84

MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW

Vol.uMell3

A Simple Scheme for Objective Analysis in Curved Flow '

-

STANLEY G. BENJAMIN

Program for Regional Observing and Forecasting Services, NOAA, Environmental Research Laboratories, Boulder, C0 80303
and National Centerfor Atmospheric Research*, Boulder. C0 80307

NELSON L; SEAMAN
Department ofMeteorology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
(Manuscript received 21 February 1984, in nal form l4 March 1985)
ABSTRACT

An objective analysis scheme has been developed which combines use of three different weighting functions,
two of which are anisotropic (elliptical and banana-shaped). The effective distance between a grid point
and an observation point used for the anisotropic functions may be applied in any objective analysis scheme
which uses distance to calculate weights or correlations, but a successive-correction scheme is used here as a
vehicle for testing. This relatively simple and computationally inexpensive scheme produces wind and
moisture analyses in which along-ow autocorrelation is accentuated, especially in regions of curved ow,
and thus simulates conventional subjective analysis procedures. Sample analyses from a case study are
presented which demonstrate the improvement which may result from using this scheme rather than one
with the circular weighting function alone.
,
In tests with an analytically dened, curving jet stream, the multiple weighting function scheme with the
banana tnction was superior to schemes using the circular function either alone or with an elliptical
function for all of the error statistics considered, including a 30% reduction in rms vector error.
This objective analysis scheme also includes an alternative method for calculating corrections at individual
grid points which is designed to eliminate discontinuities which may occur when more common correction
methods are applied. Additional analytical tests and sample analyses conrm that the new correction method

decreases noise in gradients (e.g., vorticity, divergence) of analyzed elds which result with the use of other
correction methods in data-sparse regions or over the entire domain when the ratio between the grid space
and the mean station separation is small (S-10%). The analytical tests also indicate that the new correction
method performs slightly better than other methods for the analyzed variable itself (as well as the gradient)
regardless of the scale.

1. Introduction
An eicient scheme is presented for objective analysis in situations with curved ow. A hierarchy of
three weighting functions is used, including two anisotropic functions, banana-shaped and elliptical, and
the isotropic circular function. Although these functions are incorporated into a successive-correction
scheme in this paper, the principles on which they
are based may be used in any objective analysis
scheme which uses observation point-to-grid point
distance to calculate weights or correlations.
The resulting scheme accentuates along-ow autocorrelation of analyzed variables, similar to that frequently observed in the atmosphere, while only minimally increasing computational expense. It also virtually eliminates gradient discontinuity problems often
found in regions of low or sharply changing data
density, encountered with some objective analysis
techniques.
"' The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored
by the National Science Foundation.
ti-1-rig-i

1985 American Meteorological Society

The importance of objective analysis of meteorological variables, especially for accurate and computationally efficient initialization of numerical forecast
models, has been manifested in the development of
increasingly sophisticated techniques during the past
30 years. Some of the earliest schemes for meteorological objective analysis used polynomial tting techniques (Panofsky, 1949; Gilchrist and Cressman,
1954; Johnson, 1957). Later, distance-dependent
weighting functions were introduced (Bergthorssen
and Diiiis, 1955) and simplied by employing the
method of successive corrections (Cressman, 1959).
In Cressmans scheme, a rst-guess eld (from a
previous forecast or analysis) is modied by obser-

vations using a weighting function ranging from 0.0

to 1.0 which produces a circular area of inuence
around each observation point.
More recently, Endlich and Mancuso (1968), Inman

(1970), and Ceselski and Sapp (1975) incorporated

into their objective analysis schemes elliptical weighting functions oriented with the major axis along the

wind direction. A number of other approaches to the

JULY 1985

STANLEY G. BENJAMIN

objective analysis problem have been suggested, such

as spectral least squares ts (Flattery, 1967), the
variational method of incorporating various dynamic
constraints (Sasaki, 1958), techniques designed to

AND NELSON L. SEAMAN

1185

of the three weighting functions and their transition

criteria is given in Section 3. Results of tests with this
scheme are shown in Section 4, followed by a summary in Section 5.

obtain any desired level of detail (Barnes, 1964), and

optimum (statistical) interpolation (Gandin, 1963;

Schlatter, 1975). Of these recent methods, optimum

interpolation has become the most widely employed
at facilities charged with operational numerical forecast responsibilities and is now used at national
centers in the United States, the Soviet Union, Canada, France, Great Britain, Australia, and at the

2. Formulation of anisotropic weighting functions

elongated along straight and curved streamlines
Several requirements governed the development of
anisotropic weighting functions in this study. It was

European Centre for Medium Range Weather Fore-

considered important that the functions maintain

similar shape for dicrent isopleths (from 0.0 to 1.0),
and that the banana (curved) weighting function

casts (R. McPherson, personal communication, 1984).

mathematically approach the elliptical weighting

ln part because of the computational expense of function as the curvature approached zero. The axis
optimum interpolation, especially in its multivariate of maximum elongation should not deviate signiform, variations of the relatively simple successive- cantly from the observed streamline curvature. A
correction method continue to be widely applied for simple method to vary elongation with wind speed
meteorological objective analysis.
was needed. We also required a functional form
Satellite imagery has conrmed the characteristic
streakiness of meteorological variables, particularly

similar to that of Cressman (1959), which smoothly

approaches a value of zero (without a zero-order

wind and moisture, which has been taken into account

for decades in conventional subjective analysis pro-

discontinuity) as distance from grid point to observation point increases to some critical maximum

cedures. Spatial autocorrelation is generally higher

distance. The Cressman (1959) isotropic circular

weighting function has the form

along-ow than cross-ow for these variables, particularly in such crucial features as jets, moist and dry

tongues, conveyor belts (Browning, 1971), and

R2 - d?-k
Wfjk =

fOI'

dijk < R

Wijk = 0

fOI'

dgjk .2 R

other subsynoptic scale features. For wind maxima,

this is generally due to the elongated nature of frontal

zones. Moisture streakiness, on the other hand, is
usually associated with patterns of horizontal advoction. Rasmussen (1982) has demonstrated using sta-

where R is an arbitrary but constant radius of inuence

and djjk the distance from the grid point (i, j) to an

tistical methods that anisotropic functions oriented

observation point k. Finally, the function must not

along the wind are signicantly superior to isotropic

functions as correlation models for the relative humidity eld at all levels above 1000 m. Moreover, he

increase greatly the computation effort required for

the objective analysis scheme.

also found that the optimum degree of anisotropy is

a. Straight ow

proportional to wind speed. The National Meteoro-

Inman (1970) suggested a weighting function similar

to Cressmans to enhance along-ow spatial autocor-

logical Center currently incorporates anisotropy in

correlation functions for moisture analysis using optimum interpolation (Dey and Morone, 1985).
Although elliptical weighting functions produce
improved analyses for straight ow, especially on the

mesoscale (Sasaki, 1971), satellite observations also

frequently indicate considerable curvature in streaked
features. Deciencies were noted by the authors in
successive-correction analyses using the circular and

elliptical weighting functions in areas of high wind

speed and strong curvature in numerical studies of
mesoscale severe storm development (Anthes et al.,
1982). This demonstrated the need for a simple
curved ellipse or banana-shaped weighting function
for use in curved ow.
Such a banana-shaped function is described in

Section 2 along with an elliptical function used for

relation of objectively analyzed meteorological variables. His function has the form

- d%,,,
.W~ = R3
--
R3 + d,?,-,,

(2)

where Rf = R2(1 + BIV,-J-I cos20), ,8 is a constant of

elongation, normally 0.02 to 0.20 [s m"] and

C059 = (Dijk'vij)/(|vij|dijk)-

Here V,-J, = wind at a grid point (i, j) [m s"], and

D,-J-k is the position vector from the grid point (i, j)

to observation point k and other variables are as
dened in (1). This function is of the same form as
Cressmans isotropic function, but is elongated in the
direction of the wind according to the factor

straight flow situations. A description of corrections

to the rst-guess variable elds by the successive-

Eij(iVl) = (1 + 6lviji)l/2-

correction objective analysis scheme combining use

However, the (1 + cos20) form of the Inman function

(3)

1136

MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW

produces a peanut-shaped (i.e., lobed) area of inuence

for which the lobes increase in size as the product

46|V,-J,-I increases. The peanut-shaped region might be

useful at a point experiencing upstream conuence
and downstream diuence. However, since this cannot

be assumed to be the general case, a simple elliptical

shape should be preferred.
To improve general applicability, a true elliptical
weighting function was developed in the form
_
Wijk

R2 d,,,2

--iz2 ,

'

R + dm

.0,
where

if dmz < R2
'

(4)

if d,,,2 2 R2,

'
dmz = (_x_'2 + ya)
Ek2(|V|)

of inuence is centered at the grid points rather than

the observation points. The relative complexity of the
Bergman-Carlson function and its variation of elon-

gation with weight (less elongation as weight approaches 1.0) are disadvantages. Also the region of
inuence specied by their scheme prescribes a 360
annulus shape. While this shape may be well-suited
to analysis of nearly circular vortices, it is less appropriate for midlatitude regimes for which higher velocities are correlated with open wave structures.
The banana weighting function developed in this

study is designed to have the same simple form as

the circular function suggested by Cressman (1959).
It is written as
R2 ___

__

if

dmz

R2

0,

= [(-Xi; _ -xk)uk + (yr; ""' J/1<)v1<l/lvkl

_,

if d,,,2 2 R2

where R is an arbitrary radius of inuence in the

cross-ow direction at the observation point, and

3/" = k ' (Dijk X Vk)/lvkl = dijk Sing

2(6

6I_.)2

1/2

"" _ [rkE1:;(lVI)J + (I'M H ")2l

= [(30,-' "' Xi)"/< (yr; '" J/1<)u1<]/|Vk|

'

and
R

m2

WiJ'k ""'

X = (Dijk ' V1<)/ |vk| = dijk C059

E1<(|Vl) = (1 + l3|Vk|)1/2

VOLUMEII3

Ek |V|

+ V32)/2,

radius of inuence in the direction

normal to the wind at the observation point

X,_]/

Cartesian coordinate position of grid

point (i, j) or observation point

(k)

Vk = iuk + jvk

i, j, k

horizontal wind vector in Cartesian

coordinates for the kth observation point
unit vectors for the two horizontal
and one vertical dimensions.

This functional form is similar to that of Ceselski

and Sapp (1975) and a modied function of Inman
(1970).
~
b. Curved ow

rk

streamline radius of curvature at observation

point (k)
r,-,- distance from Ck to grid point (i, j)
Ck streamline center of curvature for observation
point (k)
6;, azimuthal angle at center of curvature (Ck) coun-

terclockwise from the x-coordinate direction

to the observation point (k). For wind direction

6,-J

D (mathematical angle in radians), and sign

of radius of curvature S (cyclonic dened
positive), 6;, = D Srr/2
azimuthal angle at center of curvature (Ck) counterclockwise from the x-coordinate direction
to grid point (i, j)

E:<(|V|) = (1 + B|V1<|)2-

Several attempts have been made to develop

The geometric relationship of these variables is por-

weighting functions for curved ows. Inman (1970)

adapted his weighting scheme to account for curvature

trayed in Fig. 1. The variables rk, Bk, Ek(|V|) and the

grid coordinates of Ck are calculated only once for

in the rst-guess ow eld. Again, however, the lobes

each observation. The other variables, w,-J-k, r,-J-, 6,-J-,

and dm are calculated for every grid point in the

which developed at higher elongation interfered with

the preferred curved ellipse (banana) shape. In addition, the axis of maximum elongation of Inmans

functions deviate considerably from the curved

streamline. Another banana-shaped weighting function

was described by Bergman and Carlson (1975) for

objective analysis of aircraft observations in tropical
cyclones. The elongation of the inuence area of their
scheme is constant for all wind speeds but varies with
radius of curvature, and their distance-weighted region

vicinity of observation point k for which dmz < R2.

The modied distance dm represents a mapping from
Cartesian to modied polar coordinates in which the
actual tangential distance, rkA6 = x,, is divided by
the elongation factor. Thus, the line segment dm in

Fig. l is curved since it is dened in polar coordinates.

The use of a modied or effective distance (dm) from
grid point to observation point is the underlying
concept used to develop the banana (5) and elliptical

JULY 1985

STANLEY G. BENJ.AMlN AND NELSON 1.. SEAMAN

1187

cedure has been tested, and while it produced reasonable curvature elds, the rst (relative vorticity)
method is recommended if a rst-guess wind eld

North

exists, due to its simplicity and usually greater accuI;_-I

Q

rnhh

Piilqrid point)
""'Ilu_.

\\

-"L-.

//

"-.
/

u- //

'14

c k leli
center of

curvature

bservotion point)

\
'5"
./._' \
'ar

-2"

\ curved streamline
(passing through Pk
.............

3 _,

I11 Q @ -0

----rw

racy. If rst guess elds of both winds and heights

are unavailable, a preliminary wind analysis may be
produced with the circular weighting function from
which rk may then be computed.
In one experiment (not shown), the radius of
curvature rk, was recalculated after each of three
successive scans. Although this improved the accuracy
of rk, there was little change in the resultant meteorological analyses (e.g., analyzed winds changed less

than 1 m s*). This test, plus numerous applications

in which only rk of the rst guess eld was used,
suggest that the analysis scheme is fairly stable with
respect to modest curvature errors such as are anticipated in a 12 h forecast from an operational model

(e.g., National Meteorological Center or European

Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts). Use
of curvatures from less reliable longer-range forecasts
for the rst guess, with no successive recalculation of
rk, may result in serious errors.

FIG. 1. Conguration for variables used in

banana weighting function.

(4) functions in this paper. We emphasize that these

effective distances are not onlyuseful for successive-

3. Objective analysis scheme incorporating a hierarchy of three weighting functions

correction schemes but may also be used to incor-

The general objective analysis scheme described

here utilizes the method of successive correction scans

porate anisotropy in curved or straight ow in any

objective analysis scheme which calculates weights or
correlations as a function of distance.
The banana function degenerates to the elliptical

function (4) if there is no curvature, and to the

circular function (1) if there is also no elongation.
Thus, only one weighting function (the banana function) need be used in our scheme, but its limiting

with a decreasing radius of inuence for each scan

(Cressman, 1959). The computation of grid point
values of a variable or uses the relation
oz = ao + Aa,-j

where

The banana weighting function requires calculation

of the streamline radius of curvature, rk, at each
observation station before the successive correction
procedure is initiated. This calculation may be simply

Z (Wr2jkAak)

idealizations (the elliptical and circular functions) are

applied in regions of weak wind speed and curvature
to minimize computations. The inuence area of a
banana function with elongation Ek(lV|) = 2.25 is
shown in Fig. 2.

(7)

Au" A;

-A

(8)

2 wijk

and
0:0
rst guess for variable or at grid point (i, j)
a
corrected variable oz at grid point (i, j)
Auk dierence at observation point k (observed value
minus rst guess value)

accomplished using the rst guess wind eld. The

expression for relative vorticity, ',, in natural coordinates can be solved for rk, the streamline radius of
curvature
| I
V

'* s+-nvwan

___

(6)

where n is the distance along a perpendicular to the

left of the ow.
In the event that a rst-guess wind eld is not

initially available or is known to be of poor quality,

there are a few alternatives. One may assume that
curvature of the geostrophic wind is approximately

that of the actual wind and calculate curvature using

FIG. 2. Weight isotachs (0.1-0.9) for typical banana weighting

function. The X is an observation point and the curved arrow

a rst-guess geopotential eld. This alternative pro-

represents a horizontal streamline.

1188

MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW

VOLUMEII3
\

w,-J.-k

weight, 0.0-1.0, from banana, elliptical or circular function

number of observations with positive weighting

' values for grid point (i, j).

The application of weighting functions in (8) differs

from the two most commonly reported methods,
given by Cressman (1959) in the form
K
2 (Wr'jkAak)
Aer,-j "

(9)

and by Haltiner and Williams (1980) in the form

K
Aoz,-I -

Z (Wr'jkA1k)
K
'

(10)

points. The resultant discontinuities tend to become

concentrated along arcs marking the radii of inuence

about observations in data-sparse regions and will be

most serious when small grid increments concentrate
the spurious changes into short distances.
In a somewhat similar manner, inspection of Eq.
(10), which calculates the arithmetic (weighted) mean
of the unweighted differences Aak also reveals a
potential hazard for its application where data is
sparse. In the extreme case where K equals one, the
observation difference Aark is applied throughout the
region of inuence as if w,-J.-k were always 1.0. Clearly,

this can also result in large discontinuities at the

limiting radii of inuence in certain areas such as
continental margins. An example of this problem

using Eq. (10) is apparent in Fig. 2a of Goodin et al.

(1979).

By using (8), the arithmetic (weighted) mean of

E Wijk
v

An initial radius of inuence (before elongation) of

1.6 times the mean radiosonde station separation was
used, as suggested by Stephens and Stitt (1970). This
radius was decreased by a factor of 0.7 in each of
two successive scans.

The form of the correction calculation given in

Eq. (8) was chosen to reduce spurious discontinuities
in the resultant objectively analyzed elds that can
be introduced when either Eq. (9) or (10) is used.
Such discontinuities have long been known to occur
(e.g., Cressman, 1959) and are particularly serious in
data-sparse regions or when cross-scale analyses are

necessary (e.g., analysis on mesoscale grids when only

synoptic-scale observations are available). Cressman
(1959) recommended application of a spatial lter to
remove the resultant spurious features. However, this
operation inevitably removes some potentially useful
information as well. Ogura and Chen (1977) proposed

a two-part technique to solve this problem, rst

the weighted differences, w,-J-,,Aak, we ensure that,

even if only one observation is available, a local

difference between the guess eld and the kth observation, Aozk, has little value for correcting the rst
guess at a distance that approaches the maximum
radius of inuence. Thus (8) considers both the
potential value for correction by individual observa-

tions versus distance (the weighted differences), and

also the relative condence given to a datum among
an ensemble of observations (the weighted mean). A
hypothesis inherent in Eq. (10), however, implies that

when one observation is available, the difference

between it and the guess at the observation point can
be used with equal condence at all distances up to
the maximum radius of inuence, but with no condence beyond that point. Therefore, only relative
condence among an ensemble of data is considered
(the weighted mean). On the other hand, Eq. (9)

considers the potential value of each observation

versus distance (the weighted differences), but simply

to be made in a one-part scheme without introduction

averages all the weighted differences found within the

region of inuence about a given grid point. Use of
(8) allows the objective analysis scheme to maintain
overall accuracy and to virtually eliminate spurious

of substantial discontinuities, even in data-sparse

discontinuities in data sparse areas where K is small.

analyzing the data on a "coarse grid via the Cressman

scheme (10), and then interpolating to a ne mesh

with cubic splines. Equation (8) allows the analyses

regions, and thus generally eliminates the necessity

It may be argued that Eq. (8), when compared to

for a separate smoothing operation.

Eq. (10), introduces a bias toward the rst-guess eld.

The reason for the discontinuities introduced by

(9), which calculates the simple average of the weighted
differences, w,-J-,<Aak, can be recognized easily by
inspection of the equation. When the radius of inuence is small (near the average observation spacing),
there will be adjacent grid points for which the integer
denominator K will differ incrementally while the
numerator is virtually unchanged. This occurs when
adjacent grid points lie just beyond and just within
the maximum radius of inuence from an observation
where the weighting value w,~,-k approaches zero. For
example, in the case where K drops from 2 to 1, Eq.
(9) can cause the correction value Aug to change by
almost a factor of two between the adjacent grid

The point of the above discussion, however, is that

this bias may be justied in sparse-data situations. In
dense-data situations, (8) will perform about the same
as (10). Nevertheless, the question remains whether
the apparent bias in (8),can degrade the objective
analysis. To address this issue, examples and statistical
comparisons of analyses made with Eqs. (8)-(10) are
presented in Section 4.
a. Wind speed and curvature transition criteria
To improve the efficiency of the resultant scheme,
the more complicated functions are applied only in
regions where the nature of the ow indicates that

JULY 1985

STANLEY G. BENJAMIN

their use will yield a more accurate analysis. In this

resultant hierarchy, the banana weighting function is
applied to regions of strong, curved ow. An elliptically shaped weighting function is used in regions
with strong ow but without signicant curvature.

Finally, the circular weighting function is applied to

areas of relatively light winds. Regions of signicant
curvature were dened as having radius of curvature

less than 3R0, where R0 is the radius of inuence for

the initial scan. The critical wind speed for use of the
anisotropic weighting functions was chosen as

V, --{
I Hms] 15,

25,

(0.U20)P

for

P> 500mb

for P<500mb.
(11)

An elongation of Ek(|V|) = 4/3 was chosen as the

value below which the banana or ellipse inuence

area closely approaches that of a circle. Therefore,

from (3) and (11), the elongation constant B, set such
that Ek(|V| = IVIC) = 4/3, is given by
B = 0.7778/IVIC.

(12)

The denitions for IVIC and, consequently, B were

developed from consideration of midlatitude average

zonal winds for January and July. Experimentation

showed that the denition of elongation versus wind
speed shown in (3) was quite reasonable. While high
along-ow autocorrelation of meteorological variables
is generally observed in the atmosphere, strong alongow gradients are still observed at times, especially
for relative humidity, RH, in the vicinity of the
fronts. These gradients can be washed out in objective
analysis if too high values of elongation are used.

The transition criteria dened here were based on

mean midlatitude winds and numerous experimental
applications. The analysis scheme is not very sensitive
to small changes in these criteria.
b. Application ofthe multi-weightingfunction scheme

AND NELSON L. SEAMAN

1189

ana function. A method which combines the u and

v analyses is required to allow the banana weighting
function to properly orient the wind correction along

the curved ow. First, as shown in Fig. 3, the vector

difference of the observed wind and the rst guess

wind at the observation point, Vdif, is rotated around

the center of curvature (Ck) by the azimuth angle
between the grid point and observation point (6,-J

Bk). This results in the rotated difference wind,

Vim. Then the u and v components of the rotated
difference winds are each weighted by the banana
weighting factor for the grid point w,-J.-k. These are
summed with similar weighted corrections to the two
components from other observation points within a
radius of inuence of grid point (i, j) to produce the
total correction as in Eq. (8).

By rotating the difference vector Vdif, we assume

that for a given separation of an observation at Pk
and a grid point Pi; in regions of strong curvature

(i.e., large 6,-j 6k), the angle 6,-j - 6k is not negligible

compared to the azimuth angle between the rst
guess wind vector Vfg and the observed wind vector
V,,,k,,. Thus, 6;1- - 19k must be taken into account when
applying Vdif at P,-J in the presence of strong curvature.

When there is little or no curvature of the wind,

6,-J - 6k approaches zero and no rotation of Vdi; is
necessary. If the difference winds Vdif are not rotated,
then the analysis procedure will smooth curvature
maxima excessively.

The multi-weighting scheme was also applied to

analyses of relative humidity (RH). Since RH is a
scalar variable, the banana weighting function can be
applied in the same way as the circular and elliptical
functions without the rotational consideration necessary for wind eld analysis. As mentioned in Section

3a, RH analyses using anisotropic weighting functions

in areas of strong winds can relax or destroy along-

Center of curvature
Ck
-

to analyses of wind and moisture

Anisotropic weighting functions should be applied
only to those meteorological variables which normally
exhibit horizontal streakiness in zones of relatively

95 j"9k

high wind speed. Our tests to date have indicated

that the banana and elliptical functions are used most
effectively to objectively analyze wind and moisture.
We suggest that these functions may be fairly well
suited for analysis of heights because of the geostrophic
relationship. We have not found serious deciencies
in conventional analyses of temperature which appeared to be attributable to use of isotropic weighting
functions. Therefore, our scheme has not been extensively tested with temperature elds.

Analyses of u and v components are performed

independently for the elliptical and circular functions.
However, this approach is unsatisfactory for the ban-

41/
\

P -" -*

7 *5 -/
Van

Pii

rd't(rototed)
l

FIG. 3. Rotation of correction vector for banana weighting

function. The rst-guess wind is Vk. Other symbols are as described
in text.
-

1190

MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW

VOLUMEII3

ow gradients. Therefore, two additional changes

the criterion, lr,-jl < 1670 km (3R0). Curvature values

weremade to minimize unintended smoothing during

objective analysis of relative humidity. First, an ad-

di"erent rst-guess analysis sources are used for which

were calculated from Eq. (6) with An = 2As. When

ditional fourth scan with a yet smaller radius of the winds are known to be more noisy than the NMC
inuence was performed. -This tends to bring the gridded analyses, the nite difference An should be
maximum radius of inuence used in the anisotropic

functions closer to the mean station separation in the

nal scan (as suggested by Stephens and Stitt, 1970).
Since moisture is a passive variable (not dynamically
interrelated with the mass or momentum elds except
in areas of condensation or evaporation), the addition

large enough to avoid spurious calculated values of

curvature. Satisfactory values of curvature were ob-

tained in tests with An as large as 6As (660 km).

The percentage of grid points with a wind speed
exceeding the pressure-dependent critical value [Eq.
(1 1)] increased sharply from about 35% at 850 mb

of smaller-scale RH variations was not considered to to near 85% at 300 mb. On the otherhand, the mean
be detrimental. Second, before the objective analysis absolute curvature of the ow [1/r,-_,-"J, where r,-j is
was performed, RH -values were transformed to an- the streamline radius of curvature at grid point (i, j)]
other variable designed to conserve moisture maxima. decreased somewhat with height, as might be expected
Transformation of discontinuous meteorological pa-

rameters such as ceiling height for objective analysis

since ow generally becomes increasingly zonal with

height. When considering wind speed and curvature

was suggested by Penn et al. (1963) but they did not

apply this technique to relative humidity. In the
current analysis scheme, the following transformation

jointly, it was found that the percentage of points

suggested by Rasmussen (1982) was used

Objective analyses using the multi-weighting function scheme were performed both with curvature
calculated once (from the rst-guess wind eld) and
also with curvature recalculated after each scan. Only

RH"_ = (1 RH)"2;

RH between 0.0 and 1.0. (13)

After objective analysis is completed, RH values are

recovered via the inverse transformation. Objective
analysis of the transformed relative humidity, RH*,

meeting criteria for use of the banana weighting

function increased with height.

insignicant differences resulted. However, the extra

computation may be quite important for an accurate

exhibits greatest accuracy in moist areas (RH > 75%).

This characteristic is advantageous for initialization

analysis if features of the rst-guess curvature eld

are highly smoothed or misplaced.
A

of numerical models since inappropriate smoothing

Analyses of wind and moisture at all levels as well

as those of diagnosed elds such as vorticity and

in regions of near-saturation can result in errors in

the forecast commencement of precipitation.
4. Results

a. A case study comparison

divergence were created to compare performances of

the original Cressman scheme with circular weighting
function, and the multi-weighting function scheme
with anisotropic functions. The 400 mb wind obser-

vations and analyzed elds from the 10-11 April

The multi-weighting function scheme described in

1979 case are provided for comparison in Figs. 4a-c.

this paper has been tested and introduced as the

analysis technique used to obtain initial conditions
for the Penn State mesoscale model (Anthes and

The elds were objectively enhanced by the same

standard synoptic and special SESAME rawinsonde
observations as well as bogus (simulated) values over

Warner, 1978). As of this writing, it has been used

data-void regions produced from subjective analyses.

The maximum speeds in the jet extending .from
California into northern Mexico are about equal in

successfully in hundreds of analyses for 10-15 different

cases with grid increments from 2 to 220 km. Here,

we report details of the initializations developed for

the 10-11 April 1979 case, which featured episodes
of severe convective storms, including a destructive
tornado outbreak in the Red River Valley. Prominent

among the atmospheric features of this case was a

strong upper- to midtropospheric jet, strongly curved
in the base of a large-amplitude trough over the

western United States, which propagated into Texas

from northern Mexico.

The NMC hemispheric octagonal grid data were

used as the rst-guess elds for this study. The
mesoscale grid spacing was As = 111 km on a 37
X 37 mesh. The initial radius of inuence R0 for the
rst scan (without taking into account elongation in
areas of high wind) was 555 km. Thus, areas of high
curvature where the banana function was applied met

the two analyses. However, the anisotropic weighting

functions used to produce the analysis shown in Fig.
4c lled in areas between observations along the jet,
resulting in a much smoother jet feature than that
depicted in the analysis using only the circular function (Fig. 4b). Since a maximum of curvature existed
at the base of the-trough, the coherence of the jet in
Fig. 4c in that region may also be attributed to use
of the banana function. The increased smoothness of
the anisotropic analyses is also found in the divergence
eld (not shown).
A second comparison of objective analysis tech-

niques, this time for a scalar eld, is presented in

analyses of 700 mb relative humidity for the same

case. To concentrate attention on the effect of the

anisotropic weighting functions at this level, analyses
Q

JULY 1985
IT ---- -

STANLEY G. BENJAMIN AND NELsoN L. SEAMAN

--

-~

is 77; "

A in
H 5 cc, - e.
1

.53 I
k1ENi@,

t
f

R.

\f
i

ll

1.

air

1
9: 8r/(g.I-.,.._.7Q
,
/ ,- 1iQ@

..

-r'z,Q\ ri<

1191

FIG. 4a. 400 mb wind observations at 1200 GMT 10 April 1979

used in objective analysis. Circles at end of wind staff indicate
simulated observations derived from subjective analysis. Solid barb
= 25 m s".

presented are limited to a region near the base of the

trough over the southwestern United States. Observations of relative humidity and 700 mb winds (from
which streamlines may be roughly deduced) are plotted in Fig. 5a. Cloud cover in the vicinity of 700 mb
as subjectively estimated from satellite imagery is
indicated by stippling. Analyses of 700 mb relative
humidity using the Cressman circular scheme and
the multi-weighting function scheme are presented,
respectively, in Figs. 5b and 5c. The relative humidity
transformation of Eq. (12) is used in both analyses.
A notable difference is discernible in the base of the

A *-u-m 7

_~

r-

FIG. 4c. 400 mb winds at 1200 GMT 10 April 1979. Objective

analysis using the multiple weighting function scheme including
the banana function.

trough over California, Arizona, and New Mexico,

where the anisotropic scheme greatly enhanced alongow autocorrelation of the analyzed eld. The in-

creased streakiness of moisture in this region appropriately follows the cyclonic side of the upperlevel jet.
b. Comparisons for analytically generated elds
In addition to case studies such as that presented
in Section 4a, the new multiple weighting function
objective analysis scheme was tested with analytically
generated wind elds. A set of equations
, 2 x
,
yvmx = A srn -5- + y
v
211'/1
- = i-

(l4a)

Zrrx

Lk COS Lk

(
_

all \ //' e
5

_._-Q

\"
I

AQEI
, \/

Q-._

\.=s$(9u//

//*

>.

2o
M

abs

X--r/'

__.

LL

_=..._

FIG. 4b. 400 mb winds at 1200 GMT 10 April 1979.

Objective analysis using circular weighting function only.

+ (lvlmax _

14b

eXp[a( ) ]

(14c)
was used to approximate a typical midtropospheric
wind eld.
Equations (l4ac) were designed to generate the
sinusoidal wind pattern shown in Fig. 6 with a
meandering jet stream core and local maxima and
minima at the ridge and trough to simulate curved

jet streaks or short wave features. In these equations,

yvm is the y position of the meandering jet core, A
and Lk are the amplitude and wavelength of the
meander, y is the mean distance of the core from
the southern boundary of the domain, lVl0 is the

background wind speed, and Ly is the north-south

distance from the core at which the wind speed is
half that in the core. The value lV|m,. is the maximum
wind speed along the jet stream core. Parameter

1192

MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW

V0.1: _-i=.='.=;'.-';:-. -'.-r.=' "g-=I1;',=:;=.a:

in

54

IO

E14

=1-:='1.5.3.'3_-"15

38 '5i:i::5-I-'IE:1==!5='l.'?I'-."-1-E1?-"rigid"
' '::-::-I-."-1"-' . 60' -....
"Ff 5 1.53." ='.;'= :'f5_I .515.-"55 ~:-.t.-'
66 ='=iI'-3:111-5E5';r=I-'.=e9.9-1
3
.'OI..I-ll.

.1

. _._"._...-_:
'-* ~
.-

'9,

lo-'.-J

63?

MK

I9

' V

6.

,0

up

6<

no

6.6

0 IO

'9

--

so

ll

data were available only at the normal synoptic

radiosonde network stations. Equation (14) with the
true wind eld parameters was used to generate

values were set at A = 720 km, L, = 2400 km,

u = |v|2[1 +

point values simulating observations at the 41 North

American synoptic upper air stations (shown as dots
in Fig. 6) located within the domain. These stations
have an average spacing of about 325 km. Successivescan analyses were then performed in which the

(l5a)

analytically generated rst guess wind eld was

enhanced with the simulated observations of the

s(mm

true eld. Success could then be objectively determined by comparing the resulting objectively analyzed
elds to the known true wind eld.

A weak, undetailed rst guess wind eld was sim-

First, tests were made for a 40 X 40 mesh with a

ulated by setting H/lmax = 30.

The true wind eld, containing jet maxima of

60 km grid space to compare the circular weighting

scheme [Eq. (l)], the improved elliptical weighting

40 m s' at ridges and troughs, was simulated by

assigning the value of |V|,,,,,, = 30 + l0lSin3/2(21rx/
L,,)| (m s7). The total domain area was 2400 km on
each side in all tests, although the grid spacing and
number of grid points were variable.
In order to simulate a realistic analysis situation

/ \

/
I

...-..

25//I

/
/

5
11dill7

//

25

\l

9/

,
15-

/(

./_

//

rw/
\

"w \

o\

\
I

I
.\

/
\

//

--15
\\
I5
\

\G

"Y .@=
4O

--\

// .

Q. .-K

1
\

/Z5

. \

__

'

040

jz
9

\\

\\

domain was centered at 38.0N, 90.0W, and that

'

\
\\

/ 32

for mesoscale initialization, it was assumed that the

'

FIG. 5c. As in Fig. 5b but using multiple weighting function

'
scheme including the banana function.

y == 1200 km, [V|0 = 10 m 5-, L, = 600 km, and

a = 0.6931. The u and v components were then
determined as

'1

Ma

FIG. 5a. 700 mb wind and relative humidity (RH) observations

at 1200 GMT 10 April 1979. Solid barb = 25 rn s". Shading is
cloud cover near 700 mb as subjectively estimated from satellite
imagery.

0
BO

\\/'

v=a3.
U

8'0

9'-_;.;:
..-_-1

We

'0

\lY

,e

{<-

7 Li
"

'

vi Veil}

'

'-=-._=l|l;.~'l',1!-E.-.=g.~. V64

Y3?

o.._-.'..|.,4'

~I -10,, ..,n'.-"'_-._.:.r.u
_--4
-'u'-.u,|oIu--ur'|- 1.-".':."_."I'
"0
u
in
\'.\III
,,_
-.'
' ' ' 0 1 ' . n |
@- _
I.e,o

1 79
'\

' =1.
,_'.
=" T.i-"lE}?-'

$_=,;'
or s_

ita

.
B

root '

_ I. . 0 . ' .,-_' - ..-:5.

lo

'_'f'_i,'
" I 3?

VOLUMEII3

\
\.

/2s
\

/
"'-"

0/

FIG. 6. Analytically dened sinusoidal wind eld on 2400

X 2400 km grid. Thick solid streamline follows wind direction

FIG. 5b. 700 mb 10 April 1979 RH analysis using

circular weighting function only.

'

through ridge and trough. Thin solid lines are isotachs from true
wind eld with jet streak maxima of 40 m s at ridge and trough.
Dashed lines are isotachs from rst guess eld with maximum wind
speed of 30 rn s". Dots are locations of simulated observations.

JULY1985

STANLEY G. BENJAMIN

scheme [Eqs. (1) and (4)], and the banana weighting

(multiple) scheme described above [Eqs. (1), (4), and
(5)]. For consistency, all three schemes applied the
weighting functions according to Eq. (8). Evaluation
of skill was made by calculation of total domain
mean absolute errors and root mean square (rms)
errors between the objectively analyzed and true
elds for u, v, vector difference, speed and direction.
In both the analytical and case study comparisons,
use of the multiple weighting function scheme resulted

in approximately 10% increase of computation time

for objective analysis over use of the circular scheme.
To understand better the performance of the banana
weighting scheme, a fourth test was made in which
the weighting factors were calculated so that the
curvature of the wind was considered, but the elongation of the area of inuence was not. Equation (5)
was applied, but with Ek = 1.0. In this case, the
banana shape collapses to a circular region. Meanwhile, the effect of curved ow was retained through
the rotation of wind components by the angle (6,-j

6k) as described in Section 3b. This test also applies

the weighting factors according to (8) and is referred
to as the rotated-circular experiment.
The multiple schemes wind speed and curvature

criteria determined that 23 observations would be

incorporated with the banana function, 13 with the
ellipse, and 5 with the circular function. Table 1,
showing domain mean and rms errors for the three

schemes and for the rotated-circular experiment,

demonstrates a denite improvement in the quality
of the objectively analyzed winds with the multiple
weighting scheme. The elongation of the banana
function produced greatest improvement over the
circular function in the speed rather than the direction
eld. The elliptical function, on the other hand,
actually performed more poorly than the circular
function in the direction eld and mean absolute

vector error. These statistics indicate that use of the

elliptical function in regions of curvature may actually

degrade the analysis by extending a constant wind

AND NELsoN L. SEAMAN

.1193

direction upstream and downstream. Although all

schemes performed well at the observation locations,

the results over all the domain conrm that the

banana function in the multiple scheme produces
grid point elds with superior coherence and accuracy.
Because of the inferiority of the elliptical weighting

scheme in typical atmospheric situations with curved

ow, this scheme was eliminated from all further
tests and comparisons were limited to the circular

and multiple (banana) weighting functions.

g
A comparison of results from the circular, banana,
and rotated-circular experiments in Table 1 gives
some insight into the banana schemes performance.

Notice that the mean absolute vector error, the rms

vector and speed errors, and the mean absolute error
in the u-eld are worse for the rotated-circular test
than for the multiple-banana, but better than those
for the pure circular method in which Eq. ( 1) is
applied independently to the scalars u and v. These

statistics show that the bananas superiority results

from the elongated and curved regions of inuence
as well as from the rotation of wind vector differences
along curved streamlines as described in Section 3b

and Fig. 3.
However, Table 1 also shows that the rotatedcircular test produced smaller rms direction error
than the multiple-banana and circular schemes. This
suggests that improvements in the banana schemes
direction errors, compared to the pure circular scheme,

are entirely due to the rotation of the wind vector

differences. Furthermore, the elongation of the banana
tends to degrade the directional information while
improving the total speed and vector errors. This
conclusion is corroborated by the results of the elliptical test which show that pure elongation of the area
of inuence is correlated with increased rms direction

error. The larger directional errors associated with

larger regions of inuence will occur in areas where
the local curvature changes rapidly along the major
axis of the wind. Nevertheless, the mean absolute
vector error and rms vector errors, which combine

TABLE 1. Comparison of errors among methods of calculation of weighting functions in successive correction

objective analysis [all weights applied according to Eq. (8), As =; 60 km].

Analysis scheme errors

<m">

Measure of error

Circular

Elliptical

Multiplebanana

Rotatedcircular

Mean absolute vector error

rms vector error
rms speed error
rms direction error (deg)
Mean absolute error in u-eld
Mean absolute error in v-eld

1.065
3.056
1.661
1.042
0.850
0.833

1.088
2.828
1.575
1.194
0.844
0.858

0.909*
2.054*
1.36 l *
0.966*
0.763*
0.775*

0.961
2.481
1.533
0.748
0.827
0.761

* Lowest error for this particular measure of error in the horizontal analyzed eld among the three complete analysis schemes [Eqs. (1),

(4). (5)1-

1194

MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW

both directional and speed performance, are lower

for the banana scheme than for the other three tests.

VOLUMEH3

of error. Also note that the banana-shaped weighting

(8)-(10) and are discussed in Section 3. Although (8)

scheme outperformed the circular scheme in six out

of eight statistical measures of error. The discussion
of Section 3 showed that the primary advantage of
(8) is expected for improved treatment in data-sparse
areas. In these analytic tests, we have used uniform
continental data density and typical radii of inuence
and applied them to analysis on a mesoscale mesh.
This situation provides reasonably favorable conditions for use of Eqs. (9) and (10). Thus, the success
of (8) in this case demonstrates its applicability is not
limited to unusual data distributions.

was designed to improve the gradients of the analyzed

variable, we also found that it outperformed the other
methods when errors were compared for the analyzed

Additional tests were performed with ner meshes

(30 and 15 km) to determine the response as the
analysis scale is changed relative to the observation

Thus, it is clear that the combined effect of the wind

difference rotation and the elongated and curved

region of inuence as used in the multiple-banana

scheme produces the best overall results among the

analysis schemes that were examined.

The next set of tests compared the effect of changing

the method in which the weighting functions are used
to determine the successive corrections at each grid

point. The three methods tested are shown in Eqs.

variable itself. Table 2 shows the resultant statistical

scale. Such conditions can be expected, for example,

errors found when the weights were .applied in the

analytic jet stream case on a 40 X 40 mesh with a

when mesoscale models are applied to ner mesh

cases for which only synoptic scale data are available.

60 km grid increment and the analyses were compared

with the true wind eld. Comparisons are shown
for both the circular weighting scheme (Cressman,

The analytic domain remained 2400 X 2400 km, but

as the grid increment was decreased, the number of

1959) and the multiple-banana weighting scheme. In

those of Table 2, but for a 160 .X 160 mesh with a

15 km increment. For both the 30 km (table not
shown) and 15 km meshes, Eq. (8) produced the

addition to the measures of error shown in Table 1,

we also include the mean absolute errors for the uand v-components between the simulated observations
and the analyzed value at the grid point nearest each
observation point.

Table 2 demonstrates that the method of application

of the weights introduced in (8) produces the smallest
overall errors in the objective analyses. This method

produced the best results for ve out of eight measures

points was increased. Table 3 shows errorssimilar to

smallest errors for six out of eight measures of error,

while the banana-shaped function always outperformed the circular function. Tables 2 and 3 show
no major scale dependency in the statistical results,

except for the decrease of errors with smaller scale

for the mean absolute errors at the observation points.
This exception occurs because each observation is

TABLE 2. Comparison of errors among methods of application of weighting functions in successive correction

objective analysis (for circular and multiple-banana schemes, As = 60 km, or = u, v)

Analysis scheme errors (m s")
rr
2 (wnrr)

x
2 (wij'kAak)

Ask, = ix-

K
2 (wrjkAak)
-

ACID

2 War

2 wrjk

E26 18)

(9)

.Eq- (10)

Banana
weighting

Circular
weighting

Banana
weighting

Circular
weighting

Banana
weighting

1.065
3.056
1.661

0.909*
2.054"'
l.36l*

1.1 1 1
3.374
1.773

0.981
2.390
1.486

1.161
3.426
1.717

1.055
2.850
1.548

1.042
0.850
0.833

0.966

0.929

0.916"

1.394

1.478

0.763

0.874

0.805

0.795

0.730"

. 0.847

0.790

0.947

0.912

near obs for at

0.205*

0.293

0.302

0.388

0.400

0.742

Mean absolute error

near obs for vt

0.293

0.504

0.328

0.577

0258*

0.787

Circular
weighting

Measure of error
___

1..
1

Mean absolute

vector error
rms vector error

rms speed error

rms direction error
(in degrees)
Mean absolute error
in u-eld
Mean absolute error

in v-eld
Mean absolute error

0.775*

" Lowest error for this particular measure of error in the horizontal analyzed eld.
1' Comparisons are made to analyzed values obtained at the grid point nearest each observation.

JULY 1985

STANLEY G. BENJAMIN AND NELSON L. SEAMAN

1195

TABLE 3. Comparison of errors among methods of application of weighting functions in successive correction
objective analysis (for circular and multiple-banana schemes, As = 15 km, a = u, v).
, Analysis scheme errors (m s*)
K
2

2 (wykk)

2 (wukmxk)

Z (""'i;kAk)

Aaij Z --T-.--i-

Z was

Z wijk
..

Eq-(9)

Eq_'_(8) ..

pk

Circular

Banana

weighting

weighting

Circular
weighting

Banana
weighting

1.065
3.121
1.688

0.875*
1.989
1.373

1.121
3.466
1.801

0.990

0.658*

u-eld
Mean absolute error in

0.858

v-eld
Mean absolute error near
obs for uT
Mean absolute error near
obs for vT

Measure of error

Mean absolute vector

error
rms vector error
rms speed error
rms direction error
(in degrees)
Mean absolute error in

_H

W "Eq-(10,), N

Circular
weighting

Banana
weighting

0.940
2.308
1.485

1.089
3.024
1.622

0.917
2.053
l.324*

0.911

0.685

1.232

1.310

0.769

0.884

0.804

0.795

0.674*

0.821

0.74l"

0.838

0.756

0.898

0.847

0.073

0.070

0.233

0.231

0.109

0.088

0.099

i W 0.037*

0.170

0.163

0.113

0.084

* Lowest error for this particular measure of error in the horizontal analyzed eld.
T Comparisons are made to analyzed values obtained at the grid point nearest each observation.

compared with the analysis at the closest grid point

and, thus, clearly represents a scale-dependent mea-

large localized errors, there is no guarantee that such

errors will be randomly distributed. Indeed, as dis-

sure.
Domain-averaged mean values may easily minimize
the effect of a few large errors. While rms error
statistics are often useful to reveal the existence of

cussed in Section 3, one of the common diiculties

encountered with successive-scan objective analysis
schemes is the creation of bands of discontinuous
values at the edges of the radii of inuence in data-

TABLE 4. Comparison of rms errors of gradients among methods of application of weighting functions in successive correction
objective analysis (for the multiple-banana scheme, or = u, v).
Analysis scheme errors (Units: X10 s")
K

E (w5kAak)

E (W=;rkA1k)

2 (wijkAak)

Au,-, = ---
K

Aa,-_; _ K

Aa,-,- = ---
K
Z

2 Wgjk

Measure of error

As(km)i

60

Eq- (3)
30

z * 5*
15

{Eq. <9) j

Wgjk

Eq. <10)

60

30

15

60

30

15

%
ax

0.617

0.647

0.658

0.702

0.804

0.937

0.47l*

0.519"'

0.597*

2*:

0.413*

0.3 84"

0.394"'

0.480

0.549

0.703

0.541

0.562

0.686

1:

0.513

0.546

0.556

0.609

0.710

0.862

0.494*

0.5l9

0.566

' 0.634

0.627*

0.652

0.707

0.762

0.899

0.753

0.759

0.885

0.544

0.551"'

0.565*

0.625 i

0.706

0.850

0.565

f 0.590

0.684

6y
61*

6x
Average of gradients

" Lowest error for this particular measure of error and grid increment on the horizontal analyzed eld.

1196

MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW

VOLUMEII3

*\\-r Qr~~myA

sparse areas. However, similar problems can be encountered in comparatively data-rich areas if, for
example, the analysis is performed for a mesoscale
grid whose mesh increment is about an order of
magnitude less than the observation network increment. Not only are the primary variable elds (e.g.
wind, temperature) affected, for which the objective
analyses are performed, but the errors are amplied

\:
1/

;._.

or numerical forecast problems.

Examination of objective analysis methods in Section 3 suggested that, when calculating corrections to
the rst guess eld, most of these gradient discontinuity errors can be eliminated without seriously
altering the data inuence by applying the weighting

//*/"7

3
/\<*
// / Y4-

wt
W

//
Liam./

n?

--1'

L\

\.

5 V$\
77% //g "~/"7 W??? 1/4*.Zmnna AK Q *0
\

'\

I-b

/Z

"In

---I

*\ \_ 4

......-..------

/M
"/i/*,r/._
//y i
//
lg?vvy
>

--

K *7

*\;?0

}.___
41rgi:/41
..-"P
_/v/5
Fa_<
E,4/
4'J-P.-war./"'

factors according to (8). To verify this concept, we

11
--r>eE1;;"

rst calculated rms errors of the wind gradient terms

\A/\2\ i

of divergence and vorticity on the 2400 >< 2400 km

analytic domain using the banana-shaped weighting

uniform data-dense synoptic-scale observation network.

Table 4 reveals that (9) (Cressman, 1959) has a

bi

$Q$m.1

/@

\4o=

i.

MV
4m- Qt

\$ \.

\2 /
/Q /
/g
\/

geostrophic wind) and may cause serious diagnostic

weights summarized in Eqs. (8)-(10). This test considers the problem of a mesoscale grid with a relatively

AA /*5
/
//

-%%/ w-4 a.1; Q5 A-+

in crucial secondary elds (e.g. vorticity, divergence,

function. The grid increment was decreased from 60

to 15 km and the errors, shown in Table 4, were
calculated for the three methods of applying the

__-//

2
//C//C?/C
//

5 " -\

}\

>~\\ .\\\

i\Fr< *~r=-1-ti,
7r~r z
f
\
:*141---I
A1_

P
J

\:\ Fs*~--

t;-A

//Z
//
8
//

/
//'
/4?,\-/"/'PH
\=
_-

*;\\

3;

\ \i A

\ =\ \-~. ',\ -.._/

__n~

K.

x-/5

g.i

FIG. 7b. As in Fig. 7a but using Eq. (9). Points A and B are

locations of radiosonde observations 433 and 532, respectively.

Solid arc lines are the radii of inuence for the successive scans
about A and B.

Equation (8) produced, on average, the smallest errors

in the wind gradient terms in this test and shows very

strong scale dependency for gradient terms as the little scale dependency. We again note that these
mesh size is decreased and that it is capable of results were obtained in tests without data-sparse
introducing relatively large errors. Equation (l0)

(Haltiner and Williams, 1980) produces smaller errors

than (9), but still has a moderate scale-dependency.

regions which. would have handicapped the perfor-

mance of conventional equations (9) and (10).

To demonstrate the effect of low data density when
using the three methods of applying the weighting

Zr
l
i

,4
Huh

fa

,4

*1 I J.-e

-..

I
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__\ ,_;g_1_ -/%\_.\1.\ ~s.>..\...:~.. ~i.. m. ~.\js-..~t *\,i:u|-__;-,E\%k:_;
FIG. 7a. Objectively analyzed 850 mb wind eld, using Eq. (8),

for 1200 GMT 25 July 1975. Dashed lines are isotachs; contour
interval is 1.0 tn s".

r@r*?"*@

;a;?;iAian2i?i sa-r/y/z/a//rshfraasn,gj\;, 4-QM/r414?//av

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FIG. 7c. As in Fig. 7b but using Eq. (l0).

JULY 1985

STANLEY G. BENJAMIN

AND NELSON L. SEAMAN

1197

functions, a sample situation was devised using real

data from two radiosonde observations at 1200 GMT

....... ..; . . . . _

25 July 1975 on a mesoscale grid at 850 mb. The

domain of 41 >< 41 points had a mesh increment of

_ __

__ I _

_-._

..

15 km and was centered at St. Louis, Missouri

(38.62N, 90.18W). A National Meteorological Center hemispheric analysis (381 km mesh) was used as

_....

..

5 5

a rst guess. The resulting wind elds, obtained with

corrections to the rst guess eld calculated according

to (8)-(10), appear in Figs. 7a-c, respectively. The

locations of the two observations from radiosonde
stations 433 (Salem, Illinois) and 532 (Peoria, Illinois)
are shown with the radii of inuence for the successive
scans about each station. The wind at Salem was

reported as 7.2 m s from 315 deg, and at Peoria as

5.1 n1 s" from 330 deg. Because the wind is light,

the areas of inuence are circles in this case with

radii of 520 km, 364 km, and 255 km for the three
scans. Figure 7b clearly shows the discontinuities in

the isotachs concentrated along the radii of inuence

of each scan that form when (9), Cressmans original
form of correction to the rst guess, is used in this
data-sparse environment. The same discontinuous
isotach pattern appears in Fig. 7c when (10) is used.
Introduction of the revised application of weights

according to (8) causes the objectively analyzed wind

eld in Fig. 7a to have smooth features and the same
general pattern.
The amplied effect of such discontinuities in
secondary gradient-dependent elds is shown in Fig.
8 for the vorticity elds at 850 mb calculated from
the winds in Fig. 7. The vorticity in Figs. 8b and 8c,
calculated with (9) and (10) respectively, show extreme

____

'

_ if

.:

0 o o - . Q , ,,, , , _ , _

_V

if

.:

.H

.............

:
5

.....

if

.
.
.

*l.O~

..

=-151
; .

'1

49

'

f-~-~-~-~--.-......,
.

__

___

'

'

..,.-....-.,..,,,,,..,,,,.,,,,_______,
1,;

--

__

have caused the vorticity eld to become so chaotic

thatits actual pattern can hardly be guessed. However,
when the new method of application of the weights
according to Eq. (8) is used in this difcult test
situation, (Fig. 8a), the resulting vorticity pattern has
only minor distortions and the pattern is easily un-

0
.
' ,,,,,, --

I Q n U 0 I I U I I . .'

.-

e.

-in-E

...
..

._._....

-..-.........

=2

..

-2

5
E

inuence. The relatively small distortions in the winds

II

R\\

-,aq7

.
.
..

____,,,,,,

=5

5--LQ

2:

.-.-.!.....,.....,,,,,...,,:,__,,,_,_, ,,,,,____,;,

distortions concentrated along the successive radii of

.
...
.

1.12

--.
3

FIG. 8b. As in Fig. 7a but using Eq. (9). Points A and B are
locations of radiosonde observations 433 and 532, respectively.
Solid arc lines are the radii of inuence for the successive scans
about A and B.
-

=
I

.
...

r.oa.

lg

!
,_,_----

Elx

or
1

.I
...
.

4
'

>
..
.
...
..
1
-Q
.1...........................................................
~--1 --- '*
.
..
.
_

.
...
-

\=""l7'-\~5

I _.

""--a--0Q-

.
...
.

l B

gi:

\
I
n
1

,.
...
3.
..
.

Ax

mi

H,

.
1
a
-

if

_
u
I

.:

IU

I
~

1E

'

',

'

'=

'

QIIIJIOIOIIuIAlllllII""""""'.' -----""
I
.
'
I

5 _-

_-

__

t-

I-"1"-11""
1

7}'

FIG. 8a. Diagnosed 850 mb vorticity calculated from objectively

analyzed wind eld, using Eq. (8), for 1200 GMT 25 July 1975.
Contours in units of s X 105.

%_

_ -.

_,...,_;__ . I

l
1,

_ ,2

, '_

FIG. 8c. As in Fig. 8b but using Eq. (10).

i pl

1198 .

MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW

- VOLUMEII3
\

derstood. Similar improvement was found in the

REFERENCES

geostrophic wind, relative humidity and other elds

Anthes, R. A., and T. T. Warner, 1978: Development of hydrodynamic models suitable for air pollution and other mesometeorological studies. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 1045-1078.

(not shown). If necessary, the small remaining distor-

tions could be removed by application of a simple

spatial lter. However, for most situations, ltering
should be unnecessary.

--, Y. -H. Kuo, S. G. Benjamin and Y.-F. Li, 1982: The

evolution of the mesoscale environment of severe local storms:

Preliminary modeling results. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 11871213.

5. Summary and conclusions

Q

This paper describes a scheme for successive-correction objective analysis which combines three
weighting functions, a banana-shaped anisotropic
function and its two limiting forms as wind curvature
and speed decrease (elliptical and circular weighting
functions). Transition criteria are specied which
limit use of the more complicated weighting functions

to those areas where it is required.

As with earlier anisotropic weighting functions, the
scheme presented here is designed for objective analysis of meteorological variables which exhibit higher
autocorrelation along-ow than cross-ow. The
uniqueness of this scheme is found in improved
analyses in curved ow while economy is preserved
through well-behaved but relatively simple anisotropic
weighting functions and a consistent set of transition
criteria. Analyses of wind and moisture for a sample

case study using the anisotropic scheme are presented

which show improvement over those using the circular
scheme, particularly in regions with pronounced jet

features and curvature in the wind eld. Mancuso et

al. (1981) have shown that further improvements
may result from applying anisotropic functions to
analyses on isentropic rather than isobaric surfaces.

The scheme presented here may also be effectively

applied to objective analysis of other scalar variables
such as aerosol or pollutant concentration.

Further tests demonstrated that the analysis scheme

is also valuable for minimizing spurious discontinuities
in resultant elds in certain regions. These areas
include data-sparse zones such as continental margins
or mesoscale grids located in regions for which synoptic scale data observations are available. The scheme

is especially helpful for reducing errors in secondary

gradient-dependent variables. Thus, the successive
scan objective analysis scheme presented here demonstrates a number of important improvements while
remaining relatively easy to implement in a variety

of situations.

'

Acknowledgments. We acknowledge with thanks

the careful reviews given by Thomas Schlatter, Ying-

Hwa Kuo, Gary Rasmussen, Stanley Barnes and

Toby Carlson, and suggestions on the calculation of
curvature made by Richard Anthes.

This work was supported by the U.S. Air Force

under Grant AFOS-79-0125 and by the National
Science Foundation under Grant ATM-80-1 1295.
The manuscript was capably typed by D. Corman
and N. Warner.

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