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Topic 1 Scientific Thinking in Research
Topic 1 Scientific Thinking in Research
Thinking in
Research
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
X INTRODUCTION
The purpose of science is to expand knowledge and discover the truth. By
building theory, researchers undertake research to achieve this purpose.
Prediction and understanding are the two purposes of theory and they usually
go hand in hand. To make a prediction, one must know and understand why
variables behave as they do and theories provide this explanation. A theory is a
coherent set of general propositions used as principles to explain the apparent
relationships of certain observed phenomena. The scientific method is a series of
stages used to develop and refine theories.
Scientific methods and scientific thinking are based on concepts. Concepts are
invented so as to enable us to think and communicate abstractions. Higher-level
concepts are used for specialised scientific explanatory purposes that are not
directly observable. Concepts and constructs are used at the theoretical levels
while variables are used at the empirical level. The scientific research process is
used to develop and test various propositions using inductive-deductive
reflective thinking. Scientific research uses an orderly process that combines
TOPIC 1
1.1
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
It is logical, meaning that conclusions are drawn from the results based on
logic; and
(f)
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It is noted here that the difference between hard science and soft science is
control over confounding variables. For example, in business, there are factors
which may be beyond the control of managers, so there has to be some trade-off
between the rigours of science and the pragmatics of business. There has to be
some give and take between the desires of the businesspeople and the desires of
the researchers.
Although this will lead to error, as long as the researcher informs the decisionmaker of the limitations, and the results are qualified based on the limitations,
the research should go on to produce the information. Good scientific research
also follows the principle of parsimony, that is, a simple solution is better than a
complex solution. Parsimonious research means applying the simplest approach
that will address the research questions satisfactorily.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
What are the characteristics of good science?
1.2
Common Sense
Information and knowledge can be gained by relying on what everyone
knows and what just makes sense. Common sense is valuable in daily
living but it can allow logical fallacies to slip into thinking. Common sense
may contain contradictory ideas that many people may not notice because
the ideas are used at different times. Common sense can originate from
tradition; it is useful and may be correct but it may contain errors,
misinformation and contradiction. It may be prejudiced because of beliefs
and socio-cultural differences. One can avoid making wrong decisions by
accepting the truth that a deficiency of knowledge in common sense exists.
To reduce this deficiency, one has to generate the right kind of knowledge
and common sense knowledge needs to be examined systematically to find
the actual cause. The actual cause can be found by setting up experiments
for systematic testing or continually collecting data to examine the repeat
occurrences of an event. Thus, scientific advances are relied on in scientific
TOPIC 1
Personal Experience
When something happens, you feel it, you experience it and you accept it as
true. Personal experience or seeing is believing is a forceful source of
knowledge. But personal experience can lead one astray. What may appear
true may actually be due to a slight error or distortion in judgment. People
make mistakes or fall for illusions. They may believe what they see or
experience but these may be full of errors. Personal experience is reinforced
by four basic errors:
(i)
(ii)
(iii) Premature closure: This often operates with and reinforces the first
two errors. Premature closure occurs when people feel they have all
the answers and do not need to listen, seek information or raise
questions any longer.
(iv) Halo effect: This happens in many forms whereby people
overgeneralise from what they interpret to be highly positive or
prestigious.
1.3
TOPIC 1
(a)
(b)
(c)
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From this tentative theory, prediction and hypotheses are derived for further
investigation or testing. The process of further investigation or testing will
continue until the theories and laws derived are refined. The refined laws or
theories are tentative. If an anomaly is found when a new observation does not fit
into a current body of knowledge or the theories or laws are proven wrong, a
modification has to be carried out. The process will continue again and again
when new knowledge is generated from new observations.
1.4
Research involves the use of theory. In the process of designing a research, theory
may or may not be expressed explicitly, although in the presentation of the
findings and conclusion, relationships with theories will be explicitly made.
(a)
Inductive Model Moves from the particular to the general, from a set of
specific observations to discovery of a pattern that represents some degree
of order among all given events; the logical model in which general
principles are developed from specific observations.
(b)
Deductive Model Moves from the general to the specific, from a pattern that
might be logically or theoretically expected and observations that test whether
the expected pattern actually occurs; the logical model in which specific
expectations of hypotheses are developed on the basis of general principles.
Figure 1.2 illustrates the differences between the inductive and deductive models.
TOPIC 1
ACTIVITY 1.1
By providing appropriate examples, discuss the deductive and inductive
methods.
1.5
It narrows the range of facts needed to study; any problem can be studied
in many different ways. A theory can suggest the ways that are likely to
yield the greatest meaning;
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
TOPIC 1
Concepts
A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain
events, objects, conditions and situations. Concepts may be developed
because of frequent, general and shared usage over time. It may be acquired
through experience. Some concepts are unique to a particular culture and
not easily translated into another language.
In research, concepts used must be precise and comprehensible; hypotheses
are designed using concepts, measurement concepts are used to collect
data, new concepts may be invented to express ideas. The success of
research depends on the ability of researchers to conceptualise ideas and
how well others understand the concepts used. Concepts represent
progressive levels of abstractions; the degree to which the concepts do not
have objective referents. A shirt is an objective concept while personality is
a concept with a high degree of abstraction; such concepts are called
constructs.
(b)
Constructs
A construct is an image or idea specifically invented for a given research
and/or theory-building purpose. Constructs are developed by combining
simpler concepts, especially if the idea or image we want to convey is not
directly subject to observation. Intelligent quotient (IQ) is constructed
mathematically from observations of the answers given to a large number
of questions in an IQ test. No one can directly or indirectly observe IQ but it
is a real characteristic of people.
(c)
Definitions
If the meaning of the concept is confused, the value of the research may be
destroyed. If the concepts used give different meanings to different people,
it indicates that the parties are not communicating on the same wavelength.
A concept may be defined with a synonym. For research purposes, the
definition must measure concepts, thus, needing a more rigorous definition.
Operational definition is a definition stated in terms of specific testing
criteria or operations; the terms must have empirical referents (must be able
to count, measure or gather information in an objective manner). The
definition must specify the characteristics to study and how to observe the
characteristics. An effective operational definition ensures that two or more
TOPIC 1
Variables
At the theoretical level, constructs and concepts are used to relate to
propositions and theory; at this level, constructs cannot be observed. At the
empirical level, propositions are converted into hypotheses and tested; at
this level, the concepts are termed as variables. The term variable is used
as a synonym for construct or the property being studied. Quantitative
variables usually take numerals or values as the indicator of the degree of
level. The followings are some commonly used quantitative variables:
(i)
(ii)
Propositions
Propositions are statements about concepts which may be judged as true or
false if they refer to observable phenomena.
(f)
Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a proposition that is formulated for empirical testing:
(i)
(ii)
10 X
TOPIC 1
(g)
Model
A model is a representation of a developed system used to study some
aspects of the system or the system as a whole. It is different from theory
because theory explains relationships in the system whereas a model is a
representation of the relationships in the system.
(h)
Framework
A framework is an abstract representation of a phenomenon. It describes
the variables studied and the relationships among the variables. It can be
represented graphically in a diagram. Thus, in the early stage of a research,
a theoretical framework is usually constructed based on initial studies or
literature search. The theoretical framework is used to explain the
relationships that need to be investigated and tested in research. A
framework that has been successfully tested will be considered as the final
framework. A research will report the research findings by presenting the
final framework.
(i)
Process
A process is developed for a specific purpose in a business organisation. It
aims to make some change in the organisation. For example, lets say a
company implements a process to improve its quality performance. This
process may involve changes in the structure (for instance, someone is
transferred to a different department) or operations (for example, the
quality inspection procedure is modified) of the organisation. In research, a
process is developed to help solve an organisations problem or improve its
performance. The output of this research will be in the form of a new
process rather than a framework or model. A process is also called a tool,
procedure, method or system.
TOPIC 1
SELF-CHECK 1.2
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SELF-CHECK 1.3
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No.
Question
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True
False
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12 X
TOPIC 1
Variables are concepts and constructs used at the empirical level. They are
numerals or values that represent the concepts for the purpose of testing and
measurement.
A good hypothesis can explain what it claims, is testable and has greater range.
TOPIC 1
Concept
Model
Construct
Generalisation
Deductive models
Process
Definition
Proposition
Empirical
Replicable
Framework
Variables
Hypothesis
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