Chapter 2 All

:
CHAPTER 2:
CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONS
(8 HRS)
2.0 Cell Structure & Functions (8 hrs)
2.1 Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells

2.2 Structure and functions: cell membrane and
organelles
2.3 Cells are grouped into tissues
2.4 Cell Transport
()
(2)
(3)
(2)
Learning outcomes
a) State cell theory.
b) Describe the structures of prokaryotic & eukaryotic
cells.
c) Compare the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells.
Learning Outcomes :
2.1 (a) State cell theory
What Is Cell?
Robert Hooke observed cork
sample
Composed of a lot of tiny,
empty box structures ~ cell
Cell ~ basic unit of living
things
Cork tissue
Learning Outcomes :
Cell Theory
Introduced by Schleiden (1838), Schwann (1839) &
Rudolf Virchow (1855)
Their work ~ cell theory
1. Cell is the building block of structure in living things
All living things are made of 1 or more cells
2. New cells come from preexisting cells

Cells can divide to form new cells
5
Learning Outcomes :
Cell Theory
3. Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which
is passed from cell to cell during cell division
4. Cell is the functioning unit of life

Cell is the smallest unit that can conduct all activities of
life (metabolism)
6
Learning Outcomes :
2.1 (b) Describe the structures of prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells
Types of Cell
Based on structural organisation
Types of Cell
Prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell
Learning Outcomes :
Prokaryotic Cell
Eg: bacteria, cyanobacteria (blue green algae)
Main Features
Lack a membrane-bounded nucleus
Genetic material is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane
Lies freely in cytoplasm, in a region called nucleoid
Learning Outcomes :
2.1 (b) Describe & compare the structures of prokaryotic & eukaryotic cell
Structures of Prokaryotic Cell

Chromosomal DNA
Plasmid DNA
Ribosome
Flagellum
Cytoplasm
Capsule
Pili
Plasma
membrane
Cell Wall
9
Learning Outcomes :
Structures of Prokaryotic Cell

Structure
Explanation
Chromosomal
DNA
Single, circular, double stranded DNA
Plasmid DNA
(if present)
Small, circular, double stranded extra DNA
Flagella (if
present)
Long threadlike structure for locomotion
Pili
Shorter & straighter than flagella (numerous)
Usually gives resistance to antibiotics in some bacteria
Adhesion to surface or to each other

Capsule (if
present)
Gel-like layer outside cell wall

Adhesion to surface or to each other, provide protection
10
Learning Outcomes :
Eukaryotic Cell
Eg: protists, fungi, plants & animals
Main Features
Has membrane-bounded nucleus
Genetic material is enclosed by a nuclear membrane
Has many membrane bounded organelles
Organelle is a small structure suspended in cytoplasm

that conduct certain function
11
Learning Outcomes :
Structures of Eukaryotic Cell
12
Learning Outcomes :
2.1 (c) Compare the structures of prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells
Differences Between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cell

Feature
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
Cell Size Smaller, diameter 1-10 m
Larger, diameter 10-100 m
Nucleus
No membrane-bounded
nucleus
Genetic material lies freely
in cytoplasm (nucleoid)
Has membrane-bounded
nucleus
Genetic material is enclosed
by nuclear membrane
Genetic
material
Circular DNA
Linear DNA
DNA does not associate

with histone protein
DNA associates with histone

protein
13
Learning Outcomes :
Circular DNA
Linear DNA
Learning Outcomes :
DNA associates with histone protein
Learning Outcomes :

Feature
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
Organelle
No membrane bounded
organelle
Has many membranebounded organelles
Ribosome
Smaller, subunit 70S
Larger, subunit 80S
Cell wall
Composed mainly of
peptidoglycan & murein /
amino acids
Composed mainly of
cellulose (plant) & chitin
(fungi)
Structure of Simple, lack of 9+2

flagella
microtubules
arrangement
Complex, has 9+2

microtubules arrangement
16
Learning Outcomes :
Structure of Flagella
Flagella
9+2 microtubules arrangement
Learning Outcomes :

Feature
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
Cell division
Mitosis & meiosis does not

occur.
Mostly by binary fission
without spindle formation
By mitosis, meiosis or
both.
Spindle is formed
Type of
organism
Unicellular or filamentous
organisms
Unicellular, filamentous
or multicellular
organism
18
Learning Outcomes :
Similarities Between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cell

Both cells are bounded by a plasma membrane
Both cells contain genetic material
Both cells have cytoplasm
Both cells have ribosomes
19

organelles
2.4 Cell Transport
()
(2)
(3)
(2)
Learning outcomes
2.2 Cell Membrane & Organelles
a) Illustrate the detailed structures of typical plant and animal
cells.
b) Describe the structure of the plasma membrane and the
functions of each of its components.
c) Describe the structure and functions of the following
organelles:
nucleus
rough endoplasmic reticulum
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body
lysosome
ribosome
mitochondria
chloroplast
centriole
Learning Outcomes :
2.2 (a) Illustrate the detailed structures of typical plant & animal cells
Eukaryotic Cell
Based on structure, 2 types:Eukaryotic Cell
Animal cell
Plant cell
Learning Outcomes :
Structure of Animal Cell (Electron Microscope)
Learning Outcomes :
Structure of Plant Cell (Electron Microscope)
Learning Outcomes :
Plant Cell (Light Microscope)
Learning Outcomes :
Animal Cell (Light Microscope)
Learning Outcomes :
Structures Seen Under Light Microscope

Plant Cell
Animal Cell
Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Nucleus
Vacuole
Chloroplast
Learning Outcomes :
2.2 (b) Describe the structure of the plasma membrane & the functions of each of its component
Plasma Membrane
Plasma membrane separates the living cell from its
nonliving surroundings
Size ~ 7.5-8 nm thick
Plasma membrane that surround the cell & membrane
that surround the organelles has the same structure
Structure of plasma membrane is proposed by Singer
& Nicolson (1972) ~ Fluid-Mosaic model
Learning Outcomes :
Fluid Mosaic Model ~ Structure

Components
Major
Phospholipids
Globular protein
Others
Carbohydrate
Cholesterol
Learning Outcomes :
Phospholipids
hydrophobic
tails
hydrophilic heads
Learning Outcomes :
Phospholipids
Phospholipid bilayer (2 layers of phospholipids)

Phospholipid has 2 parts:
head
~ polar, hydrophilic region
tail
~ non-polar, hydrophobic region
Phospholipids have both hydrophobic & hydrophilic regions
Amphipathic molecules
The polar, hydrophilic heads points outward into cytoplasm &
extracellular fluid (outside the cell)
The non-polar, hydrophobic tails face inwards (away from
water)
Creating a hydrophobic region in the middle
Learning Outcomes :
Globular Protein
Types of Protein
Integral / Intrinsic
Peripheral / Extrinsic
Phospholipid
bilayer
Intrinsic protein
Extrinsic protein
Learning Outcomes :
Globular Protein
Learning Outcomes :
Globular Protein
Intrinsic protein ~ partially / fully
embedded within the
phospholipid bilayer (firmly
bound)
Extrinsic proteins ~ attached
loosely to the surface of
phospholipids or protein
Fully embedded protein that
penetrates the entire phospholipid
bilayer transmembrane protein
Intrinsic protein amphipathic
Learning Outcomes :
Why Mosaic Pattern?
Embedded proteins within phospholipid bilayer

creates a mosaic pattern (when viewed from the above)
Learning Outcomes :
Why Fluid?
Fluid ~ mosaic pattern is dynamic

Phospholipid & extrinsic proteins can move laterally
along the membrane
Time
Lateral movement
Learning Outcomes :
Why Fluid?
Learning Outcomes :
Other Components ~ Carbohydrate

Carbohydrate
Location: on the outer surface of the membrane,

Carbohydrate chain may combine with: Protein
Phospholipid
form glycoprotein
form glycolipids
Function: act as identification tag (described later)
Learning Outcomes :
Other Components ~ Carbohydrate
Learning Outcomes :
Other Components ~ Cholesterol

Cholesterol
Found between phospholipids molecules

Function: to regulate membrane fluidity by restricting
the movement of phospholipids (stabilize membrane
structure)
Learning Outcomes :
Roles of Cell Membrane Components

1. Act as Transport Protein
2. Act as Enzyme
3. Act as Receptor Protein

4. Intercellular Joining
5. Cell-cell Recognition
6. Attachment site of cytoskeleton
& extracellular matrix
Learning Outcomes :
1. Act as Transport Protein

Selective permeable
Transmembrane protein transport

molecules across membrane
Transport protein has hydrophilic
channels that allow polar
molecules / ion to pass through
Eg: channel protein, carrier
protein
Hydrophilic
channel
Learning Outcomes :
2. Act as Enzyme
Globular protein has

active site which can bind
to a specific substrate
Catalyze specific
chemical reaction
Learning Outcomes :
3. Act as Receptor Protein
Has a binding site with a

specific shape for
chemical messenger
Eg: hormone /
neurotransmitter
Send information into the
cell
Learning Outcomes :
4. Intercellular Joining
Membrane proteins of
adjacent cell may join
together
Eg: gap junction
Learning Outcomes :
5. Cell-cell Recognition
GLYCOPROTEIN
Act as identification tag

Specifically recognized
by other cells
Eg: antigen is
recognized by human
cells as foreign
Learning Outcomes :
6. Attachment site of cytoskeleton & extracellular matrix
Outer surface ~ attach to

extracellular matrix
Inner surface ~ attach to

cytoskeleton
Maintain cell shape
Learning outcomes
2.2 Cell Membrane & Organelles
a) Illustrate the detailed structures of typical plant and animal
cells.
b) Describe the structure of the plasma membrane and the
functions of each of its components.
c) Describe the structure and functions of the following
organelles:
nucleus
rough endoplasmic reticulum
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body
lysosome
ribosome
mitochondria
chloroplast
centriole
Learning Outcomes :
2.2 (c) Describe the structures & functions of nucleus
Nucleus
Structure
Largest organelle
Spherical-shaped
Inner parts of nucleus contain nucleoplasm
Learning Outcomes :
Nucleus
Structure
Enclosed by 2 layers of nuclear
membrane
Which fused at intervals to form
nuclear pores
Nuclear pore regulate
movement of molecules across
nuclear membrane
Learning Outcomes :
Nucleus
Structure
Outer membrane is
continuous with
endoplasmic reticulum
(ER)
Nucleolus
Spherical-shaped
Non-membranous
Dense mass structures
Contain DNA, RNA & proteins
Learning Outcomes :
Nucleus
Nucleoplasm
A jellylike fluid contain
nucleolus & chromatin
Chromatin
Long thin strands of DNA &
histone protein
Function (nucleolus)
Site of rRNA synthesis
Combine protein with rRNA
to form ribosome (ribosome
subunit assembly)
Learning Outcomes :
Nucleus
Function
Control cell activities & cell division

Store genetic material
Site of RNAs synthesis & ribosomes subunit assembly
Learning Outcomes :
2.2 (c) Describe the structures & functions of endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Structure
Extensive network of
membranous tubules ~
cisternae (interconnected)
Continuous with the outer
nuclear membrane
Enclosed by a single
membrane
Space within ER ~
cisternal space / lumen
Learning Outcomes :
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Types of ER
Rough ER
Consist of flattened sacs

Has ribosomes; attached on the
outer surface ~ appear granular
Smooth ER
Consist of more tubular sacs

Lack of ribosomes on outer surface
~ appear smooth
Learning Outcomes :
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Function
Intracellular transport of protein (package & transport

protein to Golgi body within transport vesicle)
Learning Outcomes :
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Function
Site of lipid synthesis

Detoxification of toxic waste (drugs & poison)
Storage of calcium ions in skeletal muscle cells
Learning Outcomes :
2.2 (c) Describe the structures & functions of Golgi body
Golgi Body
Structure
Enclosed by a single
membrane
Consist of stacked
flattened membranous
sacs ~ cisternae
The sacs are not physically connected

Space within Golgi body ~ cisternal space / lumen
Learning Outcomes :
Golgi Body
Structure
Each Golgi stack has
cis face & trans face
Cis face is facing
towards the ER /
nucleus
Trans face is facing
towards the plasma
membrane
Rough
ER
Nucleus
Golgi
body
cis face
trans face
Secretory
vesicle
Plasma
membrane
Glycoprotein
Learning Outcomes :
Golgi Body
ER pinches off to form
transport vesicles
Which move towards Golgi
body
It fuses with the cis-face
Contents (eg: protein/
carbohydrate/lipid) is released
into lumen
Golgi body modifies the
substances as it moves from
cis-face to the trans-face
Secretory
vesicles
Transport
vesicles
Learning Outcomes :
Golgi Body
The tips of trans-face cisternae

pinches off to form secretory
vesicles
Secretory vesicles may: Move towards plasma
membrane & fuse with it to
release substances by
exocytosis
Remain in the cell ~ become
lysosome
Secretory
vesicle
Transport
vesicle
Learning Outcomes :
Golgi Body
Function
Process, modify,
sorting, package
& transport
protein
Form lysosomes
Learning Outcomes :
2.2 (c) Describe the structures & functions of lysosome
Lysosome
Structure
Small, spherical-shaped
Enclosed by a special single
membrane
Contain many
hydrolytic/digestive enzymes
Learning Outcomes :
Lysosome
Function
Intracellular digestion
Digest macromolecules which enter the cell by
phagocytosis process
Recycle cells own organic material

Digest old / damaged organelles to recycle organic
material by autophagy process
Programmed cell destruction

Digest the whole cell by autolysis process
Learning Outcomes :
1. Intracellular Digestion
Plasma membrane engulfs

large molecules & pinches
off to form food vacuole /
phagosome by
phagocytosis process
Primary lysosome fuses

with food vacuole
secondary lysosome
Hydrolytic enzymes digest

large molecules
Useful substances are

absorbed into cytosol
Learning Outcomes :
1. Intracellular Digestion
Eg: Amoeba & macrophage (engulf bacteria & digest

them for defense or protection)
Amoeba engulf red yeast for food
Macrophage engulf bacteria for protection
Learning Outcomes :
2. Recycle cells own organic material
Old or damaged organelle is enclosed by a single

membrane to form autophagic vacuole / autophagosome
Lysosome fuse with autophagic vacuole & digest the
organelle with hydrolytic enzymes by autophagy process
Learning Outcomes :
3. Programmed Cell Destruction
In old / damaged cell, lysosome membrane ruptures

Hydrolytic enzymes are released into the cytoplasm
Digest the whole cell by autolysis process
Eg : destroy old / damaged cell
: destroy leukocyte that phagocytize pathogen
: during metamorphosis & development
Autolysis during human embryo development
Autolysis in tadpole tails
Learning Outcomes :
Endomembrane System
The membrane of the organelles are related through

direct physical continuity or by transfer of membrane
segments as vesicles
Endomembrane system include: nuclear membrane

endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body
lysosome
vesicle / vacuole
plasma membrane
Learning Outcomes :
2.2 (c) Describe the structures & functions of ribosome
Ribosome
Structure
Small granule
Spherical-shaped
Non-membranous
Made of rRNA & protein
Consist of 2 subunits (large & small)
Learning Outcomes :
Types of ribosome
Free ribosome
lies freely in cytoplasm

synthesize proteins that function
in cytosol
Bound ribosome
attached to nuclear membrane or RER

synthesize proteins for export / cell
membrane / lysosome
Learning Outcomes :
Ribosome
Function
Site of protein synthesis

Act as enzyme (ribozyme) to catalyze the
formation of peptide bond
Learning Outcomes :
2.2(c) Describe the structures & functions of mitochondria
Mitochondria
Structure
Shape ~ oblong / biconvex /

cylindrical
Enclosed by 2 layers of
membrane
Space between outer & inner
membrane ~ intermembrane
space
Outer membrane is smooth
& point towards cytoplasm
Learning Outcomes :
2.2 (c) Describe the structures & functions of mitochondria
Mitochondria
Structure
Inner membrane is folded inwards to form cristae

Cristae increase the surface area for attachment of
enzymes involved in Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Learning Outcomes :
Mitochondria
Structure
Inner membrane enclosed a

fluid-filled space ~ matrix
Matrix contains : bacterial-like DNA &

ribosome to synthesize own
protein & enzymes
enzymes involved in Krebs
cycle
Learning Outcomes :
Mitochondria
Function
Site of ATP synthesis / cellular respiration

Krebs cycle occur in matrix
ETC occurs in cristae
Learning Outcomes :
2.2 (c) Describe the structures & functions of chloroplast
Chloroplast
Structure
Shape ~ oblong /
biconvex
Enclosed by 2 layers
of membrane
Space between
outer & inner
membrane ~
intermembrane
space
Outer membrane points towards cytoplasm
Inner membrane enclosed a fluid-filled space ~ stroma
Learning Outcomes :
Chloroplast
Structure
Stroma contains : bacterial-like DNA & ribosome to synthesise own protein &
enzymes
enzymes involved in Calvin cycle
Learning Outcomes :
Chloroplast
Structure
Embedded within
stroma, are
membranous system
called thylakoids
Thylakoids ~ flat discs
which are stacked to
form grana
Grana are interconnected by intergrana membrane / lamella

Chlorophyll & photosynthetic pigments are embedded within
thylakoid membrane
Learning Outcomes :
Chloroplast
Function
Site of photosynthesis
Light dependent reaction occurs in grana /
thylakoid
Light independent reaction occurs in stroma
Store starch (in stroma)
Learning Outcomes :
2.2 (c) Describe the structures & functions of organelle
Semiautonomous Organelle
Both mitochondria & chloroplast can duplicate &

reproduce independently within the cell
semiautonomous organelle
Learning Outcomes :
2.2 (c) Describe the structures & functions of centriole
Centriole
Structure
Exist in pair, orientated at

90 angle to another
Located in a region called
centrosome ~ near nucleus
of animal cell
Each centriole composed of
9 sets of triplet
microtubules, arranged in a
circle (9x3)
Learning Outcomes :
2.2 (c) Describe the structures & functions of centriole
Centriole
Function
Organize microtubules assembly during cell division

(microtubules organizing center ~ MTOC)
Form the bases of cilia & flagella

organelles
2.4 Cell Transport
()
(2)
(3)
(2)

organelles
Animal cells & tissues
Epithelial cells
Nerve cells
Muscle cells
Connective tissues
2.4 Cell Transport
()
(2)
(3)
Plant cells & tissues

Meristem
Parenchyma
Collenchyma
Sclerenchyma
Xylem & Phloem
(2)
Learning outcomes
Describe the following types of cells and tissues:
epithelial
nerve
muscle
connective

meristem
parenchyma
collenchyma
sclerenchyma
xylem
phloem
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of muscle cells
Muscle Tissue
Most abundant tissue

Cytoplasm contain many :
mitochondria
glycogen
myoglobin
myofilament (actin & myosin) ~
specialised for contraction
Main function ~ movement
Learning Outcomes :
Muscle Tissue
Modified Terms
Plasma membrane ~ sarcolemma

Cytoplasm ~ sarcoplasm
Endoplasmic reticulum ~ sarcoplasmic reticulum
Types of Muscle Tissue
Smooth
Skeletal / Striated
Cardiac
Learning Outcomes :
Muscle Tissue
(a) Skeletal muscle
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of muscle cells ~ smooth muscle
Smooth Muscle
Structure
Spindle-shaped, elongated, pointed ends

Unbranched fibre, cells are arranged in parallel
Uninucleated, centrally located
No striations (no sarcomere)
Learning Outcomes :
Smooth Muscle
Action
Type of control
Speed of contraction
Resistance to fatigue
: involuntary / autonomic
: slowest
: greatest (do not tired easily)
Learning Outcomes :
Smooth Muscle
Location
Walls of digestive tract (alimentary canal) / urinary bladder
/ uterus / urinogenital tract / respiratory tract / blood vessel
(endothelium)
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of muscle cells ~ skeletal muscle
Skeletal Muscle
Structure
Cylindrical-shaped, very long, blunt ends

Unbranched fibre
Multinucleated, peripherally located (beneath sarcolemma)
Obvious striations (has sarcomere)
Extensive sarcoplasmic reticulum
Learning Outcomes :
Skeletal Muscle
Learning Outcomes :
Skeletal Muscle
Striations ~ repeating series of light bands (I band) & dark

bands (A band)
Due to arrangement of myofilaments

Thin filament (mainly actin)
Thick filament (mainly myosin)
Learning Outcomes :
Skeletal Muscle
Action
Type of control
Resistant to fatigue
: voluntary / somatic
: fastest
: least (easily tired)
Location
Attached to the skeleton / bones by tendon
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of muscle cells ~ cardiac muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Structure
Cylindrical-shaped, elongated, blunt ends

Branched fibre
Joined together from end to end at intercalated disc
Uni / binucleated, centrally located
Striated
Learning Outcomes :
Cardiac Muscle
Action
Type of control
Resistant to fatigue
: involuntary / autonomic
: intermediate
: intermediate
Location
Walls of heart (for contraction of heart)
Learning Outcomes :
Cardiac Muscle
Intercalated disc has gap junction

Speed up impulse transmission throughout heart muscle
Contract as a single unit
Heart muscle is myogenic (can initiate own impulse for
contraction without the help of Central Nervous System)
Learning Outcomes :
Differences of Muscle Cells

Features
Smooth
muscle
Skeletal muscle Cardiac

muscle
Shape
Spindle-shaped,
elongated,
pointed ends
Cylindricalshaped,
elongated, blunt
ends
Cylindricalshaped,
elongated, blunt
ends
Branching
Unbranched fibre
Unbranched fibre
Branched fibre,
fused together
Number of
nucleus per
cell
One
(Uninucleated)
Many nucleus
(multinucleated)
One or two
Location of
nucleus
Central
Peripheral
Central
Striations
Absent
Present
Present
Learning Outcomes :
Differences of Muscle Cells

Features
Smooth
muscle
Skeletal muscle Cardiac

muscle
Type of
control
Involuntary
Voluntary
Involuntary
Speed of
contraction
Slowest
Most rapid
Intermediate
(varies)
Resistance
to fatigue
Greatest
Least
Intermediate
Location
Wall of digestive Attached to the

tract
bone / skeletal
Wall of heart
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of connective tissues
Connective Tissue
Three types of connective tissues are:
Compact Bone
Hyaline Cartilage
Blood
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of connective tissues
Connective Tissue
All connective tissue has 3 features in common:Composition
Cell
Matrix
Non-living substance
around cells
Fiber
Provide support
(eg: collagen, elastin)
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of connective tissues -compact bone
Compact Bone
Composition
Cell
Matrix
Fiber
Osteocyte
Hard calcified matrix
Collagen
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of connective tissues-compact bone
Compact Bone ~ Structure

canaliculi
lacuna
osteocyte
Bone cell ~ osteocyte

Has many tiny cytoplasmic extension ~ canaliculi
Osteocytes are found in a cavity ~ lacunae
Osteocytes are arranged in circles
They are interconnected by canaliculi which enable the
transfer of nutrients & wastes from one osteocytes to another
They secrete hard matrix composed of collagen fiber &
inorganic mineral salts (mainly calcium) / hydroxyapatites 105
Learning Outcomes :
Matrix are arranged in a circular tube ~ lamella

Several layers of lamella are found around the same
central Haversian canal
These structure is called osteon / Haversian system ~
structural unit of bone
osteon
Haversian canal
lamella
lamella
106
Learning Outcomes :

Blood vessel
Periosteum
membrane
Volkmanns canal
Haversian canal contains nerve, blood & lymph vessel

Haversian canals are interconnected by Volkmanns
canal
A unit of bone is covered by periosteum membrane
Learning Outcomes :
Compact Bone ~ Function
Cellular level (osteocyte) ~ secrete hard matrix &

maintain the bone matrix
Tissue level
Hard bone matrix gives basic shape to the body
Provide a hard framework that support the body
Protect soft internal organs in vertebrates
Storage of calcium / mineral salt
Site of blood cell synthesis within the bone marrow
108
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of connective tissues-hyaline cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage
Composition
Cell
Matrix
Fiber
Chondrocyte
Soft & elastic matrix

(chondrin)
Collagen
Learning Outcomes :
Hyaline Cartilage ~ Structure
Protected by an outer perichondrium layer

Which produces chondrocyte
Chondrocyte near the outer layer are flattened in shape but the
inner region are angular
Chondrocyte are found in lacunae
110
Learning Outcomes :
Hyaline Cartilage ~ Structure
Each lacuna contain 1, 2 or 4 chondrocytes

Chondrocyte secretes soft & elastic matrix ~ chondrin
Composed of chondroitin sulphate & collagen
No blood vessel within matrix (O2 & nutrients diffuse from
perichondrium through the matrix)
111
Learning Outcomes :
Hyaline Cartilage ~ Function

Function
Cellular level (chondrocyte)
Secrete chondrin
Tissue level
Tough & flexible support
Cushioning properties
Location
Tip of nose, trachea, larynx
End of long bones
Connect the ribs to sternum

Inter-vertebral disc
112
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of connective tissues - blood
Blood
The only fluid tissue containing blood cells suspended in

plasma
Composition
Cell
Erythrocyte
Leukocyte
Platelet
Matrix
Fiber
Plasma
Collagen
~55%
~45%
<1%
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of connective tissues -blood
Blood
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of connective tissues - blood
Erythrocyte
Structure
Biconcave shaped ~ increase surface area

Thin at the center, thicker at the edge
No nucleus & organelles at maturity
Contain hemoglobin (respiratory pigment)
Function
Transport O2 & CO2

(respiratory gases)
Learning Outcomes :
Leukocyte
Structure
Have nucleus & organelles (the only true cell)

Spherical or irregular shaped
Larger than erythrocyte
Function
Defense against disease
Learning Outcomes :
Types of Leukocyte
Blood Cell
Erythrocyte
Many granules
Nucleus multi-lobed
Granulocyte
Neutrophil
most abundant
Eosinophil
Platelet
Leukocyte
Lack granule
Nucleus round
Basophil
Agranulocyte
Lymphocyte
Monocyte
Learning Outcomes :
Neutrophil
Nucleus
Granule
Function
: multi-lobed (3-6 lobes)

: very small
: phagocytize microorganisms / dead cells
118
Learning Outcomes :
Eosinophil
Nucleus
Granule
Function
: bi-lobed (2 lobes)
: large size
: reduce the effect of allergy reactions
: attack parasitic worms
119
Learning Outcomes :
Basophil
Nucleus
Granule
Function
: U or S-shaped lobed (2 or 3-lobed)

: many large granule
: release histamine (inflammatory substance)
: contain heparin (anticoagulant ~ prevent
blood clotting)
120
Learning Outcomes :
Lymphocyte
Nucleus
Location
Types
Function
: large, spherical-shaped
: mostly in lymphoid tissue
: 2 (B & T-lymphocyte)
: specific defense mechanism / immune response
121
Learning Outcomes :
Monocyte
Largest leukocyte
Nucleus : U or kidney-shaped
It can differentiates into active macrophage
Function : phagocytize microorganisms / pathogen
122
Learning Outcomes :
Platelets
Cytoplasmic fragments of a large cell, megakaryocyte

No nucleus & organelle
Function : promotes blood clotting
123
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structures, function and distribution of connective tissues-blood
Matrix ~ Plasma
Consist mainly of water, inorganic mineral salts &

dissolved protein
& small amount of collagen
Learning outcomes
epithelial
nerve
muscle
connective

meristem
parenchyma
collenchyma
sclerenchyma
xylem
phloem
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structure, function & distribution of animal tissues ~ epithelial
Epithelial Tissue
Classification
Number of cell layers
Simple
Stratified
Cell shape
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Learning Outcomes :
Epithelial Tissue
Simple epithelium
1 layer of cells
Stratified epithelium
More than 1 layer of cells

127
Learning Outcomes :
Epithelial Tissue
Lower layer of cells

attached to the basement membrane
Uppermost layer
free surface (face lumen/cavity)
Free surface
Basement
membrane
128
Learning Outcomes :
Cell Shape
Squamous
Cells
Nucleus
: thin, flat
: disc-shaped, central
Cuboidal
Cells
Nucleus
: cube-shaped
: spherical-shaped, central
Columnar
Cells
: elongated, column-shaped
Nucleus : oval-shaped, close to the cell base
Large cytoplasm
129
Learning Outcomes :
1. Simple Squamous Epithelium

Structure
Single layer of flat cells

With disc-shaped central nuclei
Function
Facilitate diffusion & filtration of

substances (very thin & permeable)
Location
Alveoli of lungs
Lining of blood vessel (endothelium)
Glomerulus & Bowman capsule (in kidney)
130
Learning Outcomes :
1. Simple Squamous Epithelium
Learning Outcomes :
2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Structure
Single layer of cube cells

With spherical-shaped central nuclei
Function
Facilitate absorption & secretion
Location
Lining of kidney tubules

Small glands
Ovary surface
132
Learning Outcomes :
3. Simple Columnar Epithelium

Structure
Single layer of columnar cells

With oval-nuclei located near to the base
Function
Facilitate absorption & secretion
Location
Lining of digestive tract, gallbladder &

some glands
133
Learning Outcomes :
Special Structures of Epithelium ~ Microvilli
Microvilli ~ small finger-like projections due to the folding of plasma

membrane
Function:
Increase surface area for absorption
May present in: Simple cuboidal epithelial
Location: kidney tubules
Function: to absorb useful substances before excreted out in urine
Simple columnar epithelial

Location: digestive tract lining
Function: to absorb nutrients before excreted out in feces
134
Learning Outcomes :
Special Structures of Epithelium ~ Cilia
Cilia ~ small & short hairlike structure

Beating of cilia create motion to move materials
Eg: Simple ciliated columnar epithelial
Location: lining of bronchi

Function: to remove mucus dust
trapped within mucus in
respiratory tract
Location: fallopian tubes or

oviduct, uterine tubes
Function: to move fertilized egg
from oviduct to the uterus
Learning Outcomes :
Goblet Cells
Goblet cells is cup-shaped cells

Location: digestive tract & respiratory tract
Function: secrete mucus to lubricate movement of digested material &
to trap dust & particles which enter respiratory tract
Learning Outcomes :
Stratified Epithelium
Only lower layer is metabolically active

Divide & push older cells upward
Replace uppermost older cells
More durable
Common in high abrasion areas
Function ~ protection
Eg: skin surface
137
Learning Outcomes :
4. Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Structure
Thick ~ composed of many layers of

cells & uppermost layer is flat squamous
cells
Function
Protection from mechanical injury or invading

microorganisms, prevent excessive water loss (keratinized)
Location
Skin (keratinized), mouth, esophagus & vaginal lining
138
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structure, function & distribution of animal tissues ~ nerve cell
Nerve Cell (Neuron) ~ Structure

Neuron is the nerve cell that generate & conduct nerve
impulses
Enable communications between the body & brain to
response to stimulus
All neurons have 3 things in common:Cell body

Dendrites
Axon
139
Learning Outcomes :
Motor Neuron ~ Structure

Cell body
Large nucleus
Have organelles (except centriole), numerous mitochondria
Extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum (Nissl granules)
Dendrites
Dendrites ~ short highly-branched cytoplasm arise

from the cell body
Function ~ receive message from other cells & carry
the message to the cell body
140
Learning Outcomes :

Axon
Long cytoplasmic
branch arising from the
cell body
Site where axon joins
the cell body ~ axon
hillock
Axon endings (synaptic knob) send signals from the
neuron to other cells by releasing neurotransmitters
Function ~ carry impulse away from cell body
At certain parts of the axon, some neurons are enclosed in
a myelin sheath myelinated neuron
141
Learning Outcomes :
Myelin sheath is formed by

Schwann cell
Roll around axon
Form overlapping layers of
membranes (myelin sheath)
Outermost membrane of
Schwann cell ~ neurilemma
Composed of lipid & protein
Myelin sheath act as electrical
insulator to speed up impulse
transmission
142
Learning Outcomes :
Adjacent Schwann cells do not touch one another

create gaps (axon is not completely covered by myelin
sheath)
Small, uncovered part of axon between the Schwann
cells ~ nodes of Ranvier
Nerve impulse jump from node to node along the axon
Speed up impulse transmission along the axon
Learning Outcomes :
Motor Neuron
Function
Transmit impulse from central

nervous system to effector or
motor organs, eg: muscle &
glands
Location
Most cell bodies of motor neuron

is found within CNS & few in
ganglion & its axon is found
throughout the motor organs
144
Learning outcomes
epithelial
nerve
muscle
connective

meristem
parenchyma
collenchyma
sclerenchyma
xylem
phloem
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structure, function & distribution of plant tissues ~ meristem
What is Tissue ?
In multicellular organisms, most cells differentiates in
structure specialised cells
New structure is suitable to carry out specific function
A group of cells which are similar in structure & conduct

specific function tissue
Learning Outcomes :
Types of Plant Tissue

PLANT TISSUE
Meristem
Permanent
i. Apical
ii. Lateral
Dermal
i. Epidermis
ii. Periderm
Ground
i. Parenchyma
ii. Collenchyma
iii. sclerenchyma
Vascular
i. Xylem
ii. Phloem
Learning Outcomes :
Meristem Tissue
Young cells
Actively dividing cells
Unspecialized
Types:
Apical meristem
Lateral meristem
Learning Outcomes :
Meristem ~ Structure
Small
Isodiametric / cube
Thin primary cell wall
Large, central nucleus
Dense cytoplasm
Small vacuoles
Closely packed / no intercellular air spaces
Learning Outcomes :
Meristem ~ Distribution & Function

Types of
meristem
Location
Function
Apical
Shoot tips & root tips
Increase the length of stems

& roots (primary growth)
Lateral
Cylinders around the

stem & root (cambium)
Increase the diameter of

stems & roots (secondary
growth)
Functions :
Retain the ability to divide continuously by mitosis to produce new cells
For growth, reproduction & replacement of old, damaged cells
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structure, function & distribution of plant tissues ~ dermal
Permanent Plant Tissue

Mature & specialised cells
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structure, function & distribution of plant tissues ~ dermal
Dermal Tissue
Distribution
Outermost layer of cells @ surface of plant body
Structure
Tightly packed forming a protective layer on the surface

Function
Defense against : mechanical damaged, pathogenic organisms / disease
& water loss
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structure, function & distribution of plant tissues ~ parenchyma
Parenchyma Tissue
Least specialised cells
Living cells at maturity (maintain cytoplasm)
Carry out most of the metabolic functions of plant
Learning Outcomes :
Parenchyma Tissue ~ Structure

Has nucleus (living cells)
Isodiametric/spherical-shaped
Thin & flexible primary cell wall,
consist of cellulose,
hemicellulose & pectin
Large central vacuole
Cells are loosely packed/ large
intercellular air spaces
Learning Outcomes :
Parenchyma Tissue ~ Function

Store food / organic substances (large vacuole)
Carry out photosynthesis for cells containing chloroplast
(eg: mesophyll cells)
Allow gaseous exchange as there are large intercellular
spaces
In flowers & fruits, cell contain chromoplast to attract
pollinating agents & help in dispersal of fruits & seeds
Learning Outcomes :
Parenchyma Tissue ~ Distribution

In dicot stem : Cortex
Pith
Scattered within
vascular bundle
Dicotyledon stem
Learning Outcomes :
Modified Parenchyma
Tissue
Cell
shape
Modified Parenchyma
Mesophyll
Endodermis
Pericycle
Palisade
mesophyll ~
column-shaped
Flat & elongated

(deposited with
suberin)
As
parenchyma
Around vascular
tissue of root
(innermost layer
of root cortex)
Between
vascular tissue
& endodermis
of root
Spongy mesophyll
~ spherical /
irregular-shaped
Distribution
Between upper &

lower epidermis of
leaves
Learning Outcomes :
Modified Parenchyma
Mesophyll
Endodermis & pericycle
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structure, function & distribution of plant tissues ~ collenchyma
Collenchyma ~ Structure
Has nucleus (living cells)

Polygonal-shaped, elongated with tapered ends
Cell walls are unevenly thickened at their corners
with deposits of cellulose, hemicellulose & pectin
Pits are present in the cell walls
Cells are closely packed / less intercellular space
Learning Outcomes :
Collenchyma ~ Function
As supporting tissue to herbaceous plants / young parts
of the plant
Gives flexible mechanical support (allow cells to expand
& stretched as young stems grow)
Learning Outcomes :
Collenchyma ~ Distribution
1. Below the epidermis of
herbaceous plants
2. Midrib of leaves
3. Leaf petioles / stalk of leaves (eg: celery)
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structure, function & distribution of plant tissues ~ sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma ~ Structure
No nucleus at maturity (dead cells)

Has primary & secondary cell walls
Secondary cell wall is evenly thickened with lignin
Small lumen
Pits are present in cell walls
Cells are tightly packed / no intercellular space
Learning Outcomes :
Sclerenchyma ~ Function & Distribution

Function:
Gives support to the tissue
Gives mechanical strength & rigidity to the plant
Protect from mechanical damage
Distribution:
Leaf veins / vascular
bundle
Wood, inner bark
Learning Outcomes :
Sclerenchyma ~ Fibers
Structure:
Polygonal-shaped
Elongated with tapered ends
Which overlap & interlock with
one another (increase strength)
Fewer pits than sclereids
Eg: jute fibers for making rope
Learning Outcomes :
Sclerenchyma ~ Sclereids
Structure:
Irregular-shaped
Shorter than fibers
Unevenly thickened with lignin
Pits maybe branched or not
Cells with unbranched pits ~ stone cells
Eg: in pears (cause gritty texture)
Cherry pit
Distribution:
Hard shells of seeds & nuts in fruits
Pear stone cells
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structure, function & distribution of plant tissues ~ xylem
Xylem
Complex tissue
Consist of 4 tissues ~ tracheid, vessel, fiber & parenchyma
Dead at functional maturity
Structure:
No nucleus (dead cells) at maturity
Elongated, thin
Tapered ends which overlap &
interlock with one another
Small empty lumen
Thick lignified secondary wall
Have pits in cell walls
Which allow water to flow from 1
tracheid to the other
Learning Outcomes :
Vessels ~ Structure
No nucleus (dead cells) at maturity
Shorter & wider than tracheid
Tubular / less tapered than
tracheid
Wide empty lumen
Thick lignified secondary wall
Both ends are highly perforated /
open
Cells are stacked from end to end
to form a continuous hollow tube
Pits are present to allow lateral
movements of water
Learning Outcomes :
Xylem ~ Vessels
Uneven deposition of lignin
creates different pattern in
vessel:-
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Young
mature vessel
Annular / ring
Spiral / helix
Scalariform
Reticulate
Pitted
Learning Outcomes :
Xylem ~ Function & Distribution

Function
Transport water & minerals from root to other parts of
plant
Give mechanical support (lignified vessels & tracheid
can resist compression & tension)
Distribution
Vascular bundle
Learning Outcomes :
2.3 Describe the structure, function & distribution of plant tissues ~ phloem
Phloem
Complex tissue
Consist of 4 tissues ~ sieve tube cell, companion cell, fiber &
parenchyma
Learning Outcomes :
Phloem ~ Sieve tube cells structure

Living cells at maturity
But nucleus & most organelles
degenerate
Thin layer of cytoplasm remains at the
periphery of the cell
Has only primary cell wall (no lignin)
Long cylindrical structure
End walls are perforated forming sieve
plate
Sieve plate has pores which allows
cytoplasm to extend between sieve
tube cells
Sieve tube cell are stacked end to end
to form a long sieve tube
Learning Outcomes :
Phloem ~ Companion cell structure

A modified parenchyma which is found next to sieve tube cell
Metabolically active
Structure:
Have nucleus (living cells) at
maturity
Dense cytoplasm
Small vacuoles
Many mitochondria & ribosomes
Thin primary cell wall
Interconnected to sieve tube cell
by numerous plasmodesmata
Learning Outcomes :
Phloem ~ Function & Distribution

Function
Transport organic substance from leaves to other parts
of plant
Companion cell helps sieve tube elements to transport
organic substances
Distribution
Vascular bundle
2.1 Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic

Cells
()
2.2 Structure and functions: cell membrane
and
organelles
(2)
2.3 Cells are grouped into
tissues
(3)
2.4 Cell Transport
(2)
Learning outcomes
2.4 Cell Transport
Explain the various transport mechanisms
across the membrane
Passive transport
- Simple diffusion
- Facilitated diffusion
- Osmosis
Active transport
- Sodium potassium pump
- Bulk Transport (endocytosis & exocytosis)
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Explain the various transport mechanisms across the membrane
Types of Transport Across Membrane
Passive Transport
Simple Facilitated
Osmosis
Diffusion Diffusion
Active Transport
Bulk Transport
Na-K Pump
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Exocytosis
Pinocytosis
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Explain passive transport across membrane
Characteristic of Cell Membrane
Cell membrane is selectively permeable

Allow some substances to pass through
But does not allow other substances to pass
through
Cell membrane is permeable to lipid soluble

molecule & small non-polar substance due to its
hydrophobic region of phospholipid bilayer
Impermeable to polar molecules & ions
Enable cell to retain polar molecules & ions within
the cell (mostly are important for the cell)
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Explain passive transport across membrane
Passive Transport
Movement of a substance from higher

concentration to lower concentration gradient
Or movement of a substance down a
concentration gradient
Across a selective permeable membrane
Without using energy
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Explain passive transport across membrane ~ simple diffusion
Simple Diffusion
(extracellular fluid)
Some molecules diffuse

freely across
phospholipid bilayer
(cytoplasm)

across phospholipid bilayer
Without the help of transport protein
Learning Outcomes :
Simple Diffusion
Molecules that can diffuse easily across phospholipid

bilayer: Lipid soluble molecules (eg: cholesterol, steroid)
Small, non-polar/uncharged molecules (O2, CO2)
Small, polar molecules (eg: H2O, glycerol)
Learning Outcomes :
Simple Diffusion
Although water are polar, they are small enough

to pass through the space between the fluid fatty
acids as they move
Rate of diffusion increase when: Temperature increase
Molecules involved is in gas state rather than
liquid
Size of molecules reduce (faster for smaller
molecules)
Large differences in concentration gradient
between inside & outside the cell
Learning Outcomes :
Simple Diffusion ~ Importance
Enable atoms & small molecules

diffuse faster across membrane
Eg: O2, CO2 as respiratory gases,
important in ATP synthesis
Eg: H2O, important to facilitate
chemical reaction
Enable lipid soluble molecules to

diffuse freely
Eg: steroid hormone
(testosterone) for homeostatic
regulation
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Explain passive transport across membrane ~ facilitated diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion

across plasma membrane
With the help of transport protein
Involve ions & polar molecules (eg: Na+, Cl-,
glucose, amino acids)
Learning Outcomes :
Facilitated Diffusion
Transport protein:- 2 main
types
1. Channel protein
2. Carrier protein
Learning Outcomes :
Facilitated Diffusion ~ Importance
Transport ions & polar molecules or water soluble

molecules across membrane
Eg: water, ions (Na+, Cl-), sugars (glucose) &
amino acids
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Explain passive transport across membrane ~ osmosis
Osmosis
Movement of water molecules

From higher water potential to lower water
potential region
Across a selective permeable membrane
Learning Outcomes :
Water Potential
Definition:
Tendency of water molecules to move from 1 area to
another area
Symbol ~
Pure water has the highest water potential, = 0
kPa
Learning Outcomes :
Solute Potential
A measure of the change in water potential of a

solution due to the presence of solute molecules
When solute molecules is dissolved in pure water, it
reduces its water potential, becoming negative (-ve)
Symbol, s (always has ve value)
A solution with less solute than the other has higher
water potential
Learning Outcomes :
Types of Solution
Hypotonic
Low concentration of solute relative to another

solution
Hypertonic
High concentration of solute relative to another

solution
Isotonic
Same concentration of solute relative to another

solution
189
Learning Outcomes :
Osmosis
Less solute
More solute
Learning Outcomes :
Pressure applied to piston to
resist upward movement
Water
plus
solute
Pure water
Selectively
permeable
membrane
Molecule
of solute
Water
molecule
Net movement
of water molecules
When water diffuse into

the plant cell, it enters
vacuole
Vacuole enlarge &
creates a pressure
towards cytoplasm & cell
wall turgor pressure
Also called as pressure
potential, p
p always has +ve value
The point at which
plasmolysis is just about
to happen incipient
plasmolysis, = 0
Learning Outcomes :
When a cell is put into an isotonic

solution
Water potential inside & outside the

cell is equal
Water moves into & out of the cell
at the same rate by osmosis
No net movement of water into or
out of the cell
Animal / plant cell does not change its
shape
192
Learning Outcomes :
When a cell is put into a hypertonic

solution
The cell has higher water potential

than outside the cell
Water moves out from the cell by
osmosis
Animal cell becomes crenated /
shrink
193
Learning Outcomes :
When a cell is put into a hypertonic

solution
In plant cell, water moves out

from vacuole vacuole
shrinks
Plasma membrane detached &
pulled away from the cell wall
Plant cell becomes
plasmolysed / flaccid
The starting point of
plasmolysis ~ incipient
plasmolysis
194
Learning Outcomes :
(a)
Plasma
membrane
(b)
(c)
Vacuole
Nucleus
Vacuole
Vacuolar
membran
e
(tonoplas
t)
Cytoplasm
Turgid
Plasma
membrane
Plasmolyzed
Plasmolyzed
Learning Outcomes :
When a cell is put in a hypotonic

solution
Water potential outside the cell is

higher than in the cell
Water from outside moves into the

cell by osmosis
Animal cell swell (if too much
water moves in, it may lysed /
burst)
If erythrocyte burst ~ haemolysis
Plant cell becomes turgid
196
Learning Outcomes :
Outside
cell
Inside
cell
No net water
movement
Outside
cell
Inside
cell
Net water movement

out of the cell
Outside
cell
Inside
cell
(a)
Net water movement

into the cell
(b)
(c)
Isotonic solution
Hypertonic solution
Hypotonic solution
Learning Outcomes :
Calculation of Water Potential in Plant Cell

Water potential = solute potential + pressure
potential
= s + p
Which cell has higher water potential?

A ~ = -200 kPa
B ~ = -400 kPa
C ~ = -500 kPa
D ~ = -600 kPa
198
Learning Outcomes :
Example 1
Cell A
s = -8 MPa
p = 3 MPa
= ?-5 MPa
Cell B
= -10 Mpa
s = -10 Mpa
p = ?0 MPa
Learning Outcomes :
Example 2
Cell A
s = -500 kPa
p = 200 kPa
Sucrose solution, s = -1000

kPa
= s + p
= -500 + 200 kPa = -300 kPa
Calculate the water

potential of this cell.
State whether water
will move in or out of
the cell. Explain.
What happen to the
volume of the cell?
Water moves out from the cell by osmosis

Because cell A has higher water potential than
surrounding solution
Decrease
Learning Outcomes :
Example 3 (a)
s = -2200 kPa
p = 1000 kPa
Cell A
Cell B
s = -1600 kPa
p = 800 kPa
Calculate the water potential of cell A & cell B

Cell A,
kPa
= s + s
= -2200 + 1000
= -1200 kPa
Cell B, = s + s
= -1600 + 800
kPa
= -800 kPa
Learning Outcomes :
Exercise 3 (b)
Cell A
s = -2200 kPa
p = 1000 kPa
Cell A, = -1200
kPa
Cell B s = -1600 kPaCell B, = -800 kPa

p = 800 kPa
State the direction of water flow between the 2 cells. Give

reason.
Water flows from cell B to cell A
Because cell B has higher water potential than cell
A
Learning Outcomes :
Exercise 3 (c)
Cell A
s = -2200 kPa
p = 1000 kPa
Cell B
Cell A, = -1200
kPa
s = -1600 kPaCell B, = -800 kPa

p = 800 kPa
Calculate the final values of water potential & pressure

potential after equilibrium is reached. Assume that no
changes occurs to s
At equilibrium, A = B
For cell A, at equilibrium,
= s + p
= cell A + cell B
2
P = - s
= -1200 + (-800) kPa
= -1000 (-2200) kPa
2
= -1000 + 2200 kPa
= -1000 kPa
= 1200 kPa
Learning Outcomes :
Exercise 3 (c)
Cell A
s = -2200 kPa
p = 1000 kPa
Cell B
Cell A, = -1200
kPa
s = -1600 kPaCell B, = -800 kPa

p = 800 kPa
Calculate the final values of water potential & pressure

potential after equilibrium is reached. Assume that no
changes occurs to s
At equilibrium, A = B
For cell B, at equilibrium,
= cell A + cell B
= s + p
2
P = - s
= -1200 + (-800) kPa
= -1000 (-1600) kPa
2
= -1000 + 1600 kPa
= -1000 kPa
= 600 kPa
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Explain active transport across membrane ~ Na-K Pump
Active Transport
Movement of a
substances against
concentration
gradient or from
lower concentration to
higher concentration
gradient
Across a selective
permeable membrane
Which needs energy
Involve transport
protein
Allow cell to maintain useful
Active Transport
Na-K Pump Endocytosis Exocytosis
nutrients in the cell against

concentration gradient
Learning Outcomes :
Na-K Pump
Outside the cell : [Na+] , [K+]

Inside the cell
: [Na+] , [K+]
3 Na+ in the cell binds to a specific site of transport

protein
The binding of Na+ stimulates the hydrolysis of ATP
(in the cell) into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) + Pi
(inorganic phosphate)
Pi binds to transport protein (phosphorylation) &
change its conformation
Causes it to pump 3 Na+ to the outside
Increasing its concentration outside the cell
Learning Outcomes :
Na-K Pump
Learning Outcomes :
Na-K Pump
2 K+ outside the cell binds to a specific site of

transport protein
Stimulates the release of phosphate group from the
transport protein (dephosphorylation)
Causes transport protein to restore its original
conformation
2 K+ is pumped into the cell
Increasing its concentration inside the cell
Na-K pump is important for transmission of nerve
impulses
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Explain active transport across membrane ~ bulk transport
(endocytosis)
Endocytosis
A process in which bulk substances are taken into

the cell
Requires energy
Involves invagination (folding) of cell membrane
(cannot occur in plant cell due to the presence of
cell wall)
2 types of endocytosis:
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis Pinocytosis
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Explain active transport across membrane ~ endocytosis
(phagocytosis)
Phagocytosis
A process in which large, solid particles is taken into the

cell
Presence of large particles causes the cell membrane to
invaginate
Forming cytoplasmic extension ~ pseudopodia which
surround the large particle & trapped them
Pseudopodia fuse together to form food vacuole /
phagocytic vacuole / phagosome
1. Folds of the plasma membrane

2. The vacuole then pinches
surround
off
the particle to be ingested, forming
inside the cell.
a small
Learning Outcomes :
(phagocytosis)
Phagocytosis
Primary lysosome will fuse with phagocytic vacuole &

activates the enzyme inside lysosome
Secondary lysosome releases its enzyme to digest the
particles
Useful substance is absorbed into cytoplasm
Waste substance is released by exocytosis outside the
cell
Eg: macrophage engulf bacteria

Eg: Amoeba engulf Paramecium /
food
3. Lysosomes may fuse with the vacuole and digest the
substance
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Explain active transport across membrane ~ endocytosis (pinocytosis)
Pinocytosis
A process in which dissolved solutes are taken

into the cell
Presence of dissolved solutes causes the cell
membrane to invaginate
To form a tiny canals of cytoplasmic extension
Dissolved solutes are trapped within tiny canals /
microvilli
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Explain active transport across membrane ~ endocytosis (pinocytosis)
Pinocytosis
Microvilli
Pinocytic vesicle
Cytosol
At the end of tiny canals / cytoplasmic extensions, it

pinches off to form pinocytic vesicles / pinosome
The dissolved solutes is directly absorbed into
cytoplasm
Eg: uptake of dissolved solutes in kidney tubules &
Learning Outcomes :
Phagocytosis & Pinocytosis
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Explain active transport across membrane ~bulk transport (exocytosis)
Exocytosis
A process in which cells release

substance out of the cell
Vesicle move towards cell membrane &
fuse with it
Substance within vesicles are released
outside the cell (during secretion)
3. release its
contents
2. fuses with it
outside the cell.
1. A vesicle move towards the plasma membrane
Reference
Campbell N.A & Reece, J.B., Biology, 6th ed. (2002),
Pearson Education, Inc.
Solomon E.P & Berg, L.R, Biology, 7th ed. (2005)
Thomson Learning, Inc.
Mader, S.S Biology, 8th ed. (2004) McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.

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2.0 Cell Structure & Functions (8 hrs)

2.1 Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells

2. New cells come from preexisting cells

4. Cell is the functioning unit of life

Structures of Prokaryotic Cell

Structures of Prokaryotic Cell

Single, circular, double stranded DNA

Small, circular, double stranded extra DNA

Long threadlike structure for locomotion

Shorter & straighter than flagella (numerous)

Usually gives resistance to antibiotics in some bacteria

Adhesion to surface or to each other

Gel-like layer outside cell wall

Organelle is a small structure suspended in cytoplasm

Structures of Eukaryotic Cell

Differences Between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cell

Cell Size Smaller, diameter 1-10 m

Larger, diameter 10-100 m

DNA does not associate

DNA associates with histone

DNA associates with histone protein

Differences Between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cell

Has many membranebounded organelles

Smaller, subunit 70S

Larger, subunit 80S

Structure of Simple, lack of 9+2

Complex, has 9+2

9+2 microtubules arrangement

Differences Between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cell

Mitosis & meiosis does not

Similarities Between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cell

2.0 Cell Structure & Functions (8 hrs)

2.1 Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells

Structure of Animal Cell (Electron Microscope)

Structure of Plant Cell (Electron Microscope)

Plant Cell (Light Microscope)

Animal Cell (Light Microscope)

Structures Seen Under Light Microscope

Fluid Mosaic Model ~ Structure

Phospholipid bilayer (2 layers of phospholipids)

Why Mosaic Pattern?

Embedded proteins within phospholipid bilayer

Fluid ~ mosaic pattern is dynamic

Other Components ~ Carbohydrate

Location: on the outer surface of the membrane,

Function: act as identification tag (described later)

Other Components ~ Carbohydrate

Other Components ~ Cholesterol

Found between phospholipids molecules

Roles of Cell Membrane Components

3. Act as Receptor Protein

1. Act as Transport Protein

Transmembrane protein transport

Globular protein has

3. Act as Receptor Protein

Has a binding site with a

Act as identification tag

6. Attachment site of cytoskeleton & extracellular matrix

Outer surface ~ attach to

Inner surface ~ attach to

Maintain cell shape

Control cell activities & cell division

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)