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Bits and Pieces
Bits and Pieces
Bits and Pieces
Chapter Three
Bits and Pieces
Objectives
Define and review the geometric shapes of the semicircle, ellipse, and
hyperbola from the perspective of modelling and migration.
Define and evaluate instantaneous, interval, average, stacking, RMS, DMO, and
migration velocities.
Become acquainted with the wave equation and be exposed to some methods
of applying it to seismic data.
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reflections from any part of the circle have the same traveltime
a triangle whose base is a diameter and whose apex lies on the circumference
will have a right angle opposite the diameter.
x2 + z2 = r2
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Page 3.2
(3.1)
The foci are special points for an ellipse, and in seismic processing, they
represent the locations of the source and receiver.
A ray through one focus (source) will reflect off the ellipse and pass through
the other focus (receiver).
Length of the raypath from one focus to any location on the ellipse and on to
the other focus will always be constant.
Similarly, a raypath of fixed length that starts and ends at the foci will describe
an ellipse.
An ellipse will tend toward the shape of a circle when the distance between the
foci is much less than the raypath.
x2 z 2
+ =1
a 2 b2
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Page 3.3
(3.2)
Slope of the hyperbola (diffraction) tends to 45o asymptotes when h >> Zo,
Asymptotes intersect at the surface and for all diffractions on the zero offset
section.
A hyperbola also has two foci and may be defined as having the same
difference in length from each of the foci.
z 2 x 2 =zo2
(3.3)
z 2 = zo2 + x 2
(3.4)
4x 2
T =T + 2
v
2
2
o
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Page 3.4
(3.5)
A diffraction hyperbola with its apex on a semicircle will also pass through the
bottom of the circle.
The apex of a diffraction hyperbola and any other point on the diffraction
hyperbola will lie on a semicircle with a center at time-zero above the point.
a)
b)
Figure 3.4 Relationship of the diffraction hyperbola and the semicircle (a)
showing the angles and (b) the intersections.
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Page 3.5
The ellipse defines a constant total distance from the two foci, i.e.
d1 + d2 = d3 + d4.
The hyperbola defines the difference in distance between the two foci, i.e.
s2 - s1 = s4 - s3.
Figure 3.6 Two orthogonal antenna systems used for navigation. The difference
in time from each antenna system will locate four positions on corresponding
hyperbola.
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Page 3.6
Figure 3.7 The Mormon Tabernacle in Salt Lake City has an ellipsoid shape with
the pulpit at one focus. People sitting near the other focus can hear a whisper at
200 ft.
Figure 3.8 Lithotripsy: A method for breaking gallstones uses an ellipsoid cavity
with a fluid that matches the velocity of tissue. A spark at one focus will reflect
energy to the focus within the patient and break the gallstones [97].
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Page 3.7
Average velocities are used to convert directly from time to the corresponding
points in depth (or visa versa).
Stacking velocities are used to create the best-looking stack. For isotropic
horizontal layers with small offsets, they should be equal to the RMS
velocities, VNMO = VRMS.. Dipping areas of the section Vstk require the stacking
velocities Vstk to be higher than the RMS velocities [115]. When the effects of
dip have been removed, moveout velocities are often considered equivalent to
RMS velocities (for all offsets), allowing the estimation of interval velocities.
Interval velocities are assumed constant over a small range. They may be
derived from well-log velocities using either an average or RMS computation,
depending on the application. Interval velocities may also be estimated from
RMS velocities (by way of stacking velocities) using Dix equation [442] [443].
When applying NMO prior to the DMO process, the NMO should use RMS
velocities and not the stacking velocities.
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Page 3.8
Typical seismic processing defines a stacking velocity to give a best fit for NMO.
Occasionally, these velocities are assumed to be RMS with interval velocities
computed using Dixs equation [442] (see Figure 3.12). This method is subject to
serious error in structured data where the stacking velocities are increased by the
cosine of the dip to produce the best stack.
The inclusion of DMO and migration in the velocity analysis loop removes the
effects of dip on stacking velocities. These stacking velocities will tend toward
RMS velocities from which the interval velocities may be estimated.
What type of velocity may be calculated from the odometer reading and
elapsed time?
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Page 3.9
Vins =
Small dist. d z
=
Time inc.
dt
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Page 3.10
(3.6)
specific dist. 1
Vave (T ) =
Vins ( t ) dt
=
time required T t =0
V (n) t
n =0
int
n= N
tn
(3.7)
n =0
Vave
Average velocities are only valid for vertical velocity variations, and it should not
be used for structures with significant lateral velocity variations. When lateral
velocities are present, image-ray conversions should be used. See work by
Hubral [3].
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Page 3.11
t =T
2
Vrms
(T )
1
Vins2 ( t ) dt
T t =0
V (n) t
n =0
2
int
n=N
n =0
V
Vrms ( n ) =
2
int
(3.8)
tn
( 0 ) t0 + V (1) t1 + V ( 2 ) t2 + ... + V ( n ) tn
2
int
2
int
t0 + t1 + t2 + ... + tn
2
int
(3.9)
Vave
Vrms
Figure 3.11 The velocity diagram showing the RMS velocity.
RMS velocities defined above are accurate for small offsets when computing NMO
correction. Larger offsets may require more terms in the MO equation (as given in
section 3.2.1 in [83]).
The term RMS velocities will also be used (in an approximate sense) to refer to:
best fit velocities for horizontal reflectors, Vrms Vstk, (isotropic media)
velocities extracted from stacking velocities in which the dip-dependent factor
has been removed, i.e. Vrms Vstk cos(dip), or
NMO velocities used prior to the application of dip moveout (DMO).
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Page 3.12
4h 2
=T + 2
.
Vstk (To )
2
o
(3.10)
The use of the word "robust" is very applicable for stacking velocities. These
velocities cover many approximations that are made in seismic processing and
have enabled the processing of complex data structures well beyond the original
assumptions of NMO and stacking. Anisotropy is one approximation that is
partially absorbed into that stacking velocity.
Another robust feature of stacking velocities is its ability to improve the
appearance of dipping data by increasing the stacking velocities with
Vstk =
Vrms
.
cos ( )
(3.11)
Equation (3.11) enables NMO to stack energy of a dipping event at a CMP location;
however, this process does smear data along the dipping event. This equation is
derived in Volume II, Section 7.0.9 and is attributed to Levin [115].
Since the stacking velocities incorporate dipping information, care must be taken
when using them for other processes such as interval velocity analysis, migration,
or inversion. If used for velocity analysis, the results may be unreliable and
absurd to the point of negative interval velocities (Figure 3.12).
Remember that the stacking velocities are defined for a best-fit hyperbola, and
that T0 of the hyperbola may not be exactly the same as the actual zero-offset
time. See Yilmaz [83] pages 159 - 166 for more detailed information.
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Page 3.13
Vint (T1,2 ) =
specific dist.
1
=
time required T1,2
T2
T1
Vins ( t ) dt .
(3.12)
When the use of interval velocities are associated with NMO or migration
applications, the RMS definition is used, i.e.,
Vint2 (T )
1
T1,2
T2
T1
Vins2 ( t ) dt .
(3.13)
Interval velocities may be estimated from seismic processing using Dixs equation
and the RMS velocities that are derived from stacking velocities. Dixs equation
for interval n may be derived from equation (3.9) and is
2
2
Vrms
n ) tn Vrms
(
( n - 1) tn-1
Vint ( n ) =
tn tn 1
(3.14)
The interval velocities derived in this manner tend to be continuous along events
and aid in the velocity analysis process.
When the interval velocity is estimated from stacking velocities of dipping data,
inaccurate results occur. The stacking velocity for dipping data is increased by
equation (3.11), and repeated as (3.15), i.e.,
Vstk =
Vrms
.
cos(dip )
(3.15)
Using the stacking velocity of equation (3.15) as RMS velocities in equation (3.14)
will produce interval velocities that may vary in an extreme manner, i.e., they may
be very high, or very low, and even negative as illustrated in Figure 3.12.
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Page 3.14
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 3.12 Illustration of errors in interval velocity when estimated from stacking
velocities in area of dipping geology. Part (a) shows the instantaneous and RMS
velocities of the geological structure in (b). The resulting stacking velocity is
shown in (c), with the incorrect interval velocities in (d) estimated from (c).
We typically use Vrms for Vstk when the structure is horizontal. This
assumes no anisotropy present. When anisotropy is present, Vrms
obtained from well information is not equivalent to Vstk.
Processing that includes DMO has significantly improved the science of velocity
analysis and by passes the "dip" problem. Velocity analysis that includes DMO
derives RMS-type velocities and has helped automate the process.
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Page 3.15
The raypaths in Figure 3.13a are curved because velocity increases with depth.
polynomial t = an x 2 n = a0 + a1 x 2 + a2 x 4 + a3 x 6 + ... .
2
n =0
The NMO or diffraction curve is usually approximated by the first two terms of
the polynomial giving a hyperbola t 2 = t02 + a1 x 2 , i.e. equation (3.10).
The hyperbolic assumption is possible when using the RMS velocities defined
in equations 3.8 and 3.9. The hyperbolic and RMS velocity approximation
assumes horizontally layered media and is accurate for small offsets.
The time section is often superimposed on top of the geological structure with the
vertical time T0 scaled to coincide with a reflection at depth z as illustrated in (c).
Estimating the true depth z from T0 must use the average velocity Vave.
The use of the RMS velocities with T0 will only estimate a pseudo depth z0.
The assumed linear raypaths will have errors in the angle of incidence and
reflection.
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Page 3.16
t
Diffraction
t
Hyperbola
T0
T0, z0
T
T0
T
x
z
a)
b)
T
T0
z0
True depth z
T
c)
Figure 3.13 Raypaths and traveltimes in a) are for the actual the depth structure
and b) the assumed linear raypaths on the time section. The actual diffraction in
(a) is approximated by the hyperbola in (b). Part c) illustrates overlapping time
and depth sections that confuse the pseudo depth with the actual depth.
Assume that the raypaths in Figure 3.13b are zero-offset to the scatterpoint.
Define the equation for the two-way traveltime T in terms of T0, x, and Vrms.
Assume the raypaths in Figure 3.1b are to the same midpoint. Define the two-way
traveltime T in terms of T0, h, and Vrms.
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Page 3.17
a1 x 2
t =T + 2
Vrms
2
2
0
(0.1)
Figure 3.14 illustrates the general concept in (a), a CMP gather in (b), post-stack
Kirchhoff migration in (c), and the double square-root equation in (d).
For a CMP gather, we compute the normal moveout correction for horizontal
reflectors by using the hyperbolic equation:
4h 2
t =T + 2 .
Vrms
2
2
0
(0.2)
4x2
t =T + 2 .
Vrms
2
2
0
(0.3)
T02 hs2
T02 hr2
t = t s + tr =
+ 2 +
+ 2
4 Vrms
4 Vrms
(0.4)
where hs and hr are the offsets from the location of the migrated trace to the
location of the source and receiver.
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Page 3.18
T0
Scatterpoint
a)
h
CMP
CMP
gather
T0
Scatterpoint
b)
x
Post-stack
migration
T0 Scatterpoint
c)
x
hr
hs
Pre-stack
migration
T0
Scatterpoint
d)
Figure 3.14 RMS velocity assumption for a) any rays to or from a scatterpoint, b) a
CMP gather, c) zero-offset migration, and d) prestack migration.
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Page 3.19
Even though the raypath PQRS is longer in distance than PS, the traveltime for
PQRS will be shorter as the raypath spends more time in the higher velocity
portion than in the lower velocity portion.
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Page 3.20
What path would a lifeguard take to reach the person crying for help?
What path should a lifeguard take to reach the person crying for help?
What are the two main parameters that determine the path?
We encounter the application of Fermats principle many time in nature, and our
intuition usually is correct.
Consider:
Hiking across fields that may be hard and easy to walk on and ones that
may have been plowed, and difficult to walk on.
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Page 3.21
An additional concept of Fermats principle deals with the minimum (or maximum)
traveltime. Consider Figure 3.17.
The thicker ray path in (a) represents the actual raypath with alternate paths
shown on either side. The traveltimes (T) for the various paths are shown by the
curve in (b). From (b) we can observe that the minimum traveltime along paths
between A and B is the actual raypath, verifying Fermats principle.
A small error in the refraction point location has negligible effect on the
traveltime. (See construction in Figure 2.28).
Actual
raypath
a)
b)
Fermats principle also tells us that small errors in the raypath location will have
negligible effect on the estimation of the traveltime.
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Page 3.22
TAB =
dist 1000
=
= 0.5 sec
vel
2000
TBC = ... =
1000
= 0.25 sec
4000
TCD = ... =
1000
= 0.167 sec
6000
TB = 0.5 sec ,
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Page 3.23
Vave ( B ) =
dist
1000
=
= 2000 ft/sec
time
0.5
Vave (C ) =
...
2000
= 2667 ft/sec
0.75
Vave ( D ) =
...
3000
= 3272 ft/sec
0.917
Vave
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Page 3.24
20002 0.5 2
=2000 ft/s
Vrms (B )=
0.5
0.5
+
0.25
0.5
+
0.25
+
0.167
Vrms
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Page 3.25
In the second layer, use a time measure that is one half the distance traveled
(two times the velocity or half the slowness).
In the third layer, use a time measure equal to one-third the distance traveled
(three times the velocity or one-third the slowness).
The horizontal dashed line in the figure represents one half and one third the
distance across the respective instantaneous velocities and should be used to
construct the traveltimes.
Plot the accumulated times for each ray on the time graph (b) below the
surface location of the ray.
The traveltimes on (b) define the straight raypath diffraction shape that is to be
compared to the true shape.
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Page 3.26
a)
b)
Figure 3.21 Construction of incorrect diffraction shape found by assuming a
direct raypath; (a) shows the ray paths and (b) area for plotting travel times.
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Page 3.27
In the second layer use a time measure of one half the distance.
Add to the plot, the computed values using RMS velocities that are found on
the following page.
Note how well the RMS velocities allow the NMO computation to match the actual
traveltimes. (They should if constructed accurately).
One interesting feature that may be observed from this construction is that
minimum distance raypaths also appear hyperbolic. An adjusted stacking
velocity would allow reasonable NMO or migration of the data. This concept is
used in some modelling based processes to improve run times.
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Page 3.28
a)
b)
Figure 3.22 Construction of diffraction shape with refracted raypath.
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Page 3.29
2
h
T(D) = 0.9167,
= T
2
0
1) h 2
(
+ 2
Vrms (T0 )
(3.16)
Vrms(D) = 3614
1000
T ( h = 1000 ) = 0.91672 +
36142
1
2
2000
T ( h = 2000 ) = 0.91672 +
36142
1
2
T ( h = 3000 )
30002
2
= 0.9167 +
36142
1
2
T ( h = 4000 )
40002
2
= 0.9167 +
36142
1
2
= 0.958
= 1.071
= 1.237
= 1.437
Add these times to the plot of Figure 3.22 and compare their locations with the
times found from the construction.
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Page 3.30
the complex process of convolution in the time domain but becomes a trivial
process of multiplication in the frequency domain,
in the 2-D space events with the same dip transform to one location.
the Fourier transform samples represent the magnitude and phase of a range
of sinusoidal signals,
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Page 3.31
Adding more sinusoids with higher frequencies will improve the approximated
waveform.
Waveform
a)
b)
a)
b)
c)
d)
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Page 3.32
The magnitude and phase of the sinusoids can be varied to have special effects.
In the figures below, time zero is indicated at the center of each image, with the
left image containing only cosines that sum to approximate a sinx/x wavelet, while
the right side is composed of sines to produce a wavelet that has been phase
shifted by 90o.
Frequency
Frequency
Sum
T=0
a)
b)
Figure 3.25 Summing a) cosines to create a zero phase wavelet t = 0.0, and b)
sines to create a 90 degree wavelet. Zero time is at the center. (FOUTIERexamples.m )
Frequency
Phase
shift
Frequency
The phase may also be modified to change the location of the wavelet. Figure
3.26 shows two images with a positive and negative phase shifts that vary linearly
with frequency. The phase-shift is measured at t=0 on each plot.
a)
b)
Figure 3.26 Two linear phase shift applied to the cosines to displace the wavelet.
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Page 3.33
f =
1
T
(3.17)
At this point we could consider the time traces to be continuous, but in reality
there are closely separated points with a sample interval t or a sample rate of
Fsamp. The maximum frequency Fmax that can be recorded must be less than the
Nyquist frequency, Fnyq that is half the sampling frequency Fsamp i.e.,
Fmax Fnyq
Fsamp
2
1
.
2t
(3.18)
We can write the summation of these sinusoids f(t) over the time interval T as
2 t
4 t
6 t
f ( t ) = a0 + a1 cos
+ a2 cos
+ a3 cos
+ ...
T
T
T
.
2 t
4 t
6 t
+ b1 sin
+ b2 sin
+ b3 sin
+ ...
T
T
T
or
n= N
n 2 t
n 2 t
f ( t ) = a0 + an cos
+ bn sin
T
T
n =1
(3.19)
where the Fourier Series coefficients an and bn are computed from (assuming
continuous time)
1
n 2 t
an = f ( t ) cos
dt
T 0
T
1
n 2 t
bn = f ( t ) sin
dt
T 0
T
(3.20)
n 2 t
f ( t ) = c0 + cn cos
+ n .
T
n =1
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Page 3.34
Frequency
Time
Frequency
a)
Frequency
Time
Frequency
b)
c)
d)
Time
Frequency
e)
Figure 3.27 The size of the frequency band contributes to the shape of the
wavelet. More frequencies produce a narrower wavelet that will allow higher
resolution between similar wavelets. The number of sinusoids are 4, 9, 14, 18, and
50.
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Page 3.35
The previous used sinusoids with the same amplitude. In general the amplitudes
vary as illustrated in the following figures. The amplitudes (cn) are plotted above
the corresponding sinusoids.
Figure 3.28a shows the sinusoids with an amplitude weighting of sinx/x (really
sinf/f) that produces a box-car weighting of a sinusoid. Figure 3.28b weights the
sinusoids with a triangular shape that produces a time trace that has a (sinx/x)2
weighting of a sinusoid.
Time
Frequency
a)
Time
Frequency
b)
Figure 3.28 The amplitudes of the sinusoids were multiplied in a) by a sinx/x
function that was centered over the central trace, and b) with a limited triangular
shape window.
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Page 3.36
The amplitudes of the sinusoids, shown in the red box in Figure 3.29, is called the
spectrum. The magnitude and phase of the spectrum contain the complete
information that is needed to create the summed trace indicated in green.
Time
Trace
a)
Frequency
Spectrum
I-DFT
DFT
Trace
b)
Figure 3.29 Illustration of a) the spectrum and trace in sinusoidal format and in b)
the conventional form without the sinusoidal traces.
The an and bn coefficients may also be expressed in a complex form allowing the
sines and cosines to be expressed as an exponential. The exponential form is
very convenient when working with differential equations as the derivative of an
exponential is simply itself.
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Page 3.37
Figure 3.30 Examples of Fourier transform pairs waveforms from Lathi [560].
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Page 3.38
Sometime the input trace is complex, both real and imaginary, and in this case
1024 complex input samples produces 1024 complex samples in transformed
space. As each sample represents a "variable," the number of variables before
the transform must equal the number of variables after the transform.
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Page 3.39
t = 0 ???
Tmax
Seismic trace
Figure 3.31 Seismic trace is assumed to be periodic when using the DFT.
The fundamental frequency of the seismic trace f0 above will have a period that is
equal to the inverse of the maximum time Tmax, i.e. f0 = Tmax. This frequency is
also the frequency interval f on the discrete Fourier transformed trace, i.e. f = f0.
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Page 3.40
Figure 3.32 below shows in (a) a trace and (b) the corresponding amplitude
spectrum.
Amp
t
a)
Amp
Frequency
b)
Figure 3.32 A seismic trace showing in (a) the time domain and in (b) the
amplitude spectrum in the frequency domain.
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Page 3.41
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Page 3.42
fnyquist
2nd quadrant
Ist quadrant
Congugate
symetry
knyquist
-knyquist
Origin
rd
th
3 quadrant
4 quadrant
-fnyquist
a)
-knyquist
fnyquist
2nd quadrant
knyquist
Origin
Ist quadrant
3rd quadrant
-knyquist
4th quadrant
fnyquist
knyquist
Origin
b)
c)
-knyquist
knyquist
Origin
3rd quadrant
th
4 quadrant
fnyquist
d)
Figure 3.33 Various views of the (kx, f) space and the orogin.
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Page 3.43
a)
b)
c)
Figure 3.34 2-D Fourier transform pairs in (a) to (f).
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Page 3.44
d)
e)
f)
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Page 3.45
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 3.35 Interpretation and interpolation of samples in (a) depends on the
application, such as (b) a staircase, (c) a picket fence, or (d) a continuous multivalued signal.
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Page 3.46
The samples of Figure 3.35a may be interpreted to represent a staircase, the tops
of a picket fence, or a multi-valued function. One logical approach would be to
join the samples with straight lines. Another approach may use a more complex
method to interpolate the point between the samples. How the points are
interpolated may have a significant effect on:
Fnyq =
Fs
1
=
2 2 t
The Nyquist criteria sets a theoretical limit for the lowest possible sampling
frequency. It is possible but difficult or expensive to recover the original signal
when sampled at this rate. Usually a much higher sampling rate is used to enable
the interpolation to be easier and faster.
There becomes a compromise between a higher sampling rate that requires more
memory but has a faster run time, verses a lower sample rate that requires less
memory but a more elaborate interpolation scheme that may require a longer run
time.
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Page 3.47
Linear interpolation may be adequate for seismic traces if the sample rate is
more than six times the maximum frequency.
The Nyquist theorem states that the sample rate must be at least two samples
per period, but from the construction, linear interpolation will fail at these
rates.
When sampling below the Nyquist rate, a sinusoid will appear at a lower
frequency.
The original continuous time signal with a maximum frequency that is close to
the Nyquist frequency can be exactly recovered if a Sinx/x is used.
Linear interpolation may be OK is the sampling rate is greater than six times the
maximum frequency.
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Page 3.48
Figure 3.36 Exercise to illustrate aliasing; connect the dots with straight lines to
evaluate linear interpolation.
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Page 3.49
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Page 3.50
Convolve
Multiply
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Page 3.51
a)
Interpolation
filter
b)
We desire the interpolator to have a spectrum that is reasonably flat in the area of
the signal spectrum, but tends to zero by the time it reaches the other periodic
spectra.
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Page 3.52
F (t ) =
A1 =
sin ( xN )
xN
sin ( xN )
.
N sin ( x )
A2 =
sin ( xN )
N sin ( x )
(3.17)
N = 21
Figure 3.39 Comparison of the continuous sinc function and its corresponding
discrete function. This figure can represent both time and frequency domains.
(2005\SincSinNt.m)
The sinc function has infinite extent, while the discrete form is the sinc function
convolved with the periodic impulse train. The discrete function contains the
overlapping tails and is only slightly different from the continuous sinc function
over the first half of the spectrum as illustrated in Figure 3.39. When N is smaller,
the difference increases. Note that N should be an odd value.
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Page 3.53
A trivial cubic
yi ( x ) = ai + bi x + ci x 2 + di x 3 ,
(3.**)
could use four point yi ( xi 1 , xi , xi +1 , xi + 2 ) to define a curve that is only used in the
window between the two central points yi ( xi , xi +1 ) . However, the curvature would
be discontinuous from one window to the next. The cubic spline uses the two
central points to fit yi ( x) and two additional constrains that use the second
derivative (
yi ( x) = ci + di x ) to ensure continuity of curvature at the two central
points
yi ( xi , xi +1 ) . A set of equations from each window is inverted to get the
corresponding coefficients for each yi ( x) . Each equation is then used to fill the
corresponding window. This method ensures a fit at each point. A feature of the
cubic spline is that the matrix is tri-diagonal for easier inversion. All spline
interpolators can also be used with arbitrary intervals between each sample.
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Page 3.54
a)
b)
c)
Figure 3.40 Interpolation illustrations using a) boxcar, b) linear, and c) quadratic
functions
a)
b)
Figure 3.41 Three interpolators in a) with a boxcar, linear, and quadratic shape,
and b) their corresponding Fourier transforms. (N = 11)
Continued convolution of boxcar with itself produces interpolators that tend to
the shape of a Gaussian function (Central limit theorem). A three point boxcar
interpolator is self convolved up to nine times with the results illustrated in Figure
3.42. Convolving with a box car a number of times (say three) is also an efficient
method of smoothing that is often used to smooth elevations to produce a floating
datum: the size of the boxcar would equal a spread-length.
Figure 3.42 Continued convolution of a three point boxcar with itself produces an
interpolator that tends to the Gaussian shape. (N = 3)
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Page 3.55
a)
b)
Figure 3.43 Aliasing in the frequency domain with (a) a normal sample rate, and
(b) when the sampling frequency is halved.
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Page 3.56
a)
Amp
-Fnyq
Fnyq
b)
Freq
Lower sampling
frequency
Amp
-Fs2
-Fnyq
Freq
Fs1
Fnyq
2Fs2
Fs2
c)
Fs1
Fs2
d)
Figure 3.44 Aliasing viewed from repeated spectra, with a) the comb filter of
sampling theory, b) normal sampling, c) half the sampling frequency, and d)
illustrating the circular wrap-around concept where the circumference defines the
sampling frequency.
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Page 3.57
Figure 3.45 Two dipping events with different bandwidths. The horizontal trace
across the bottom shows the amplitudes taken from the main figure.
Aliasing energy can be identified in the 2-D Fourier transform of the above figure.
A schematic representation of the FK domain is shown in Figure 3.46. Note:
The aliased event 1 crosses over the spatial Nyquist frequency Kn.
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Page 3.58
Fc or Kc
F1
Fmax
tan ( ) =
Kn
Kc
(3.21)
where is the dip before or after migration, Kn is the spatial Nyquist frequency,
and Kc the cut off frequency expressed in depth parameters, i.e.
Kn =
1
2 CMPx
, and
Kc =
2
Fc
V
(3.22)
fc =
V
4 CMPx tan ( )
(3.23)
This important equation is also used to define the station interval (2 * CMPx) in
field designs. Some alternate forms of this equation replace q with a, then tan(a)
with sin(). Care must be taken to know whether fc is before or after migration.
Additional information on aliasing may be found in Bancroft [554], [555], [625], and
Lumley [310], [445], and [462].
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Page 3.59
a)
b)
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Page 3.60
Figure 3.48 The wrap-around in Figure 3.24 is repeated many times illustrating
wraparound when using the Fourier transform.
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Page 3.61
The main migrated event that is encircled by the widest blue line has many other
pseudo events at the same dip. Three are identified by the thinner blue lines.
Also note the numerous smiles and frowns with various radii that result from the
lower spike on the input section.
Figure 3.49 FK migration (very poor quality) that illustrates spatial wrap-around.
The FK migrated section is repeated tile fashion in Figure 3.50 to aid in
identifying the source of the artifacts. The energy in each tile is migrated relative
to the neighbouring zero depths; both upper and lower.
Exercise:
1. Locate the relative source of the artifacts in the encircled events.
2. Locate the center of curvature for the many smiles and frowns that
originate from the lower spike on the input section.
3. Note that the reflection and the reflector intersect at the apparent surface.
4. Blue reflectors indicate the apparent surface is above the actual surface,
while green indicates an apparent surface below the actual surface.
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Page 3.62
Figure 3.50 Tiled version of the FK migration on the previous page to illustrate
wrap-around.
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Page 3.63
The energy of the dipping event crosses the Nyquist wave number in (b).
After migration, only the left portion of the dipping energy in (c) is correctly
migrated. The remaining energy is distorted by the migration and becomes
noise to the remaining part of the migration. (A full discussion of this effect is
given later in section 4.4)
x
kx
a)
b)
kx
f
c)
Figure 3.51 Illustration of aliasing or wraparound in the frequency domain
showing (a) an input time section, (b) the 2-D Fourier transform and (c) the
migration in the frequency domain. Spatial aliasing occurs at the center vertical
line.
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Page 3.64
One method of controlling aliasing is illustrated in Figure 3.34 in which the aliased
frequencies are removed with a high cut filter that is applied to the temporal
frequencies.
kx
t
a)
b)
kx
f
c)
Figure 3.52 Similar to Figure 3.51 except that the input section has been filtered
with a low pass frequency filter to prevent aliasing.
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Page 3.65
kx
t
a)
b)
x
kx
t
d)
c)
Figure 3.53 Illustration of the consequence of aliasing. The input section (a) has
a very high frequency content, in (b) the aliased energy visible in the transform
domain is severe, with (c) showing migration and (d) the migrated time section
showing aliasing noise.
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Page 3.66
x
t
a)
kx
b)
Figure 3.54 Repeat of Figure 3.53 illustrating a) the correctly migrated and b)
aliased dipping energy.
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Page 3.67
X methods
Use of DMO
The worst form of trace interpolation, adding dead traces can preserve the
frequency of dipping events with a controlled addition of aliased noise. This is
illustrated in Figure 3.55 which shows the xt and FK domains a) before and b)
after one dead trace was inserted between the live time domain traces, while c)
show an ideal interpolation. Note:
Dipping event in the input data (a) is aliased, where the maximum usable
frequency is F1, and the aliased portion shown in red.
Adding dead traces in the time domain causes the FK domain to double, with
the original FK transform repeated twice, as illustrated in (b).
The right dipping event is not aliased and has a maximum frequency of F2.
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Page 3.68
45
Aliased
energy
a)
45
Aliased
noise
b)
45
c)
Figure 3.55 Illustration dead trace interpolation, a) is the original xt, and FK
domain of an aliased dip, b) the result after adding dead traces between each live
trace in the time domain, and c) an ideal interpolation.
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Page 3.69
1 P
1 P
=
x x
z z
1 2P
.
K t2
(3.24)
The usual form of the wave equation expressed with constant density is,
2P 2P
1 2P
+
=
v2 t 2
x2 z 2
(3.25)
Another form is represented in the Fourier transform domain with second order
partial derivatives of P with respect to x, z, and t, giving,
k +k = 2
x
z v
2
(3.26)
where the k and terms are the Fourier transforms of distance and time.
The paraxial wave equation, or single square root equation may be written as,
k z = 2 k x2
v
(3.27)
2
P
v2 2
2
= i 2 k x P = i 1 2 k x P .
z
v
v
2
(3.28)
Approximate solutions to the square root in the above equation lead to the
development of the parabolic wave equation, also known as the 15 degree
solution, where the variable P is now replaced by a time shifted Q, i.e.,
Q
iv 2
=
kx Q ,
z 2
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Page 3.70
(3.29)
or,
Q v 2Q
=
.
z 2i x 2
(3.30)
- i k x2
Q
=
Q
z vk x2 .
2
v 2
(3.31)
The above methods solved for the depth derivative dQ/dz. This derivative may be
used with the wavefield at depth z to compute a new wavefield at depth z+z.
Using the following definition of the derivative, i.e.,
dP (z ) P (z + z )P (z )
,
dz
z
(3.32)
the terms may be rearranged to solve for the wave field at P(z+z), i.e.,
P (z + z )P (z ) + z
P ( z )
.
z
(3.33)
Many other solutions exist that are based on alternate approximation to the
square root found in the above equations. Some are in Appendix 1.
The Eikonal equation is similar in some manners to the wave equation 3.25 and is
included for a comparison.
2
+
x
1
.
V2
(3.34)
The Eikonal equation does not involve the pressure wave P but is an equation of
slowness used for computing local travel times for depth migration.
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Page 3.71
dx
,
dt
(3.35)
distance
x,
velocity
v =
dx
,
dt
a =
dv
dt
acceleration
d dx
dt dt
d2x
= 2 .
dt
The wave equation relates the rate of changing pressure in the x and z directions
with the rate of changing in pressure over time, i.e.,
2P 2P
1 2P
+
=
.
v2 t 2
x2 z 2
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Page 3.72
(3.36)
vel (7 ) =
dx
dt
distance
x ( 8 ) x (7 )
.
t ( 8 ) t (7 )
(3.37)
distance
x8
x8
x7
x6
x7
x6
t6
t7
t8
time
t6
t7
t8
time
Figure 3.56 The geometry for a) the first and b) the second derivatives.
The second derivative or acceleration at t7 would be found from,
x ( 8 ) x (7 ) x (7 ) x ( 6 )
d x vel (7 ) vel ( 6 )
t
t
=
accel (7 ) = 2
t
t
dt
2
x ( 6 ) 2x (7 ) + x ( 8 ) T x (7 )
=
t 2
t 2
(3.38)
where T is the second derivative operator (1, -2, 1) on three equally spaced values.
Now back to the wave equation, each of the second derivatives may be
approximated by
d 2 p Px 1 2Px + Px +1 T Px
= 2
x 2
x
dx 2
d 2 p Pz 1 2Pz + Pz +1 T Pz
= 2
dz 2
z 2
z
d 2 p Pt 1 2Pt + Pt +1 T Pt
= 2
t 2
t
dt 2
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Page 3.73
These second derivatives are taken at a point (x, z, t) within the volume and along
the respective orthogonal axis illustrated in Figure 3.57. In these equations the
value of P at (x, z, t) is simplified to Px, Pz, and Pt, relative to the respective axis.
Pz-1
Pt+1
Px+1
P
Px-1
Pt-1
Pz+1
Figure 3.57 Orthogonal direction of x, z, and t for solving the wave equation.
The wave equation requires the finite difference terms to balance, i.e.,
Px 1 2P + Px +1 Pz 1 2P + Pz +1 Pt 1 2P + Pt +1
+
=
.
V 2 t 2
x 2
z 2
(3.39)
If we know six of the seven points we can find the seventh point by rearranging
the above equation to solve for that point. When modelling, we have two vertical
planes of P at times at t =0 and t =1 and desire to find the value at the next time
plane at t =2. We therefore solve equation 3.39 for Pt+1, first getting
P 2P + Px +1 Pz 1 2P + Pz +1
+
Pt 1 2P + Pt +1 = V 2t 2 x 1
,
x 2
z 2
(3.40)
P 2P + Px +1 Pz 1 2P + Pz +1
+
Pt +1 = 2P Pt 1 + V 2t 2 x 1
.
2
x
z 2
(3.41)
then,
The process is repeated for all points on the computed plane P(t=1) and then the
process repeated for all points on the next plane P(t=2) and so forth. This method
was used in the modelling examples in chapter two. Given the first two "photos,"
all the points in the next photo were computed using the above equation, and then
the next photo, and so on.
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Page 3.74
Equation (3.39) may be modified to solve for P at (t-1) to perform a reverse time
migration as in Fricke [98]. It may also be modified to solve for P at (z+1) to
compute a new depth layer in downward continuation migration.
A solution for Pz+1 could be used for full wave equation migration, but is not
normally used as it propagates energy in all directions, including multiples from
velocity interfaces. This may seem an advantage, but at the present time it is very
difficult to define the structure accurately enough to collapse the multiples. The
one-way wave equations do not have this problem.
An additional problem encountered by this method is the requirement of the two
starting layers.
Partial differential equations may also be solved with the aid of the Fourier
transform where derivatives may be computed exactly by a frequency
multiplication and phase shift.
The second derivative is easier to represent in the time domain than the first
derivative, (why ?).
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Page 3.75
relative positioning errors in positioning errors may occur in areas with lateral
velocity variations,
A time migration velocity model is based on the RMS velocities that can be
extracted from the stacking velocities.
Kirchhoff time migration:
Slowly collapses a diffraction at the same time location on the time section
with each downward step.
The velocity for each downward step is an interval velocity that is computed
from the RMS velocity.
A band of data from each time section becomes part of the migrated section.
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Page 3.76
Practical depth migration estimates a velocity model by starting at the surface and
estimating the velocity to, and the location of, the first horizon. When that
horizon is defined, the velocity to the next horizon is estimated, and the location
is then defined and then This is known as the layer stripping method. Errors
in any shallow layer will effect those below.
Kirchhoff depth migration:
Slowly collapses diffraction on the time section with each downward step.
Moves the diffraction towards the top of the time section as the downward step
is increased.
After a downward continuation step to depth z, the top time samples P(x, t=0)
are copied to form the migrated section at each depth layer P(x, z).
FK migration:
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Page 3.77
The stacked time section and the migrated time section appear quite similar
with respect to the position of the data.
Small change in velocity only affects the focusing of the data, not the time
position.
A robust process.
When comparing sections acquired with various propagation modes (P-P, S-S,
or P-S), reflections from the same event will occur at different times.
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Page 3.78
It is displayed in depth,
When comparing sections acquired with various propagation modes (P-P, S-S,
or P-S), reflections from the same event should occur at the same depth.
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Page 3.79
the apex is below the point where the image ray meets the surface, and
Image ray
a)
Apparent
location
b)
Figure 3.58 Lateral velocity change in (a) causes a tilt on the diffraction (b).
Collapsing this diffraction using vertical hyperbolas will result in a misspositioning and smearing of the assumed diffracting point. The positioning error
may be corrected by tracing the image ray back to the scatter point.
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Page 3.80
Depth Migration
Hyperbola
Computed diffraction
a)
Time section
Depth section
b)
Z=0
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Page 3.81
Figure 3.60 Time and depth migrations related by normal and image rays.
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Page 3.82
Normal rays are the familiar zero offset rays that reflect at right angles from the
reflectors
Image rays are rays that leave the surface vertically and travel to the reflector,
as illustrated in the following diagram.
Black [323, 324 , and 331] confirms that image ray correction is not an exact
process, and is only accurate for moderate dips. Bevc et al [582] identify errors
with image ray corrections.
Image ray correction is of great value in establishing an initial depth model.
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Page 3.83
A semicircle represents all possible reflectors for a given time response when
the source and receiver are located at the same position (constant velocity).
An ellipse represents all possible reflectors for a given time response when the
source and receiver are located at the foci of the ellipse (constant velocity).
DMO processing requires the NMO to be calculated with RMS (and not
stacking) velocities.
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Page 3.84
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Page 3.85
Blank page.
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Page 3.86