PINAGMULAN NG TAO

Bukod sa mga planeta, ang pinagmulan n gating mga ninuno ay isa pang katanungan na
pilit na hinahanapan ng kasagutan ng mga siyentipiko sa loob ng maraming taon hanggang
sa kasalukuyan.
Isa sa nangungunang pangalan sa larangan ng pananaliksik tungkol sa pinanggalingan ng
mga tao ay si Charles Darwin. Bago isulat ni Charles Darwin ang Origin of the Species,
mayroon nang mga naunang siyentipiko na naglabas ng magkakatulad na teorya na ang tao
ay hindi basta sumulpot sa daigdig na mukha ng tao. Siyay unti-unting dumating sa
kasalukuyan niyang kalagayan at itsura sa pagdaan ng mga taon. Sa kanyang pagkatig sa
teorya ng ebolusyon, si Darwin ang unang nagbigay ng maraming ebidensyang matiyaga
niyang tinipon na nagpatunay sa kanyang paniwala. Ganunpaman, hindi nagging madali ang
buhay para sa kanya matapos lumaganap ang kanyang teorya. Marami sa mga taong
nakabasa ng kaniyang aklat ang nahirapang tanggapin ang posibilidad na ang tao ay
maaaring nagmula sa mga bakulaw.
Sa Bibliya, matatagpuan ang kasaysayan nina Adan at Eva bilang mga unang tao sa
mundo. Maraming makabagong tao ang naniniwala na ang kasaysayang ito ay isa lamang
mito, na hindi dapat basahin sa paraang literal kundi nararapat na unawain bilang katibayan
ng pagmamahal ng Diyos sa tao, na siya Niyang binigyan ng pinakamataas na luklukan sa
lahat ng Kanyang mga nilikha.
Sa pagsisikap ng marami pang siyentipikong sumunod kay Darwin, nakapagtipon sila ng
maraming ebidensya na nagpakita na ang tao ay maraming pinagdaanan bago nakarating
sa kasalukuyan niyang kalagayan. Ilan sa mga ebidensyang ito ay ang mga hayto (fossil) o
matatandang bungo, ngipin, kalansay, at bakas ng paa na hindi naman galing sa
masasabing tunay na bakulaw o tunay na tao.
Noong ika-19 daantaon, nagsimulang maging masigasig ang tao sa pagtuklas sa kanyang
pinagmulan. May ilang kalansay ng mga unang tao, ipinintang mga hayop sa loob ng
kuweba, mga kagamitang yari sa bato, kalansay ng mga hayop na natagpuan sa ilang lugar
sa Europa.
Maraming taon na ang nakaraan, ayon sa pag-aaral ng mga siyentipiko, maraming nilalang
ang mukhang bakulaw at lumalakad ng patayo. Dahil sa mukha silang unggoy, higit na mas
malaki ang utak nila kaysa sa mga bakulaw.
Mula sa mga hayto na nahukay sa ibat-ibang lugar, napag alaman na ang mga unang
nilikhang mapapagkamalang mga tao sa itsura ay nabuhay sa Aprika, maraming taon na
ang nakalipas. Ang mag-anak na Leakey (Louis, Mary-asawa, Richard-anak) ang masipag na
gumalugad sa mga lugar sa Aprika na inakala nilang tinirahan ng mga unang tao, at
nagbunga ang kanilang pagsisiskap.
Australopithecus (bakulaw na taga Timog) ito ang pangalang ibinigay ng mga siyentipiko sa
mga uri ng unang tao. Ito ay may dalawang uri: Australopithecus robustus, higit na malaki,
malamang puro gulay ang kinakain batay sa itsura ng kaniyang ngipin, patayo kung
lumakad, ngunit hindi tuwid ang katawan, walang noo, walang mga gamit at nakatira sa
kagubatan. Australopithecus africanus, maliit at payat, matutulis ang mga ngipin, malamang
kumakain ng karne, hindi tuwid ang katawan sa paglalakad, may ginagamit ng

kasangkapang yari sa bato at buto, may kaunting noo. Nahukay ang mga bakas at kalansay
ng mga ito sa Tanzania at Ethiopia na nasa kontinente ng Aprika.Pinaniniwalaan ng mga
siyentipiko na sabay nabuhay ang Australopithecus robustus at ang Homo habilis, higit na
bata ang dalawang ito sa africanus na hinihinalang mas naunang lumitaw at maaaring
pinagmuan ng robustus at Homo habilis.
Batay sa patuloy na pananaliksik ng mga siyentipiko, naniniwala sila na ang ninuno natin at
ninuno ng mga bakulaw ay magkaiba at hindi iisa. Ayon sa kanila, ang tao ay nagmula sa
mga nilalang na mukha ring tao at nakakalakad nang patayo.
Homo habilis, itinuturing na talagang ninuno ng mga tao. Batay sa mga nahukay na
ebidensya sa Kenya, Aprika, ang Homo habili ay may higit na malaking utak kaysa
sa Australopithecus. Ang Homo habilis ay gumagamit ng mga kasangkapang yari sa bato,
namuhay bilang kasapi ng pangkat. May mataas na noo, kumakain ng karne at gulay,
nakatayo at tuwid sa paglalakad. Nakatira sa kapatagan noong nakakalbo ang ilang bahagi
ng makapal na kagubatan at maraming naglipanang mga hayop na maaaring kumain sa
kanya. Nagtayo ng tirahan kaysa tumira sa mga kuweba at puno.
Sa pagunlad ng Homo habilis, ito ay pinaniniwalaang nagbigay-daan sa pagdating ng Homo
erectus, mapanga, halos walang noo, kumakain ng karne at gulay, nakatayo sa paglalakad,
iba-iba ang kagamitan at gumagamit ng apoy, iba-iba ang tirahan. Mula sa Aprika,
nakarating ito hanggang sa Heidelberg (Alemanya), Beijing (China) at Java ( Indonesia) ayon
sa mga labing natagpuan doon. Ang mga labing natagpuan sa Tsina ay tinawag na Taong
Peking at ang nahukay sa Indonesia ay Taong Java. Sa Homo rectus nagmulan ng Homo
sapiens, mataas ang noo, kumakain ng karne at gulay, nakatayo at nakakalakad ng tuwid,
kung saan-saan nakatira, may mga kasangkapang yari sa bato, metal, kemikal, elektronik at
nukleyar. Ang Homo sapiens ang tao ngayon.
May ibang uri din ng tao ang unang lumitaw sa mundo, may tinatawag naNeanderthal at
mga Cro-Magnon, malapad at makapal ang kanilang mga bungo, higit na malaki ang laman
ng utak kaysa utak ng tao ngayon. Ang mga Cro-Magnon man ay higit na malaking utak
kaysa sa atin, mas matangkad kaysa sa atin, malaki ang katawan, sila ay nabuhay sa
Gitnang Asya at Europa.
Hindi naniniwala ang maraming antropologo na tayo ay nanggaling sa uri ng mga taong
ito. Ang hinala ng iba, tulad ng siyentipikong si Carl Sagan, maaaring malaki ang mga
katawan at utak nila subalit nahigitan naman ng itinuturing na mga ninuno natin ang Homo
habilis, sa abilidad kung kayat nandito pa tayo ay matagal na silang wala
7 COMPUTER ERGONOMICS TIPS
Computer Ergonomics Tip #1: Invest in a comfortable office chair.
If you are going to be spending a fair bit of time doing computer work, you should buy the
best quality chair you can afford. Actual ergonomic office chairs, such as this Human
Freescale Ergonomic Office Chair designed to suit your body, your workplace, and the tasks
you perform there, are available.
Whatever type of office chair you purchase, make sure that you adjust it correctly.
Positioning the chair so you are at an upright 90 degree angle when seated is not the right

position for good computer ergonomics; you should actually be slightly reclined. This
diagram from Chris Adams, About.com Ergonomics, shows the proper ergonomic chair set up
and posture.
Computer Ergonomics Tip #2: Move regularly.
Holding any single position for a long period of time is bad for the body.
Period. So it should be no surprise that one of the best things you can do in terms of
computer ergonomics is to change position frequently.
Shift the position of your legs. Stop typing for a moment and dangle your arms at the side of
your chair. Shrug your shoulders occasionally. And don't forget the eyes. Look away from the
computer screen at something more distant such as a clock on the wall every ten minutes or
so.
You should also take regular breaks, where you get up and walk around for a bit, stretch or
do a few simple exercises.
Computer Ergonomics Tip #3: Position the monitor correctly.
The correct monitor position, from a computer ergonomics point of view, is one where when
you look at the monitor, your neck is in the neutral position, neither bent down nor craned
up. If you drew a line from your eyes to the screen, the line would strike the screen about
one quarter of the way down.
Your back, as discussed in the first computer ergonomics tip about proper body position
while seated, will be slightly reclined. You should never be leaning or straining forward to see
whatevers on your computer screen while doing computer work.
Having a monitor with a movable slide that lets you lower or raise the monitor will make it
much easier to get your screen into the right position.

Computer Ergonomics Tip #4: Position the keyboard correctly.

It should not be on your lap or on top of the desk. Good computer ergonomics dictate that
the keyboard be positioned below the desk on a keyboard pullout tray. This helps ensure that
your wrists and forearms stay in the neutral position.
The keyboard should also be tilted away from the user. "Using a lowered keyboard holder on
a preset tilt away from the user can help prevent carpal tunnel," according to the results
from a 1995 Cornell study, and encourages a healthier seated posture (Ronda
Crenshaw,Ergonomics 102; Creating a Healthy Workstation).
There are more computer ergonomics tips that you can use to stay healthy and be more
productive on the next page...
Computer Ergonomics Tip #5: The right mouse in the right place.

Sit with your elbows close to your body and place your hands on your desk with your
forearms extended naturally. The space that you can move your hands over without moving
your elbows away from your body is the neutral reach zone. For good computer ergonomics,
you never want to have to reach out of this space to use a mouse.
Ideally, your mouse should be next to your keyboard on your keyboard tray.
Your keyboard tray should have space on either side to allow you to switch over and mouse
with your other hand if you start experiencing pain or tingling while mousing.
For this reason, you should be sure to purchase and use a symmetrical mouse that you can
use in either hand.
Computer Ergonomics Tip #6: Make sure your workspace is properly lit.
The two things to remember when you're trying to properly light your workspace is that
different tasks require different lighting and that different people need different amounts of
light to accomplish the same task.
Reading a document, for instance, requires four to five times more light than does viewing a
monitor, while people in their sixties require approximately 350% more contrast than do
people in their twenties, points out Ronda Crenshaw (Ergonomics 102; Creating a Healthy
Workstation).
Your main computer ergonomics goals are to ensure that there is no glare on the monitor
and that the work area is not overly bright. Chris Adams, About.com Ergonomics, says that
your office should be moderately bright (20-50 foot candles or equal to a nice day where
sunglasses aren't needed) (Guide to Setting Up an Ergonomic Workstation).
Strategic task lighting to supplement your main lighting will work well to accommodate
different tasks.
Computer Ergonomics Tip #7: Have everything necessary within easy reach.
I said in an earlier computer ergonomics tip that you should be moving around regularly
while engaged in computer work. However, that doesn't mean that you should be stretching
to your utmost to reach something. Forcing your body into extreme postures, even briefly,
can lead to injury.
So another important aspect of computer ergonomics is the organization of your workspace.
Everything that you use regularly when engaged in computer work should be within easy
reach when you are seated at your desk in your working position. The less often you use
something, the further away from you it can be. For more tips on getting and keeping your
workspace organized, see Organize Your Office and Improve Your Office Design.

TYPES OF COMPUTER
Analog Computers: These are almost extinct today. These are different from a digital
computer because an analog computer can perform several mathematical operations
simultaneously. It uses continuous variables for mathematical operations and utilizes
mechanical or electrical energy.
Digital Computers: They use digital circuits and are designed to operate on two states,
namely bits 0 and 1. They are analogous to states ON and OFF. Data on these computers is
represented as a series of 0s and 1s. Digital computers are suitable for complex computation
and have higher processing speeds. They are programmable. Digital computers are either
general purpose computers or special purpose ones. General purpose computers, as their
name suggests, are designed for specific types of data processing while general purpose
computers are meant for general use.
Hybrid Computers: These computers are a combination of both digital and analog
computers. In this type of computers, the digital segments perform process control by
conversion of analog signals to digital ones.
Mainframe Computers: Large organizations use mainframes for highly critical
applications such as bulk data processing and ERP. Most of the mainframe computers have
capacities to host multiple operating systems and operate as a number of virtual machines.
They can substitute for several small servers.
Microcomputers: A computer with a microprocessor and its central processing unit is
known as a microcomputer. They do not occupy space as much as mainframes do. When
supplemented with a keyboard and a mouse, microcomputers can be called personal
computers. A monitor, a keyboard and other similar input-output devices, computer memory

in the form of RAM and a power supply unit come packaged in a microcomputer. These
computers can fit on desks or tables and prove to be the best choice for single-user tasks.
Desktop Computers: A desktop computer is intended to be used on a single location.
The spare parts of a desktop computer are readily available at relatively lower costs. Power
consumption is not as critical as that in laptops. Desktop computers are widely popular for
daily use in the workplace and households.
Laptops: Similar in operation to desktop computers, laptop computers are miniaturized
and optimized for mobile use. Laptops run on a single battery or an external adapter that
charges the computer batteries. They are enabled with an inbuilt keyboard, touch pad acting
as a mouse and a liquid crystal display. Their portability and capacity to operate on battery
power have proven to be of great help to mobile users.
Netbooks: They fall in the category of laptops, but are inexpensive and relatively smaller
in size. They had a smaller feature set and lesser capacities in comparison to regular
laptops, at the time they came into the market. But with passing time, netbooks too began
featuring almost everything that notebooks had. By the end of 2008, netbooks had begun to
overtake notebooks in terms of market share and sales.
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs): It is a handheld computer and popularly known as
a palmtop. It has a touch screen and a memory card for storage of data. PDAs can also be
used as portable audio players, web browsers and smartphones. Most of them can access
the Internet by means of Bluetooth or Wi-Fi communication.
Minicomputers: In terms of size and processing capacity, minicomputers lie in between
mainframes and microcomputers. Minicomputers are also called mid-range systems or
workstations. The term began to be popularly used in the 1960s to refer to relatively smaller
third generation computers. They took up the space that would be needed for a refrigerator
or two and used transistor and core memory technologies. The 12-bit PDP-8 minicomputer of
the Digital Equipment Corporation was the first successful minicomputer.
Servers: They are computers designed to provide services to client machines in a
computer network. They have larger storage capacities and powerful processors. Running on
them are programs that serve client requests and allocate resources like memory and time
to client machines. Usually they are very large in size, as they have large processors and
many hard drives. They are designed to be fail-safe and resistant to crash.
Supercomputers: The highly calculation-intensive tasks can be effectively performed by
means of supercomputers. Quantum physics, mechanics, weather forecasting, molecular
theory are best studied by means of supercomputers. Their ability of parallel processing and
their well-designed memory hierarchy give the supercomputers, large transaction processing
powers.
Wearable Computers: A record-setting step in the evolution of computers was the
creation of wearable computers. These computers can be worn on the body and are often
used in the study of behavior modeling and human health. Military and health professionals
have incorporated wearable computers into their daily routine, as a part of such studies.
When the users' hands and sensory organs are engaged in other activities, wearable
computers are of great help in tracking human actions. Wearable computers do not have to
be turned on and off and remain in operation without user intervention.
Tablets: Tablets are mobile computers that are very handy to use. They use the touch
screen technology. Tablets come with an onscreen keyboard or use a stylus or a digital pen.
Apple's iPad redefined the class of tablets.