Level Sensors 101

2007-Chem-101
Level Sensors
Assignment Report
Report Title: Level Sensors
Subject: Industrial Instrumentation
Submitted By:
2007-Chem-101
Submitted To:
Dr. Naveed Ramzan
University of Engineering & Technology,

Lahore
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2007-Chem-101
Level Sensors
Abstract
A wide variety of level measurement systems are available to address the broad spectrum of
applications, accuracy needs, installation requirements, and practices. Measurement
technologies are made available in different versions to address a wide range of
measurement needs or sometimes to address just one specific application. This subsection
will attempt to define some of the general selection considerations of many available
technologies, the general forms of these technologies, and some of their general
advantages and disadvantages. As always, one must consult the specifications from the
various manufacturers for specific products and users experiences in different installations
to truly determine their applicability to measurement situations.
The family of level measurement systems can be divided into many categories: liquids or
solids level measurement, point or continuous level measurement, electromechanical or
electrical/electromagnetic level measurement, or contacting or noncontacting /nonintrusive
level measurement.
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Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 4
Classification ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Types of Sensors ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Differential Pressure ........................................................................................................................... 5
Displacement ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Float Level Sensors.............................................................................................................................. 7
Ultrasonic / Sonic ................................................................................................................................ 8
Weight and Cable ................................................................................................................................ 9
Sight Glass ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Radioactive (Nuclear) ........................................................................................................................ 10
Bubbler .............................................................................................................................................. 11
Vibration ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Rotating Paddle Level Sensors .......................................................................................................... 13
Diaphragm......................................................................................................................................... 13
Resistance Tape ................................................................................................................................ 14
Hook- Type Level Sensor ................................................................................................................... 16
Level Measurement Sensor Selection................................................................................................... 16
References ............................................................................................................................................ 17
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Level Sensors
Introduction
Level measurement is defined as the measurement of the position of an interface between
two media. These media are typically gas and liquid, but they also could be two liquids.
Level sensors detect the level of substances that flow, including liquids, slurries, granular
materials, and powders. All such substances flow to become essentially level in their
containers (or other physical boundaries) because of gravity. The substance to be measured
can be inside a container or can be in its natural form (e.g. a river or a lake). The level
measurement can be either continuous or point values. Continuous level sensors measure
level within a specified range and determine the exact amount of substance in a certain
place, while point-level sensors only indicate whether the substance is above or below the
sensing point. Generally the latter detect levels that are excessively high or low.
There are many physical and application variables that affect the selection of the optimal
level monitoring method for industrial and commercial processes. The selection criteria
include the physical: phase (liquid, solid or slurry), temperature, pressure or vacuum,
chemistry, dielectric constant of medium, density (specific gravity) of medium, agitation,
acoustical or electrical noise, vibration, mechanical shock, tank or bin size and shape. Also
important are the application constraints: price, accuracy, appearance, response rate, ease
of calibration or programming, physical size and mounting of the instrument, monitoring or
control of continuous or discrete (point) levels.
Classification
Level devices operate under different principles. They can be classified into three main
categories
that measure
the position (height) of the surface.
the pressure head.
the weight of the material through load cells.
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Level Sensors
Types of Sensors
Electromechanical level measurement and detection systems
Floats for level detection and measurement of liquids
Displacers for level detection and measurement of liquids
Level detection of solids using rotating paddles
Level measurement of liquids and solids using plumb bob
Electronic/electromagnetic energy level measurement and detection systems
Level detection of liquids by use of conductivity
Level detection of liquids by use of vibrating forks resonance or rod attenuation
Level detection of solids by use of vibrating fork or rod attenuation
Level detection of liquids by use of ultrasonic gap
Level detection of liquids by use of thermodispersion
Level measurement of liquids by use of bubblers
Level measurement of liquids by use of hydrostatic pressure
Ultrasonic level detection and measurement of liquids and solids
Capacitance level detection and measurement of liquids and solids
Radar level detection and measurement of liquids and solids
Level detection and measurement of liquids and solids by use of time-domain reflectometry
Level measurement of liquids by use of magnetostrictive
Level measurement of liquids by use of laser
Level detection and measurement of liquids and solids by use of radiometric
Level measurement of liquids and solids by use of weighing
Level detection by use of optics
Level detection in liquids by use of ultrasonic tank resonance [7]
Differential Pressure
Differential-pressure level measurement, also known as hydrostatic, is based on the
height of the liquid head. Level measurement in open tanks is based on the formula that the
pressure head is equal to the liquid height above the tap multiplied by the specific gravity of
the fluid being measured. In closed tanks, the true level is equal to the pressure measured
at the tank bottom minus the static pressure above the liquid surface. To compensate for
that static pressure, a leg is connected from the tank top to the low side of the differential
pressure transmitter . Two options are available: dry leg and wet leg. In dry leg applications,
it is expected that the low side will remain empty (i.e., no condensation). [1]
If condensation takes place, an error will occur because a pressure head will be created on
the low side. This error is avoided by intentionally filling the low side with a liquidhence
the term wet leg. Where filled systems (with diaphragm seals) are used between the
transmitter and the tank, calibration of the transmitter should allow for the specific gravity
of the fill fluid. The user should refer to the vendors instructions when setting the zero and
span values. [1]
Advantages/Disadvantages
Differential-pressure level measuring devices are easy to install and have a wide range of
applications. With proper modifications, such as extended diaphragm seals and flange
connections, these instruments will handle hard-to-measure fluids (e.g., viscous, slurries,
corrosive, hot). They are simple and accurate. Calibration of differential-pressure measuring
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Level Sensors
devices is simple. Adjustments to zero, elevation/suppression, and span are easy, and no
special tools are required.
Differential-pressure measuring devices are affected by changes in density. They can only be
used for liquids with fixed specific gravity. Changes in liquid density due to changes in
temperature will introduce errors. Differential-pressure devices are susceptible to dirt or
scale entering the tubing (in small process connections), which can easily plug them. Parts of
the instrument are exposed to the process fluid, while the outside leg is susceptible to
freezing. [1]
Figure 1: Differential Pressure
Displacement
A displacer , which can be either partially or totally immersed, is restricted from moving
freely with the liquid level. It transmits its change in buoyancy (mechanical force) to a
transducer through a torque-tube unit. Sometimes the term float is used instead of
displacer. [1]
Displacers are simple, dependable, and accurate. They may be mounted internally or
externally. These level measurement can only be used for liquids with fixed specific gravity,
where accuracy is not required. A suitable drain is provided at the low point and a vent valve
at the highest point.
Displacers are difficult to calibrate and have many mechanical components. Therefore,
displacer, linkages, or levers should be free to move. Boiling liquid may cause violent
agitation at the liquid surface, so stilling wells
may be required where turbulence exists. the accuracy is also affected by coating, buildup,
or dirt. [1]
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Level Sensors
Figure 2: Displacer
Float Level Sensors

The principle behind magnetic, mechanical, cable, and other float level sensors involves the
opening or closing of a mechanical switch, either through direct contact with the switch, or
magnetic operation of a reed. With magnetically actuated float sensors, switching occurs
when a permanent magnet sealed inside a float rises or falls to the actuation level. With a
mechanically actuated float, switching occurs as a result of the movement of a float against
a miniature (micro) switch. For both magnetic and mechanical float level sensors, chemical
compatibility, temperature, specific gravity (density), buoyancy, and viscosity affect the
selection of the stem and the float. For example, larger floats may be used with liquids with
specific gravities as low as 0.5 while still maintaining buoyancy. The choice of float material
is also influenced by temperature-induced changes in specific gravity and viscosity - changes
that directly affect buoyancy. [2]
Float-type sensors can be designed so that a shield protects the float itself from turbulence
and wave motion. Float sensors operate well in a wide variety of liquids, including corrosives.
When used for organic solvents, however, one will need to verify that these liquids are
chemically compatible with the materials used to construct the sensor. Float-style sensors
should not be used with high viscosity (thick) liquids, sludge or liquids that adhere to the
stem or floats, or materials that contain contaminants such as metal chips; other sensing
technologies are better suited for these applications. [2]
A special application of float type sensors is the determination of interface level in oil-water
separation systems. Two floats can be used with each float sized to match the specific
gravity of the oil on one hand, and the water on the other. Another special application of a
stem type float switch is the installation of temperature or pressure sensors to create a
multi-parameter sensor. Magnetic float switches are popular for simplicity, dependability
and low cost. [2]
Floats work well with clean liquids and are accurate and adaptable to wide variations in fluid
densities. Once commissioned, however, the process fluid measured must maintain its
density if repeatability is required. Float Switches are available and are capable of fail safe
operation in extreme process conditions. [2]
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Floats are affected by changes in product density since the displacement of the body is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. If the specific gravity changes, then the weight of
the displaced material changes, thus changing the calibration. This is especially problematic
in interface measurements, where both liquids increase or decrease density, while the signal
is proportional to the density difference.[2]
Figure 3: Float
Ultrasonic / Sonic
Ultrasonic transmitters work on the principle of sending a sound wave from a peizo electric
transducer to the contents of the vessel. The device measures the length of time it takes for
the reflected sound wave to return to the transducer. A successful measurement depends
on reflection from the process material in a straight line back to the transducer. [3]
Advantages/ Disadvantages
The main advantages of ultrasonic level instrumentation are that the transducer does not
come into contact with the process material, they have no moving parts and a single top of
vessel entry makes leaks less probable than fully wetted techniques.[3]
There are various influences that affect the return signal. Things such as powders, heavy
vapors, surface turbulence, foam and even ambient noise can affect the returning signal.
Temperature can also be a limiting factor in many process applications. Ultrasonic devices
will not operate on vacuum or high pressure applications. [3]
Figure 4 Sonic/Ultrasonic
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Level Sensors
Weight and Cable

With the weight and cable device , a cable or tape is attached to a weight that descends into
the tank. This motion is activated by a timer. When the weight makes contact with the
surface of the material, the motor automatically reverses direction and retrieves the weight
at about 1 ft/s (0.3 m/s). During descent, pulses are generated and displayed on a counting
unit, which indicates either material stored or available filling capacity. [1]
Weight and cables are accurate devices, and they are only momentarily in contact with the
process material prevents product from building up on the weight. They can have
mechanical problems, such as hang-up and friction. They must be activated in order to
measure, and they have no signal transmission capability.
In outdoor use, measures should be taken to protect the mechanical parts of the level
measuring instruments from possible weather interference. Stilling wells are often used if
the vessel is agitated. [1]
Figure 5: Weight and Cable
Sight Glass
A sight glass or water gauge is a transparent tube through which the operator of a tank or
boiler can observe the level of liquid contained within. Simple sight glasses may be just a
plastic or glass tube connected to the bottom of the tank at one end and the top of the tank
at the other. The level of liquid in the sight glass will be the same as the level of liquid in the
tank. Today, however, sophisticated float switches have replaced sight glasses in many such
applications.[4]
Gages are used as a local indicator for open or pressurized vessels. They must be accessible
and located within visual range. Gages are cheap and provide direct-reading measurement.
However, they are not suitable for dark liquids and dirty fluids will prevent the liquid level
from being viewed. They can be easily damaged or broken.
Glass gages should not be used to measure hazardous liquids. Reflex gages are used for lowand medium-pressure applications. For high-pressure applications, or where the fluid is
toxic, magnetic-type armored gages are used. When installing such devices, good lighting is
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Level Sensors
required. In installations where the gage is at a lower temperature than the process,
condensation may occur on the walls, making the reading difficult. [1]
Figure 6: Sight Glass
Radioactive (Nuclear)
With the radioactive (nuclear) device , a radioactive source radiates through the vessel. The
gamma quantum is seen by the radiation detector (such as a Geiger counter) and is
transformed into a signal. When the vessel is empty, the count rate is high. The radioactive
source holder is designed to direct a collimated beam of radiation toward the tank and to be
shielded in all other directions so as to reduce the radiation levels to below the legal limit.
The strength of the sensed radiation depends on the thickness of the vessel wall, the
distance between the source and detector, and the density and thickness of the measured
material. The radiation source generally has a half-life of 30 years; therefore, corrections for
source decay are rarely required. [1]
Radioactive level measurement is external device. It can be added or removed without
disturbing the process. Radioactive (nuclear) devices are highly reliable, non-contacting
devices with no moving parts. They are unaffected by temperature, pressure, and corrosion,
and their mode of failure is limited and predictable.
Radioactive (nuclear) devices require special engineering and licensing for the application
they are used with, and extreme care is required when locating and installing the
radioactive source. Operator exposure to radiation must be minimized, and therefore,
plants may need shielding lead plates at the source or detector. Radioactive (nuclear) units
are expensive to install. They are expensive and they are difficult to calibrate. On vessels
larger than 30 ft (10 m) in diameter or on vessels with extremely thick walls, the source may
have to be suspended vertically inside the vessel. [1]
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Figure 7: Radioactive
Bubbler
In a bubbler , a small amount of air (or inert gas) purge flows through a dip tube in the
vessel. Sometimes, to provide rigidity, a stand pipe is used instead of a dip tube. The dip
tube (or pipe) generally extends to about 3 inches (75 mm) from the bottom of the tank and
is notched to keep the size of the air bubble small. The pressure that is required to force air
bubbles from the bottom of the tube is the liquid head above the end of the tube. A purge
meter, which consists of a rota meter with a needle valve, is required to provide a constant
airflow of about 0.2 to 2.0 scfh (0.005 to 0.05 m3/hr). A pressure regulator located upstream
of the purge meter provides a smooth operation. In plants where remote level indication is
required, the high-pressure side of the differential-pressure transmitter measures the tube
pressure, and the low side measures the vessels top pressure, if it is not vented to the
atmosphere. [1]
The bubbler offers low cost and easy maintenance. It can be operate without electrical
power. It can be used on pressurized or unpressurized vessels. Variations in density will
affect the bubblers reading. Bubblers can become coated or plugged by process fluid
residue or dirt. The cost of purging fluid is ongoing, and the purge gas can introduce
unwanted components into the process. The materials
of construction for the bubbler must be compatible with the process it is used in, and the
bubblers dip tube installation must be capable of withstanding the maximum air pressure
that blockage causes. A tee piece at the top of the dip tube (or pipe) may be required to
enable rodding. [1]
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Figure 8: Bubbler
Vibration
Vibration devices consist of a tuning fork that vibrates at its natural resonant frequency by a
piezoelectric crystal, which is located at the base of the probe. When the vibrating fork
contacts a material, either dry or in suspension (20% minimum), the vibration frequency is
altered, which switches a relay. The material needs to have a bulk density of 0.9 lb/ft (12.8
kg/m) or greater. When the level drops below the fork, the vibrating frequency is again in
effect, and the relay is reversed. [1]
Vibration units have no moving parts, are rugged and reliable, are good for low-density
materials, and require little maintenance. They cannot be used in vibrating bins, especially if
the two frequencies are close. Product buildup will affect the performance of vibration units,
the switch setting cannot be readily changed, and vibration units typically require protection
from materials that are charged from the top. [1]
Figure 9: Vibration
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Level Sensors
Rotating Paddle Level Sensors

Rotating paddle level sensors are a very old and established technique for bulk solid point
level indication. The technique requires a low speed gear motor that rotates a paddle wheel.
When the paddle is stalled by solid materials, the motor is rotated on its shaft by its own
torque until a flange mounted on the motor contacts a mechanical switch. The paddle can
be constructed from a variety of materials, but tacky material must not be allowed to build
up on the paddle. Build up may occur if the process material becomes tacky because of high
moisture levels or high ambient humidity in the hopper. For materials with very low bulk
densities (very low weight per unit volume) such as Pearlite, Bentonite or fly ash, the weight
of the material is insufficient to stop the paddle. For such difficult applications, special
paddle designs and the use of lower-torque motors can be employed. Fine particles or dust
must be prevented from penetrating the shaft bearings and motor by proper placement of
the paddle in the hopper or bin and using appropriate sealing technology.[3]
A paddle wheel is inexpensive, simple, and reliable. It is susceptible to shock, vibration, and
damage by falling material. Paddle wheels generally require some protection(e.g., a
protective baffle) from material charging from the top. Hang-ups or material buildup on the
paddle will affect the device performance.
Figure 10: Paddle Wheel
Diaphragm
The diaphragm is a point measurement device. The process materials (or hydrostatic
pressure) apply pressure on a diaphragm, which in turn actuates a switch. [1]
The diaphragm is reliable, easy to maintain. Coating may affect the flexing of the diaphragm,
and abrasive material may affect its performance. The accuracy of the unit is affected by
changes in specific gravity.
The diaphragm must be in contact with the material. It should be at least 2 to 3 in. (50 to
75mm.) above any sediment in the vessel bottom to prevent dirt from building up at the
diaphragm. [1]
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Level Sensors
Figure 11: Diaphragm
Resistance Tape
The resistance-tape material level sensor with which the invention is employed is sold
commercially and is known as a "Metritape" sensor,
The Metritape sensor comprises an elongated metallic base strip having electrical insulation
on the edges and back of the strip to define an un-insulated zone along the length of the
base strip, and a resistance wire or ribbon helically wound around the insulated base strip,
with the helical turns bridging the insulated edge portions being spaced from the underlying
un-insulated zone of the base strip. This sensor structure is enclosed within a continuous
polymeric or other protective sleeve to provide a clean and dry inner chamber for the
sensor. The sensor is disposed within a tank or vessel containing the liquid or fluent material,
the level of which is to be monitored. The pressure of the material surrounding the
immersed sensor causes the deflection of the enclosing sleeve and helical turns in the
immersed portion of the sensor into engagement and electrical contact with the underlying
base strip, such that an electrical resistance proportional to material level is provided.[5]
A resistance tape will handle corrosive liquids and slurries. It must contact the material and
is susceptible to moisture getting inside the tape. Resistance tape devices are affected by
changes in specific gravity, are not suitable for flammable atmospheres, and are neither
accurate nor rugged. They require careful engineering and careful installation. Plants may
need to use stilling if turbulence exists. [1]
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Figure 12: Resistance tape
Laser
There are two types of laser measurement pulsed and continuous wave (frequency
modulated). In industrial applications, the pulsed-type is the most common because of its
range and ability to penetrate through vapors and dust.
The pulsed-type laser operates as follows: its transmitter emits a continuous series of pulses
at a target. The time taken by each pulse to travel from the transmitter to the target (e.g.,
the liquid surface) and back is measured and converted into distance.
The continuous wave laser consists of a transmitter that emits a continuous laser beam at
the target. When the beam hits the target, phase-shifting occurs. Based on the degree of
phase shift and on other constant parameters such as wave frequency, the device
determines the distance of the target and therefore level. [1]
Laser transducers mounted outside a metal vessel can measure level through a processrated sight glass. This means the laser unit can be accessed without having to interrupt the
process. Laser-type level measurement uses an extremely short wavelength and produces a
very narrow beam. These features provide very good accuracy and non-contact
measurement for difficult applications.
Lasers are relatively expensive, though still better then radioactive (nuclear) types.[1]
Figure 13: Laser
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Level Sensors
Hook- Type Level Sensor

Hook- Type level Indicator consists of a wire of corrosion resistance alloy bent into U-shaped
with one arm longer than the other. The shorter arm is pointed with 60 degrees while the
longer is attached to a slider on a Vernier scale, which moves over the main scale and shows
the reading. [6]
In this type of sensor the hook is pushed below the surface of the liquid whose level is to be
measured and gradually raised until the point is just about to break through the surface.
This principle is also utilized in measuring point manometer in which measuring point
consists of a steel point fixed with the point upward underneath the water surface. [6]
Level Measurement Sensor Selection

General considerations in level measurement technology selection
Density and viscosity
Chemical composition
Ambient temperature
Process temperature
Process pressure
Regulated environments
Process agitation
Vapor, mist, and dust
Interfaces and gradients
Process conductivity and dielectric constants
Vibration
Material buildup or stickiness
Static charge
Humidity/moisture
Repeatability, stability and accuracy requirements
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References
1. Battikha, N. E., The Condensed Handbook of Measurement and Control; Publisher
ISA: The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society (2006); 3rd Ed., pg. 99121
2. http://www.iceweb.com.au/technical.html (retrieved on 05-11-2010)
3. http://www.iceweb.com.au/Level/LevelWeb.htm (retrieved on 05-11-2010)
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sight_glass#cite_note-bell (retrieved on 06-11-2010)
5. Edwin P. Dews, N.H. William.E.Pierce, D. Ehrenfried, (1990), United States Patent, p
6
6. Singh, S. K., Industrial Instrumentation and Control; McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Limited; 2nd edition, pg. 225; 226
7. McMillan, Gregory K. , Process/Industrial Instruments and Controls Handbook;
McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd; 5th Ed. , pg. 155 Section 4
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2007-Chem-101

University of Engineering & Technology,

Figure 1: Differential Pressure

Float Level Sensors

Weight and Cable

Figure 5: Weight and Cable

Figure 6: Sight Glass

Rotating Paddle Level Sensors

Figure 10: Paddle Wheel

Figure 11: Diaphragm

Figure 12: Resistance tape

Figure 13: Laser

Hook- Type Level Sensor

Level Measurement Sensor Selection

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