ORCHESTRAL COMPOSITION:

GUIDELINES, TECHNIQUES, AND DEVICES

A. General Guidelines
Contents:
I. The Music Should Be Written Directly for the Orchestra.
II. The Music Should Not Rely Purely on Timbre or Texture.

I. The Music Should Be Written Directly for the Orchestra.

14. The finest orchestral music is written directly for the orchestra. The orchestra
has hundreds of particulars of timbre and articulation, and such qualities pervade
every aspect of musical expression. Initially, they open up and close off dozens of
possibilities for the short, individual passage; from these, the large-scale idea and
structure is affected.
15. The piano should be avoided as much as possible. Piano music is too
rhythmically uniform to be effective on orchestral instruments; in fact it sounds dull,
because most orchestral instruments need a certain amount of suppleness and
flexibility in order to be effective. Music composed at the piano retains this
characteristic because it sounds good only if pains are taken to imagine the actual
sounds will the music work when realized by orchestra.
16. One of the most important differences between the piano and the orchestra is
the continuous sustain effect. The possibilities of expression are greatly expanded
with an orchestra that can not only hold a note at the same dynamic, but can swell at
any speed. The orchestra as a whole gains solidity where the piano is ephemeral. This
is especially important in slow and soft passages.
17. The manner of spacing in the orchestra is of course different than on the piano.
The distance from highest to lowest note is generally larger. The spacing of the chords
is more full, as it does not have to conform to the requirements of the hands. The bass
notes are more open, as they become muddier in the orchestra.

II. The Music Should Not Rely Purely on Timbre or Texture.

18. There is little inspiration to be found in timbre and texture alone (absolute
nonsense listen to Debussy), which are the purest disciplines of orchestration. They
are too superficial to the art of music. Rather, it is melody, harmony, and structure
that truly convey emotion (See above!).
19. In particular, there must be an expressive melodic line in order for timbre and

texture to have any purpose. If the music is deficient in melody, harmony, and
structure, the orchestral garb thrown around it all will be unable to make up for it, and
the music will remain ineffective. Timbre and texture may affect mood and
atmosphere, though not true expression.
20. This need not mean that a piece be fully effective when performed for
instruments other than which it was intended, such as on one or two pianos (see
Guidelines I and III).
21. This guideline may be relaxed in passages intended to affect atmosphere rather
than have true overt expression (see Guideline II.). Still, the orchestration should be
based around basically effective music. And such passages are the exception to usual
musical practice.

B. Guidelines Pertaining to Expression

Contents:
I. In Prominent Lines, the Instrumental Characters Should Heighten Expression.
Instrumental Idiom in Melodic Lines
II. In Doubled Lines, the Timbres Should Heighten Expression.
Scoring Melodic Lines for Instruments in Different Families
III. The Aggregate Timbre Should Heighten Expression.
Scoring Chords
IV. The Chosen Textures Should Heighten Expression
Sustained Background Material
Other Features of Texture
Special Textures and Effects
Spacing

I. In Prominent Lines, the Instrumental Characters Should Heighten

Expression.

Instrumental Idiom in Melodic Lines

22. Each instrument has a unique character (idiom), which depends on its:
timbre
method of articulation
character of sustained notes
character of change of dynamics
character of vibrato
23. As a result, an instrument will be more suited to particular styles, whereas other

styles are basically not idiomatic.

24. Instrumental character is even more difficult to calculate effectively than timbre.
25. Legato is used to:
connect and group notes into a unit.
de-emphasize the individual notes
reduce force of passage
26. The use of staccato
emphasizes individual notes
increases force of passag
induces a certain kind of texture
27. Remember the mode of physical production: for strings, it is moving the bow in
certain common ways. For the woodwinds it is blowing into a tube, maybe with the
lips wrapped around a mouthpiece. For the brass, it is buzzing into a mouthpiece (the
part-writing will be more idiomatic).
28. Whether or not instruments are doubled also affects the idiom. By nature, blends
are less expressive than solo instruments.
29. When this guideline is not followed, the music is dull and bland.

II. In Doubled Lines, the Timbres Should Heighten Expression.

General Characteristics of Doubling
30. When an instrument doubles another with which it doesn't blend, the sound is
more prominent, but less coherent.
31. If a line should make melodic sense, it should not be broken between
performers.
32. In a melody played by a blend of instruments, one instrument may gradually
become more prominent than another, subtly changing the mood.
33. The only true way to work with doublings is to hear them clearly in the head,
having originally heard them in actual performance. There are several mental aids,
however: most octave doublings are on the polished side, most 2-octave doublings on
the nasal side; the loudest instrument will most define the character of the final blend.
34. The number of potential doublings is essentially limitless, especially involving
woodwinds. But, for the composer's purpose, the number is quite limited, because
there is a narrow range of effective doublings in a particul ar passage.
35. An octave doubling sounds sonorous and sheen, though only if the top note is
more prominent. If the bottom note is louder than the top note, the doubling will
sound more nasal and harsh than the undoubled note. A 2-octave doubling sounds
sonorous but biting. A four-octave doubling sounds sonorous but massive, and usually
slightly imbalanced.
Scoring Melodic Lines for Instruments in Different Families

Specific Doublings
36. In darker passages, the double-bass should play the bass line, without support
from the cellos. The double-basses should then be doubled at the unison by the
bassoons. In lighter passages, the cellos should play the bass line alone.
37. The unison addition of a few woodwinds to the violins makes the sound more
full and bright, but the woodwinds cannot be actually heard. The most common of
these doublings is of flute to the violin E-string.
38. Bassoons give bite and aggressiveness to the horns.
39. Oboe + strings an octave below gives the sound excellent warmth and body.
40. Violins an octave above trumpets is a very strong and intense.
41. Flutes an octave above trumpets is also intense, sounding strained and windy.
42. Cellos are given great lyrical warmth and breadth when doubled with a horn.
The horn sound remains in the background.
43. Violas and Cellos are given some bite and pungency by being doubled with
bassoons.

III. The Aggregate Timbre Should Heighten Expression.

44. The character of a passage is an average of all that individual characters of the
instruments. For example, a sonority made from the cello playing on the A-string, the
viola playing on the D-string, the oboe playing in its middle register, and the bassoon
playing in its upper register will sound nasal. This is because those instruments have
nasal qualities in those registers. The instruments that are most prominent will most
influence the character, those that are least prominent will least influence it.
45. Control over the aggregate timbre is one of the most important features of
orchestration, though it can be easily overlooked. It may go a long way toward
making an orchestral piece effective, even if several other areas are deficient.
46. The overall sound alters how its component sounds are heard, and also how
sounds following it are heard. A note in the middle register sounds high when it is
heard after a passage in the high register, and low when it is heard after a passage in
the low register. The same is true for sharp, soft sonorous, etc.
47. This aggregate is generally composed of several components: the primary
lines, the bass line, accompanimental lines, and sustaining material. The primary line
is probably fixed with its instruments; therefore the choice of timbres is focused on
the other components. The accompanimental lines and sustaining material are
essentially in the background, consequently, it is largely pitch and timbre that are
heard. The details of articulation have little impact.
48. The choice of timbre in less prominent voices affects mood and atmosphere. A
background chord scored for flutes in their middle ranges will make the whole phrase
lighter and less obtrusive than if scored for oboes in their low ranges, which would
make the phrase darker and more pungent.
49. Of great importance music is the timbral'accent'a chord or motif in which a
particular timbre highlights the music. When a chord is treated in this way, there is
usually just a quick sfz that quickly gains and loses prom inence. When a motif is
treated this way, there is a pattern of notes played by different instruments. The notes
need not be the sameoften, some of the instruments repeat a single pitch or a
percussion instrument plays. To a certain extent, this then becomes a heterophonic

texture (see below).

50. An instrument's characteristics are magnified greatly when two are prominent.
The bassoon, for example, sounds somewhat sickly, but the music is made very sickly
when two bassoons play a counterpoint with each other.
51. It is difficult to calculate the subtle influence of timbre, especially since each
instrument is different. It can only be done when the timbres are heard well by the ear,
whether through acute aural imagination or through performance of the score.
52. Constant doubling of non-like instruments eventually produces a gray sound;
consequently much music should be given to either solo instruments (woodwinds and
brass) like-doubled instruments (e.g. flute-flute-flute).
53. Each choir has a stereotypical sound when playing alone in small groups. The
strings sound dark, soft, and gentle. The woodwinds sound bright, sweet, and perky.
The brass sounds opulent, loud, and solid.
Scoring Chords
54. The character of a chord depends on four things (listed by order of importance):
A. the character of the chord itself, irrespective of the timbres
B. the character of all the timbres, especially of bassoon and oboe (to be
determined by determining all the individual timbres)
C. the character of the octave doublings
D. the character of the interval groupings
55. Because lines that are played by different kinds of instruments are separated,
chord progressions are deprived of some of their power and logic in symphonic
music. This can be avoided by giving important harmonic parts to homogenous
groups, such as the strings, rather than breaking them up between strings and
woodwinds.
56. The woodwind sonority is basically composed of the bassoon and the oboe,
with the flute and clarinet adding some timbral balance. It thus has a basically reedy
sound.
57. The brightness of a woodwind sonority depends largely on where the oboe and
especially the bassoon are.
58. Melodic lines emerge from chords (especially when their is an imbalance).
The character of this line will be an octave doubling, if present.
59. Instrument sounds group intervals in chords; this new character forms an
important character, but which remains in the background. For example, one G
dominant seventh chord made from a pair of the same instrument playing G and B,
and another pair playing D and F (both thirds) will be more soft and fluid than a pair
playing G and D, the other playing B and F (both are fifths). The larger the interval
that is emphasized, the more open the sound. Intervals are often mixednot one is
emphasized over the other, producing a somewhat indistinct sound.
60. The sound of a chord in which some notes are louder than others is, when
heard alone, a somewhat confusing sound, because what emerges as the main notes
are so similar to the background notes.
61. The un-doubled triad is a more useful chord than the triad with one or more
notes doubled, because it is more clear than doubled chords.
62. Most woodwind sonorities are quite sweet, as the most used registers of the
clarinet, oboe and flute are very sweet in sound.
63. Unless the flute and clarinet are written in their top-most registers, they will
have to be doubled if they are to be equal to the oboe and the bassoon.
64. Juxtaposition is the method of choice. Interlocking instruments, which sounds

quite similar, blends the instrumental sounds better. But it produces an unclear sound.
Leave out the bass note if the chord is an inversion. Also, a note may be left out of the
woodwinds if it is played by an instrument from another choir.
65. In four-part chords, three of the same family + one of another family sounds
good. For example, three clarinets and an oboe, or two oboes, an English horn, and a
flute. This can be distributed in any order.
66. Since harmony in say, eighths is a replication of harmony in fourths, choose
good sounds for the octave doublings.
67. Bassoons are often used to form a chord with trombones.

IV. The Chosen Textures Should Heighten Expression

68. Owing to the great variety of instruments in the orchestra, as well as a great
number, the palette of texture available in orchestral music is very large. It therefore
deserves the most attention in orchestral study, aside from the study of
instrumentation.
Sustained Background Material
69. One of the most important of orchestral devices is the sustained background
material. Sustained background material is any note or notes held for some time,
which is never quite heard by the listener. It is equivalent to the pedal on the piano,
smoothing out the sound, which otherwise would be too dry or sparse. It can also add
considerable excitement when loud. It also reduces clarity. These characteristics are
heightened as the material is more prominent: for example, the material is loud, is
played by brass instruments, or is an 8-part chord. Background material of only one or
two notes still do the job admirably.
70. The sustained background material usually holds for about two seconds before
changing notes. It can last as short as a second, or as long as, say, twenty seconds.
71. What's most important for background material is timbre, rather than more
subtle aspects of instrumental character.
72. These instruments may have heterogeneous timbres amongst each other; they
should blend fairly well, however. It is best for the timbres of these instruments to be
different from the timbres of the other, more important lines.
73. Often, sustained background material achieves prominence during its
existence; for example, it may start out as a motivic passage, fade into the
background, then reemerge into prominence.
74. Primary sustaining instruments are horns, clarinets, and bassoons. The
clarinets and especially the bassoons fade into the background with great ease, though
they also reduce clarity. The horns are opulent enough that they do not have these two
characteristics.
75. Repeated notes may serve as sustained background material when executed
legato; syncopating them weakens a potentially too-rhythmic effect.

Other Features of Texture

A. Special Textures and Effects
76. Highly complex interweaving of consonant lines produces one of two effects:

when the lines move slowly, the music has a glowing, opulent sound, when the lines
move very quickly it has a shimmering sound.
77. Cross-voicing (two instruments playing alternate notes on each other's lines)
creates a somewhat sound of unclean intonation, with often a tiny amount of glissando
present. This adds some interest. However, it will sound haphazardly phrased, as it
cannot be played as a genuine melodic line.
78. Linear heterophony creates a sense of motion, alternately sparkling when soft
and vehement when loud. The amount of difference between the parts determines the
amount of movement (see Das Lied von der Erde).
79. Isolated blocks of close-position triads have an exotic sound.
80. Tenor instruments playing passage-work amid a tutti passagesound crunchy
if in thirds, as if humming a glissand.
81. Bursts of quick scalar notes sounds like an excerpt from speech.
82. Rapid polyphonic notes in very low instruments sounds like murmuring
B. Spacing
83. In general, a large distance between the top and bottom voices (such as five
octaves) creates a vast sound; a small distance (such as two octaves) creates an
intimate sound.
84. If there are three notes or more within an octave, that octave will sound full, if
less, it will sound sparse. A full spacing from c to c1 sounds thick; below this it
sounds muddy.
85. A line may be exposed by leaving space between it and other voices.

C. Guidelines Pertaining to Voices

Contents:
I. The Number of Voices in a Phrase Should Remain Constant.
II. All Voices Should Continue Contrapuntally.
III. Climactic Phrases Should Have an Increased Number of Voices
IV. In Buildups Toward Climaxes, the Number of Voices Should Gradually
Increase.

I. The Number of Voices in a Phrase Should Remain Constant.

86. The introduction of a voice always results in a heavier texture, and the
withdrawal of a voice always results in a lighter texture. Therefore, voices cannot
enter and exit freely. This expansion or contraction drastically affects the emotional
character of this music; if it is not helpful to the music, the result will be unstable and
confusing.
87. Therefore a passage that includes constant filling in of missing intervals

sounds disjointed and awkward, as the texture changes so haphazardly. The

introduction of a voice for a single note should be avoidedthe exception s being 1)
notes with a long duration, such that they are a sort of simple melody, 2) sforzando
chords (see below).
88. An important exception to this guideline concerns the topmost and lowermost
voice moving in contrary motion to one another; the number of voices may increase
without any sense of a crescendo when the outer voices move away from each other
the texture remains constant. The same is true for voice reduction when the outer
voices move toward each other.

II. All Voices Should Continue Contrapuntally.

89. All minor parts should behave according to the characteristics of good voiceleading. This produces the stable sound necessary in all good orchestral music.
Though this guideline is derived more from the world of counterpo int than from a
purely instrumental domain, it is of paramount importance in orchestral composition.
90. The basic character of a line played in an orchestral composition is the
melodious line that proceeds by steps, with skips of small intervals interspersed.
91. Solo-like lines, which employ large leaps and large ranges, should only occur
in what are clearly main voices.
92. If the woodwinds have a melody in a tutti while other choirs are playing ff, the
melody should be doubled by all available instruments and in octaves.
When two lines intersect, and cross each other, the ear is slightly confused.

III. Climactic Phrases Should Have an Increased Number of Voices

93. An increased number of voices gives a phrase more intensity and weight; these
two characteristics is an important feature in climactic phrases. These phrases may be
of any level of climactic intensitythey may be the clima x of a group of two or three
phrases, ten phrases, the whole movement, etc.

IV. In Buildups Toward Climaxes, the Number of Voices Should

Gradually Increase.
94. The voices are added gradually, a process called the orchestral crescendo.
for larger crescendos and diminuendos, increase the number of instruments
gradually, perhaps even creating short build-ups in which the increasing numbers of
voices have short rests before new ones are added
for shorter crescendos a second choir may enter and crescendo more quickly than

the first choir, and soon play more loudly. For shorter diminuendos, one choir may
diminuendo and terminate more quickly than another. The brass create a par ticularly
intense effect when used this way, such as in the climax of Wotan's Farewell
when all the voices end at once, it is best that their last chord is on the downbeat of
the measure, and is elided to the next phrase.

D. Guidelines Pertaining to Voice Prominence

Contents:
I. Lines Should be Prominent to the Extent That They are Important.
The Placement of Emphasis
Volume
Activity
Other Aspects
II. All the Voices Should be Clearly Heard.

I. Lines Should be Prominent to the Extent That They are Important.

The Placement of Emphasis

95. There are usually highly important voices in a passage which, if altered, would
change drastically the character of the whole passage; simultaneously, there are
usually voices that could be altered with less change in the character of the passage. A
hierarchy of the importance of voices may be present.
96. A hypothetical tutti passage consisting of a melody, two countermelodies, an
accompanimental figure, and background chords could be ranked by importance.
Based on this ranking, the voices should be emphasized:
VERY IMPORTANT
10
9 main melody
8
7 countermelodies 1 and 2
6
5 accompanimental figure
4
3 background chords
2
1
0
LESS IMPORTANT

HIGHLY EMPHASIZED
10
9 main melody
8
7 countermelodies 1 and 2
6
5 accompanimental figure
4
3 background chords
2
1
0
LESS EMPHASIZED

97. Prominence depends on primarily the volume of sound and by a voice's

activity.
Volume
At a dynamic level of mf :
Group 1 (most penetrating):
register,

Trumpet middle
metal idiophones

Group 2 (very strong and penetrating):

register,

Trumpet high
Trombone middle and

high
registers, Timpani
Group 3 (very strong):
string

Violin sections' E(also upper positions

of
G- string), piccolo,
Group 4:
Violin

Horn high register,

D and A-strings (and

lower
positions of Gstring)
Group 5:
clarinet

Flute high register,

high register, Cellos

D and
A-strings, Violas D
and
A-strings
Group 6:
strings, Violas

Cellos C and GC and G-strings, Oboe

low
register
Group 7:
clarinet

Bassoon low register,

low register, oboe

middle
and high register,
Harp
playing multiple
notes
Group 8 (easily covered)
bassoon middle

Double-basses,
and high register,

Horns up to
small g

Group 9 (most easily covered)

(g1 - g2),

Flute middle register

clarinet middle

register Harp
(for a single note)

98. The addition of instruments will strengthen a line, but only to a small degree.
For the most perfect balance, assume that two instruments playing a single line will
equal a single instrument in the next highest group, and that four will equal an
instrument in group above that. Each successive dynamic level (from p to mp, from f
to ff) is equivalent to 3 groups. This, however, is loaded with risk, as dynamic
markings are a variable characteristic.
99. Assume that further differences in strength will be balanced in rehearsal.
Activity
100. New notes attract attention immediately. As a rule of thumb, the ratio of note
values is inversely proportional to the ratio of prominence. For example, assuming
that all other aspects are equal, a voice playing eighth-no tes will be twice as
prominent as a voice playing quarter notes. A voice playing triplets will be thrice as
prominent as a voice playing quarter notes.
101. The activity of a line is determined during composition, not during
orchestration. It is therefore rare that the note values of a melody would be changed to
affect its prominence. Nevertheless, the effect of activity on t he line's prominence is
important to understand when altering its other aspects, such as volume or position. In
other words, a fast-moving line won't need much doubling, whereas a slow moving
line might very well need some.
Other Aspects
102. There are other methods of making a voice more prominent (or less
prominent, by pursuing the opposite actions):
Making it the topmost or bottommost voice. The topmost line will be heard best,
and then the bass line. The middle lines tend to fade into the background, unless they
have some outstanding characteristic.
Increasing the distance between it and other lines. The larger the interval between
a voice and other voices, the more it will tend to stick out. The smaller the interval,
the more it becomes part of the background.
Slurring all the fast notes together, and separating all the slow notes by rests. Fast
notes blur together when articulated legato, while slow notes that are cut off are
forgotten when they're silent.
Giving it a different timbre from other voices. Similar timbres obscure individual
voices. If a timbre is surrounded by similar timbres, it will be less conspicuous. If a
timbre is surrounded by dissimilar timbres, it will be emphasized. For example, a
melody played by an oboe accompanied by French horns will stand out strongly. If
accompanied by three oboes, an English horn, and a bassoon, it will stand out with
difficulty.

II. All the Voices Should be Clearly Heard.

103. Whenever lines cannot be heard, The music loses whatever emotional impact
that those lines were supposed to communicate. This can destroy the impact of an
entire passage or even work, if so many lines are never heard. And since all lines have
some importance, all lines should be heard at least moderately well.
104. In orchestral music, the inability of the ear to discern the individual voices is
often a problem, and when it is, it is easily solved. Owing to the number of parts
possible, the haziness of string sections, a variety of timbres, and a number of
instruments capable of strong sonorityqualities called for in nearly all symphonic
musicindividual lines are obscured with ease. 105. The following qualities in a
passage contribute to clarity:
no more than two active lines below c1 (important)
for strings, a minimum of notes below gif more than one note, it should be a
perfect interval. Also, melodic lines should move slowly in this range (important)
for brass, the above is true below c (important)
thirds not used below c1 in string parts (important)
Different material sharply divided among most different sounds. The difference is
usually greatest between instruments in different choirs. (very helpful)
no sustained background material (very helpful). When there is, clarity is
enhanced if the first note of the main melody is left out of the chord.
no material crosses the range of other material (helpful)
Voices sustained simultaneously have the same amount of prominence.
Otherwise, it can sound confusing. (helpful)
leaving a large interval open if the texture is thick, so that an important line is
heard better. If the texture is only a chord, just the first note of the melody may be left
out, that is, the melody note may be excluded in the chord o f each change in
harmony. (helpful)
Use juxtaposition for chords, rather than interlocking (helpful)
no octave doubling, except in emptily-filled ranges (sometimes helpful)
use of shorter note values, such as quarter notes, rather than longer values
(sometimes helpful)
use of staccato rather than legato articulation (sometimes helpful)
most important melodic lines above c3 (sometimes helpful)
unison doubling confined to similar instruments (sometimes helpful)
no blended timbres (sometimes helpful)
all brighter timbres are placed over darker timbres. Because the amount of
darkness or brightness can be hard to determine when comparing different timbres,
similar instruments are often safest in close spacing. (sometimes helpful)
Use of more clear instruments rather than less clear. This means use of opulent
and sonorous- sounding instruments (in general, the use of woodwind an especially
brass instruments, rather than strings and percussion), but also use of the second
violins to carry lower material, rather than the violas (sometimes helpful)

E. Guidelines Pertaining to Unity

Contents:
I. There Should be Similarity in Orchestration Throughout the Movement.
Transitions
II. There Should be Contrast in Orchestration Throughout the Movement
Shifts of Instrumentation in Chords

I. There Should be Similarity in Orchestration Throughout the

Movement.
106. Each movement should have its own sound, such as a:
characteristic set of blends
characteristic instruments
characteristic manner of spacingsuch as leaving the middle somewhat empty, or
very full
characteristic registers are featuredfor example, low registers, or high registers
of instruments
characteristic instrumental techniques, such as tremolo, fluttertongue It is best if
the techniques that produce weight and intensity are reserved for climactic sections.
This is especially the case if there is a main climax about two-thirds through.
Transitions
107. Because two sections of music will have a change in orchestration, the contrast
can be made less harsh by keeping some subtle traits in common. This includes a
common instrument in timbre blending (e.g. passage 1 has a flute + clarinet blend,
passage 2 has a flute + oboe blend).
108. Transitions may be made more smooth by:
Sneaking in an instrument while others are playing, and letting it come to
prominence as the others fall out of it
When a melodic line is dovetailed between two instruments, have them play a
single note together.
When a string passage alternates with a woodwind passage, clarinets and bassoons
(blending excellently with both) can be employed in both
When a brass passage alternates with a woodwind passage, horns can be
employed in both
109. Well-proportioned sounds, such as the violin and piano, are not tiresome after
long periods, whereas sounds such as the viola and oboe are.

II. There Should be Contrast in Orchestration Throughout the

Movement

110. It is best if any definable segment of music have its own orchestration; this
separates the segments from each other. As a result, their character is more clearly
defined and the emotional impact of the music is heightene d.
111. What constitutes the 'significant segments' is open to considerable
discrepancy, varying according to the composer, piece, and phrase. At the very least,
the group of phrases with common thematic material is going to be a meaningful
segment, and so the orchestration should be changed with each different phrase group.
112. Of course the change in scoring may occur more frequently than every phrase
group, especially at successive phrases and at repetitions or sequences of motives. But
rarely should it be longer, in which case the music will seem static.
113. A change in orchestration consists of one, or several of the following:
a change of instrument or instruments
a change of register of the same instrument(s)
a change in the number of voices.
114. In the majority of cases, the contrast should be smooth, rather than abrupt.
This smoothness is enhanced when the first manner of orchestration coincides
temporarily with the new manner. For example, a phrase played by th e oboe which is
succeeded by a phrase played by the flute, the oboe's line may play a few notes during
the beginning of the flute phrase.
115. Often, when a passage is repeated, whether the repetition is immediate or
separated by other music, a slight change of orchestration is desirable.
116. Some composers, such as Gustav Mahler and Arnold Schnberg (in his
initial work), employ far more frequent changes, such as at the end of a motive or a
short melodic segment. This gives a dramatic, fast-moving impression. Less
importantly, it results in a richly colored texture on the basis of aural beauty. This,
however, is superficial, and should not be focused upon in composition. Indeed, the
constant change in instrumentation can by itself attract the listener's atten tionand
away from the emotional intent of the music.
117. The composers of the second Viennese school took what is perhaps the
logical extreme of this technique; this 'pointilistic' manner of orchestration involves a
change of instrument on every note. It should not be employed too often; the
differentiation of every note will destroy coherence.
Shifts of Instrumentation in Chords
When a chord changes instrumentation, the feeling of stability can be lost somewhat.
In order to reestablish this stability, two things can help:
For same chord, have all parts in the first choir overlap with those in the second
choir
For a different chord, have all parts in the first choir proceed to the parts in the
second choir as if they formed good melodic linesthe imaginary line should make
sense.

F. Guidelines Pertaining to Emphasis

Contents:

I. Important Melodic Notes Should be Accompanied with a Chord

II. In Loud Sections, the Most Important Melodic Notes Should be Doubled
III. Important Sections Should be Emphasized
Tuttis

I. Important Melodic Notes Should be Accompanied with a Chord

118. Important notes in a melody, whether loud or soft, are given more weight if
extra instruments are added at the unison. This usually means the melody's climax or,
if the melody has several, chords may appear at regular per iods throughout. This
technique may be referred to as the orchestral sforzando. Rather than drawing
attention to itself, it emphasizes the melodic note in question, even when the volume
of the chord exceeds that of the melodic note.
119. This chord may be staccato or may be held for some period of time. The
chord may be followed immediately with similar chords if the succeding melodic
notes need emphasis.

II. In Loud Sections, the Most Important Melodic Notes Should be

Doubled
120. Important notes in a loud melody, usually meaning a single climax or
assorted climaxes, are given more weight if extra instruments are added at the unison.
In loud sections, this is more effective than ordinary instrument al dynamics. In
general, music that uses such terraced dynamics has a massive sound, and so is
usually inappropriate in more intimate music.
121. A doubling that is done for volume should also benefit the timbre.
122. Instruments may also be added at the octave, though this is less useful for
most situations. There are several ways of adding doubling instruments:
to a single note
to all the notes in a group, with all the notes doubled consecutively
to selected notes in the group, with some less important notes played with rests
to selected notes in the group, which are sustained, so that the more important
notes are sounding during the less important notes
123. Along with the doubled melodic note, the previous guideline concerning the
accompanying chord should be followed.

III. Important Sections Should be Emphasized

124. An important section should involve both more voices, an increase of

volume, and an increase in intensity. An increase of volume and intensity involves

both dynamic levels and doubling.
Tuttis
125. The tutti is a climactic section using all the instruments of the orchestra,
playing at forte level.
126. A less common type of tutti, in which the instruments play soft, has a fairly
expansive sound. Often, many of the instruments are not playing, but all the
instrumental families are (e.g. strings, woodwind, and brass all p laying).
127. The most massive, resonant sound is the simple one in which each note of the
chord, throughout the octaves, receives equal doubling or non-doubling.
128. In general: woodwinds play highest; strings may be as high or about an
octave lower; brass lower than the strings. In loud tutti, the brass are the most
important instruments to take care of, next are the violins.
Strings usually a combination of open, closed in middle and top registers.
The doubling of notes need not conform to any pattern, and may be done purely
for reasons of emphasis and voice leading.
The piccolo often forms highest note of chord, perhaps an octave above rest of
flutes.
Bassoons generally play in bass register, disconnected from the other woodwinds
by an octave or more. The same is true for the bass clarinet and contrabassoon.
Tuba, when playing, almost always in unison with double basses. Bassoons are
usually in unison with the double basses, but when the note is out of their range, they
play an octave higher and probably the contra bassoons play the note.
The bass clarinet usually plays interlocked with bassoons, not taking the bass.
Upper woodwinds probably full for two octaves, but perhaps only one octave.

G. Other Guidelines
Contents:
I. Groups of Voices Should be Played with Similar Instruments.
II. The Level of Difficulty Should be Appropriate for the Intended Ensemble

I. Groups of Voices Should be Played with Similar Instruments.

129. Voices are often not intended to stand alone, but are to accomplish an end by
being part of a group. Examples of these are accompanimental chords, background
chords, third-doublings of lines, and octave doublings of lines . Such voices should be
played by similar timbres.
130. When voices are played with similar instruments, they sound alike and are
grouped together. When voices are played with similar instruments they sound
dissimilar and are separated. Simultaneous lines played with sharp-sounding

instruments, for example, are heard as a kind of unit, and are heard as separated from
lines played by soft-sounding instruments, which among each other would be heard as
a unit.
131. When groups of voices are played with similar instruments, their function as
a group is therefore strengthened. This reinforces the purposes of the voices and gives
the passage in question logic and coherence. When groups of voices are played with
dissimilar instruments, their function as a group is weakened. This confusion of the
roles of the voices makes the passage less effective.
132. The most useful method of grouping is grouping by choir. This is because
important characteristic of all instruments is their membership to a choir: strings,
woodwinds, brass. Instruments have much in common with instruments in own choir;
more than they do with instruments that lay outside the choir. Thus most passages
should be orchestrated with a clear division between strings, woods, and brass. That
is, each group should have a clear role, such as: woodwinds-accompanim ent 1; brassbackground chord; upper strings-main melody; lower strings-accompaniment 2.
Again, this gives clarity. But what should be avoided is: flute+trumpetaccompaniment 1; oboe+horns-accompaniment 2, violin-main melody;
bassoon+clarinets+trombones-b ackground material.
133. The second most useful method is grouping by register. Thus high-sounding
instruments are grouped together and separated from low-sounding instruments; both
are then separated from those in the center. This often finds application in unison
doublings in tutti passages, done for the sake of strength. In these cases the bassoon,
bass clarinet, and tuba often double the bass line and the flute and piccolo double high
violins.
134. Third most useful method is grouping by timbral character: grouping
instruments by a specific timbre they have in common: sharpness, softness, sweetness,
opulence, sonorousness, ad infinitum. We may restrict this term to mean only those
sounds with a definable, clear character. Orchestration by Timbral Character is often
used simultaneously with both Orchestration by Register and Orchestration by Choir.
135. Grouping and separation might be used to group some accompanimental
voices, which might then be, as a whole, separated some other accompanimental
voices; both these groups might then be separated from the main melody. This
differentiation between functionsbetween say, melody and accompaniment
allows both melody and accompaniment to be heard well. It partially explains the
success of the concertoof a single instrument being heard over fifty. When there's
enough contras t between solo and orchestra, the soloist may be heard excellently. A
general lack of differentiation between lines makes music muddy and difficult to
understand.
136. Avoid splitting two of the same instrument by giving it both the
accompaniment and the melody. This is especially true with string instruments, whose
functions are almost never split when using divisi. The exception is using two very
different registers of the same instrument, such as the chalumeau and clarino of the
clarinet.

II. The Level of Difficulty Should be Appropriate for the Intended

Ensemble

137. The easier it is for the performers, the better the performances will be.
Awkward part are inevitably inexpressive, because either the part simply cannot be
played in the manner intended, or because the performer has to concentrate too hard
on technique that all character is lost.
138. Each instrument has its limits, though these are rarely absolute. It is usually
impossible to know, during composition, when to recompose very difficult music and
when to insist that performers cope with the problems. Aft er the music has been
rehearsed, this slowly becomes obvious. It is best if the performers are able to give
advice as to their own abilities and limitations, and about those of other performers.