CONTENT

Page
FOREWORD 1

Chapter I
ORGANIC AND INORGANIC ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS IN
AIR AND WATERS. SONIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC POLLUTION 3
I.1. AIR POLLUTANTS 4
I.1.1. ORGANIC AIR POLLUTANTS 4
I.1.1.1. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 4
I.1.1.2. Other Compounds 8
I.1.2. INORGANIC AIR POLLUTANTS 9
I.1.2.1. Fixed Gases 9
I.1.2.2. Variable Gases 10
I.1.2.3. Characteristics of Selected Gases and Aerosol Particle
Components 11
I.1.2.4. Aerosol Particles in Smog and the Global Environment 22
I.2. WATER POLLUTANTS 26
I.2.1. TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS 26
I.2.2. METALS (Cadmium, Lead, Mercury, etc.) (Meyers, R.A. & Dittrich,
D.K., 1999) 27
I.2.2.1. Metal Toxicity 27
I.2.2.2. Biotransformation of metals 29
I.2.3. METALLOIDS AND ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS 30
I.2.3.1. Metalloids 30
I.2.3.2. Organically Bound Metals and Metalloids 32
I.2.4 ANIONIC INORGANIC SPECIES 34
I.2.4.1. Chloride 34
I.2.4.2. Fluoride 34
I.2.4.3. Nitrate and Nitrite 36
I.2.4.4. Sulfate and Sulfide 37
I.2.4.5. Cyanide 38
I.2.4.6. Phosphate 38
I.2.5. ACIDITY, ALKALINITY AND SALINITY 39
I.2.5.1. Acidity 39
I.2.5.2. Alkalinity 40
I.2.5.3. Salinity 42
 I.2.6. ORGANIC POLLUTANTS 43
I.2.6.1. Sewage 44
I.2.6.2. Surfactants 46
I.2.6.3. Halogenated Carbons 48
I.2.6.4. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 48
I.2.6.5. Dioxins 49
I.2.6.6. Polychlorinated Biphenyls 50
I.2.6.7. Brominated Flame Retardants 51
I.2.6.8. Phthalates 52
I.2.7. PESTICIDES 52
I.2.7.1. Chlorinated Pesticides 53
I.2.7.2. Organo-phosphoric Pesticides 53
I.2.7.3. Carbamate Pesticides 53
I.2.7.4. Pyrethrins and Pyrethroids 54
I.2.7.5. Phenoxyacetic Acid Herbicides 54
I.2.8.RADIONUCLIDES 54
I.3. SONIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC POLLUTION 56
I.3.1. THE SOUND 56
I.3.1.1. Introduction 56
I.3.1.2. Aural Environment 59
I.3.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC POLLUTION 65
I.3.2.1. The Electromagnetic Fields. An Introduction 65
I.3.2.2. Electromagnetic Environment 67
References 71

Chapter II
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING AND CONTROL 78
II.1. INTRODUCTION 79
II.2. ELEMENTARY STATISTICS 80
II.2.1. ACCURACY AND PRECISION 80
II.2.2. ERRORS AND WAYS OF EXPRESSING ACCURACY 80
II.2.3. MEASURES OF PRECISION 82
II.3. SAMPLE AND SAMPLING AND PREPARATION 84
II.3.1. SAMPLE AND SAMPLING 84
II.3.1.1. Statistics of Sampling 85
II.3.1.2. Sample Handling 85
II.3.3. SAMPLE PREPARATION 86
II.3.3.1. Sample Extraction 86
II.3.3.2. Sample Cleanup 89
II.3.3.3. Digestion 91
II.3.3.4. Dilution 91
 II.3.3.5. Filtering 92
II.4. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES USED IN ENVIRONMENTAL
ANALYSIS 93
II.4.1. GRAVIMETRIC METHODS 93
II.4.1.1. Physical Gravimetry 94
II.4.1.2. Thermogravimetry 102
II.4.1.3. Precipitative Gravimetry 104
II.4.2. VOLUMETRIC METHODS 109
II.4.2.1. Fundamentals of Titrimetry 109
II.4.3. UV-VIS SPECTROMETRY 121
II.4.3.1. Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation 121
II.4.3.2. Molecular Absorption of Electromagnetic Radiation 122
II.4.3.3. Quantitative Law of Radiation Absorption 124
II.4.3.4. Quantitative Analysis in the UV-VIS 129
II.4.3.5. Instrumentation for UV-VIS Spectrometry 129
II.4.4. ATOMIC ABSORPTION AND EMISSION 132
II.4.4.1. Introduction 132
II.4.4.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 133
II.4.4.3. Atomic Emission Spectrometry 140
II.4.4.4. Physical and Chemical Interferences in AAS and AES 144
II.4.5. ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS 145
II.4.5.1. Introduction 145
II.4.5.2. Conductimetric Methods 146
II.4.5.3. Potentiometric Methods 146
II.4.5.4. Voltammetric Methods 149
II.4.5.5. Modes of Current-Voltage Measurements 153
II.4.5.6. Stripping Voltammetry 156
II.4.6. CHROMATOGRAPHY 160
II.4.6.1. Introduction 160
II.4.6.2. Types of chromatography 162
II.4.6.3. Classification of Chromatographic Processes 163
II.4.6.4. Chromatographic Theory. An Overview 166
II.4.6.5. Ion Chromatography 171
II.4.6.6. Gas Chromatography (GC) 180
II.4.6.7. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 188
II.4.7. MASS SPECTROMETRY 200
II.4.7.1. Definition 200
II.4.7.2. Principles 200
II.4.7.3. The Mass Spectrum 201
II.4.7.4. Sample Introduction 202
II.4.7.5. Ionization Modes in Mass Spectrometry 203
II.4.7.6. Mass Analyzers 211
 II.4.7.7. Ion Detection Systems 219
II.4.7.8. Multiple Sequential MS (Tandem MS) 219
II.4.7.9. Mass Spectrometry – Working Modes 221
II.4.8. GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY / MASS SPECTROMETRY 223
II.4.8.1. Definition 223
II.4.8.2. Principles 223
II.4.8.3. Interfacing MS to GC 224
II.4.8.4. Data System for GC / MS Instrumentation 227
II.4.8.5. Data interpretation modes in GC / MS 229
II. 4.8.6. Qualitative information in GC / MS 229
II.4.8.7. Quantitative information in GC / MS 232
II. 4.8.8. Applications 232
II.4.9. IMMUNOASSAY 235
II.4.9.1. Immunoassay Principle 236
II.4.9.2. ELISA Technique 237
II.4.9.3. Immunochemical Sensors (Immunosensors) 238
II.5. METHODS FOR MONITORING THE MOST IMPORTANT
POLLUTANTS 241
II.5.1. PHENOLS 241
II.5.2. NITROGEN (Nitrate, Nitrite, Ammonia) 246
II.5.2.1. Nitrogen (Nitrite, Nitrate and Ammonia) 246
II.5.2.2. Ammonia 247
II.5.2.3. Nitrite and Nitrate 247
II.5.3. CYANIDES 248
II.5.3.1. Samples Pretreatment 249
II.5.3.2. Silver Nitrate Titrimetric Method 250
II.5.3.3. Colorimetric Method 250
II.5.3.4. Ion-Selective Electrode Method 250
II.5.3.5. Cyanide in Solid Samples 251
II.5.3.6. Cyanide in Aerosol and Gas Samples 251
II.5.4. HEAVY METALS 251
II.5.4.1. Sampling and Treatment 252
II.5.4.2. Sample Digestion 253
II.5.4.3. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry for Heavy Metals
Determination 253
II.5.4.4. Specific Methods for Determination the Most Important Heavy
Metals Pollutants 257
II.5.5. PESTICIDES 265
II.5.5.1. Monitoring of Pesticides 265
II.5.6. POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCBs) 281
II.5.6.1. Quantitation 282
II.5.6.2. Sample Extraction and Cleanup 282
 II.5.6.3. Alternative Analytical Methods 283
II.5.7. BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND, BOD 284
II.5.8. CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND, COD 285

Chapter III
AUTOMATIC ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING AND CONTROL 287
III.1. INTRODUCTION 288
III.2. FLOW ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES 290
III.2.1. INTRODUCTION IN CFA, SFA, FIA AND SIA 290
III.2.1.1. Continuous Flow Analysis 290
III.2.1.2. Segmented Flow Analysis 293
III.2.1.3. Flow Injection Analysis 304
III.2.1.4. Sequential Injection Analysis 317
III.2.1.5. Hyphenated Systems 322
III.2.2. AUTOMATED FLOW ANALYZERS 322
III.2.2.1. Continuous and Discontinuous Systems 327
III.2.2.2. Commercial Automated Flow Analyzers 327
III.2.2.3. The Future – Microfluidics 337
III.2.3. APPLICATION OF THE FLOW TECHNIQUES OF ANALYSIS IN
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND CONTROL 339
III.2.3.1. Introduction 339
III.2.3.2. Water Monitoring and Control 341
III.2.3.3. Monitoring and Control in Rain Water 345
III.2.3.4. Water Quality, Wastewater 347
III.2.3.5. Atmospheric Monitoring and Control 347
III.2.3.6. Soil Pollutants 353
III.3. MODERN TECHNIQUES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 358
III.3.1. LIDAR (LIGHT DETECTION AND RANGING) 358
III.3.1.1. LIDAR Design 358
III.3.1.2. Application of LIDAR in Environmental Monitoring 360
III.3.2. DOAS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL 363
III.3.2.1. Principle of DOAS Operation 363
III.3.2.2. Spectral Regions Usable for DOAS Measurements 364
III.3.2.3. How does a DOAS Based Instrument work? 366
III.3.2.4. DOAS Application in Pollution Monitoring 366
III.3.3. AUTOMATION IN IMMUNOASSAY 368
III.4. AUTOMATIC SPECTROPHOTOMETRY 373
III.4.1.NUTRIENTS: ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE AND
MEASUREMENT 374
III.4.1.1. Nitrite / Nitrate 375
III.4.1.2. Ammonia 378
 III.4.1.3. Phosphate 380
III.4.1.4. Metals 382
III.4.1.5. Chlorine 387
III.4.1.6. Cyanide 388

Chapter IV
STANDARDISATION AND LEGISLATION IN THE FIELD OF
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND CONTROL 392
IV.1. AN INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROLS 393
IV.1.1. AN OVERVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND
AGREEMENTS 393
IV.1.2. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL TRADE
AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLS 395
IV.1.3. THE EUROPEAN UNION ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMMES 396
IV.2. LEGISLATION IN THE FIELD OF ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING AND CONTROL 404
IV.2.1. COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SURFACE
WATER FOR PRODUCTION OF DRINKING WATER IN
FRANCE, ITALY, ROMANIA, SWEDEN AND SPAIN 404
IV.2.2. CHEMICAL INDICATORS TO EVALUATE THE QUALITY OF
SURFACE WATER 411
IV.2.3. MONITORING PROGRAM FOR DRINKING WATER IN
FRANCE 411
IV.2.4. EMISSION LIMIT OF URBAN EFFLUENT OF WASTE WATER
PLANT 416
IV.2.4.1. General Conformity Regulations 416
IV.2.4.2. Tolerance Regulations for COD, BOD5 and MES Parameters 416
IV.2.5. AIR POLLUTION 417
IV.3. STANDARDIZATION FOR THE MOST IMPORTANT
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS 420

Chapter V
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF LABORATORY
ACTIVITY IN THE FIELD OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
AND CONTROL INCLUDING SONIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC
POLLUTION 450
V.1. INTRODUCTION 451
V.2. THE CONCEPT OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT, QUALITY
ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL 452
 V.2.1. WHAT IS QUALITY? 452
V.2.2. QUALITY MANAGEMENT 452
V.2.3. QUALITY ASSURANCE 454
V.2.4. QUALITY CONTROL 455
V.3. LABORATORY QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 457
V.3.1. ELEMENTS OF THE QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 457
V.3.1.1. Quality Policy 457
V.3.1.2. Quality Objectives 457
V.3.1.3. Quality Manual 458
V.3.1.4. Procedures 459
V.3.1.5. Records 460
V.4. QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING AND CONTROL LABORATORIES INCLUDING SONIC
AND ELECTROMAGNETIC POLLUTION 461
V.4.1. MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENTS 463
V.4.1.1. Organization 463
V.4.1.2. Quality System 464
V.4.1.3. Document Control 464
V.4.1.4. Review of Requests, Tenders and Contracts 466
V.4.1.5. Subcontracting of Tests 466
V.4.1.6. Purchasing Services and Supplies 467
V.4.1.7. Services to the Client 467
V.4.1.8. Complaints 468
V.4.1.9. Control of Nonconforming Testing Work 468
V.4.1.10. Corrective Action 469
V.4.1.11. Preventive Action 469
V.4.1.12. Control of Records 470
V.4.1.13. Internal Audit 471
V.4.1.14. Management Reviews 472
V.4.2. TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS 472
V.4.2.1. Personnel and Training 472
V.4.2.2. Accommodation and Environmental Conditions 473
V.4.2.3. Test Methods and Method Validation 475
V.4.2.4. Equipment 485
V.4.2.5. Measurement Traceability 486
V.4.2.6. Sampling 488
V.4.2.7. Handling of Test Items 489
V.4.2.8. Assuring the Quality of Test Results 490
V.4.2.9. Reporting the Results 497