ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS ON HYDROLOGY

From the lecture notes Hydrology, LN0262/09/1

P.J.M. de Laat
1a

Q = 0.5 m3/s = 0.5x86400x365/(800x106) = 0.0197 m/a = 19.7 mm/a

Water balance P E Q = S/t
S/t 0 because data refer to long-time averages, hence
E = P Q = 200 19.7 = 180.3 mm/a

1b

P Erest Eirr Qnew = 0 (S/t 0 because water balance components refer to long-time
averages)
Express all water balance components in volumes (m3/a):
0.2 x 800x106 - 790x106x0.1803 - Eirrx10x106 - 0.175x86400x365 = 0
Eirr = 1.2 m/a = 1200 mm/a

2a
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

P
250
205
165
50
5
0
0
5
10
55
65
190

E
5
25
30
50
80
100
150
70
60
20
10
5

Q
150
110
80
5
0
0
0
0
0
10
15
120

S
95
70
55
-5
-75
-100
-150
-65
-50
25
40
65

S
95
165
220
215
140
40
-110
-175
-225
-200
-160
-95

Largest amount stored end of March

Smallest amount stored end of September
Difference = 220-(-225) = 445 mm = 0.445 m
Volume difference (given area = 120 km2): 0.445 x 120x106 = 53.4x106 m3
2b

Arid climate has P < 300 mm/a and humid tropical climate shows high evaporation in wet
period, hence this is a humid temperate climate (low evaporation is winter season).

3a

Water balance root zone (see figure 1.2):

F + CR ET R 0, where infiltration F, capillary rise CR, evapotranspiration ET, recharge
groundwater system R
400 + CR 340 -100 = 0, hence CR = 40 mm/a

3b

Water balance groundwater system:

R CR Qb 0, where base flow is Qb
1

100 40 - Qb = 0, hence Qb = 60 mm/a

3c

Interception water balance:

P Ei Ps 0, where interception evaporation Ei and precipitation reaching surface Ps
Ps = F + Qs, where surface flow is Qs
Q = Qb + Qs = 1.1x86400x365/(100x106) = 0.347 m/a = 347 mm/a
Qs = 347 60 = 287 mm/a
Ps = 400 + 287 = 687 mm/a
Ei = 800 687 = 113 mm/a
Alternative solution:
P Ei ET Q 0
800 Ei 340 347 = 0, hence Ei = 113 mm/a

3d

E = ET + Ei = 340 + 113 = 453 mm/a

3e

Water balance groundwater system:

R CR Qb Qe 0, where the extracted groundwater is Qe
Qe = 0.16 m3/s = 0.16x86400x365/(100x106) = 0.05 m/a = 50 mm/a
100 0 Qb -50 = 0, Qb = 50 mm/a
Total runoff Q = Qs + Qb = 287 + 50 = 337 mm/a, hence decreased by 10 mm/a
Water balance root zone:
F + CR R ET 0
400 + 0 100 ET = 0, so ET = 300 mm/a, hence decreased by 40 mm/a
E = ET + Ei = 300 + 113 = 413 mm/a
As a result of groundwater extraction evaporation and runoff decreased!

4a

Water balance polder (neglecting change in storage, because long-time average values):
P Eo Eg Qout + Qin + S = 0, where open water evaporation Eo, evapotranspiration grass Eg,
water pumped out Qout, water let in Qin and seepage S
Total area A = Ao + Ag = 10x106 m2, where open water area Ao = 2x106 m2 and grass area Ag
= 8 x 106 m2
Components of water balance are written in volumes:
0.8x10x106 - 0.6x2x106 - 0.75x0.6x8x106 - 5x106 + 0.7x106 + S = 0, hence
S = 1.1x106 m3/a = 0.11 m/a = 110 mm/a

4b

Inaccuracy in rainfall measurement at least a few percent (> 20 mm)

Error estimated evaporation possibly > 10% (> 60 mm)
So error seepage computed from these water balance components could be larger than 10 mm

4c

Lower water level causes lower evapotranspiration of grass,

hence new Eg* = 0.9x0.75x600 = 405 mm/a
Lower water level causes the seepage to increase,
hence new S* = 1.1x110 =121 mm/a
Set up water balance in volumes:
0.8x10x106 0.6x2x106 0.405x8x106 Qout* + 0.7x106 + 0.121x10x106 = 0
Qout* = 5.47x106 m3/a = 547 mm/a

5
Rain (%)
10
10
10
60
10
100

Hyetograph

Rain (mm/d)
24
24
24
144
24
240

Precipitation (mm/day)

Day
1
2
3
4
5
Total

160

120
80
40

0
1

Days

6
1000

Year

1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980

90
60
70
80
50
50
100
50
120
60

100
100
80
120
50
50
100
100
200
100

100
80
70
100
50
50
100
80
170
100

Sum A
0
90
150
220
300
350
400
500
550
670
730

Sum B
0
100
200
280
400
450
500
600
700
900
1000

Sum C
0
100
180
250
350
400
450
550
630
800
900

900
800
700
600
A-B
500

B- C
A-C

400
300
200
100
0
0

200

400

Station A is not reliable, because it does not give a linear relation with B, nor with C.

Total area: 10x12 = 120 units

Weight (-)

Rainfall (mm)

weighted
rainfall (mm)

8x8/2/120 = 0.27

75

20

(8x8/2+8x2)/120 = 0.4

40

16

4x10/120 = 0.33

30

10

Thiessen mean areal

rainfall =

46

8a

There is no linear increase of the mass curve between

3 and 5 hours since the rainfall rate is not constant.

8b

Lowering the raingauge results in a larger catch. The

mass curve will show higher values, e.g. an increase
of 10 %.

600

800

1000

1200

9a

9b

Duration n (d)
1
3
5
10
Year
1986
1991
1992
1987
1990
1984
1989
1985
1993
1988

Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Intensity (mm/d)
50
30
22
13

Depth (mm)
110
99
93
89
86
82
80
78
76
74

p=m/(N+1)
0.09
0.18
0.27
0.36
0.45
0.55
0.64
0.73
0.82
0.91

T=1/p
11.0
5.5
3.7
2.8
2.2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.1

LogT
1.041
0.740
0.564
0.439
0.342
0.263
0.196
0.138
0.087
0.041

120
Daily rainfall depth (mm)

10

R depth (mm)
50
90
110
130

110

100
90
80

70
60
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Log return period

1.0

1.2

1.4

LogT for T = 20 years equals 1.3. Interpolation in the above figure yields an extreme value for
the daily rainfall depth of about 119 mm/d.
11a

For P(X < 100) = q = 0.90 It follows y = -ln(-ln q) = 2.25

For P(X < 130) = q = 0.98 It follows y = -ln(-ln q) = 3.90
Application of y = a(X-b) with the above data gives
a = 0.055 and b = 59.1,
hence the Gumbel equation reads: y = 0.055(X - 59.1)
For T = 100 years, p = 1/T = 0.01, hence q = 1-p = 0.99, which yields y = 4.6
4.6 = 0.055(X 59.1) gives X (T = 100) = 142.7 mm

11b

Gumbel distribution should be based on annual extremes

At least 20 years of data
Time series should be stationary
Data should be independent
Data are from the same population

12a

80
70
60
50

40
30
20
10
0

Jan

Feb

Mrt

Apr

Mei

Jun

Precipitation

Jul

Aug

Sep

Okt

Nov

Dec

Evaporation

Only during April, May and June the rainfall is less than the potential evapotranspiration. This
is the dry period. Reduction occurs at the end of the dry period, hence in the month June.
12b

Total potential evapotranspiration equals 630 mm, the actual evapotranspiration is given as 610,
hence there is a reduction of 20 mm, which occurs in June, so the actual evapotranspiration in
that month is 50 mm.

12c

P Q E = S/t = 0 or Q = P E = 660 610 = 50 mm/a

13a

Eo is generally (slightly) larger than Epot and Epot > Eact, moreover the actual evapotranspiration
Eact is in a natural catchment always less than the precipitation P, This results in the following
P = 100 mm/a
Eo = 3000 mm/a
Epot = 2500 mm/a
Eact = 40 mm/a

13b With an annual rainfall of less than 300 mm this is an arid climate.

14a

Curve A is the deep lake, it heats up slowly in spring, the shallow lake (curve B) heats up faster
and reaches peak evaporation earlier in the year. Curve C is pan evaporation, which is generally
higher that the evaporation of a nearby lake (see lecture notes for arguments).

14b

Pan coefficients : fdeep = 18.7/23.4 = 0.8 and fshallow = 19.3/23.4 = 0.825

15a

Dividing radiation given in J/d/m2 by the latent heat (L = 2.45x106 J/kg) yields the radiation in
terms of evaporation (mm/d) as follows:
Rs (august 15) = 20482000/(2.45x106) = 8.36 mm/d
Rs (august 16) = 16758000/(2.45x106) = 6.84 mm/d
The extraterrestrial radiation RA is read from table 3.3 for latitude 15oN as (440+429)/2 = 434.5
W/m2 or expressed in terms of mm/d the value for RA = (434.5 x 86400)/(2.45x106) = 15.3
mm/d
The equation Rs = RA(a + b n/N) could be written for both dates as:
8.36 = 15.3 (a + b 6.3/12.6) = 15.3 (a + 0.5b)
6.84 = 15.3 (a + b 4.2/12.6) = 15.3 (a + b/3)
The coefficients from these equations can now be solved as follows: a = 0.25 and b = 0.60

15b
Sunshine duration

10.4 hr

Air temperature

31.0 oC

Relative Humidity

RH

0.384

Wind speed

2.0 m/s

Saturation vapour pressure

es

Eq. 3.11

Slope curve

Dew point vapour pressure

4.49 kPa

Eq. 3.12

0.6108*exp((17.27*T)/
(237.3+T))
4098*4.49/(237.3+31)2

ed

Eq. 2.1

4.49*0.384

1.724

Extraterrestrial Radiation

RA

Table 3.3

(452+423)/2

437.5 W/m2

Day length

Table 3.4

Short wave radiation

Rs

Table 3.5

Net long wave radiation

RnL

Eq. 3.4

Net radiation

RN

Eq. 3.5

Aerodynamic resistance

ra

Eq. 3.13

Penman

Eo

Eq. 3.10

Radiation method

ETMakkink Eq. 3.18

0.256

13.0 hr
(0.25+0.6*10.4/13)*437.5
5.6745*10-8*(273+31)4*
(0.34-0.139*SQRT(1.724))
*(0.1+0.9*10.4/13)
(1 - 0.06)*319.4-62.6

319.4 W/m2

245/(0.54*2+0.5)
86400/(2.45*106)*
(0.256*237.6+1004.6*
1.2047*(4.49-1.724)/155.1)/
(0.256+0.067)
86400*0.8*0.256*319.4/
(0.256+0.067)/(2.45*106)

155.1 s/m

62.6 W/m2
237.6 W/m2

9.0 mm/d

7.14 mm/d

Time
minutes
0
1
3
5
10
20
40
60
90

120

Time step Vol added

hours
cm3
0
0.017
60
0.033
162
0.033
252
0.083
427
0.167
657
0.333
837
0.333
957
0.500
1122
0.500
1272

Vol per dt
cm3
0
60
102
90
175
230
180
120
165
150

fp
cm3/hr

fp
cm/hr

3600
3060
2700
2100
1380
540
360
330
300

6.00
5.10
4.50
3.50
2.30
0.90
0.60
0.55
0.50

7.00
6.00
5.00

fp in cm/hr

16a,b

4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00

0.00
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

time in minutes

16c

fc = 0.5 cm/hr

17a

fo = 20 mm/hr, fc = 4 mm/hr
For t =1, fp = 12: Eq. 4.2: 12 = 4 + 16 exp(-60 k), so k = 0.01155 min-1

17b

Rainfall intensity i = 20 mm/hr, which is larger than infiltration capacity, so infiltration equal to
fp from t = 0 to t = hr.
Hence for t = 0 fp = 20, for t = = hr fp = 16, so average fp = 18 mm/hr during hr, which
means * 18 = 6 mm
Rainfall intensity i = 12 mm/hr, which is smaller than infiltration capacity, so infiltration equal
to rainfall intensity, hence * 12 = 4 mm

18

First quarter of an hour: fp = 10 mm and rainfall = 10 mm, but only 8 mm reaches the ground,
because 2 mm is intercepted by the vegetation, hence 8 mm will infiltrate.
Second quarter: 10 mm of rain reaches the ground but infiltration capacity fp = 8 mm, hence 8
mm will infiltrate.
Total infiltration over 30 minutes = 8 + 8 = 16 mm

19a

Surface runoff is 0.05 l/s = 0.05 * 10-3 m3/s = 3600*0.05 * 10-3 m3/s = 0.18 m3/hr
Runoff from plot of 25 m2 = 0.18/25 = 0.0072 m/hr = 7.2 mm/hr
Rainfall intensity is 20 mm/hr, hence fc = 20 - 7.2 = 12.8 mm/hr

19b

The initial infiltration capacity of a wet soil will be

smaller than a dry soil.

19
18

fp in cm/hr

17
16

Few hours later

15
14

13
12
0

time in hours

10

140

20a

Available Moisture AM, Moisture Content Field Capacity MCFC and

Moisture Content Wilting point MCWP, Depth root zone Dr
Equation: AM = Dr (MCFC - MCWP)
MCFC
0.14
0.28
0.42

Sand
Loam
Clay

MCWP
0.03
0.07
0.28

AM (cm)
6.6
12.6
8.4

20b

AM(Sand) = 66 mm, readily available 50% = 66/2 = 33 mm

Irrigation interval is 33/4 = 8 days.
Similar for loam: 63/4 = 15 days and Clay: 42/4 = 10 days

21

With infiltration F, percolation D and storage S, the water balance of the root zone reads:
F - D = S = 500*(0.28 - 0.12) = 80 mm
D = F - S = 110 - 80 = 30 mm

22a,b Apply Eq. 4.11: Q6 = Q0 exp(-6/K) = 1.8 = 10 exp(-6/K), hence K = 3.5 weeks. Use the equation
to compute Q at the end of each week (see table below).
Water released from the dam site Qout = 5 m3/s = 5*86400*7/20,000 = 151.2 mm/week
Water balance reservoir: Q + P - E - Qout = S/t
Week
0
1

Q
10.0
7.51

Av Q
m3/s
8.75

Q
mm/w
264.6

P
mm/w
0

E
mm/w
40

Qout
mm/w
151.2

S/t
mm/w
73.4

Level
20.00
20.07

5.64

6.58

199.0

40

151.2

7.8

20.08

4.24

4.94

149.0

45

151.2

-42.2

20.04

3.18

3.71

112.2

45

151.2

-74.0

19.96

2.39

2.78

84.1

45

151.2

-112.1

19.84

1.80

2.10

63.5

23

45

151.2

-109.7

19.73

23a

The total runoff from the catchment is the area under curve A: (15+60+65+30+12.5+2.5)*3600
= 666,000 m3 or 666000/33300000*1000 = 20 mm
Hence the runoff coefficient is 20/100 = 0.2 or 20%

23b

Total losses are 100 - 20 = 80 mm. A first estimate of the loss

rate is 80/3 = 27 mm/hr.
This is more than the rainfall in the last hour (20 mm). The
losses in the first two hours are therefore 80 - 20 = 60 mm,
hence a constant loss rate of 60/2 = 30 mm/hr

50

P (mm/hour)

40

30
20
10
0
1

2
Hour

Day
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Q (mm/d)
1.72
1.5
1.31
1.14
1
6
10
6
4
3
2.62
2.29
2
1.75

Log Q
0.24
0.18
0.12
0.06
0.00
0.78
1.00
0.78
0.60
0.48
0.42
0.36
0.30
0.24

1.20
1.00

0.80
0.60

Log Q

24a

Volume of flood hydrograph in point B = (0+10+40+45+20+5)*3600 = 432000 m3.

Total infiltration between A and B = 666000-432000 = 234000 m3 over an area of 50*20000 =
1000000 m2, which means an average depth of 234 mm. It takes 5 to 6 hours for the flood wave
to pass, hence the average infiltration rate is 234/5.5 = 42.5 mm/hr

0.40
0.20

0.00
0

10

15

Day
12

From a plot of Log Q against

time it is shown that the depletion
curve starts on day number 10.

10

Q (mm/d)

Direct
Runoff

Base flow
0
0

10

15

Day

24b

Area
1
2
3
4
5
6
Direct runoff (mm)=

12
10

Q (mm)
2.5
7
7
4
2.5
-5
18

Q (mm/d)

rea
1
2
3
4
5
6
noff (mm)=

23c

2 3
6

Direct

1 Runoff

4
5
6

Base flow

10

15

Day

24c

Depletion curve is Eq. 4.11:

1.0 = 1.72 exp(4/K), hence K = 7.4 days
QB = 3.0 mm/d (given)
Eq. 4.11 : QA= 1.0 exp(-5/7.4) = 0.5 mm/d
9

Q (mm)
2.5
7
7
4
2.5
-5
18

Total runoff under depletion curve

CT =

Q0 e

t t0
K

d t kQ0

t0

Grey area is base flow produced by rainstorm

of 50 mm=
CT (B) CT(A) + triangle under base flow
separation line = 7.4*3-7.4*0.5+5*(3-0.5) =
18.5 + 6.25 = 24.75 mm

25

From graph: Rainfall depth for tc = 3 hr equals 33 mm,

so intensity i = 11 mm/hr = 0.011/3600 m/s
Eq. 6.3: Qp = 0.4 * 0.011/3600 * 6 * 106 = 7.3 m3/s

10