ADDITIONAL

MATHEMATICS
PROJECT 2015

NAME: ANUSHIYA A/P

MUNUSAMY
CLASS: 5 AMANAH
YEAR: 2015
GUIDED BY: PUAN
NUR NAFHATUN BT
ISMAIL

Contents
Page
A Word of Gratitude

Objective

What is FUNCTION?
4,5,6
Type of FUNCTION

Extrema of FUNCTION
8,9
Pierre De Fermat

10

Fermats Theorem
11
PART ONE
Mathematical Optimization
13
Global & Local Extrema
14
Methods to Find Extrema
15
1st Derivative test
16
nd
2 Derivative Test
17
PART TWO

[1]

 En Shahs Sheep Pen

19
Rezas Box
20
The Mall
Linear Programming
23
Application in real life
24
How it started?
25
Reflection
26

A Word of Gratitude
I would like to say thank you to Pn Nafhatun
my teacher for guiding me and giving me
strength, ideas and patience to complete this
additional mathematics project. Without her
guidance, this project could not be completed.
Next, I would like to thank the principal, En
Sajoli for letting me to do some research to
complete this project. Doing this project at the
school gave me some chances to do discussion
among us.
Besides, I want to say thank you to my
beloved parents as they provided me with
[2]

everything I need to complete this project such

as money, energy, books and others. They also
shared their ideas and experience in order to
make this project successful.
Lastly, I would like to thank all the teachers
and friends for helping me in completing this
project. Thank you to those who involved directly
or indirectly in making this project.

Objective
Every form 5 student taking additional mathematics is
required to carry out a project work. Upon completion of the
project, it is hoped that students will gain some valuable
experiences and able to:
Apply and adapt a variety of problem solving strategies
to solve routine and non-routine problems.
Experience
classroom
environments
which
are
challenging, interesting and meaningful hence improve
their thinking skills.
Experience classroom environments where knowledge
and skills are applied in meaningful ways in solving
real-life problems.
Experience classroom environments where expressing
ones
mathematical
thinking,
reasoning
and
communication are highly encouraged and expected.
Experience classroom environments that stimulate and
enhance effective learning.
Acquire effective mathematical communication through
oral and writing, and to use the language of
mathematics to express mathematical ideas correctly
and precisely.

[3]

 Enhance acquisition of mathematical knowledge and

skills through problem-solving in ways that increases
interest and confidence.
Prepare students for the demands of their future
undertakings and in workplace.
Realise that mathematics is an important and powerful
tool in solving real life problems and hence develop
positive attitude towards mathematics.
Train themselves not only to be independent learners
but also to collaborate, to cooperate, and to share
knowledge in engaging and healthy environment.
Use technology especially the ICT appropriately and
effectively.
Realise the importance and the beauty of mathematics.

WHAT IS
FUNCTION ?
In mathematics, a function is a relation between a set of
inputs and a set of permissible outputs with the property
that each input is related to exactly one output. An example
is the function that relates each real number x to its
square x2. The output of a function f corresponding to an
input x is denoted by f(x) (read "f of x"). In this example, if
the input is 3, then the output is 9, and we may write f(3)
= 9. Likewise, if the input is 3, then the output is also 9, and
we may write f(3) = 9. (The same output may be produced by
more than one input, but each input gives only one output.)
The input variable(s) are sometimes referred to as the
argument(s) of the function.

Functions of various kinds are "the central objects of

investigation"in most fields of modern mathematics. There
are many ways to describe or represent a function. Some
functions may be defined by a formula or algorithm that tells
how to compute the output for a given input. Others are
[4]

given by a picture, called the graph of the function. In

science, functions are sometimes defined by a table that
gives the outputs for selected inputs. A function could be
described implicitly, for example as the inverse to another
function or as a solution of adifferential equation.

The input and output of a function can be expressed as

an ordered pair, ordered so that the first element is the
input (or tuple of inputs, if the function takes more than one
input), and the second is the output. In the example
above, f(x) = x2, we have the ordered pair (3, 9). If both
input and output are real numbers, this ordered pair can be
viewed as the Cartesian coordinates of a point on the graph
of the function.

Graph Of
Function

[5]

The GRAPH of the function f(x) = x3 9x2 + 23x 15. The

interval A = [3.5, 4.25] is a subset of the domain, thus it is
shown as part of the x-axis (green). The image of A is
(approximately) the interval [3.08, 1.88]. It is obtained by
projecting to the y-axis (along the blue arrows) the
intersection of the graph with the light green area
consisting of all points whose x-coordinate is between 3.5
and 4.25. The part of the (vertical) y-axis shown in blue. The
preimage of B = [1, 2.5] consists of three intervals. They are
obtained by projecting the intersection of the light red area
with the graph to the x-axis.

TYPES OF
FUNCTION

[6]

Extrema of FUNCTION
In mathematical analysis, the maxima and minima
(the plural of maximum and minimum) of a function,
known collectively as EXTREMA (the plural of
[7]

extremum), are the largest and smallest value of the

function, either within a given range (the local or
relative extrema) or on the entire domain of a
function (the global or absolute extrema). Pierre de
Fermat was one of the first mathematicians to
propose a general technique, ADEQUALITY, for finding the maxima and minima of functions As defined in set theory, the maximum and minimum of a
set the greatest and least elements in the set.
Unbounded infinite sets, such as the set of real
numbers, have no minimum or maximum.

Extrema of FUNCTION
[8]

The function x2 has a unique global minimum at x = 0.

The function x3 has no global minima or maxima. Although the first derivative (3x2) is 0 at x = 0, this is an ininflection point.
The function x-x has a unique global maximum over the positive
real numbers at x = 1/e.
The function x3/3 x has first derivative x2 1 and second
derivative 2x. Setting the rst derivative to 0 and solving for x
gives stationary points at 1 and +1. From the sign of the second
derivative we can see that 1 is a local maximum and +1 is a local
minimum. Note that this function has no global maximum or
minimum.
The function |x| has a global minimum at x = 0 that cannot be
found by taking derivatives, because the derivative does not exist
at x = 0.
The function cos(x) has infinitely many global maxima at 0, 2,
4, , and infinitely many global minima at , 3, . The
function 2 cos(x) x has infinitely many local maxima and
minima, but no global maximum or minimum.
The function cos(3x)/x with 0.1 x 1.1 has a global maximum
at x = 0.1 (a boundary), a global minimum near x = 0.3, a local
maximum near x = 0.6, and a local minimum near x = 1.0.
The function x3 + 3x2 2x + 1 defined over the closed interval
(segment) [4,2] has a local maximum at x = 1153, a local
minimum at x = 1+153, a global maximum at x = 2 and a global
minimum at x = 4. FERMAT'S THEOREM.

Pierre De
Fermat
[9]

17 August 1601 12 January

1665) was a French lawyer at the Parlement
of Toulouse, France, and a mathematician
who is given credit for early developments
that led to innitesimal calculus, including
his technique of adequality. In particular, he
is recognized for his discovery of an original
method of nding the greatest and the
smallest ordinates of curved lines, which is
analogous to that of the dierential calculus,
then unknown, and his research into
number
theory.
He
made
notable
contributions
to
analytic
geometry,
probability, and optics. He is best known for
Fermat's Last Theorem, which he described
in a note at the margin of a copy of
Diophantus' Arithmetica
PIERRE DE FERMAT ;

Fermats Theorem
PIERRE DE FERMAT developed the technique of adequality
(adaequalitas) to calculate maxima and minima of functions,
[10]

tangents to curves, area, center of mass, least action, and

other problems in mathematical analysis. According to Andr
Weil, Fermat "introduces the technical term adaequalitas,
adaequare, etc., which he says he has borrowed from
Diophantus. As Diophantus V.11 shows, it means an
approximate equality, and this is indeed how Fermat
explains the word in one of his later writings." (Weil 1973).
Diophantus coined the word (parisots) to refer to
an approximate equality. Claude Gaspard Bachet de Mziriac
translated Diophantus's
Greek
word into Latin
as
adaequalitas.[citation
needed]
Paul
Tannery's
French
translation of Fermats Latin treatises on maxima and
minima used the words adquation and adgaler.

Fermat used adequality first to find maxima of functions,

and then adapted It to find tangent lines to curves. To find
the maximum of a term p(x), Fermat equated (or more
precisely adequated) p(x) and p(x+e) and after doing
algebra he could cancel out a factor of e, and then discard
any remaining terms involving e. To illustrate the method by
Fermat's own example, consider the problem of finding the
maximum of p(x)=bx-x^2. Fermat adequated bx-x^2 with
b(x+e)-(x+e)^2=bx-x^2+be-2ex-e^2.

[11]

PART 1

[12]

Mathematical
Optimization
In mathematics, computer science,
operations
research,
mathematical
optimization (alternatively,optimization
or mathematical programming) is the
selection of a best element (with
regard to some criteria) from some set
of
available
alternatives.
In
the
simplest case, an optimization problem
consists of maximizing or minimizinga
real
function
by
systematically
choosing input values from within an
allowed set and computing the value of
the function. The generalization of
optimization theory and techniques to
other formulations comprises a large
area of applied mathematics. More
generally, optimization includes finding
"best
available"values
of
some
objective function given a defined
domain (or a set of constraints),
including a variety of different types of
objective functions and different types
of domains.
[13]

Global &
Local Extrema
A real-valued function f defined on a domain X has a global maximum
point at x if f(x*) _ f(x) for all xin X. Similarly, the function has a global
(absolute) minimum point at x if f(x*) _ f(x) for all x in X.The value of
the function at a maximum point is called the maximum value of the
function and thevalue of the function at a minimum point is called the
minimum value of the function.
If the domain X is a metric space then f is said to have a local ( relative)
maximum point at the point xif there exists some _ > 0 such that f(x*) _
f(x) for all x in X within distance _ of x*. Similarly, the functionhas a local
minimum point at x if f(x*) _ f(x) for all x in X within distance _ of x*. A
similar definition canbe used when X is a topological space, since the
definition just given can be rephrased in terms ofneighbourhoods. Note
that a global maximum point is always a local maximum point, and
similarlyfor minimum points.
In both the global and local cases, the concept of a strict extremum can
be defined. For example, x is astrict global maximum point if, for all x in X
with x* _ x, we have f(x*) > f(x), and x is a strict localmaximum point if
there exists some _ > 0 such that, for all x in X within distance _ of x with
x* _ x, wehave f(x*) > f(x). Note that a point is a strict global maximum
point if and only if it is the unique globalmaximum point, and similarly for
minimum points.
A continuous real-valued function with a compact domain always has a
maximum point and aminimum point. An important example is a function
whose domain is a closed (and bounded) intervalof real numbers

[14]

Methods to Find
Extrema
Methods to find
Extrema

1st Derivative test

2nd Derivative test

[15]

1
Derivative test
st

The first derivative of the function f(x), which we write as

f(x) or as df/dx is the slope of the tangent line to the
function at the point x. To put this in non-graphical terms,
the first derivative tells us how whether a function is
increasing or decreasing, and by how much it is increasing
or decreasing. This information is reflected in the graph of a
function by the slope of the tangent line to a point on the
graph, which is sometimes describe as the slope of the
function. Positive slope tells us that, as x increases, f(x) also
increases. Negative slope tells us that, as x increases, f(x)
decreases. Zero slope does not tell us anything in particular:
the function may be increasing, decreasing, or at a local
maximum or a local minimum at that point. Writing this
information in terms of derivatives, we see that:

ifdf/dx (p) > 0, then f(x) is an increasing function at x =

p.
ifdf/dx (p) < 0, then f(x) is a decreasing function at x =
p.
if df/dx (p) = 0, then x = p is called a critical point of
f(x), and we do not know anything new about the
behaviour of f(x) at x = p.

[16]

[17]

nd

Derivative Test

In calculus, the second derivative test is a criterion for determining whether a

given critical point of a real function of one variable is a local maximum or a
local minimum using the value of the second derivative at the point.
The test states: if the function f is twice differentiable at a critical point x (i.e.
f'(x) = 0), then:
If f (x) < 0 then \ f has a local maximum at \ x.
If f (x) > 0 then \ f has a local minimum at \ x.
If f (x) = 0 the test is inconclusive.

I-think Map

Part
Two!
[18]

En Shahs Sheep
Pen

[19]

Rezas Box

[20]

The Mall

The Mall
[21]

Based on the graph, the mall reaches its PEAK HOURat 3.30
pm which is 6 hours after the mall opens. The number of
people in the mall at. that time is 3600
At 7.30 pm which is 10 hours after the mall opens, the
number of people would be 900.

t=10

t
6
+1800
p (t )=1800 cos

1800 cos

( 6 10)+ 1800

The time when the number of people reaches 2570 is at 1.20

pm

P (t )=2570

6
t) + 1800
(
)
P t =1800 cos

2570=1800 cos ( t) +1800

6

770=1800 cos ( t)
6
t=3.844

[22]

Linear
Programming

Linear programming (LP; also called linear optimization) is a

method to achieve the best outcome (such as maximum
profit or lowest cost) in a mathematical model whose
requirements are represented by linear relationships. Linear
programming is a special case of mathematical programming
(mathematical optimization).

More formally, linear programming is a technique for the

optimization of a linear objective function, subject to linear
equality and linear inequality constraints. Its feasible region
is a convex polytope, which is a set defined as the
intersection of infinitely many half spaces, each of which is
defined by a linear inequality. Its objective function is a realvalued affine function defined on this polyhedron. A linear
programming algorithm finds a point in the polyhedron
where this function has the smallest (or largest) value if
such a point exists

[23]

Application in
real life
Crew Scheduling
An airline has to assign crews to its flights.
Make sure that each flight is covered.
Meet regulations, eg: each pilot can only fly a certain amount
each day.
Minimize costs, eg: accommodation for crews staying overnight
out of town, crews deadheading.
Would like a robust schedule. The airlines run on small profit
margins, so saving a few percent through good scheduling can
make an enormous difference in terms of profitability. They
also use linear programming for yield management.

Portfolio Optimization
Many investment companies are now using optimization and linear
programming extensively to decide how to allocate assets. The
increase in the speed of computers has enabled the solution of far
larger problems, taking some of the guesswork out of the allocation
of assets.

[24]

How it started?

LEONID KANTOROVICH
The problem of solving a system of linear inequalities dates back at least
as far as Fourier, who in 1827 published a method for solving them, and
after whom the method of FourierMotzkin elimination is named. The first
linear programming formulation of a problem that is equivalent to the
general linear programming problem was given by Leonid Kantorovich in
1939, who also proposed a method for solving it. He developed it during
World War II as a way to plan expenditures and returns so as to reduce
costs to the army and increase losses incurred by the enemy. About the
same time as Kantorovich, the Dutch-American economist T. C. Koopmans
formulated classical economic problems as linear programs. Kantorovich
and Koopmans later shared the 1975 Nobel prize in economics. In 1941,
Frank Lauren Hitchcock also formulated transportation problems as linear
programs and gave a solution very similar to the later Simplex method;
Hitchcock had died in
1957 and the Nobel prize is not awarded posthumously. During 19461947, George B. Dantzig independently developed general linear
programming formulation to use for planning problems in US Air Force. In
1947, Dantzig also invented the simplex method that for the first time
efficiently tackled the linear programming problem in most cases. When
Dantzig arranged meeting with John von Neumann to discuss his Simplex
method, Neumann immediately conjectured the theory of duality by
realizing that the problem he had been working in game theory was
equivalent. Dantzig provided formal proof in an unpublished report "A
Theorem on Linear Inequalities" on January 5, 1948. Postwar, many
industries found its use in their daily planning. Dantzig's original example
was to find the best assignment of 70 people to 70 jobs. The computing
power required to test all the permutations to select the best assignment
is vast; the number of possible configurations exceeds the number of
particles in the observable universe. However, it takes only a moment to
find the optimum solution by posing the problem as a linear program and
applying the simplex algorithm. The theory behind linear programming
drastically reduces the number of possible solutions that must be
checked. The linear-programming problem was first shown to be solvable
in polynomial time by Leonid Khachiyan in 1979, but a larger theoretical
and practical breakthrough in the field came in 1984 when Narendra
[25]

Karmarkar introduced a new interior-point method for solving linearprogramming problems.

Reflecti
on
Ive found a lot of information while conducting this Additional
Mathematics project. Ive learnt the uses of function in our daily life.
Apart from that, Ive learnt some moral values that can be applied in
our daily life. This project has taught me to be responsible and punctual
as I need to complete this project in a week. This project has also
helped in building my confidence level. We should not give up easily
when we cannot find the solution for the question.
Then, this project encourages students to work together and share
their knowledge. This project also encourages students to gather
information from the internet, improve their thinking skills and promote
effective mathematical communication.

Lastly, I think this project teaches a lot of moral values, and also tests
the students understanding in Additional Mathematics. Let me end this
project with a poem;

Add Maths
You start from
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
Then you expand to
squares, cubes, square roots, and cube roots
And now your are in
logarithms, differentiation and integration.

You have no full stop

I will fill you in my life
I will be with you forever
No life for me without you

[26]

I love you, ADD MATHS !

THE

END
[27]