CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

R. BLAKE
1837
Samuel Morses telegraph system
Guglielmo Marconi
First transatlantic communication by radio in 1901
Source
Can be digital or analog
Telephone quality
300 Hz 3kHz
analog voice signals
Analog high fidelity
20Hz 20 Khz
music
Baseband
Frequency spectrum of the information signal
Demodulation
Detection; happens at the receiver
Modulation
Done at the transmitter
One frequency
Zero bandwidth
Relates the bandwidth and information capacity; states that the amount
Hartleys Law
of information that can be transmitted in a given time is proportional to
bandwidth for a given modulation scheme
Multiplexing
Term used in combining two or more signals
FDM (frequency division When the available frequency range is divided among the signals; radio
multiplexing)
and television broadcasting examples
TDM (time division
The entire bandwidth is used for each signal but only small part if the time
multiplexing)
88 108 MHz
FM radio broadcasting
108 174 MHz
Other service (Police Aircraft Armateur)
Transponders
Other term for TX receiver
Long wave
Low frequency signal
Short wave
High frequencies
Microwaves
Signals in Gigahertz range
Spectrum analyzer
Gives a frequency domain representation of signals
Reflected changes in the baseband signal which has a corrupting effect
Distortion
on the signal
Can be represented as a series of sine and/or cosine waves at multiples of
Fourier Series
its fundamental frequency plus a dc offset; discovered in 1822 by Joseph
Fourier useful in the research of heat conduction
Harmonic of some baseband signal components are added to the original
Harmonic distortion
signal
Intermodulation
Additional frequency components generated by combining (mixing) the
distortion
frequency components in the original signal
Nonlinear frequency
Some of the baseband components are amplified more than others
response
If more than one signal uses the same transmission medium, the signals
Interference
may interact with each other
Unwanted signals; can be reduced by reducing the signal bandwidth,
Noise
increasing the transmitter power, use low noise amplifiers for weak signals
Oscilloscope
Time domain representation of signals

Sinusoid
Internal noise
External noise
Equipment noise
Atmospheric Noise
Noise blanking
Space noise
Thermal Noise
White light
Noise Power
Half power bandwidth
Cryogenics
Shot noise
Noise current
Transit time
Partition Noise
Flicker Noise
Pink noise
Transit time Noise
Signal-to-noise ratio
Noise figure
Noise figure
Noise temperature
Friiss Formula
VCO
Carrier
Frequency Domain
Time Domain
Transmission

Simplest ac signal
Originates within the communication system
Property of the channel
Generated by equipment that produces sparks; has a broad frequency
spectrum
Also called static noise; principal source: lightning; has a very high peak to
average power ratio
Disabling the receiver for the duration of the burst
Cosmic, stellar, or sky noise (its intensity when received on the earth is
naturally less than for solar noise because of greater distance)
Produced by random motion of electrons in a conductor due to heat;
there is equal power in every hertz of bandwidth; sometimes called white
noise; equal mixture of noise of all frequencies
Equal mixture of all colors
PN = k T B
K Boltzmanns constant
Points where the gain of the filter is 3 dB down from its gain the center of
the sideband
To reduce noise, amplifiers used with low level signals are often cooled
Due to random variations in current flow in active devices; describes the
random arrival of electrons arriving at the anode of a vacuum tube
IN = 2 q I o B
The time a charge carrier spends in the device
Occurs on devices where single current separates into two or more paths
Excess noise; sometimes it is called pink noise; occurs on low frequency
Refers to any noise that has equal power per octave
High frequency noise that occurs when time taken by charge carriers to
cross a junction is comparable to the period of the program
One of the most important specifications of any communication system
A figure of merit; indicates how much of the component, stage, or series of
stages degrades the S/N ratio of a system
Noise factor
Another way of specifying noise performance; the absolute temperature
of a resistor, that would produce the same noise at the output
The contribution of each stage in a cascaded amplifier is divided by the
product of the gains of all the preceding stages
Frequency is controlled by a sawtooth generator that also provides
horizontal sweep for the CRT
Signal that can be modulated by an information signal
A representation of a signals power or amplitude as a function of
frequency
A representation of signals amplitude as a function of time
Transfer of information signal from one location to another

Ernst Anderson
Self resonant
frequency
Inductive coupling
Gimmick
Resonant circuit
Resonance
Bandwidth
Wideband
Flat
Conduction angle
Class A
Miller Effect
FET
Reactance of the
winding must be large
to load impedance
connected to them
Toroidal transformers
with ferrite core
Class C amplifier
Neutralization
Frequency Amplifier
RC circuits
LC circuits
Barkhausen criterion
Feedback fraction
LC resonant circuit
Hartley Oscillator
Colpitts Oscillator
Clapp Oscillator
Slug tuning

Chapter 2: Radio Frequency Circuits

R. Blake
Made the first practical alternator transmitter; generated a power of 2 kW
at a frequency of 100 KHz
A point will be reached where the two reactance are equal and the
capacitor becomes a series-resonant circuit
Can be reduced by making the distance between the inductor and
capacitor 90deg; use of toroidal core can also reduce it
A length of solid insulated hook up wire will be seen, connected at only
one end; provides small capacitance to ground that is adjusted during
circuit alignment by bending the wire slightly in one direction or another
Simplest form of bandpass filter
Impedance of the tuned circuit is resistive and its magnitude is maximum
The more heavy loaded the lower its Q
Also called broadband
Have equal gain across the entire bandwidth
Portion of the input cycle during which the active device conducts current
Single ended amplifier
Effect of stray capacitances on the circuit; transformer coupling on both
input and output + tuning capacitors; use of common base amplifier
Can be used instead of BJT to minimize the loading effect of the transistor
in the tuned circuit
For stable gain
Relatively constant gain across the frequency range of interest
Ferrite has high permeability than the air
Achieved their maximum efficiency when the amplifying device almost
saturates at peaks of the input cycle.
Is accomplished by feeding back a portion of the output signal to the
input in such a way that it has the same amplitude as the unwanted
feedback but the opposite phase.
Operated at low power levels and operated at lower efficiencies
Use in low frequency oscillators
High frequency oscillators
Phase shift is 0; gain around the loop must be one
Usually less than 1
One of the most commonly used in radio frequency oscillators
Recognized by its use of tapped inductor
Uses a capacitive voltage divider to provide feedback
A variation of the Colpitts circuit; Designed to swamp device
capacitances for greater stability; A capacitor in series with the inductor
Inductors are typically tuned by moving a ferrite core into and out of the

coil
Voltage controlled
oscillator
Varactor
Q of crystals
Crystals
10ppm
Crystal oven
100 000
Pierce circuit
Mixers
Linear summing
Intermodulation
distortion
Diode mixers
FET
BJT
Dual gate MOSFET
Balanced mixers

Free-running LC
oscillator
Phase- locked loop
Free running frequency
Acquisition of phase
lock
Capture range

Lock range
Programmable divider

VCO, make use of Varactor

1pF 100 pF
104 - 107
Can be operated to the harmonic or overtone of the fundamental
frequency
When frequency of above 40 MHz is required
Stability variation on operating temperature for simple oscillators without
temperature compensation
Keeps the crystal at a temperature higher than the highest expected
ambient temperature
Factor of improvement to the temperature stability of a crystal oscillator
using crystal oven
The crystal is used as series resonant to the capacitor than the inductor,
(variation of Hartley circuit)
Nonlinear circuits that combine two signals in such a way as to produce
the sum and difference of the two input frequencies
Produces only two input signal frequencies
Cross product of two frequencies
poor noise figure
Convenient to use because of the parabolic trans conductance response
Will produce more spurious frequencies at the output
Excellent mixers
One which the input frequency do not appear at the output, only the sum
and difference of the two signals
Ex: multiplier circuit
*balanced modulator
Can be easily tuned to different frequencies because its operating
frequency is determined by tuned circuits; Referred to as variablefrequency oscillators
Basis of practically all modern synthesizer
Invented in 1932 first introduced as an IC on 1970
The frequency of VCO when the control voltage is zero
Changes in VCO frequency until it is exactly that of the external input
signal
Range over the frequency can be varied and still achieved phase lock;
Free running frequency; Twice the difference between the free running
frequency and the frequency at which lock is first achieved
Total frequency range within which lock when achieved can be
maintained; Always larger than the capture range; Range is approximately
twice the difference between the frequency where lock is lost and the free
running frequency
Allows N to be varied

Resolution
Fixed- modulus divider
(prescaler)
ECL
Gallium arsenide
Frequency translation
Frequency synthesizer

Envelope
Carrier
Amplitude modulation
Modulation index
Over modulation
Splatter
Side frequency/ side
band
Signal bandwidth
Quadrature AM
Synchronous detection
Peak envelope power
Two tone test signal
Suppressed-carrier
signal
Side band

Minimum frequency step

Is added in front of programmable divider so it can operate beyond 100
KHz and other higher frequencies; Employ ECL (emitter-coupled logic)
A digital technology that can be used above 1 GHz
Good at higher frequencies
Movement of block of frequencies; Movement of signal from one
frequency to another
A device that can produce a large number of output frequencies from a
smaller number of fixed frequency oscillator

CHAPTER 3 : AMPLITUDE MODULATION

BLAKE
Resembles the original modulating signal.
Higher frequency signal that is combined with the information signal to
produce the modulated waveform.
Essentially a non-linear process provided by varying the amplitude of the
carrier.
Ratio between amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier.
When the modulation index is greater than 1.
Spurious frequencies; additional side frequencies.
Other two additional frequencies other than the carrier and two additional
frequencies.
One of the most important characteristics of any modulation scheme.
Sending of two separate information signal using amplitude modulation at
one carrier frequency.
Recovery of two information signals using two balanced demodulators.
Power at modulation peaks.
A signal consisting of two audio frequencies, not harmonically related,
used to test single side band transmitter.
An AM signal in which the carrier frequency component is eliminated and
only or both side bands are transmitted.
All other frequencies to one side of the carrier frequency.

Frequency agility
Spurious signal

Over-all efficiency
Fidelity
Dynamic range
High level modulation
Low level modulation
Spectral purity
Automatic gain control
circuit
Automatic frequency
control
Exciter
Directional coupler
Compression
Driver
Buffer
Intermediate power
amplifier
Carrier shift
Pi network
Dummy load
Duty cycle
Numerically-controlled
oscillator
ALC circuit

CHAPTER 5 : TRANSMITTER
BLAKE
Refers to the ability to change operating frequency rapidly without
extensive returning.
Signal at frequencies other than those of the carrier and the sidebands
required for the modulation scheme in used; Any emission from a
transmitter other than the carrier and sidebands required by the
modulation scheme in use.
Is the ratio of the output power to power input from primary power source.
Allows the original information signal to be recovered exactly the same,
except time delay.
The ratio between the levels of the loudest and the quietest passage in the
audio signals.
When modulation is accomplished at the output of the last stage in the
transmitter.
Modulation of a transmitter at any point before the output element of the
output stage.
Absence of spurious signals in the output of a transmitter.
A circuit having for keeping the amplitude of a signal within a prescribed
limit.
A scheme for keeping a transmitter or receiver tuned to the correct
frequency.
The part of a transmitter that operates at low power levels.
Device that allows signal moving along a transmission line in one direction
to be measured.
System that provides more gain for low level than higher level signals.
Amplifier which supplies the required input signals power for an amplifier.
Amplifier stage which isolate from any changes in load impedance in
order to maintain good stability.
Transmitter power amplifier stage immediately before the output stage.
Change of carrier amplitude with modulation in an AM transmitter.
Used to transform impedances either up or down, but it is best suited to
active devices that requires a fairly high level impedances.
A noninductive power resistor used to simulate an antenna.
Ratio of time on to total time.
Oscillator whose frequency is controlled by a binary number written to an
internal register.
Automatic level control; A circuit for keeping the amplitude of a signal
within prescribed limits.

Sensitivity
Selectivity
Adjacent channel
Alternate channel
Autodyne converter
Automatic gain control
(AGC)
Blocking
Ceramic filter
Converter
Crystal filter
Demodulator (detector)
Digital signal processor
Discriminator
Envelope detector
Front End
High-side injection
Image frequency
Intermediate frequency
Local oscillator
Low-side injection
Mechanical filter
Pilot carrier
Product detector
Quieting sensitivity
Quadrature detector
Ratio detector
SINAD

CHAPTER 6 : RECEIVERS
BLAKE
Measures of the signal strength required achieving a given SCR; ability to
discriminate against interfering signals.
Ability to reject unwanted signals at frequencies different from that of the
desired signal.
The communication channel immediately above or below the desired
channel frequency.
The next communication channel beyond the adjacent channel.
A combined mixer and local oscillator that uses one transistor or tube or
both.
A circuit to adjust the gain of a system in accordance with the input signal
strength.
Desensitization or disense; Reduction of gain for a weak signal due to a
strong signal close to it in frequency.
A band pass filter using piezoelectric ceramic elements.
Combination of a mixer and a local oscillator that is used to move a signal
from one frequency to another.
A band pass filter that uses piezoelectric quartz elements.
Circuit to recover the baseband signal from a modulated signal
Specialized microprocessor designed to perform arithmetic operation on
digitized communication signals.
Any detector for PM or FM signals.
An AM demodulator that works by rectifying the signal and low pass
filtering the results.
The first stage of a receiver.
Application to a mixer of a signal from a local oscillator that operates at a
frequency above that of the incoming signal.
A second input frequency that produces the same output frequency.
A frequency that to which a signal is shifted as an intermediate step in
reception or transmission.
Used in conjunction with a mixer to shift a signal to a different frequency.
Application to a mixer of a signal from a local oscillator that operates at a
frequency below that of the different frequency.
Band pass filter that uses mechanical resonators.
Low-level carrier signal transmitted to facilitate regeneration of the carrier
at the receiver.
A detector for suppressed carrier AM signals that work by multiplying the
signals with a regenerated carrier.
The strength of an unmodulated carrier that reduces the noise input of an
FM receiver by specified amount.
FM detector that is based on 90 phase shift network.
A type of FM detector.
Ratio of signal plus noise and distortion to noise plus distortion.

S-meter
Shape factor

A meter on a receiver that indicates the strength of the received signal.

For a band pass filter; the ratio between the bandwidth for two specified
amount of attenuation.

Skin effect

Reduction in effective cross sectional area of a conductor with increasing

frequency.
Reception of signals at frequencies other than that to which a receiver is
tuned.
A system that disables the output of a receiver in the absence of a suitable
signal.
A receiver in which the signal is moved using a mixer, to an intermediate
frequency before demodulation.
A filter that uses acoustic waves on the surface of a substrate to achieve
the desired response.
Adjustment of two or more tuned circuits so that they can be tuned
simultaneously with one adjustment.
A receiver in which the signal is accomplished at its original frequency
before demodulation.
The FM signal strength with defined deviation, required to produce a
specified SINAD in a receiver.
Invented super heterodyne receiver or superhet.
Another way of specifying selectivity

Spurious response
Squelch
Super heterodyne
receiver
Surface acoustic wave
(SAW) filter
Tracking
Tuned-radio frequency
(TRF) receiver
Usable sensitivity
Edwin H. Armstrong
Adjacent channel
rejection
Harmonic distortion
Intermodulation
Phase distortion
AGC range
Audio dynamic range
Image rejection
Double spotting
IF amplifier
Forward AGC systems

Occurs when the frequencies generated are multiples of those in the

original modulating signal.
Takes place when frequency component in the original signal mix in a nonlinear device creating sum and differences frequencies.
Consist of irregular shift in phase and is quite a common occurrence when
signal pass through filters.
Range of signals strengths.
The usable range of modulation depth with a given carrier level,
The ratio of voltage gain at the input frequency to which the receiver is
tuned to gain at the image frequency.
Used to describe the same phenomenon as image response; two spot dial.
Accounts for most the receiver gain and selectivity.
Circuits that reduce the gain by increasing the current.