsbywritingthemonsheetsofpaper,butthey
almostalwaysstudyobjectivelyverifiablebehavior.(Andevensubjectiveexperiences,suchas
confidenceratings,canbereplicatedacrosspeopleandacrossconditions).Thisstepofstudying
objectivelyverifiablebehaviorrepresentsahugechangefromtheworkofmanypsychologistsin
1904.Todaythefieldsofcognitivepsychologyandcognitiveneurosciencearehighlybehavioral
(ifoneincludesneuralmeasuresofbehavior).True,thereisnothingnecessarilyinherently
interestingaboutpushingbuttonsoncomputers,butontheotherhand,thebasiclawsofbehavior
intheanimallabwereworkedoutonratspushingleversandnavigatingrunways,orpigeons
peckingkeysnotexactlyrivetingbehaviorsintheirownright.Inallthesecases,thescientists
hopeistodiscoverfundamentallyinterestingprinciplesfromsimple,elegantexperimental
analyses.Thecognitiveresearchergoesfurtherandseeksconvergingevidencefrombehavioral
observationsoninternalworkingsofthemind/brainsystems.Butasexperimentalists,both
cognitiveandbehavioralresearchersstudybehavior.Behaviorismwon.
Icouldgoonwithreasonsorspeculations,Isuppose,butletsleaveitatfive.Andletmeexplain
whyIleftoutapopularexplanationthatIhavereadinhistorytextbooks.DidntNoam
ChomskysreviewofSkinnersVerbalBehaviordevastatebehavioristicanalysisandshowthat
itwasbankruptaspertainstolanguage?Ihavereadthedebateacoupleoftimesand,although
interesting,italwaysseemedtomethattheprotagonistswerearguingatcrosspurposes,from
fundamentallydifferentparadigms.Chomskywasandisarationalist;hehadnousesfor
experimentalanalysesordataofanysortthatpertainedtolanguage,andevenexperimental
psycholinguisticswasandisoflittleinteresttohim.MyguessisthatChomskysreview
deservestobecreditedasaminorcauseofthecognitiverevolution.Tomostpsychologists,
empiricistsatheart,itwasthegreatnewexperimentsthatresearcherswereconductingon
cognitivetopicsthatcreatedthecognitiverevolutionandnotChomskysreviewofSkinners
book(rathereffectivelyrefutedinacommentarybyKennethMacCorquodale,bytheway).
Iamacognitivepsychologist,true,butIhavesympathyforseveralanswers.Behaviorismis
aliveandmostofusarebehaviorists.Thatmaybetruerofmethanmany.Mytheorizingisoften
ratherfunctionalinnature.SomereviewerscomplainthatIdonthaverealtheoriesorthatI
amredescribingthedata;somehavearguedthatmyideasaretoodescriptivetobetestable;yet
others,undercuttingthepreviouspoint,havebusilytestedthemandfoundthemempirically

wrong(hmmbothsetsofcriticscantberight,methinks).ItistruethatIfeelcomfortable
stickingclosertothedataandengaginginfewerflightsoftheoreticalfancythanmanyofmy
cognitivecolleagues,havingbeenpartlyraisedinthefunctionalintellectualtraditionofJohn
McGeoch,ArthurMelton,andRobertCrowder.
Afewyearsback,RobertSolsoeditedavolumeentitledMindandBrainSciencesinthe21st
Century(MITPress)forwhichIwroteachapterinwhichImadefearlesspredictionsonthe
futureofcognitivepsychology.Myeleventhandlastpredictionwasthatastrongformof
behaviorismwouldmakeacomebackinmainstreampsychology.ThatdoesmeanIbelievethe
movementwentawayinsomesense,evenifIthinkthatthebehavioristrevolutionwaslargely
successfulandthecentraltenetshavebeenincorporatedintopsychology.Afterall,eventhemost
ardentbehavioristwouldagreethatthegreatdebatesthatswirledamongandbetween
behavioristsinthe1950sdonotariseinthemainstreamliteraturetoday.AsJohnWixtedpointed
outinthequoteabove,cognitivepsychologiststendtoignorelearninghistoryintheirtheories.If
weatleastbeginincorporatinglearninghistorybackintoourconsiderations,thenbehaviorism
willbemakingacomeback.Still,atthesametime,itisclearthatmanyaspectsofbehaviorism
neverwentanywhereatall.Rather,manypsychologistssimplyignoredthegoodwork
researchersinthebehavioristtraditionhavebeendoing.
LetmesuggestawayyoucancelebrateSkinnerscentennialandlearntheeleganceandpower
ofbehavioristicanalyses.TreatyourselfandreadSkinners50yearoldbook,Scienceand
HumanBehavior,whichisstillinprint.Thebookwasmeantasanintroductiontobehaviorism
andispowerfullyandelegantlywritten.TheJournaloftheExperimentalAnalysisofBehavior
haspublishedfiveretrospectivearticlesintheNovember,2003issueentitledTheGolden
AnniversaryofSkinnersScienceandHumanBehavior.Readthebookandcelebratethepower
ofbehavioristicanalysesyourself,evenif(orespeciallyif)youareoneofthosecognitive
psychologistswhobelievethatbehaviorismisirrelevant,passand/ordead.Itisnt.
AuthorsNote:LenGreen,JackMarr,JimNeely,EndelTulving,BenWilliams,andJohn
Wixtedprovidedcommentsthatgreatlyaidedmyconceptualizationoftheseissues.Iappreciate
permissiontoquotefrommessagesIreceivedfromDrs.TulvingandWixted.
ObserverVol.17,No.3March,2004