Chapter-4

GR Log (Gamma Ray Log)

By

Dr. Jorge Salgado Gomes

3/4/2013

Chap -4

Duration of this chapter: 3 classes1(135)

Core Gamma

Educational Outcomes

Review the concepts of formation radioactivity

Review the most radioactive lithologies/minerals
Use of GR log for correlations
Use of GR to match logs with cores
The use of GR log in sequence stratigraphy
The use of GR to detect water entries in cased
holes across perforation
NORM Natural Occurring Radioactive Minerals

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Chap -4

Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum

Use of GR Log
Detect pay from non-pay zones
Pay = reservoir; non-pay= shales (non reservoir)

Correlations between wells (sequence stratigraphy)

Indication of lithology and source rock type (marine,
continental)
Picking coring points
Useful for geosteering with MWD-Gamma
Determine the net to gross ratio for volumetric calculations
If faults are present, the fault throw detection is easier than
other conventional logs.
Detect water breakthroughs in cased holes
Detect casing leaks (cross-flow behind pipe)
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Chap -4

How the tool works ?

spectral

Condition:
E (MeV)

open or cased
hole

selective

water/mud or
dry hole

Th

1,3 ... 1,6 ... 2,4 ... 2,8 MeV

channels

integral

detector
all impulses above
a treashold of energy

Unit: MeV (Million electron Volts)

Recording speed: 1800 ft/hr satisfactory definition of a 4 ft bed

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Chap -4

Schematic Scintillation Detector

API GR Calibration Pit

UNIVERSITY of HOUSTON

Integral Gamma Measurement

Integral activity is effect of 3 contributions

I = (K + U + Th)
Unit: API-unit
API facility is constructed of concrete with an admixture of radium to
provide 238U decay series, monazite ore as a source of thorium, and
mica as a source of potassium.

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by Lecturer

The complex GR response

Determine different minerals
For complex mineral identification

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Chap -4

TYPICAL
GAMMA-RAY
RESPONSE TO
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Gamma-ray API Values for Minerals

(S - data from Schlumberger 1989; H - data from a Table of Hearst, Nelson, 1985,
made on the basis of values from Brom and Driedonks 1981, Edmundson, Raymer,
1979, Fertl , Frost 1980, Patchett 1975, Reeves 1981, Tixier, Alger 1970)

Mineral

Quartz, Dolomite, Calcite (clean)

Plagioclase (Albite, Anorthite)
Alcali feldspar
(Orthoclase, Anorthoclase, Microcline)
Micas (Muscovite, Biotite)
Shale
Kaolinite
Chlorite
Illite
Montmorillonite
Sylvite
Carnallite

- ray
(API)

Ref

0
0
220

H; S
S
S

270
80 150
80 130
180 250
250 300
150 200
500
200

S
H
S
S
S
S
H; S
H; S

Application 1:
shale sand separation

1. Plot sand line (minimum)

2. Plot shale line (maximum)
2. Design lithologic profile
Note: Consider the caliper

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Chap -4
by Lecturer

12

Application 2: Shale content calculation

Basis: correlation between shale content and gamma activity

Assumption: only shale and clay are radioactive components in rock,

no other radioactive minerals
First step: Calculation of gamma ray shale index

GR
I GR

GR GRcn

GRsh GRcn

log response in
zone of interest

GR

log response in a
GRcn zone considered
clean (shale free)
response in a
GRsh log
shale zone

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13

Application 2: Shale content calculation

Second step: Select & apply a relationship IGR vs. Vsh

Vsh I GR

Linear relationship (upper limit)

Vsh 0.083 (23.7IGR 1)

Tertiary clastics (Larionov, 1969)

Vsh 0.33 (2 2IGR 1)

Mesozoic & older rocks (Larionov, 1969)

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by Lecturer

14

Application 2: Shale content calculation

Second step: Select & apply a relationship IGR vs. shale content Vsh

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15

Note: Sand with Mica or Feldspar - "radioactive sandstone"

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16

Baker Atlas, 2002

Application 3: Clay Mineral Identification

Clay minerals show different Th/K ratios for different mineral composition
Used for clay mineral identification
Combination with other properties (Pe, neutron) recommended

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17

Mineral Identification from Spectral gammalog

100% Illite

12

K (%)

Ave. Feldspar Line

Potassium
Evaporites
Feldspars
10
Glauconite
Micas
Illite Clays
8
6

Baker Atlas, 2002

Smectites and
Mixed Layer Clays

Kaolinite

2
Chlorite
0
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Ave. 100% Clay Line

10

Heavy Thorium
Minerals
15
20
Th (ppm)

25

Chap -4

30
Baker Atlas, 2002
18

Note: Uranium Content of Source Rocks

4.65 ppm Uranium in acid igneous rocks

forms soluble salts (uranyle), transported in water (sea water 3ppb dissolved
Uranium)

three ways passes into sediments (Serra, 1979):

chemical precipitation in acid (pH 2.5 - 4.0) reducing environment

adsorption by organic matter, or living plants and animals

chemical reaction in phosphorites

Stagnant, anoxic waters, low rate of sediment deposition,

which typically produce black shales
(North Sea Jurassic hot shales)
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19

NGS Response to Trace Uranium in

Clean Sand

Th/U indications
Th/U indicator for environment:
Th/U > 7
continental, oxydizing
Th/U < 7
marine, grey ... green shales
Th/U < 2
marine, black shales, phosphates.

Source rock
indication from
spectral gammalog,
Baker Atlas
document

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21

Influences and corrections

absorption of radiation
influence of caliper, mud density, casing

influence of tool position (centralized or sidewall)

bed thickness (thin beds show reduced effect)
formation density (influences depth of investigation)
logging speed
influences statistics
influences vertical resolution

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22

QC - Quality Control Gammalog

The gamma curve should agree with other shale indicators (except in
radioactive beds)
Shale values should be similar to those in nearby wells
Repeatability: curves should have the same shape and character as those
from previous runs or repeated sections
Cross-check the curve character with other logs from the same logging run.

Adapted after Krygowski, 2004

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23

3.6.2.6 Natural Radioactivity Summary

Natural Gamma-activity controlled by U-, K- and Th- content
Two techniques are applied
integral measurement
spectral measurement
Gammalog is a typical lithology log based on the measurement of the natural gammaradioactivity of a formation.

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24

Summary
K, Th, and U as source of radioactivity are concentrated in shale
shale has high gamma reading.
Shale-free (clean) rocks (sandstones and carbonates) usually have
low gamma intensity.
Gammalog can be applied for lithologic profile design, shale content
estimate, and well-to-well-correlation.
Other shale indicators: Spontaneous potential, Density-NeutronCombination
Attention: Feldspathic, glauconitic, or micaceous sandstone show
high gamma radiation (K); organic matter shows high radiation (U)

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25

Running GR Log along cores

To be able to match core-log depth mismatch

Core
inside

Baker Atlas, D. Georgi

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Chap -4

Core Gamma

26

Core-Log Gamma Ray Correlation

Open Hole GR

Top of Core

Core GR

Core Gamma
Ray is best
correlation
curve for
Clastics.

Core porosity
is best
correlation
curve for
Carbonates ?
Lets think
about this !

Example from Core Labs

Baker Atlas, D. Georgi

Gamma-Gamma Log
Interaction of incident radiation (source) with
electrons
- gives information about density porosity
- gives information about lithology
detector

source

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28

Gamma Ray Interactions with Rocks

3 effects of
interaction

Photoelectric effect
Compton effect

energy loss

Pair production

probability depends on
energy of radiation and
atomic number of target material

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29

Photoelectric Effect

e-

An incident low-energy gamma photon (< 0.2 MeV) collides with an atom
If the energy of the gamma photon equals or exceeds the "binding energy" of
an orbital electron, then
the gamma photon gives up all of its energy
the electron leaves its orbit,
and has a kinetic energy
Ekin= gamma ray energy - electron binding energy

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30

Compton Effect

Compton electron

An incident intermediate-energy gamma photon (gamma ray) collides with

an atom:
it ejects an electron (Compton or recoil electron) from an outer shell
and leaves with a lower energy;

the scattered gamma energy is a function of the angle of scattering

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31

Pair Production
nucleus

e-

e+

electron

positron

An incident high-energy gamma photon (gamma ray energy > 1.02 MeV)1
can be converted into a electron - positron pair when it is near a nucleus.
The electron slows down
The positron interacts with an ordinary electron. They annihilate one another
and produce two gamma-rays.
11.02

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MeV is exactly twice the rest mass of an electron (mc2)

Chap -4

32

Gamma-ray energy as result of scattering

(Photoeffect and Compton effects)
Pe

Photoelectric effect

mineralogy
Compton effect

Gamma
radiation

electron density

cps

density

r1
increasing
Z

Pe

r2 < r1

density
measurement

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Chap -4

Energy of
gamma
radiation
33

Gamma Ray Absorption Mechanisms

In the energy range between 0.5 and 5 MeV
for most abundant elements the COMPTON-effect dominates.

Rock
forming
elements

Cs Co
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34

Absorption of Radiation
Interactions result in attenuation (absorption) of radiation, described by
absorption coefficient a

I0

I(x)

IGG(x) = I0 exp (-a x)

x
The absorption coefficient is
connected with the absorption cross section
related to the effect of interaction:
ac

- absorption coefficient for Compton effect

aPe

- absorption coefficient for Photoelectric effect (Pe)

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35

Photoelectric Effect
For many elements the photoelectric cross section shows the
proportionality to atomic number Z3.6

sPe Z 3.6
on this basis a effective photoelectric index Pe (average
photoelectric cross section per electron) is defined:

Pe = (Z/10) 3.6
Pe depends on elemental composition (lithology) - see table.

Pe - unit: b/e barns per electron

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36

Mean values for density r, electron density re , ratio Z/A,

and photoelectric absorption index Pe
Substance

r (g/cm3)

re (g/cm3)

Z/A

Pe (b/e)

quartz

2.654

2.650

0.499

1.806

calcite

2.710

2.708

0.500

5.084

dolomite

2.870

2.864

0.499

3.142

halite

2.165

2.074

0.479

4.65

gypsum

2.320

2.372

0.511

3.420

anhydrite

2.97

2.96

0.499

5.05

kaolinite

2.44

2.44

0.50

1.83

illite

2.64

2.63

0.499

3.45

barite

4.48

4.09

0.446

266.8

water (fresh) 1.000

1.110

0.555

0.358

oil3/4/2013

0.948
Chap -4

0.558

0.125

0.850

37

note
Pe can help to discriminate between
Quartz, Calcite, and Dolomite,
Pe is one component in mineralogyporosity crossplot technique
Pe is extremely sensitive with respect to
barite (mud!)

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38

Compton effect Bulk density and

electron density
Number of orbiting electrons e control
probability of Compton effect

e=Z
But bulk density is
controlled by

+++
+ +

A=Z+N

Z/A 0.5

Compton effect controlled by bulk density

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39

Compton Effect
Probability for Compton
scattering is proportional
the number of electrons
per unit volume

e N

Z
r
A

where
N - Avogadro's number (6.026 1023 )
Z - atomicnumber A - atomicmass number
r - density

For practical purposes we define an

electron density

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Chap -4

Z
re 2 r
A

40

Electron density is related to the number of electrons per

molecule (Z), and bulk density is related to the total atomic
mass per molecule (A).
For most common Earth minerals, the ratio is constant

Z
0.5
A
and thus

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Z
rb 2 r e r e
A
Chap -4

41

Mean values for density r, electron density re , ratio Z/A, and photoelectric
absorption index Pe
Substance

r (g/cm3)

re (g/cm3)

SZ/SM

Pe (b/e)

quartz

2.654

2.650

0.499

1.806

calcite

2.710

2.708

0.500

5.084

dolomite

2.870

2.864

0.499

3.142

halite

2.165

2.074

0.479

4.65

gypsum

2.320

2.372

0.511

3.420

anhydrite

2.97

2.96

0.499

5.05

kaolinite

2.44

2.44

0.50

1.83

illite

2.64

2.63

0.499

3.45

barite

4.48

4.09

0.446

266.8

water (fresh) 1.000

1.110

0.555

0.358

oil (med. gr.) 0.79

0.80

0.57

0.125

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42

Gamma Ray Interactions - Summary

For practical log applications two effects
are important
Compton effect
Photoelectric effect
Density determination by nuclear measurements applies Compton effect;
the correlation between density and electron density bases on a nearly
constant ratio Z/A.
Determination of Pe applies Photoelectric effect and gives an information
about mineral composition by the strong correlation to atomic number Z

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43

Gamma-Gamma-Measurement: Tool and Calibration

count rate axis logarithmic

density axis linear

Count
rate

Short spacing

Detector 1

Long spacing

Detector 2

source
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density
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44

Gamma-Gamma-Density
Primary calibration of density tools usually freshwater saturated limestones of
high purity,
Secondary calibration aluminium, sulfur, concrete blocks

Corrections:

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Caliper and rugosity

Mud density
Deviation from Z/A = 0.5
(mineralogy)
Barite
Chap -4

45

SUPPORT MATERIAL

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Chap -4

46

Geiger-Muller Tube