Putting imagery to good affect:

A case study among youth swimmers

Paul J. McCarthy

ENTAL IMAGERY has a special relationship with emotion (Holmes &

Mathews, 2005; Kosslyn, 1994). In
sport, this relationship is apparent when we
recall pleasant emotions with images of
success and unpleasant emotions with images
of failure (Paivio, 1985). Intuitively, success
and failure invoke positive and negative
images and researchers have established that
positive images lead to performance improvement whereas negative images lead to
performance deterioration (Taylor & Shaw,
2002; Beilock et al., 2001). The emotional
content of these images and the influence of
these images on emotions, however, has
received limited examination in a sport
context. For instance, MacIntyre and Moran
(2007) observed that the taxonomy of
imagery functions developed by Hall et al.
(1998) lacked an adequate explanation for
negative imagery and associated emotions in
athletes. In addition, the recently developed
Motor Imagery Integrative Model in Sport
(Guillot & Collet, 2008) includes anxiety but
no other specific emotions are discussed;
however, emotion is included in Holmes and
Collins (2001) PETTLEP approach to motor
imagery emphasising its role in strengthening
the memory trace (Lang 1985). In short,
emotion is acknowledged in imagery
research, but the link is not well understood
(Holmes & Mathews, 2005; Jones et al., 2002).
Emotions are ubiquitous in sport. And
positive emotions such as sport enjoyment
serve many functions. For example, it is a
characteristic of peak experiences (Cohn,
1991), flow states (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)
and is a powerful determinant of long-term
commitment to sport (Carpenter et al.,
1993). In other words, when people enjoy
themselves, they tend to perform favourably
Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 5 No. 1
The British Psychological Society 2009

and continue participating (McCarthy &

Jones, 2007; McCarthy et al., 2008). Youth
athletes, in particular, crave enjoyment
which they get by mastering sport skills. A
tennis player who feels she can master her
tennis skills feels competent, enjoys tennis
and shows a functional pattern of behaviours
including persistence, effort, and long-term
involvement. Promoting positive feelings
may be possible using mental imagery. To
explain, Paivios (1985) framework for the
functional analysis of imagery proposed
mental imagery serving cognitive and motivational functions operating on general and
specific levels. Motivational functions
include goal-oriented responses and arousal
management while cognitive functions
involve skill rehearsal and strategies of play
functions that could enhance ones competence and positive feelings. Despite this
conceptual proposal, limited experimental
research supports imagery having a motivational and emotional function (Callow et al.,
2001). In addition, contemporary research
among elite athletes suggests that the motivational function of imagery is usually overstated (McIntyre & Moran, 2007); however,
the function of mental imagery for youths
may differ compared with elite athletes
because of youths basic need to demonstrate competence and enjoy sport
(McCarthy & Jones, 2007).
Hall et al. (1998) used Paivios (1985)
original taxonomy of imagery function to
develop the Sport Imagery Questionnaire
(SIQ). The SIQ measures athletes use of five
types of imagery: Cognitive-General (CG; e.g.
executing sport skills); Cognitive-Specific
(CS; e.g. imaging successful strategies in
sport); Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M;
e.g. being confident and mastering chal27

Paul J. McCarthy

lenging situations); Motivational GeneralArousal (MG-A; e.g. imagining feelings associated

with
competition);
and
Motivational-Specific (MS; e.g. imagining
achieving a specific goal). Research among
youth athletes indicated that although they
use different types of imagery, MG-M imagery
is used most often (Cumming et al., 2002;
Harwood et al., 2003) perhaps fulfilling a
need for competence. Jones et al. (2002)
used MG-M and MG-A imagery to modify
cognitions and helped novice climbers to
respond with a more positive emotional state
in a stressful situation. This study offers a
foundation for future intervention research
among children and adolescents; however,
the effectiveness of mental imagery interventions among this age group remains limited
(Strachan & Munroe-Chandler, 2007).
Youths pass through different stages of cognitive development as they mature (Piaget,
1952), affecting their ability to understand
and use psychological skills such as mental
imagery without adequate social support. For
instance, children aged 7 to 11 (concrete
operational phase) reason logically, yet their
ability to solve problems and think in abstract
terms is underdeveloped compared with
children aged 12 and older (formal operational phase). Research among children indicated that visual and kinaesthetic imagery
ability improves from the concrete operational phase to the formal operational phase
(Wolmer et al., 1999) suggesting mental
imagery is an appropriate skill to study
among children and adolescents (Strachan &
Munroe-Chandler, 2007). Piagets work,
however, did not recognise the influence of
social processes in cognitive development
(Vygotsky, 1981) where peers and adults,
more able than the child, can contribute to
the childs learning. In this instance, a sport
psychologist may facilitate a child learning to
use mental imagery by shaping the childs
lower mental functions to integrate higher
mental functions during these formative
years (Foster & Weigand, 2008).
In summary, research on the relationship
between mental imagery and emotion and
28

the role of cognitive development in imagery

interventions remains limited in the sport
psychology literature. To redress this imbalance, this case study introduced three
competitive youth swimmers to MG-M
imagery to enhance their affective experiences in swimming. MG-M imagery represents coping and mastering challenges such
as being confident and focused during
competition and these experiences foster
positive affective responses (Jones et al.,
2002). Positive affective responses are indicative of sport enjoyment, which positively
influences sport commitment among youth
athletes (Carpenter et al., 1993).

Method
Participants
Three competitive youth swimmers participated in this eight-week intervention
comprising two 15-year-old females and one
13-year-old male. All swimmers possessed a
minimum of three years competitive swimming experience and competed at county
and regional level in central England. Prescreening established no participant had
previously received training in mental
imagery or used the imagery technique
before or during performance. Parents of
each child provided informed written
consent before participating.
Experimental design
A multiple-baseline design examined the
effects of a MG-M imagery intervention on
the affective responses of competitive youth
swimmers. This design allowed an evaluation
of the imagery influence upon affective
responses at the point when each participant
received the intervention (Kazdin, 1982).
Dependent Variables
Motivational General-Mastery Imagery
Motivational general-mastery imagery was
assessed using the SIQ (Hall et al., 1998).
The SIQ consists of 30 items comprising five
subscales, on which athletes rate how
frequently they image the suggested item.
Each subscale contains six items and athletes
Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 5 No. 1

Putting imagery to good affect

rate how often they use each type of imagery

on a seven-point Likert scale (1=rarely and
7=often). Exploratory and confirmatory
factor analyses have verified the five-factor
structure of the SIQ and demonstrated
acceptable internal reliabilities (Hall et al.,
1997, 1998).
Movement imagery ability
Movement imagery ability was measured
using the revised Movement Imagery Ability
Questionnaire (MIQ-R). Visual and kinaesthetic imagery were measured using the
MIQ-R (Hall & Martin, 1997). The MIQ-R is
a shortened version of the Movement
Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ; Hall &
Pongrac, 1983). This eight-item inventory
asks participants to image actions either visually or kinaesthetically and then assign a
value to the vividness of their image on a
seven-point Likert scale (1=very hard to
see/feel and 7=very easy to see/feel).
Swimming affective responses
Participants responded to two subscales that
measured positive and negative affect
(Watson et al., 1988) after swimming
training. The positive affect subscale consists
of 10 items (interested, alert, excited,
inspired, strong, determined, attentive,
enthusiastic, active, proud), and the negative
affect subscale consists of 10 items (irritable,
distressed, ashamed, upset, nervous, guilty,
scared, hostile, jittery, afraid). Positive affect
reflects the extent to which a person feels
enthusiastic, active and alert. High positive
affect signals high energy, high concentration and full engagement. Negative affect,
on the other hand, is a general dimension of
subjective distress and unpleasant engagement. Participants rated the extent to which
they felt each of the 20 emotions on a fivepoint scale from not all to extremely after
swimming training.
Social validation questionnaire
After finishing the intervention, participants
completed a post-intervention questionnaire
to provide information on the perceived
Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 5 No. 1

importance of the study and effectiveness of

the intervention. Each participant answered
whether he or she thought the intervention
was acceptable and useful for swimming.
Procedure
The university ethics committee and chairperson of a swimming club in central
England gave permission to conduct this
study. After obtaining parental consent and
child assent, data collection begun. All
participants scored at least a mean of 16 for
the visual and kinaesthetic subscales of the
29

Paul J. McCarthy

MIQ-R as recommend by Callow et al.

(2001). Participants reported their affective
responses to swimming during the baseline
and intervention phase. Each participant
received the intervention at different points,
with a minimum of seven points in a baseline
(Barlow & Hersen, 1984). Participant 1
received the intervention after seven
training sessions, Participant 2 after 10
training sessions, Participant 3 after 13
training sessions. Each participant had equal
numbers of data points across the intervention phase.

Martin, 1996): (a) a stable baseline; (b)

consistency of effect across participants; (c)
fewer number of overlapping data points
between baseline and intervention phases;
(d) immediacy of effect after the intervention; and (e) the magnitude of the effect
during the intervention compared to baseline. Although visual inspection is the traditional method to analyse single subject
data (Parsonson & Baer, 1978), other
researchers have identified some shortcomings in this method (Crosbie, 1993, Fisch,
2001; Kazdin, 1982). For example, visual
inspection decision rules are subject to bias
(Wolery & Harris, 1982), an inability to
detect weak effects (Kazdin, 1982), a biased
judgment due to autocorrelation (Bloom et
al., 2003) and difficulties associated with an
unstable baseline (Kazdin, 1982). Statistical
methods could reduce these weaknesses.
Parametric (e.g. ANOVA, t-test) and nonparametric tests (e.g. Mann-Whitney) can
examine differences between baseline and
intervention groups of scores. Parametric
tests, however, assume independence of
error terms. Adjacent data points, correlated
over time in single-subject designs violate
this assumption, known as serial dependency. Calculating autocorrelations separately
for baseline and intervention data points
resolves this difficulty. If parametric assumptions (i.e. homogeneity of variance, normal
distribution of variables, independence of
data points) are violated, a non-parametric
test should be applied. In addition, unstable
baselines disguise whether a change
occurred because of the intervention, but
statistical analyses account for this occurrence and provide information that may be
difficult to obtain using visual inspection.

Treatment: The Motivational General-Mastery

Imagery Intervention
Psychologists have recommended short
intervention sessions in line with childrens
cognitive development and attention span
(Stallard, 2002, 2005). Therefore, the
imagery training intervention was a 30minute session to maintain each childs
attention. In addition, a psycho-educational
booklet on mental imagery explained and
illustrated the abstract concept of mental
imagery (Stallard, 2002; 2005). The author
attended at least one training session during
each week of the intervention to refresh and
reinforce the material presented in the
initial education session and answer any
questions that the athletes had regarding the
process (Driskell et al., 1994). Participants
imaged for a few minutes at a time when they
practiced imagery and practiced before
bedtime to maintain adherence. Although
Hinshaws (1991) meta-analysis suggested
that imagery sessions of less than one minute
and those between 10 and 15 minutes were
most effective in enhancing performance,
limited information on the effects of
imagery duration on performance or
emotions among children exists.

Results

Data Analysis
Positive and negative affect data. Data were
analysed using visual inspection and statistical analyses. To establish a significant
experimental effect using visual inspection,
five criteria were established (Hrycaiko &

Participant 1
Visual inspection
Participant 1s mean positive affect improved
from baseline (M=2.20) to treatment
(M=2.86) by 30 per cent (Figure 1) and
achieved a relatively stable baseline with only
one overlapping point. The intervention

30

Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 5 No. 1

Putting imagery to good affect

Baseli
ne

4.00

Intervention

3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00

Participant1

0.50
0.00
1

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

6.00

Positive A ff
ect

5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00

Participant2

1.00
0.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50

Participant3

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Training Sessions
Figure 1: Graphic representation of positive affect data for all participants. The vertical line,
on each graph, indicates the point at which the participant received the intervention.

Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 5 No. 1

31

Paul J. McCarthy

revealed an immediate effect upon introduction followed by a general increase in trend

in positive affect. Although negative affect
decreased from a mean of 1.29 in the baseline to 1.01 during post-intervention (a 22
per cent decrease), this effect was not immediate and negative affect remained stable into
the intervention with no difference between
pre- and post-intervention (Figure 2).
Statistical analyses
A t-test examined the change from baseline
to treatment phase in positive and negative
affect. The requirements of normality of
distribution, homoscedasticity, and data
independence were fulfilled for the positive
and negative affect scores. As indicated by
the t-test, change was significant for positive
affect (t=4.00, p=.001) but not negative affect
(t=1.43, p>.05).
Social validation
Participant 1 reported using imagery before
bedtime to prepare for the county swimming
championships. She explained that the
imagery programme helped enhance her
confidence: It made me more confident in
my swimming and in my ability to swim well.
She favoured an external imagery perspective because this perspective allowed her to
examine her stroke in the pool. She
expressed an interest in integrating images
of winning trophies and medals to the
imagery script to make the imagery more
meaningful.
Participant 2
Visual inspection
Participant 2s mean positive affect increased
from baseline (3.84) to treatment (4.43) by
15 per cent but a stable baseline did not
emerge. An immediate increase in positive
affect occurred after the introduction of the
intervention though data points overlapped
from baseline to intervention phase
(Figure 1). Negative affect remained relatively stable from baseline through intervention (Figure 2).

32

Statistical analyses
The requirements of normality of distribution, homoscedasticity, and data independence were fulfilled for the positive and
negative affect scores. Similar to Participant
1, change was significant for positive affect
(t=5.51, p=.001) but not negative affect
(t=1.17, p>.05).
Social validation
Similar to Participant 1, Participant 2 also
reported using imagery to prepare for the
county swimming championships. As well as
improving confidence, Participant 2 also
explained he could visualise races and
plan them out beforehand. He also used an
external imagery perspective to assess his
stroke from the side and above the pool. In
an effort to enhance the imagery
programme, Participant 2 suggested having
imagery scripts for training and competitions.
Participant 3
Visual inspection
Participant 3s mean positive affect increased
from baseline (1.73) to treatment (2.13) by
23 per cent; however, neither a stable baseline nor an immediate effect of the intervention emerged. Many data points overlapped
between baseline and intervention; however,
a general increase in the trend of positive
affect emerged (Figure 1). Negative affect
remained relatively stable with a mean of
1.58 in the baseline to 1.59 during post-intervention. Negative affect fluctuated during
the intervention period. Four overlapping
data points appeared between baseline and
intervention phases (Figure 2). Overall, PA
and NA were not stable and so it is difficult
to reach a firm conclusion about the intervention.
Statistical analyses
The requirements of normality of distribution, homoscedasticity, and data independence were not fulfilled for the positive and
negative affect scores. Therefore, a MannWhitey test was used. As indicated by the
Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 5 No. 1

Putting imagery to good affect

3.50

Baseli
ne

Intervention

3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50

Participant 1

0.00
1

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

2.00

N egativeA ff
ect

1.80
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40

Participant2

0.20
0.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50

Participant3

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Training Sessions
Figure 2: Graphic representation of negative affect data for all participants. The vertical line,
on each graph, indicates the point at which the participant received the intervention.

Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 5 No. 1

33

Paul J. McCarthy

Mann-Whitney test, change was significant

for positive affect (U=53.5, p=.041) but not
negative affect (U=95.0, p=.907).
Social validation
Participant 3 also used imagery before
bedtime but focused on improving specific
weaknesses relating to her swimming stroke.
By doing imagery at night, she explained that
it helped her to sleep well and wake up
determined to swim quickly in the morning.
She also used an external imagery perspective to assess strengths and weaknesses of the
arm movement. In addition to the weekly
follow-ups relating to the imagery intervention, Participant 3 also emphasised a need for
more detailed discussions to ensure the
imagery is done to the best of my ability.

Discussion
This study explored the effect of MG-M
imagery on affective responses among three
competitive youth swimmers. Statistical
analysis showed significant increases in positive affect for all participants supporting the
hypothesis that MG-M imagery could
enhance the positive affect experienced by
competitive youth swimmers. No statistically
significant reduction in negative affect
emerged for these participants. Under visual
inspection, however, Participant 3 did not
show a significant increase in positive affect
after the intervention. Although a mean
increase in positive affect from baseline to
treatment is evident, many overlapping data
points appear and the immediacy of an
effect observed after the intervention is
minimal. Toward the end of the treatment
period, however, the data trend ascends
suggesting a delayed effect of the treatment
(Kazdin, 1982). Researchers in different
sport contexts have shown increases in
performance data after a latency period
(Callow et al., 2001; Shambrook & Bull,
1996). In short, these results show some
promise for MG-M imagery to enhance positive affect among youth sport performers.
Small but reliable changes in affective
responses are noteworthy for psychological
34

well-being and these small changes, when

accrued over an extended period are valuable (Fredrickson, 1998).
All participants reported increases in
visual and kinaesthetic imagery suggesting
an effect of the intervention (see Table 1).
Participant 2 and Participant 3 reported
increases in MS imagery, and participant
three reported an increase in CS imagery.
Although this intervention focused on MGM imagery, no changes in MG-M imagery
emerged after the intervention; nevertheless, the pre-intervention scores for MG-M
imagery were the highest of all five categories in the SIQ for all participants. Participants received an imagery script reflecting
MG-M imagery, however, they used imagery
for other functions (e.g. assessing arm movement and race plans). That these participants used imagery for functions other than
that suggested by the sport psychologist indicates that manipulation of the independent
variable may not be reliable and that imagery
interventions may serve more than one function. These findings emphasise Murphy et
al.s (2008) caution that the efficacy of Hall
et al.s (1998) taxonomic framework is
uncertain and further manipulation checks
during the intervention may provide greater
understanding of the focus and content of
athletes imagery. Interestingly, participants
did not explicitly report affective changes
(e.g. feeling happier) after the intervention
in the social validation questionnaire. With
an MG-M imagery intervention, however,
adescription of changes in confidence rather
than affect was expected and that is what
emerged.
All participants adopted an external
imagery perspective to provide feedback on
swimming performance factors such as arm
movements. Hardy and Callow (1999) indicated that external visual imagery was superior to internal visual imagery for the
acquisition and performance of tasks that
depend on form for successful performance.
Furthermore, Collins et al. (1998) argued
that external imagery followed by kinaesthetic imagery is the perspective sequence
Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 5 No. 1

Putting imagery to good affect

Table 1: SIQa and MIQ-Rb Scores for Pre- and Post-Imagery Training Programme.
Participant 1

Participant 2

Participant 3

Variable

Pre

Post

Pre

Post

Pre

Post

Cognitive-Specific

14

14

33

33

14

19

Cognitive-General

12

12

35

34

19

20

Motivation-Specific

16

17

34

41

14

20

Motivational General-Arousal

13

13

34

33

18

20

Motivational General-Mastery

21

22

36

36

20

21

MIQ-R Visual

23

29

44

53

27

33

MIQ-R Kinaesthetic

25

32

38

42

23

26

Note: aSIQ scores are reported as means for the six items on each sub-scale. A higher score indicates greater imagery use;
b
a higher score indicates higher imagery ability.

used by learners. Because these swimmers

are in specialising years of sport participation (Ct, 1999), and are still learning
swimming strokes, it makes sense that these
participants would use external imagery.
That these swimmers reported using
external rather than internal imagery may
also reflect an instinctive tendency to use an
imagery perspective that provides the
greatest information to improve performance.
At least three lines of research are worthy
of further investigation. First, longitudinal
research could uncover long-term changes
in affective states and motivational variables
due to imagery. In addition, determining
imagery quantity to change performance
and psychological variables such as emotion
and motivation among youths remains an
important question (Morris et al., 2005).
Second, sport psychologists in professional
practice advocate mental imagery to stimulate change in emotion, motivation and
confidence. Future research could provide
additional focus to these imagery functions
rather than using performance as the only
dependent variable. Finally, an in-depth
understanding of how young athletes
acquire and develop imagery skills is lacking
(Murphy & Martin, 2002).
Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 5 No. 1

The present study had at least three limitations with implications for future research.
First, no specific focus on visual or kinaesthetic imagery was emphasised; however,
post-intervention assessments of visual and
kinaesthetic imagery indicated that visual
and kinaesthetic imagery improved for each
participant. Second, one could address the
temporal lag due to learning the skill for
Participant 3 with an extended postintervention phase (Shambrook & Bull, 1996).
Third, the imagery treatment consisted of a
single practice session followed by weekly
manipulation checks to assess what the
participants actually imaged. Although the
participants were instructed to use MG-M
imagery, it transpired that the participants
also used imagery for other functions (e.g.
cognitive-general). Finally, the swimming
coach considered further data collection a
disruption to training, therefore, no postintervention follow-up data was available to
assess the long-term effect of MG-M imagery
on affect or determine whether the participants continued to practice imagery.
Despite these limitations, this study presents methodological strengths and guidance
for the sport psychologist. For example,
using visual inspection, statistical analyses
and the systematic checking of conditions
35

Paul J. McCarthy

required to use appropriate parametric or

non-parametric tests contributed to the
robustness of these findings. Furthermore, a
multiple-baseline design allows one to investigate individual differences among competitive youth athletes, increases our
understanding of the effects of MG-M
imagery on affective responses among this
population, and offers practical guidance for
using mental imagery among youth athletes.
Thus far, only a few imagery studies in sport
(e.g. Callow & Waters, 2005; Casby & Moran,
1998) have used single-case research designs.
Working with youth athletes is challenging
and rewarding. Challenging when one has to
integrate each childs cognitive, emotional
and physical development into an intervention whilst recognising the socioenvironmental (e.g. coach, parents and peers) and
task constraints (e.g. readiness for competition) imposed on them; nevertheless, these
considerations are necessary to enhance a
childs psychological and emotional development through sport. The psychologists
reward is a happy child who perceives
greater control in sport from the social,
emotional
and
educational
support
provided.

36

In summary, three competitive youth

swimmers received an MG-M imagery intervention to enhance affective responses in
swimming. Visual inspection and statistical
analyses established that imagery used in
practice settings could enhance positive
affect in sport. Tailoring interventions to
meet the cognitive developmental needs of
youth athletes and manipulation checks to
determine what athletes are imaging during
interventions is imperative. This study
provides initial support for the use of
imagery among youth athletes for enhancing
positive affective responses.

The author
Paul J. McCarthy (P.McCarthy@staffs.ac.uk),
Centre for Sport and Exercise Research,
Staffordshire University.

Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 5 No. 1

Putting imagery to good affect

References
Barlow, D.H. & Hersen, M. (1984). Single-case
experimental design: Strategies for studying behaviour
change. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Beilock, S., Afremow, J., Rabe, A. & Carr, T. (2001).
Dont miss! The debilitating effects of
suppressive
imagery
on
golf
putting
performance. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology,
23, 200221.
Bloom, M., Fischer, J. & Orme, J.G. (2003).
Evaluating practice: Guidelines for the accountable
professional. New York: Allyn & Bacon.
Callow, N. & Waters, A. (2005). The effect of
kinesthetic imagery on the sport confidence of
flat-race horse jockeys. Psychology of Sport and
Exercise, 6, 443459.
Callow, N., Hardy, L. & Hall, C. (2001). The effects of
a motivational general-mastery imagery
intervention on the sport confidence of highlevel badminton players. Research Quarterly for
Exercise and Sport, 72, 389400.
Casby, A. & Moran, A.P. (1998). Exploring mental
imagery in swimmers: A single-case study.
The Irish Journal of Psychology, 19, 525531.
Carpenter, P.J., Scanlan, T.K., Simons, J.P. & Lobel,
M. (1993). A test of the sport commitment model
using structural equation modelling. Journal of
Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15, 119133.
Cohn, P.J. (1991). An exploratory study of sources of
stress and athlete burnout in youth golf. The Sport
Psychologist, 4, 95106.
Collins, D.J., Smith, D. & Hale, B.D. (1998). Imagery
perspectives and karate performance. Journal of
Sports Sciences, 16, 103104.
Ct, J. (1999). The influence of the family in the
development of talent in sport. The Sport
Psychologist, 13, 395417.
Crosbie, J. (1993). Interrupted time-series analysis
with brief single-subject data. Journal of Consulting
and Clinical Psychology, 6, 966974.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of
optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row.
Cumming, J.C., Hall, C.J., Harwood, C. & Gammage,
K. (2002). Motivational orientations and imagery
use: A goal perspective. Journal of Sports Sciences,
20, 127136.
Driskell, J.E., Copper, C. & Moran, A. (1994). Does
mental practice enhance performance? Journal of
Applied Psychology, 79, 481492.
Fisch, G.S. (2001). Evaluating data from behavioural
analysis: Visual inspection or statistical models?
Behavioural Processes, 54, 137154.
Foster, D.J. & Weigand, D.A. (2008). The role of
cognitive and metacognitive development in
mental skills training. Sport & Exercise Psychology
Review, 4(1), 2129.
Fredrickson, B.L. (1998). What good are positive
emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2, 300319.

Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 5 No. 1

Guillot, A. & Collet, C. (2008). Construction of the

Motor Imagery Integrative Model in Sport:
A review and theoretical investigation of motor
imagery use. International Review of Sport and
Exercise Psychology, 1, 3144.
Hall, C.R. & Martin, K.A. (1997). Measuring
movement imagery abilities: A revision of the
movement imagery questionnaire. Journal of
Mental Imagery, 21, 143154.
Hall, C.R., Mack, D.A., Paivio, A. & Hausenblas, H.A.
(1998). Imagery use by athletes: Development of
the Sport Imagery Questionnaire. International
Journal of Sport Psychology, 29, 7389.
Hall, C.R., Moritz, S.E. & Mack, D.A. (1997). Factor
structure of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire. Paper
presented at the North American Society for the
Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity
(NASPSPA), Denver, CO.
Hall, C.R. & Pongrac, J. (1983). Movement imagery
questionnaire. University of Western Ontario,
London.
Hardy, L. & Callow, N. (1999). Efficacy of external
and internal visual imagery perspectives for the
enhancement of performance on tasks in which
form is important. Journal of Sport & Exercise
Psychology, 21, 95112.
Harter, S. (1978). Effectance motivation reconsidered:
Toward a developmental model. Human
Development, 21, 3464.
Harter, S. (1981). The development of competence
motivation in the mastery of cognitive and
physical skills: Is there still a place for joy?
In C.H. Nadeau (Ed.), Psychology of motor
behaviour and sport (pp.329). Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.
Harwood, C., Cumming, J.C. & Hall, C. (2003).
Imagery use in elite youth sport participants:
Reinforcing the applied significance of
achievement goal theory. Research Quarterly for
Exercise and Sport, 74, 292300.
Hinshaw, K.E. (1991). The effects of mental practice
on motor skill performance: Critical evaluation
and meta-analysis. Imagination, Cognition and
Personality, 11, 235.
Holmes, E.A. & Mathews, A. (2005). Mental imagery
and emotion: A special relationship? Emotion, 5,
489497.
Hrycaiko, D. & Martin, G. (1996). Applied research
studies with single-subject designs: Why so few?
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 8, 183199.
Jones, M.V., Mace, R.D., Bray, S.R., MacRae, A. &
Stockbridge, C. (2002). The impact of
motivational imagery on the emotional state and
self-efficacy levels of novice climbers. Journal of
Sport Behaviour, 25, 5773.

37

Paul J. McCarthy
Kazdin, A.E. (1982). Single case research designs:
Methods for clinical and applied settings. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Kosslyn, S.M. (1994). Image and brain: The resolution of
the imagery debate. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Lang, P.J. (1985). The cognitive psychophysiology of
emotion: Fear and anxiety. In A.H. Tuma & J.D.
Maser (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorder
(pp.131170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
MacIntyre, T. & Moran, A. (2007). A qualitative
investigation of meta-imagery processes and
imagery direction among elite athletes. Journal of
Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity, 2(4),
120.
McCarthy, P.J., Jones, M.V. & Clark-Carter, D. (2008).
Understanding enjoyment in youth sport:
A developmental perspective. Psychology of Sport
and Exercise, 9, 142156.
McCarthy, P.J. & Jones, M.V. (2007). A qualitative
study of sport enjoyment in the sampling years.
The Sport Psychologist, 21, 400416.
Morris, T., Spittle, M. & Watt, A.P. (2005). Imagery in
sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Murphy, S.M. & Martin, K.A. (2002). The use of
imagery in sport. In T.S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in
sport psychology (2nd ed., pp.405429).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Murphy, S.M., Nordin, S.M. & Cumming, J. (2008).
Imagery in sport, exercise and dance. In T.S.
Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology (3rd ed.,
pp.297324). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Paivio, A. (1985). Cognitive and motivational
functions of imagery in human performance.
Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 10,
22S28S.
Parsonson, B.S. & Baer, D.M. (1978). The analysis
and presentation of graphic data. In T.R.
Kratochwill (Ed.), Single subject research: Strategies
for evaluating change (pp.101165). New York:
Academic Press.

38

Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children.

New York: International Universities Press.
Shambrook, C.J. & Bull, S.J. (1996). The use of a
single-case research design to investigate the
efficacy of imagery training. Journal of Applied
Sport Psychology, 8, 2743.
Stallard, P. (2005). A clinicians guide to Think Good
Feel Good: Using CBT with children and young people.
Chichester: Wiley.
Stallard, P. (2002). Think Good Feel Good: A cognitive
behaviour therapy workbook for children and young
people. Chichester: Wiley.
Strachan, L. & Munroe-Chandler, K. (2007). Using
imagery to predict self-confidence and anxiety in
young elite athletes. Journal of Imagery Research in
Sport and Physical Activity, 1(3), 119.
Taylor, J. & Shaw, D. (2002). The effects of outcome
imagery on golf-putting performance. Journal of
Sports Sciences, 20, 607613.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1981). The development of higher
forms of attention in childhood. In J.V. Wertsch
(Ed.), The concept of activity in Soviet psychology.
Armonk, NY: Sharpe.
Watson, D., Clark, L.A. & Tellegen, A. (1988).
Development and validation of brief measures of
positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54,
10631070.
Wolery, M. & Harris, S.R. (1982). Interpreting results
of single-subject research designs. Physical
Therapy, 62, 445452.
Wolmer, L., Laor, N. & Torne, P. (1999). Image
control from childhood to adolescence.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 89, 471485.

Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 5 No. 1