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6 (9 Files Merged) PDF
(BIOL 100)
Human
Chimpanzee
Lion
Sea lion
Bat
Evolution
Evolution can broadly be defined as descent
with modification from a common ancestor. It is
the process by which Earths life-forms have
changed from their earliest beginnings to today.
But how did life first arise on Earth?
Biological Evolution
! Biological evolution is a change in the
characteristics of a biological population that
occurs over the course of generations. The changes
in populations that are considered evolutionary are
those that are inherited via genes.
! Changes that may take place in populations due
only to short-term changes in their environment
are not evolutionary. Obesity due to food habits
not an evolution
Chimpanzee
Human
Chemical Evolution
Organic macromolecules (proteins and genetic material)
aggregated into droplets
Beginning of living cells
Earliest cells
Prokaryotic cells (eg: bacteria) ~ 3.8 billion years ago
Eukaryotic cells (eg: yeast, fungus) ~ 1.8 billion years
ago
Multicellularity
Evolved ~ 1.5 billion years ago
Eventually led to organisms such as plants, and
animals
Charles Darwin
! In the mid-nineteenth century, the actual
mechanism for evolution was independently
conceived of and described by two naturalists:
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.
! Importantly, each naturalist spent time exploring
the natural world on expeditions to the tropics.
! From 1831 to 1836, Darwin traveled around the
world on H.M.S. Beagle, including stops in South
America, Australia, and the southern tip of Africa.
Galapagos Islands
! Galapagos Islands west of
Ecuador. On these islands,
Darwin observed species of
organisms on different
islands that were clearly
similar, yet had distinct
differences.
! For example, the ground
finches inhabiting the
Galapagos Islands comprised
several species with a unique
beak shape
Evolution Evidences
Evidence that humans and all other life forms have
evolved over time comes from the following sources:
Fossil record
Biogeography
Comparison of anatomical and embryological
structures
Molecular biology (DNA analysis)
Fossil Record
Fossils are preserved remains and impressions of past
organisms
Fossilization occurs as hard body parts such as
bones, teeth, and shells become filled with minerals
from surrounding water and sediment (erosion,
uplifting of Earths crust or human excavation
expose fossils)
Fossils Records
Fossils of extinct organisms show similarities to, and
differences from, living species
Can be a link between ancient organisms and
modern species
Example: whale evolution: whales are thought to
originate from terrestrial (land) animals that
returned to the water
Fossils Preservation
Fossilization Examples
22.1
d) Occasionally erosion, uplifting
of the earths crust, or human
excavation may expose fossils
to the surface.
e) A fossilized human
skeleton.
Fossils - More
Biogeography
Study of the geographic distributions of organisms
Related species are more likely
to be found in the same
geographic area than are
unrelated species
Example: marsupials (mammals
that carry their young in a pouch)
Comparative Anatomy
Homologous structures: Body parts that are similar in
structure but allow different functions, probably
share a common origin
Example: vertebrate forelimbs
Analogous structures: Body parts that are different in
structure but share a similar function but very
different origins
Example: bird wing and insect wing
Vestigial structures: body structures that no longer
have a function but are homologous to structures in
other organisms
Example: human coccyx (tail bone)
Comparative Anatomy
Homologous structures: These homologous forelimb structures
share a common evolutionary origin. Number indicate digits. Note how
homologous bones (indicated by similar colors) have undergone modification
in order to perform different functions in different vertebrates
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals 1
1
2
34 5
Phalanges
Human
(grasping)
2
3
5
1
4
Dog
(running)
4
2
Whale
(swimming)
Bird
(flying)
Birds wing
Insects wing
Comparative Embryology
Common embryological origins can be considered
evidence of common descent
Example: all vertebrate embryos look very similar
early in development
Comparison of the embryos of animals, especially
vertebrates show striking similarities in having
Gill or pharyngeal slits
Post-anal tail
Notochord/ spinal column
Embryology
Mammalian Embryo
Pharyngeal
arches
Brain
Eye
Somites
Notochord
Tail
Figure 22.5c
Human Evolution
Human origin trace back to the first primates
(mammals that live in trees including monkeys and
apes)
Primates probably arose from an insect-eating
mammal that lived in trees (eg: modern tree shrew)
Primates
! Primate characteristics reflect a living in trees
lifestyle specialized for manual capture of insects
! Flexible, rotating shoulder joints
! Sensitive pads on ends of feet and hands
! Nails instead of claws
! Grasping feet and hands
! Forward-facing eyes
! Large brain
! small litter size (a small number of children)
Human Evolution
Two hypotheses for the evolution of modern humans
Multiregional hypothesis (= multiple origins)
H. sapiens evolved independently in Europe,
Asia, Africa, and Australia from distinctive local
populations of earlier humans
Out of Africa hypothesis (= single origin)
H. sapiens evolved from earlier humans in Africa
and later migrated to Europe, Asia, and Australia
Review Questions
1. Define natural selection. How does natural
selection lead to evolution?
2. Define speciation. What are the mechanisms of
speciation
3. How does comparative anatomy and
embryology support evolution?
4. What are the main trends in human evolution?
http://www.becominghuman.org/node/
interactive-documentary
Speciation
Charles Darwin
On the Origin of Species (1859)
Species are not specially created, unchanging
forms
Modern species are descendants of ancestral
species
Evolution occurs by natural selection
Natural selection leads to speciation
Speciation = formation of new species.
When populations become separated, they may
become genetically distinct and the separated
populations are no longer capable of successful
interbreeding. This can result in a new species
(source of biological diversity).
Allopatric Speciation
Allopatric speciation- When a new species arises due
to geographical separation from parent population
! African Elephant can be divided into 3 subspecies
due to geographical isolation:
! West African,
! Forest elephants of Central Africa
! Savannah elephants of Central, Eastern and Southern
Africa
Sympatric Speciation
Classification
deleted gene, foods such as cheese that are made from enzymes that
are from a genetically modified organism, and foods such as beef that
have been fed genetically modified feed.
Symptomsofaprovitaminafreediet
Nightblindness
Xerophthalmia
Fatalsusceptibilitytochildhooddiseases(e.g.measles)
andgeneralinfections(diarrhoea,respiratorydiseases)
Epidemiology
124millionchildrenaredecientinvitaminA
12milliondeathsannually(14years)
0.250.5milliondeaths(510years)UNICEF;Humphreyetal.,1992)
Aseverepublichealthproblemin(118)countries(WHO)
Information Flow
The components that make up DNA are the same in all
organisms. The sequence of these components is the recipe
for the proteins synthesized by different organisms. Proteins are
responsible for the characteristics exhibited by life forms. By
taking the DNA sequence that codes for a protein responsible
for a desirable characteristic and putting it into the DNA
(Genome) of another organism; the desired characteristic will
be expressed. The new sequence will begin to make the
intended protein.
trait
Genetically modified
organisms
Genetically
modified
foods
Benefits of GM Foods
Easing of world hunger
Development of crops
that can be grown in
marginal soil
Reduced strain on
nonrenewable resources
Development of drought
resistant crops
Development of salttolerant crops
Development of crops
that make more efficient
use of nitrogen and other
nutrients
GM Foods Benefits
Reduced use of
pesticides and
herbicides
Development of
GM Foods Benefits
Improved crop quality
Development of frost resistant
crops
Development of disease
resistant crops
Development of flood
resistant crops
Improved nutritional
quality
Development of foods designed
to meet specific nutritional goals
Increased nutrition
Edible vaccines
Improved
farming
Cheaper
food
More
food
Reducing
world
hunger
and
improving
world
health
GM Plants
Agrobacterium that normally normally infects
plants with disease is used to infect plant with gene
of interests or
Agrobacterium Transformation
GM foods in Canada
Foodsresultingfromaprocessnotpreviouslyusedforfood;
Productsthathaveneverbeenusedasafood;or
Health
Canada
groupsGM
foodsintoa
category
called
Novel
Foods.
F
oodsthathavebeenmodiedbygeneticmanipulation,also
knownasgeneticallymodied(GM)foods,geneticallyengineered
foodsorbiotechnologyderivedfoods
70 novel
foods have
been
approved
for sale
in Canada.
Potatoes
Canola
Corn
Tomatoes
Squash
Soybeans
Flax
Sugarbeets
Are all
examples!!
Thesecropsare
processedintothe
goodsingrocery
stores.
Fries,cakes,oils,
sugars,sauces
Animalsthatfeed
onGMOs
Andmoreall
withoutmandatory
labeling.
Questions?
! What Stem Cell are?
! Types of Stem Cells
! Why are we interested?
Stem Cells
! Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into
specialized cells and can divide (through mitosis) to produce more stem cells
(Daughter Cells)
or fertilized egg.
embryonic'stem'cells'taken'from!
the'inner'cell'mass!
outer'layer'of'cells!
='trophectoderm!
uid'with'nutrients!
culture'in'the'lab!
to'grow'more'cells'''!
Stages of Embryogenesis
Day 1
Fertilized egg
Day 2
2-cell embryo
Day 11-14
Tissue Differentiation
Day 3-4
Multi-cell embryo
Day 5-6
Blastocyst
Outer cells
(forms placenta)
Inner cells
(forms fetus)
Day 5-6
Blastocyst
Kidney
Culture cells
Special sauce
(largely unknown)
Heart muscle
Heart
repaired
7/9/15!
Dr.'Hariom'Yadav!
PLURIPOTENT)
all'possible'types'of'specialized'
cells!
'A!
s
n
o
diti
con
'
r
e
'und
embryonic'stem'cells!
grow
grow'under'con
ditions'B!
grow
'und
er'co
ndit
ions
'C
neurons!
!
blood%
?%
liver!
Description
Examples
Totipotent
Pluripotent
Multipotent
dying'and'need'to'be'replaced''skin,'
lining'of'stomach!
! Injuries''to'generate'new'population'of'
cells!
! Adult'stem'cells'are'not'totipotent!
! Adult'stem'cells!
! Multipotent'(few'cells'types)''!
! Bone'marrow'stem'cells''red'blood'cells'and'all'
white'blood'cells'circulating'in'out'body!
! Neuronal'stem'cells!
! Unipotent'(one'cell'type)''Cardiac'stem'
cells!
cell'found'in'tissues'and'organs!
! They'can'self>renew'and'dierentiate'to'become'most'or'all'of'the'
specialized'cell'types'within'their'specic'tissue'lineage.!
! Adult'stem'cells'!
! Maintain'cell'populations!
! Help'you'heal'!
! Play'a'role'in'aging!
ligament!
"Neural'stem'cells:'neurons,'glial'cells!
"Epithelial'stem'cells:'skin,'linings!
early'on'in'development,'as'well'as'in'
umbilical'cord'blood'and'placental'
tissue!
dierentiate6into:6)
! cartilage6cells6
(chondrocytes))
! muscle6cells6(myocytes))
! fat6cells6(adipocytes))
! tendons,6ligaments,6and6
connective6tissue6
(epithelial6cells6including6
osteoblasts)6)
! These6cells6are6located6
throughout6the6body)
Bone6marrow,6fat,6and6cord6
blood6are6easiest6to6isolate)
which'arises'from'a'clinical'motor'
dysfunction' caused' by' dopamine'
d e p l e t i o n' i n' t h e' s t r i a t u m'
following'a'reduction'of'the'large'
dopaminergic' neurons' located' in'
the'substantia'nigra.'!
! Autologus' neural' stem' cells'
(NSCs)' have' the' potential' for'
stem' cell' therapy' to' eectively'
treat'Parkinsons'Diseases.!
placenta.'It'is'relatively'easy'to'collect,'with'no'risk'to'the'mother'or'
baby.' It' contains' haematopoietic' (blood)' stem' cells:' rare' cells'
normally'found'in'the'bone'marrow!
!
! Cord'blood'is'used'to'treat'children'with'cancerous'blood'disorders'
such'as'leukaemia,'or'genetic'blood'diseases'like'Fanconi'anaemia.'
The'cord'blood'is'transplanted'into'the'patient,'where'the'HSCs'can'
make' new,' healthy' blood' cells' to' replace' those' damaged' by' the'
patients' disease' or' by' a' medical' treatment' such' as' chemotherapy'
for'cancer!
Cells (iPSCs)
! Generated from
reprogrammed somatic
cells
! Similar or equivalent to
ESCs, i.e., pluripotent and
the ability to renew
themselves indefinitely
Using'genetic'tricks''Embryonic'stem'cells'genes'!
! 'Embryonic'stem'cells''Pluripotent!
! Advantage''Cells'came'from'the'same'patient!
! Work'well'in'animal'model'and'some'human'cells!
! Research'is'ongoing!
Key Questions
! What is meant by terms unipotent, multipotent and pluripotent?
! What are the major functions of stem cells?
! At what developmental stage stem cells are found in human and of what
type?
! Compare and contrast, embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells and induced
Questions?
What make you think, feel and behave the
way you do?
GENES:
Genes
TheBuildingBlocksof
Heredityand
Development
Genesareparts
ofDNA
molecules,which
arefoundin
chromosomesin
thenucleiof
cells.
Chromosome:threadlike
structuremadelargelyof
DNAmolecules
DNA:aspiraling,complex
moleculecontaininggenes
DNA
(DeoxyribonucleicAcid)
Genes
Influence of our genes on who we are
Things that we are born with
Physical abilities/disabilities
Mental abilities/disabilities
Gender
Race
Physical attributes
Some elements of personality
The genome: an organisms entire collection of genes
Allele
An allele is one of two or more
versions of a gene. An individual
inherits two alleles for each gene,
one from each parent. If the two
alleles are the same, the individual
is homozygous for that gene. If
the alleles are different, the
individual is heterozygous.
Environment
The environment that surrounds us
It can be supportive or it can present
hardships
Environment
The environment includes factors such as:
Peers
Socioeconomic factors
-isms
Media
Religion and culture
Environmental factors (e.g. exposure to chemicals,
smog, pollution)
Access to necessities, such as food and water,
health care, housing, and so on
Events or circumstances (e.g. accidents, incidents,
natural disasters, wars)
Individuals Choices
The individual choices we all make can influence
the direction our lives take
Whether we take advantage of opportunities and
overcome challenges has a lot to do with the choices
that we make
The factors included in individual choice include:
Education (formal and informal)
Exercise
Nutrition
Outlook on life (half full, half empty)
Relationships ....and more
Monozygotic/Dizygotic Twins
Monozygotic Twins
Monozygotic twins are
genetically identical
because they are
formed from one
fertilized egg
that splits into two
These twins are of the
same sex and should
look very much alike.
Dizygotic Twins
Dizygotic means from two separate
eggs
DZ twins will not be any closer
genetically than brothers and sisters
- they will have about 50 percent
their genes in common
These twins are not necessarily of
the same sex
Giventheevidenceofgene>cimpactonhowa
personturnsout,
doesparen*ng/nurture
makeanydierence?
Doesthehomeenvironmenthaveanyimpact?
Studieshavebeenperformedwithadopted
childrenforwhomthebiologicalrela>ves
areknown.
Findings:Adoptedchildrenseemtobemore
similartotheirgene>crela>vesthantheir
environmental/nurturerela>ves.
Exampleofself
regulaFonin
animals:
shorteneddaylight
triggersanimalsto
changefurcoloror
tohibernate
Exampleofself
regulaFonin
humans:
obesityinadults
canturno
weightregula>on
genesinospring
Jim Twins
Identical twins Jim Lewis and Jim Springer
were only four weeks old when they were
separated
Each infant was taken in by a different adoptive
family
The two were finally reunited at age 39.
The similarities the twins shared not only
amazed one another, but researchers at the
University of Minnesota as well
Jim Twins
As youngsters, each Jim had a dog named "Toy."
Each Jim had been married two times - the first
wives were both called "Linda" and the second
wives were both called "Betty."
One Jim had named his son "James Allan" and
the other Jim had named his son "James Alan."
Each twin had driven his light-blue Chevrolet to
Pas Grille beach in Florida for family vacations.
President George W. Bush and Laura Bush return to the White House
with their daughters Barbara (left) and Jenna (right) Tuesday, Nov. 2,
2004. Barbara and Jenna are fraternal twins.
Adoption Studies
Adoption studies are important because they include two
sets of factors that may account for differences in
behavior, personality, and psychopathology:
biological parents and
environmental parents.
Of course, any links between the biological parents and
the child that is given away is usually explained by
genetics, and any links between the adoptive, or
environmental parents, to the adopted child is usually
attributed to environment
Adoption Studies
religious beliefs
values
manners
attitudes
Politics and habits
Peers have
more influence
on:
Learning cooperation
skills
Learning the path to
popularity
Choice of music and other
recreation
Choice of clothing and
other cultural choices
Good and bad habits
Nature/Nurture
From Genes to the Role of Environment
Experience and Brain Development
Rats living in an enriched environment (more
social interaction and physical play) experienced a
greater growth in brain size and complexity than
those rats living in an impoverished environment.
Physiology
Neurological correlates and functions
Temperament
Building blocks of personality
What is Life?
Recall all the Characteristics
DNA is the basis of life
Unit of Life (livings is cell)
Compounds
Hydrogen Peroxide
Organic Compounds
ThreeCharacteristics
ContainCarbon
Complexinnature
Areproducedbylivingorganisms
Acompoundnotfulllingtheabovethreecriteriaiscalledinorganic
compound
Animals,bacteria,fungietc.
TheCellTheory
Alllivingthingsaremadeofoneormorecells
Cellscarryoutthelifeprocessesofanorganism(function)
Cellsarisesfrompreexistingcellsthroughcelldivision
Cellcontainhereditarymaterial(DNA)
What is DNA?
Weallaremadeupofcell
Cellscontaininformationhowtodoeverything
Howtheinformationisstored?
JamesDWatsonandFrancisCrick1953DNAisthemoleculestoring
informationwithinthecell
DeoxyribonucleicAcid(DNA)
DNA is a Macromolecule
Largemoleculemadeupofsmaller
subunits
SmallersubunitsNucleotides
andbasesinthemiddle
Doublehelixladderand
twistit
5 end
3 end
Complementary bae
pairing - Each strand
of the double helix is
oriented in the
opposite direction
P
Figure 10.5B
3 end
5 end
onecelltoanother,onegenerationtonextgeneration
DNAisabletoselfreplicateforcarryinginformationfromonecells
toother
Chromosomes
KaryotypeAkaryotypeissimplya
picture of a persons chromosomes.
In order to get this picture, the
chromosomes are isolated, stained,
a n d e x a m i n e d u n d e r t h e
microscope.Mostoften,thisisdone
usingthechromosomesinthewhite
blood cells. A picture of the
chromosomes is taken through the
microscope.
Humans23pairsofchromosomes
Genes
GenesaresegmentofChromosomes
thatcontainthecoderequiredtodirect
themanufactureofapolypeptideor
andRNAmolecule
RNAformationTranscription
PolypeptideformationTranslation
associatedwithDNA
replication
body
Reproduction
DNAtellsevercellswhattodoandhowtodoit
componentforDNAreplication
DNAdoublehelixcanbeunzipped
DNAhelicaseunziptheDNA
Freenucleotidesinthenucleus
Freenucleotidesmoveinandbindsin
complementarywayDNAPolymerase
TwonewmoleculesofDNAidenticalto
eachotheroneoriginalandonenew
(Semiconservativereplication)
Ribbon model
Computer model
Figure 10.3D
Semiconservative Replication
Half conserved Half new
RNA
DNAisthemoleculethatstoretheinformationin
livingcells
RNAisalsoanucleicacid
Ribonucleicacid=RNA
RNAisanucleicacidandisdierentfromDNA
DierentsugarmoleculeRiboseinsteadof
Deoxyribose
InRNAinsteadofnucleotidethymine(T)wehave
uracil(Uracil)
RNAisasinglestranded
Function of RNA
RNA is involved in the
synthesisofproteins
P r o t e i n s h a v e g r e a t
importanceinlivingthings
RNA nucleotide
Direction of
transcription
Template
strand of DNA
Newly made RNA
Transcription
Transcription is the DNA-
RNA
RNA is single stranded, not double
of deoxyribose in DNA
Genetic Code
Language of DNA
How the language works and codes
Genes are segments of chromosomes that
discussions
20 amino acids.
DNA Fingerprinting
The term DNA fingerprinting - or genetic fingerprinting - is applied to
the scientific process whereby samples of DNA are collected, collated
and used to match other samples of DNA, which may have been found
at the scene of a crime
no two individuals share the same genetic code - except for identical
twins and statistically those elements of DNA that are examined and
used to obtain a match will be unique
This process is used as one means of identification when an attacker
or assailant has left some kind of bodily fluid or blood at the scene of
a crime and when no visual identification is possible
AATG
AATG
7 repeats
8 repeats
STR Analysis
Analysis is performed by extracting nuclear DNA from cells of interest
Characterizing STRs
MolecularBiologytechniquesare
used
PolymeraseChairReaction(PCR)
GelElectrophoresis
VisualizationofDNA
techniqueworking
Blood, hair or just touch
The Cell
Smallestunitoflife
Composeallliving
things
Thenucleus(oneof
manyorganelles)
containsgenetic
informationthecellneeds
toexistandreproduce
mostcellsorganize
geneticinformationinto
chromosomes
Chromosomes
Ours bodys way of
organizing all the
information that our genetic
material contains
23 pairs in humans
- each pair contains one from
mother and one from father
Genes
Each chromosome
contains 100s to 1000s of
information blocks called
genes
Each gene is the blueprint
for a specific protein in the
body
- may tell our body what color
our eyes are supposed to be,
dozens of proteins are
responsible for synthesis of ATP,
digesting food, etc, etc etc
nucleus of a cell
The cell that is used to get a DNA fingerprint can be a skin cell, a hair
root cell, or even a cheek cell that gets washed out of your mouth in
your spit. This is because your unique DNA is the same in all of your cells.
DNA Fingerprinting
investigations
In1987therstcriminalwascaughtusingDNAevidence
In 1989 DNA ngerprinting was used for the rst time to prove that
someonewasactuallyinnocentofacrime
minisatellites
Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTRs)
PCR
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
A lab technique used to amplify segments of DNA
PCR
Reaction requirements
Template DNA total genomic DNA isolated from
an organism that contains a target region to be
amplified
DNA primers - Short pieces of single stranded
DNA that flank the target
Taq DNA polymerase - Attaches nucleotides on
the growing strand of DNA
Nucleotides (GATC) Polymerase adds
complementary nucleotides to the template
PCR
Reactions are placed in a machine called a thermal cycler. The
machine cycles through three temperatures.
PCR
1. Heat samples to 94C for a minute or so to denature the
double stranded template DNA.
PCR
2. Drop temperature to around 50 or 60C to allow primers to anneal.
PCR
3. Maintain temperature at 72C for a minute or two to allow the polymerase
to elongate the new DNA strands.
PCR
The thermal cycler repeats the denaturing, annealing, and elongating
temperatures approximately 30 times.
GelElectrophoresis
Gel with different sized pores
agarose and acrylamide are common
materials
Load DNA samples into wells at top of gel
Run electric current through the gel
DNA moves due to negative charge
Smaller bands run faster
(AC)7
ACTGTCGACACACACACACACACGCTAGCT
TGACAGCTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGCGATCGA
(AC)8
ACTGTCGACACACACACACACACACACGCTAGCT
TGACAGCTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGCGATCGA
(AC)10
ACTGTCGACACACACACACACACACACACACGCTAGCT (AC)12
TGACAGCTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGCGATCGA
7,7
7,8
8,8
7,9
8,9
9,9
12
7,12
8,12
9,12
12
12,12
DNAFingerprinting
Used to identify individuals by their repeat regions (usually STR)
regions:
Steps involved:
1. Isolate and amplify
DNA if needed
2. DNA is cleaved into
smaller pieces with
restriction enzymes
3. DNA is separated with
gel electrophoresis
4. DNA is transferred to a
nylon membrane
(Southern blotting)
5. A radioactive primer is
designed that will be
complementary to unique
regions (STR, etc, regions).
Add this to nylon
membrane containing DNA.
6. Wash off excess primer and
hold nylon up to a
photographic plate to
expose. The pattern will be
unique to the individual.
Yup, he
did it.
CODISCombinedDNAIndexSystem
National software developed by the FBI
Distributed to local, state, and national crime labs
All 50 states mandate inclusion of DNA fingerprint (if
available) from violent and sexually motivated crimes
Mostly a database of STR regions
Thousands of matches have led to the capture of criminals
that otherwise would not have been caught
Therefore he cannot
be the biological father
Cancer
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of
Cancer
Cancer begins inside a cell, the basic building block of all living things.
There are more than 100 types of cancer
Normally, when the body needs more cells, older ones die off and
younger cells divide to form new cells that take their place.
In Cancer the orderly process of producing new cells breaks down.
Cells continue to divide when new cells are not needed, and a growth
or extra mass of cells called a tumor is formed.
Over time, changes may take place in tumor cells that cause them to
invade and interfere with the function of normal tissues.
The word onco means bulk, mass, or tumor while -logy means study
An oncologist is a doctor who specializes in treating people with cancer.
connective tissues.
Leukemia begins in the blood and bone marrow.
Lymphomas start in the immune system.
Central nervous system cancers develop in the brain and spinal cord.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Prostate cancer
Esophageal cancer
Skin cancer
Kidney cancer
Thyroid cancer
Liver cancer
Uterine cancer
Lung cancer
Leukemia
and workplace
cancer than others. For instance, some people either inherit or acquire the
following conditions:
altered genes in the bodys cells,
abnormal hormone levels in the bloodstream, or a
weakened immune system
One of the ways scientists know that genes play an important role in the
Carcinogenesis.
Some factors to consider
Heredity
Immunity
Chemical
Physical
Viral
Bacterial
Lifestyle
spread and your general health. The goal of treatment is to kill as many
cancerous cells while minimizing damage to normal cells nearby.
The three main treatments are:
Surgery: directly removing the tumor
Chemotherapy: using chemicals to kill cancer cells
Radiation therapy: using X-rays to kill cancer cells
Integrative Oncology
Integrative oncology services describe a broad range of complementary
treatments that combat side effects, boost the immune system and
maintain well-being. Treating cancer cannot focus on the disease alone
but must address:
the pain,
fatigue and
depression that comes with it.
BIOL 100
Virus vs Virion
Virus is a broad general term for any aspect of the infectious agent and
includes:
the infectious or inactivated virus particle
viral nucleic acid and protein in the infected cell
Virion is the physical particle in the extra-cellular phase which is able to
DNA Virus
Viral Infections
Zoonotic Viruses
Viral disease can be
transmitted to humans
from other non-human
livings
Emerging Viruses
Anemergingvirusanewly
discoveredvirus,onethatis
increasinginincidenceor
withthepotentialtoincrease
inincidence
Ebola Virus
Ebola virus disease (formerly known as Ebola hemorrhagic fever) is:
A disease caused by Ebola virus
Is sever fatality rate is ~90%
Affects humans and non-human primates
symptomaticEVDinfectedpatients
Opportunitiesforhumantohumantransmission
Directcontact(throughbrokenskinorunprotectedmucousmembranes)withanEVDinfectedpatients
bloodorbodyuids
Sharpsinjury(withEVDcontaminatedneedleorothersharp)
DirectcontactwiththecorpseofapersonwhodiedofEVD
IndirectcontactwithanEVDinfectedpatientsbloodorbodyuidsviaacontaminatedobject(soiled
linensorusedutensils)
Possibly,contactwithsemenfromarecoveredmaleEVDpatient
EbolacanalsobetransmiMedviacontactwithblood,uids,ormeatofan
infectedanimal
LimitedevidencethatdogsbecomeinfectedwithEbolavirus
NoreportsofdogsorcatsbecomingsickwithortransmiMingEbola
has survived EVD. Risk considered to be very low, likely decreases over
time.
Infectiousness of body fluids (e.g., viral load) increases as patient becomes
more ill
Remains from deceased infected persons are highly infectious
whales,andotheranimals,butwildbirdsarethenaturalhostsfor
theseviruses.
There are 15 dierent HA subtypes and 9 dierent NA subtypes.
ManydierentcombinationsofHAandNAproteinsarepossible.
H7N7andH3N8virusescauseillnessinhorses
InuenzaAvirusesaredivided
surfaceproteins.Forexample,an
H7N2virusdesignatesaninuenzaAsubtypethathasanHA7
proteinandanNA2protein.
H5N1virushasanHA5proteinandanNA1protein.
Types B and C
Influenza Type B
Influenza B viruses are normally found only in humans. Unlike influenza A
viruses, these viruses are not classified according to subtype. Although
influenza type B viruses can cause human epidemics, they have not caused
pandemics.
Influenza Type C
Influenza type C viruses cause mild illness in humans and do not cause
epidemics or pandemics. These viruses are not classified according to
subtype
pandemics
Thought to be limited in their ability to directly infect humans
This avian virus exhibited high virulence in both avian and mammalian
species
First documented case where H5 subtype AI was directly transmitted to
of the boy
were reported from three chicken farms in Hong Kong, and the virus
involved was also found to be of the H5 subtype
is transmiMed through
aerosolicroutes
Universal precautionary
measures
mechanism of a person)
Weak Defense Mechanism and Viral Infections lead to Acquired Immune
AIDS
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
HIV is the virus that causes AIDS
Disease limits the bodys ability to fight infection due to markedly
(MENA) region has one of the lowest HIV prevalence rates in the world
(0.1 percent)
Proper check of blood in the hospitals
Reuse of syringes (Disposable syringes usage is reducing the chances of
disease transfer)
Bioterrorism
Use of biological agents to kill or sicken people, animals or plants
with the intent to intimidate or coerce a government or civilian
population to further political or social objectives
First act of bio-warfare in US (1763): Sir Jeffrey Amherst ordered
British troops to give blankets infected with smallpox virus to native
Indian tribes
Bioterrorism Threat
Bioweapons
Inexpensive
However,diculttoweaponize
Easytoobtain(some)
Inducefearofunknown
Canoverwhelmmedicalandpublichealthsystems
Potentialfordisseminationoverlargegeographicalarea
Bioterrorism Threat
WorldHealthOrganizationModeling
50kgofanthraxortularemiaaerosolizedoveranurbanpopulationof5
million
250,000personcontractdisease
Deaths
Anthrax100,000
Tularemia19,000
Terrorist Goal
Killafew,hurtmany,scareeveryone
Inducefear
Disruptsociety
Bioterrorism
Attack may be overt or covert
Detection may be more difficult that chemical, radiological, conventional
Could be days until detected
Naturally occurring?
Salmonella in salad bars in US state of Oregon in 1984
Pandemic/H1N1
C
National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of
Health (NIH) also lists categories A, B, and C, but they differ somewhat from how CDC
categorizes agents and lists a greater number of agents
Others
Biological Threat
CategoryCAgentsClassicationbyCenterforDiseaseControl
Couldbeengineeredforfuturemassdissemination
Available,easytoproduceanddisseminate
Potentialforhighmorbidity/mortality
Emergingpathogens
>30newpathogensdiscoveredinpat25years
NipahvirusandHantavirus
Biological Threat
CategoryBAgents
Moderatelyeasytodisseminate
Moderatemorbidity/lowmortality
Bioterrorism Threat
CategoryAAgents
EasilydisseminatedortransmiYedfrompersontoperson
Highmortalityrates/Majorpublichealthimpact
Mightcausepublicpanicandsocialdisruption
Previousdevelopmentasbiologicalwarfareagents
[Lassa, Machupo])
Botulism (Clostridium botulinum toxin)
Biological Agents
Bacteria
Anthrax,Plague,Tularemia
Viruses
Smallpox,viralhemorrhagicfevers
Toxins
Botulism
Anthrax
AnthraxLeYerstory
Anthrax as a Bioweapon
Grampositivesporeformingbacillus
Sverdlovsk,Russia1979
Accidentalreleasefromdryingplant
79humancases
68deaths
Someinfectedwithmultiplestrains
AlldownwindofplantBIOPREPARAT
Dispersion of spores
Aerosolized release
Scientists and engineers at the Edgewood Chemical
Anthrax
Inhalation, cutaneous, gastrointestinal
Exists in soil as spore
Infects animals worldwide
Human cases in United States (1955 through 1999)
236 reported cases (224 cutaneous)
1976 last case before 2001
Exposure
Anthrax - Inhalational
Incubationusually<1week
Maybeupto2months
Nopersontopersontransmission
Nonspeciculikesymptoms
Lowgradefever,nonproductivecough,malaise,fatigue,
myalgia,PRFOUNDsweats,chestdiscomfort
50%develophemorrhagicmeningitis
Anthrax - Cutaneous
Greekforcoal
15dayincubationperiod(canbelonger)
Painless,pruritic,smallpapule,progressestovesiclein12days,
Anthrax - Treatment
Treatment
Ciprofloxicin, doxycycline
Continue for 7-10 days
Will reduce erythema, systemic symptoms, but not change evolution of
skin lesions
Erythromycin alternative
In 2001, duration of treatment for cutaneous anthrax extended to 60
Plague
Gramnegative,facultativeanaerobic,intracellularpathogen
Useasbioweapon
WorldWarIIJapaneseArmyestablishedsecretbiological
warfareresearchunitinManchuriaUnit731
Acquiredfrominfectedea,animal,human
Plague
Bubonic
Pneumonic (contagious person-to-person)
Tularemia
Rabbit Fever
Tick is principal reservoir
Small, non-motile, aerobic, gram-negative coccobacillus
Few hundred cases annually in US
Untreated mortality = 8%
cases (2 confirmed)
Tularemia
Inhalational
Abrupt flu-like illness pulse temperature dissociation
Dry cough, chest pain or tightness, without objective signs of
pneumonia
Cutaneous (75%)
Ulceroglandular (75%)
Lesions on skin, mucous membrane (including conjunctiva) Lymph
nodes
Typhoidal (25%)
Smaller lymph nodes (<1 cm diameter), no skin or mucous membrane
involvement
Smallpox
Smallpox(vaiolapoxvirus)
Stableoutsidehost
Highlyinfective
Averageincubationperiod12days
Respiratorytransmission
Travelstoregionallymphnodes
Viremia
Rash
Smallpox
Smallpox (variola)
Fever, rigors, malaise, headache, vomitting, severe backache
Infects lymph, spleen, liver, bone, lung
Erythematous rash on face, hands, forearms
Smallpox - Treatment
Strict quarantine of expose
Respiratory isolation for 17 days for all contacts
Immunoprophylaxis
US government holds enough doses to vaccinate entire population
Monkey pox
Giant Gambian rat
Transmit monkey pox
Not a category A agent
Relative of variola
Clinically similar to smallpox
Limited person-to-person transmission
patients
Hospital workers
Toxins
Botulism
A single gram of botulinum toxin dispersed evenly in a form that could