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Non-Destructive Testing: Fabrication, Welding and Inspection Basics For Maintenance Engineer
Non-Destructive Testing: Fabrication, Welding and Inspection Basics For Maintenance Engineer
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
By Mr. R V S Mani; Branch Manager, IXAAR
RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
Radiography is one of the most versatile NDT techniques used in Boilers, Refineries
and Fertilizer industries for examination of Welded components and castings.
A photographic image of a component produced on a Photographic film by
penetrating X-rays or Gamma rays through the component is called a Radiograph and this
kind of testing is called Radiographic Testing.
X and Gamma Rays are electromagnetic radiations having wavelength in the region
of 10-13 to 10-9 meters. The origin of X-ray is from the outer electron orbits of an atom and
the Gamma rays are from the nucleus of an atom. Emission of Gamma Rays occurs in close
association with the emission of Alpha or Beta Particles.
X-rays are produced by sudden deceleration of high-energy electrons by a target
element inside a X-ray generator.
Artificial radioisotopes produced by neutron bombardment in nuclear reactors are
become the source of Gamma Rays.
X-ray generators for radiographic examination up to 300 Kilo volt energy are
available as portable units. High-energy X-ray generators over 1 Million electron volt are
also available and are large fixed units cannot be used for welded components at site
conditions.
IR. 192 and CO.60 are two gamma sources available in India for Radiographic
Examination. These isotopes are supplied in a lead or depleted uranium shielded approved
cameras for use in the field. When not in use these isotopes are secured inside the shielded
cameras and stored in an isolated isotope storage pit.
The usable range steel thicknesses of X-rays and the Gamma Sources are as follows.
100 Kv X-rays
150 Kv X-rays
upto 70 mm steel.
upto 170 mm steel.
It is possible to use these energies for higher thicknesses also, however the restrictions are
due to high exposure time to produce a good radiograph.
Industrial Radiographic films are also available in different qualities to achieve the
required sensitivity. It is basically depend on the grain size of the silver bromide emulsion
available on the polythene base. Smaller the grains higher will be the sensitivity. However
the speed at which a radiograph can be produced will reduce while using very fine
grain/ultra fine grain films.
The ability of a radiograph to show defects/discontinuities in radiograph basically
depends on the quality of the radiograph produced. The quality of a radiograph is measured
in terms of Image Quality Indicators Hole or wire visibility.
Image quality indicators are available in different type, sizes and sets as required by
specific users. The quality of any radiograph is governed by the image contrast, image
sharpness and film graininess.
Lower energy of source, lower thickness of job, smaller size of the radiation source,
longer distance of source from the object and ultra fine films will lead to high sensitivity.
X-ray radiographs are found to be better in quality as compared to gamma
radiographs because of their Lower and continuous energy levels.
Radiographic examination is very useful in inspecting and testing industrial products
of various kinds. The important application of Radiography in industry is examination of
Welds and castings. Non-metallic materials like Plastics, ceramics, concrete, paper and
wood also can be radiographed to find their integrity. Radiography can also be applied to
gauging of pipe walls and to know the continuity of lines in electronic components.
The major disadvantage of Radiography is health hazard due to radiations. Proper
care shall be taken to avert unnecessary radiation to radiation workers and others who are
not related to Radiography work.
ULTRASONIC TESTING
Ultrasonic are sound vibrations having frequency above 20,000 Herts. A
human cannot hear such sound. The testing is based on the behaviors of sound in
materials.
When an ultrasonic energy is transmitted into a material it will travel in the materials
unless there is a boundary. At the boundary reflections and transmission takes places
depend upon the product of material density and ultrasonic velocity. This product is called
acoustic impedance. If the acoustic impedance ratio varies considerably the more amount
of ultrasound reflects and the ratio are near to each other transmission will takes place
more. However at the interface both reflection and transmission will takes place.
Ultrasonic vibrations travel inside the materials in different modes and are called
Longitudinal or compression wave, shear or traverse wave and surface wave.
The velocity of ultrasonic will be same in a specific material. Each wave mode will
have different velocity inside the same material.
These properties of ultrasound are used for the testing of materials.
High frequency sound waves above 1 MHz are used for testing of materials. These
frequencies are produced by applying series of electrical pulses to a Piezo- electric element
(transducer) which converts electrical into mechanical energy in the form of pulsed waves
at a nominal frequency. These waves are transmitted into the materials through a suitable
couplant like water or oil. The assembly of Transducer, holder, wear face and the electrical
connector are called the search unit.
When an pulsed ultrasonic energy is transmitted into materials, it travels till it
reaches the interface of another material or its boundary, reflect back as per Snells law.
The law says, the angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. If the transmitted angle
is normal to transmitted surface and the reflected surface is parallel or near parallel to the
transmitted surface the transmitted energy will reflect back to the search unit. These
ultrasonic energy may be transmitted at angle between 30 degree to 80 degree to the
contact surface using angle wedges. The search units covers the received sound pulses into
electrical energy and are amplified and presented on a Cathode ray tube screen/digital
screen. By adjusting the sweep range controls in the ultrasonic instrument this displays
(Echo amplitude) can be expanded or contracted to obtain a designated relation between
the displayed signals and the material reflectors from which the signal originates. Thus a
scaled discontinuity and its displayed signal becomes a true relation ship. By comparing the
displayed signal amplitude to those from a reference standard, both location and estimated
discontinuity size may be determined.
Search unit are available at various frequencies and types and sizes as per the need
of the user to find discontinuities in various components for configurations.
For better sensitivity high frequency search unit are used. Good penetrating probability will
be there with low frequency search units. High frequency will give better resolution.
Ultrasonic transmissions on course grain structures are often difficult due to high
attenuation and scattering from the grain boundaries. Hence it is very difficult to test welds
of high nickel and austenitic structures. Low frequency or Longitudinal angle beam
transducers may be required to test such kind of welds. Optimum frequency, crystal size
will give better results for high thick jobs. Quality training and more experience is required
to do ultrasonic examination of material.
Ultrasonic examination may be applied to testing of plates and pipes for finding
laminations, inclusions and other manufacturing discontinuities including cracks. Forging
and bars may be examined by ultrasonic testing. Thickness measurements using Digital
ultrasonic thickness gauges are being done in many industries to know the remaining wall
thickness after use and to asses remaining life of process line and equipments. Ultrasonic
testing is also used to find voids inside the concrete structures of dams, bridges and huge
structures of nuclear reactors. Ultrasonic is also employed in finding change in material
A fluorescent type magnetic particle, which may glow under black light, may be used to
enhance particle visibility and better sensitivity.
This test requires minimum surface cleaning and lesser time to get the
required results when compared to Liquid Penetrant testing. Reveal discontinuities, which
are near surface and also not open to surface.
Major disadvantage of this technique is it applies only to ferromagnetic materials.
Penetrant testing is one of the best methods of inspection of all types of surface
cracks and porosity and pinholes in solid non-porous materials. Laminations and lack of
bond between layers of Laminated materials can also be detected. It can be employed on
Ferrous, Non Ferrous, other metals and alloys, fired ceramics, powdered metal products,
glass and some types of plastics and synthetics organic materials. These penetrants are
also used for detection leaks in tubing, tanks, welds and components.
The major advantage is rapidity, simplicity, coverage and economy with which it can
be used on a variety of materials with minimum capital investment. Even complex shapes
can be tested with one operation.
The major disadvantage of this NDT is more efforts shall be taken for careful
surface preparation. Improper surface preparation results in poor sensitivity or wrong
results. Cannot detect defects if the defect surface is not opened to the part surface. Also
sub surface defects cannot be tested. It is difficult or impractical on Porous surfaces.