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Three-Phase Electric Power
Three-Phase Electric Power
1.0
Phase 2
Phase 1
Phase3
0.5
0
90
180
270
360
-0.5
-1.0
120
120
Normalized waveforms of the instantaneous voltages in a threephase system in one cycle with time increasing to the right. The
phase order is 123. This cycle repeats with the frequency of the
power system.
electric motor and generate other phase arrangements using transformers (For instance, a two phase system using
a Scott-T transformer).
Principle
3 TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
return path for the current in any phase conductor is the direct interconnection between two dierent phases is a
other two phase conductors.
short-circuit.
Compared to a single-phase AC power supply that uses
two conductors (phase and neutral), a three-phase supply
with no neutral, the same phase-to-ground voltage and
current capacity per phase can transmit three times as
much power using just 1.5 times as many wires (i.e., three
instead of two). Thus, the ratio of capacity to conductor
material is doubled. The same (but not the other properties of three-phase power) can also be attained with a
center-grounded single-phase system.[3]
Three-phase systems may also utilize a fourth wire, particularly in low-voltage distribution. This is the neutral
wire. The neutral allows three separate single-phase supplies to be provided at a constant voltage and is commonly used for supplying groups of domestic properties which are each single-phase loads. The connections are arranged so that, as far as possible in each
group, equal power is drawn from each phase. Further
up the distribution system, the currents are usually well
balanced. Transformers may be wired in a way that
they have a fourwire secondary but a threewire primary
while allowing unbalanced loads and the associated secondaryside neutral currents.
3 Transformer connections
A delta connected transformer winding is connected
between phases of a three-phase system. A wye (star)
transformer connects each winding from a phase wire to
a common neutral point.
In an open delta or V system, only two transformers
are used. A closed delta system can operate as an open
delta if one of the transformers has failed or needs to be
removed.[7] In open delta, each transformer must carry
current for its respective phases as well as current for the
third phase, therefore capacity is reduced to 87%. With
one of three transformers missing and the remaining two
at 87% eciency, the capacity is 58% ((2/3) 87%).[8][9]
3
Where a delta-fed system must be grounded for detection of stray current to ground or protection from surge
voltages, a grounding transformer (usually a zigzag transformer) may be connected to allow ground fault currents to return from any phase to ground. Another variation is a corner grounded delta system, which is a
closed delta that is grounded at one of the junctions of
transformers.[10]
Y configuration
L1
L2
L3
L3
L1
L2
N
Neutral (optional)
Delta configuration
L1
L2
L3
Wye (Y) and Delta () circuits
neutral to each customer, but at a lower fuse rating, typically 32 A per phase, and shued to avoid the eect
that more load tends to be put on the rst phase.
In North America, a high-leg delta supply is sometimes
used, where one winding of a delta connected transformer
feeding the load is center-tapped and that center tap is
grounded and connected as a Neutral, as shown on the
right. This setup produces three dierent voltages. If the
voltage between the center tap (neutral) and each of the
two adjacent phases is 120 V (100%), the voltage across
any two phases is 240 V (200%), and the neutral to high
leg voltage is 208 V (173%).[7]
BALANCED CIRCUITS
I1
+V1
n
I2
Zy
Zy
- V2
-
Zy
V3
I3
5.2 Delta
V3 = VLN +120 .
These voltages feed into either a wye or delta connected
load.
I1
5.1
Wye
For the wye case, all loads see their respective line voltages, and so:[12]
+V1
n
- V2
-
I23
V3
I1 =
V1
(),
|Ztotal |
I2 =
V2
(120 ),
|Ztotal |
I3 =
V3
(120 ),
|Ztotal |
I12
I2
I31
I3
6.1
Unbalanced loads
5
loads are evenly distributed on all three phases, the sum of
the returning currents in the neutral wire is approximately
zero. Any unbalanced phase loading on the secondary
side of the transformer will use the transformer capacity
ineciently.
If the supply neutral is broken, phase-to-neutral voltage is
no longer maintained. Phases with higher relative loading
will experience reduced voltage, and phases with lower
relative loading will experience elevated voltage, up to the
phase-to-phase voltage.
I12 =
V12
(30 ),
|Z |
I23 =
V23
(90 ),
|Z |
I31 =
V31
(150 ),
|Z |
Relative angles are preserved, so I 31 lags I 23 lags I 12 by When the currents on the three live wires of a three-phase
120. Calculating line currents by using KCL at each system are not equal or are not at an exact 120 phase andelta node gives:
gle, the power loss is greater than for a perfectly balanced
system. The method of symmetrical components is used
to
analyze unbalanced systems.
I1 = I12 I31 = I12 I12 120
With linear loads, the neutral only carries the current due
to imbalance between the phases. Devices that utilize
rectier-capacitor front-end such as switch-mode power
supplies, computers, oce equipment and such produce
third-order harmonics that are in-phase on all the supply
phases. Consequently, such harmonic currents add in the
neutral, which can cause the neutral current to exceed the
phase current.[13][16]
Single-phase loads
7 Three-phase loads
An important class of three-phase load is the electric motor. A three-phase induction motor has a simple design,
inherently high starting torque and high eciency. Such
motors are applied in industry for many applications. A
three-phase motor is more compact and less costly than
In a symmetrical three-phase four-wire, wye system, the
a single-phase motor of the same voltage class and ratthree phase conductors have the same voltage to the sysing and single-phase AC motors above 10 HP (7.5 kW)
tem neutral. The voltage between line conductors is 3
are uncommon. Three-phase motors also vibrate less and
[14]
times the phase conductor to neutral voltage:
hence last longer than single-phase motors of the same
power used under the same conditions.
9 ALTERNATIVES TO THREE-PHASE
Rectiers may use a three-phase source to produce a sixpulse DC output.[18] The output of such rectiers is much
smoother than rectied single phase and, unlike singlephase, does not drop to zero between pulses. Such rectiers may be used for battery charging, electrolysis processes such as aluminium production or for operation of
DC motors. Zig-zag transformers may make the equivalent of six-phase full-wave rectication, twelve pulses
per cycle, and this method is occasionally employed to reduce the cost of the ltering components, while improv- 8.2 Non-mechanical
ing the quality of the resulting DC.
A second method that was popular in the 1940s and
One example of a three-phase load is the electric arc fur- 1950s was the transformer method. At that time, canace used in steelmaking and in rening of ores.
pacitors were more expensive than transformers, so an
In many European countries electric stoves are usually autotransformer was used to apply more power through
designed for a three-phase feed. However, the individ- fewer capacitors. Separated it from another common
ual heating units are often connected between phase and method, the static converter, as both methods have no
neutral to allow for connection to a single-phase circuit moving parts, which separates them from the rotary cone.g. if within an older domestic property a three-phase verters.
feed is not yet available.[19] Other usual three-phase loads Another method often attempted is with a device referred
in the domestic eld are tankless water heating systems to as a static phase converter. This method of running
and storage heater. However, since those references ap- three-phase equipment is commonly attempted with mopeared homes in Europe and the UK have standardised tor loads though it only supplies 2/3 power and can cause
on a single-phase supply with a nominal 230 V (in prac- the motor loads to run hot and in some cases overheat.
tice 240 V in the UK), which is used for all purposes. This method does not work when sensitive circuitry is inMost groups of houses are fed from a three-phase supply volved such as CNC devices or in induction and rectierso that individual premises with above-average demand type loads.
can be fed with a second or third phase connection, although domestic appliances are invariably designed for a Variable-frequency drives (also known as solid-state
inverters and adjustable speed drives) are used to provide
single-phase supply.
precise speed and torque control of three-phase motors.
Some models can be powered by a single-phase supply.
VFDs work by converting the supply voltage to DC and
8 Phase converters
then converting the DC to a suitable three-phase source
for the motor.
Phase converters are used when three-phase equipment
needs to be operated on a single-phase power source. Digital phase converters are designed for xed-frequency
They are used when three-phase power is not available operation from a single-phase source. Similar to a
or cost is not justiable. Such converters may also allow variable-frequency drive, they use a microprocessor to
the frequency to be varied (resynthesis) allowing speed control solid-state power switching components to maincontrol. Some railway locomotives use a single-phase tain balanced three-phase voltages.
source to drive three-phase motors fed through an electronic drive.[20]
9 Alternatives to three-phase
8.1
Mechanical
One method to generate three-phase power from a singlephase source is the rotary phase converter, essentially
a three-phase motor with special starting arrangements
and power factor correction that produces balanced three-
7
constant power transfer to a linear load. For loads
that connect each phase to neutral, assuming the
load is the same power draw, the two-wire system has a neutral current that is greater than neutral current in a three-phase system. Also motors
are not entirely linear, which means that despite the
theory, motors running on three-phase tend to run
smoother than those on two-phase. The generators in the Adams Power Plant at Niagara Falls that
were installed in 1895 were the largest generators
in the world at the time and were two-phase machines. True two-phase power distribution is obsolete for new work applications, but still exists for
old work applications, perhaps most particularly
in Bualo and Niagara Falls, NY, Toronto and Niagara Falls, Ontario, Philadelphia and Reading, PA,
and Camden, NJ. New work three-phase installations may be supplied by old two-phase feeders, and
old work two-phase installations may be supplied
by new three-phase feeders using a Scott-T transformer, invented by Charles F. Scott.[21] Specialpurpose systems may use a two-phase system for frequency control.
Monocyclic power was a name for an asymmetrical
modied two-phase power system used by General
Electric around 1897, championed by Charles Proteus Steinmetz and Elihu Thomson. This system
was devised to avoid patent infringement. In this
system, a generator was wound with a full-voltage
single-phase winding intended for lighting loads and
with a small fraction (usually 1/4 of the line voltage)
winding that produced a voltage in quadrature with
the main windings. The intention was to use this
power wire additional winding to provide starting
torque for induction motors, with the main winding
providing power for lighting loads. After the expiration of the Westinghouse patents on symmetrical
two-phase and three-phase power distribution systems, the monocyclic system fell out of use; it was
dicult to analyze and did not last long enough for
satisfactory energy metering to be developed.
High-phase-order systems for power transmission
have been built and tested. Such transmission lines
typically would use six phases or twelve phases.
High-phase-order transmission lines allow transfer
of slightly less than proportionately higher power
through a given volume without the expense of a
high-voltage direct current (HVDC) converter at
each end of the line. However, they require correspondingly more pieces of equipment.
10
Color codes
Conductors of a three-phase system are usually identied by a color code, to allow for balanced loading and
to assure the correct phase rotation for motors. Colors
used may adhere to International Standard IEC 60446
(now merged into IEC 60445), older standards or to no
standard at all and may vary even within a single installation. For example, in the U.S. and Canada, dierent color
codes are used for grounded (earthed) and ungrounded
systems.
11 See also
Three-phase AC railway electrication
Charging station
Frequency converter
Industrial & multiphase power plugs & sockets
International Electrotechnical Exhibition
John Hopkinson
Y- transform
12 Notes
[1] In Australia and New Zealand, active conductors can be
any color except green/yellow, green, yellow, black or light
blue. Yellow is no longer permitted in the 2007 revision of
wiring code ASNZS 3000. European color codes are used
for all IEC or ex cables such as extension leads, appliance
leads etc. and are equally permitted for use in building
wiring per AS/NZS 3000:2007.
[2] The international standard green-yellow marking of
protective-earth conductors was introduced to reduce the
risk of confusion by color blind installers. About 7%
to 10% of men cannot clearly distinguish between red
and green, which is a particular concern in older schemes
where red marks a live conductor and green marks protective earth or safety ground.
[3] In Europe, there still exist many installations with older
colors but, since the early 1970s, all new installations
use green/yellow earth according to IEC 60446. (E.g.
Phase/Neutral+Earth German: black/grey + red France
green/red + White Russia: Red/ Grey + Black; Switzerland: Red/ Grey +Yellow or yellow & red Denmark:
White/Black + Red
[4] See Paul Cook: Harmonised colours and alphanumeric
marking. IEE Wiring Matters, Spring 2006.
[5] In the U.S., a green/yellow striped wire may indicate an
isolated ground. In most countries today, green/yellow
striped wire may only be used for protective earth (safety
ground) and may never be unconnected or used for any
other purpose.
13
[6] Since 1975, the U.S. National Electric Code has not specied coloring of phase conductors. It is common practice
in many regions to identify 120/208 (wye) conductors as
black, red, and blue, and 277/480 (wye or delta) conductors as brown, orange, yellow. In a 120/240 delta system
with a 208v high leg, the high leg (typically B phase) is
always marked orange, commonly A phase is black and
C phase is either red or blue. Local regulations may
amend the N.E.C. The U.S. National Electric Code has
color requirements for grounded conductors, ground, and
grounded-delta 3-phase systems which result in one ungrounded leg having a higher voltage potential to ground
than the other two ungrounded legs.
13
References
REFERENCES
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