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Turbulence and Skin Friction
Turbulence and Skin Friction
AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES
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Volume 1
JANUARY,
1934
Number 1
DATA
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T H . VON K A R M A N
U-u
IT
T O T A L FORCE 3^
T<>
(i)
t/0
ldF
b dx
dx\
pu(Uu)dy
(2)
a-/)<*.
The integral Jo1/* (1 /)d?7 is a pure number
which shall be denoted by a. On the other hand,
the friction at the wall r0, according to the
general law of viscosity, equals the product of
the viscosity coefficient JJL and the slope of
velocity du/dy at the wall. Hence
r 0 = jJL(du/dy)y=o = M( U/8)
(df/drj) v=o-
(3)
dx
or
d8 fi
8 =
dx
1 fi
.
U a
SKIN
By integration, <52 =
--x
pUa
and
S = Z(2(i/a)(nx/pU)y.
(4)
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(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Cf=1.328/(Ux/v)*.
(10)
and
We call Ux/v the R.N. of the plate Rx.
Summarizing the results given b y . t h e equations from (4) to (10), we obtain the following
statements (cf. Fig. 2):
(5)
ICTION
S K I N FRICTION
(11)
(12)
and
8m{d8/dx) = const. -(v/U)m.
(12a)
'(v/U)m-x
or
8=const.'X'(v/Ux)m^m+1K
FIG. 2. Distribution of laminar skin friction and thickness
of laminar boundary layer.
(a) The increase of the thickness of the laminar boundary layer 8 is proportional to the
square root of the distance from the leading edge
and inversely proportional to the square root of
t h e relative velocity between plate and fluid.
(b) The local friction per unit area is proportional to the 3/2 power of the velocity,
inversely proportional to the square root of the
(13)
/{Ux/v)mKm+l)
or
cf = const. /(Ux/v)mKm+1).
(14)
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T H . VON K A R M A N
/(Ux/v)115
(15)
0.059/(Ux/v)^K
FLOW
In laminar flow the interaction between adjacent fluid layers consists of so-called "molecular
friction"; the shearing stress, i.e., the friction
per unit area, is equal to the product of the rate
of shear (slope of velocity in the case of parallel
flow) and the viscosity coefficient. The latter is a
SKIN
FRICTION
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RANDOM
DISTRIBUTION
WITH
CORRELATION
TH.
VON
K AR M AN
mum.
Iwf.lt
MBSHS
ggn
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^^jffejp
fe^^s^^^^^R
i^S?^^^^
Ss*S^^
^^^S
i^EsaEsss?*^" ^ E f ^
FLOW
(17)
Rough
Smooth
Wall
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SKIN
(18)
is a universal function.
The quantity
(T0/P)^
FRICTION
(19)
friction velocity
near the wall is a universal function of the frictiondistance parameter.
7. SIMILARITY OF T H E T U R B U L E N T
FLOW
PATTERN
T H . VON K A R M A N
,
-*
u v'
^ . 3
-y
fa)
l
'
~&r J
._
.
8 1
^T^
11
2.
j]\||
A' /
<
.:}
."S
.(
.*}
.<3
1.0
1-y/r
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(c) The curve (b) drops near the wall. However, Reichardt's experiments are carried out
at a relatively low R.N., so t h a t the range of
viscosity influence is comparatively large. The
estimated range in which fidu/dy
cannot be
neglected in comparison with pu'v' is indicated
by the dotted lines for both cases. The way we
can estimate the thickness of the range influenced
by laminar friction is shown in the latter part
of this section.
The assumption of similarity of the turbulent
flow pattern gives the following formula for the
velocity distribution:
H'-0-;)V0-;)'J
The formula checks the measured velocity
distributions very well (Fig. 8).
16
f~]
i5
13
12
11
10
Una*'"
v% *
I
o k =0
k^ 0,1mm
a km0,2mm
Je
k^O^mm
k^ 0,8 mm
7e
7
6
/
/' >
5
1/
j
2
1
b*^
Cy
o, 1
0,2
0, 3
0. 9
0, $
0,5
- i-l
' r
0,7
0,S
G>9
1,0
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SKIN
FRICTION
-(1/K)(T0/P)*
log (yM
(20)
1 = K\ U'/U" I = ny,
3>. There-
r 0 = K2pu/2y2
and obtain
This result can be seen directly in the following
way:
Let us consider t h e idealized case t h a t a
constant shearing stress is transferred in a
parallel flow along the wall. In this case an
exact similarity of the flow pattern can be
expected; in fact looking at the flow from the
point of view of two observers travelling with
the fluid with a velocity equal to the mean
velocity of the fluid, at two different distances
3/1 and 3>2 from the wall, nothing can be different
in the flow pictures, conceived by the two
observers, except the length and scale of the
flow pattern. Thus the characteristic length of
the flow pattern is proportional to y. The
distribution of the mean velocity is, according to
Taylor's theorem, given by
u(y + Ay) =u(y)+u'Ay
+ ^u"Ay2+
(21)
^g ((ro/p^A)].
(22)
10
TH.
VON K A R M A N
y+ = (ro/p)^y/v<30.
Obviously for small values
of the friction distance the similarity assumption
leading t o t h e logarithmic law cannot be correct.
We remember t h a t at the wall itself the flow is
laminar. If we assume a pure laminar sublayer
corresponding t o the constant value r 0 of the
friction, the corresponding velocity distribution
would be given by u= (T 0 /M) -y or
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= ((Vp)*(Vp)*:yA). i.e.,
u+ = y^
(23)
1
= a+-
(r 0 /p)^
log,
K
(ro/p^y
,
v
(26)
U-u-u
/r~y\
The two lines representing (22) and (23) meet
(27)
at t h e point (r0/p)^y/v = 11.5. Hence if there
\ r /
( T O / pp
were an abrupt transition between pure laminar
and turbulent regions, the "thickness of the If both equations hold, Eq. (27) for small values
laminar sublayer" would be given by ;y+ = 11.5 of y, must have the form:
or y di = 11.5v/(ro/p)\
Actually the transition
Uu
1
y
is gradual and the value y+ = 30 appears as a
(28)
= const. log - ,
reasonable limit for the region influenced by
(r 0 /p)*
K
r
laminar friction.
and adding (26) and (28), we obtain
Before the author found Eq. (22), power laws
U
1
/(ro/p)*r\
were used for Eq. (19). If we put
- = const.. + - l o g ( ) . (29)
(ro/p)
(24)
K
\
V J
W=(T 0 /p)*-i4-((r 0 /p)*yA) n
where A is a numerical constant, it is easy to see Let us introduce the friction coefficient referred
t h a t a relation must prevail between the expo- to the maximum velocity by the relation
nent n of the velocity distribution and the
exponent m in the friction law, mentioned in
Section 4. In fact if we solve Eq. (24) for r 0 ,
we obtain
2
1
r 0 = \pul
.
(25)
^2/Cn+l)
Cf=T0/yu*
(30)
(31)
( w : y/)2n/(n+l)
Combining Eqs. (18) and (22), i.e., the developments for the velocity distribution starting
from the center and from the wall, the author
obtained in 1930 a rather simple formula connecting the frictional loss in pipes and R.N., the
first formula which at the same time is based on
theory and checks the experiments.
Let us consider the velocity u at a point y
(32)
(33)
SKIN
L\S
in
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Ivy
()
logjRftj)
FIG 10. Plotting of 1/c/* against log]0 (R(cf)%) for
smooth pipes.
f(U-u)dA
(U-U)-A
so t h a t
. ( E / - t / ) / ( r o / p ) * = const.
or
l / c / * - l / c / * = const.
(34)
\(l/d)(U*/2g),
11
FRICTION
The results obtained and checked by comparison with pressure drop measurements have
been applied by t h e author to the computation
of the skin friction of smooth plates. The basic
assumption is t h a t Eq. (32) holds for the turbulent boundary layer, if the R.N. involved in the
equation is replaced by the R.N. of the boundary
layer, R^=Ub/v.
The calculation leads to a
formula of the form
2*/c/* = const. + (l/ic) log (Rxcf)
(35)
cf=To/yu2
(36)
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12
T H , VON K A R M A N
25
y/\
4 \
20
\A
l5J
corresponding to K = 0.395, or
1/C/* = 4.15 logio (iJxC/).
Between the coefficients of the local and the
mean friction, Schoenherr found the relation
c / = 0.558C//0.558 + 2(C/)*,
TABLE
C/
R*
2X10
3
4
5
7
10
1.5X106
2
3
4
5
7
107
0.00614
562
529
506
473
441
408
387
360
342
330
311
293
Cf
0.00480
I.
R*
2X10
444 3
419 4
402 5
379 7
357 108
332 2X10 8
317 3
296 5
283 109
274 2X10 9
260 5
245 1010
Cf
Cf
0.00263
0.00222
247
237
229
218
207
189
179
167
155
141
127
118
216
210
196
187
179
163
156
145
135
125
113
105
(38)
(40)
(39)
SKIN
FRICTION
13
0.007
THEORY
OF TURBULENT
BOUNDARY
LAYER
(KARMAN 1930)
0.006
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0.002
FIG. 12. Skin friction of smooth plates compared with the theory.
DISCUSSION OF T H E E X P E R I M E N T S .
TRAN-
TH.
14
VON K A R M A N
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.vvyv-q
FIG. 13. Transition between laminar and turbulent friction (smooth plates).
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SKIN
15
FRICTION
bution and curvature along the surface. However, in many cases, an approximate calculation
is of great value, for instance for an estimate of
the drag of protruding parts in the boundary
layer region, for an estimate of the influence of
small roughness, or of t h e influence of the
velocity field near the hull on t h e behavior of
fins, rudders and propellers of airships.
A simple formula for the boundary layer
thickness can be obtained by comparing the two
expressions for the coefficient of the local skin
friction of a plate at the distance x from the
leading edge, according to the Eqs. (33) and (38).
We have the following two relations:
l/C/* = 1.7+4.15 1ogio (i?,C/)
(41)
(42)
or
5 = 0.38x(C/)l
(43)
(44)
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16
T H . VON K A R M A N
13. T H E INFLUENCE OF R O U G H N E S S
The problem of the influence of surface roughness on the skin friction is rather complex.
Although many experiments have been conducted concerning the friction in rough-walled
pipes, considerably fewer tests are available on
skin friction of rough plates in a free stream.
In pipes with different diameters but with
identical or geometrically similar surface conditions the coefficient of skin friction depends on
the R.N. and the "relative roughness." The
relative roughness is the ratio between a length
which is characteristic of the roughness and a
length characteristic of the cross section (for
instance, the hydraulic radius). It is not possible
to define a priori which dimension is to be
considered characteristic of the roughness, except
t h a t it must be the same for identical surfaces
and for walls with geometrically similar kinds
of roughness proportional to the scale of the
protruding parts (for instance, to their mean
height). Denoting this parameter by k and the
radius by ry the friction coefficient will be
cf = F(R,k/r).
(45)
SKIN
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(U-u)/(r0/P)i=f(y/r).
(46)
17
FRICTION
(47)
(48)
(49)
10 mm
r
50
100
log (r/k))
(50)
and
(2/C/)* = a + ( l A ) l o g ( r / i f e ) .
(51)
(52)
18
TH.
VON K A R M A N
.005
1
FROM M
x/te
.004
}ff
4,000
gpoo
o NINUR ADSE
iapoo
.003
sspoa
zmw\
.002-
ojajjl
10
.00!
10
I0'
I0 8
I0"
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=
4X10
8X10
18X10
53X10
220X10
X
5
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SKIN
(55)
0.075 m
0.1
0.25
0.5
1.0
0.0100 m m
0.0103
0.0111
0.0118
0.0125
1.5 m
2.0
2.5
3.0
19
FRICTION
k
0.0129 m m
0.0131
0.0133
0.0135
TABLE
III.
0.075 m
0.1
0.25
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.0230 m m
0.0237
0.0257
0.0276
0.0290
0.0299
2 m
2.5
3
10
50
100
200
0.0306 m m
0.0311
0.0316
0.0344
0.0385
0.0400
0.0418
20
T H.
VON
KARMAN
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S O M E P A P E R S ON S K I N F R I C T I O N AND BOUNDARY L A Y E R
SINCE
1930
Kempf, Hydromechanische
Probleme des
Schiffsantriebs,
pp. 74-82.
Lerbs, Werft-Reederei-Haften, 17 (1930).
Lyon, Brit. Rep. & Mem. No. 1511.
Millikan, Trans. A.S.M.E. 1932.
Mueller, Werft-Reederei-Haften, No. 4 (1932).
Nikuradse, Proc. I l l I n t e r n . Cong. Appl. Mech., Stockholm, 1930. V.D.L Forschungsheft, 356 (1932). V . D . I .
Forschungsheft, 361 (1933).
Prandtl, Zeits. V.D.L 77, No. 5 (1933). Hydromechanische
Probleme des Schiffsantriebs, p. 87. Gottinger Ergebnisse,
IV Lieferung.
Schiller, Aachener Vortrage (Springer, Berlin), 1930. H a n d buch d. Exp. Physik 4, 2 and 4 (1932).
Schoenherr, paper read before Soc. Naval Arch. and
Marine Eng., Nov., 1932.
Schrenk, Luftfahrtforschung 2, 1 (1928).
Tollmien, T r a n s . A.S.M.E., 1933.