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Complex Analysis Revision Lecture
Complex Analysis Revision Lecture
Complex Analysis Revision Lecture
Charles Walkden
The exam
The exam
The exam
3: Power series
6: Laurent series
3: Power series
6: Laurent series
(6 topics, 4 questions...)
3 Power series
A power series at z0 has the form
an (z z0 )n .
n=0
3 Power series
A power series at z0 has the form
an (z z0 )n .
n=0
X
n=0
an z n
()
3 Power series
A power series at z0 has the form
an (z z0 )n .
n=0
an z n
n=0
()
3 Power series
A power series at z0 has the form
an (z z0 )n .
n=0
an z n
()
n=0
3 Power series
A power series at z0 has the form
an (z z0 )n .
n=0
an z n
()
n=0
3 Radius
of convergence
P
Let
n
n=0 an z
be a power series.
3 Radius
of convergence
P
Let
n
n=0 an z
be a power series.
Proposition
SUPPOSE the following limit exists
an+1
= 1.
lim
n an
R
THEN the radius of convergence is R. (1/0 = , 1/ = 0.)
3 Radius
of convergence
P
Let
n
n=0 an z
be a power series.
Proposition
SUPPOSE the following limit exists
an+1
= 1.
lim
n an
R
THEN the radius of convergence is R. (1/0 = , 1/ = 0.)
Example
Define exp(z) =
zn
n=0 n! .
3 Radius
of convergence
P
Let
n
n=0 an z
be a power series.
Proposition
SUPPOSE the following limit exists
an+1
= 1.
lim
n an
R
THEN the radius of convergence is R. (1/0 = , 1/ = 0.)
Example
Define exp(z) =
zn
n=0 n! .
Then an = 1/n!.
3 Radius
of convergence
P
Let
n
n=0 an z
be a power series.
Proposition
SUPPOSE the following limit exists
an+1
= 1.
lim
n an
R
THEN the radius of convergence is R. (1/0 = , 1/ = 0.)
Example
P
zn
Define exp(z) =
n=0 n! . Then an = 1/n!.
an+1 n!
an = (n + 1)! =
3 Radius
of convergence
P
Let
n
n=0 an z
be a power series.
Proposition
SUPPOSE the following limit exists
an+1
= 1.
lim
n an
R
THEN the radius of convergence is R. (1/0 = , 1/ = 0.)
Example
P
zn
Define exp(z) =
n=0 n! . Then an = 1/n!.
an+1 n!
1
an = (n + 1)! = n + 1
3 Radius
of convergence
P
Let
n
n=0 an z
be a power series.
Proposition
SUPPOSE the following limit exists
an+1
= 1.
lim
n an
R
THEN the radius of convergence is R. (1/0 = , 1/ = 0.)
Example
P
zn
Define exp(z) =
n=0 n! . Then an = 1/n!.
an+1 n!
1
1
an = (n + 1)! = n + 1 0 = R as n .
3 Radius
of convergence
P
Let
n
n=0 an z
be a power series.
Proposition
SUPPOSE the following limit exists
an+1
= 1.
lim
n an
R
THEN the radius of convergence is R. (1/0 = , 1/ = 0.)
Example
P
zn
Define exp(z) =
n=0 n! . Then an = 1/n!.
an+1 n!
1
1
an = (n + 1)! = n + 1 0 = R as n .
So R = . So exp(z) converges for all z C.
3 Radius
of convergence
P
Let
n
n=0 an z
be a power series.
Proposition
SUPPOSE the following limit exists
an+1
= 1.
lim
n an
R
THEN the radius of convergence is R. (1/0 = , 1/ = 0.)
Example
P
zn
Define exp(z) =
n=0 n! . Then an = 1/n!.
an+1 n!
1
1
an = (n + 1)! = n + 1 0 = R as n .
So R = . So exp(z) converges for all z C.
Remark
If you get a z in your formula for R then youve gone wrong.
Example
exp(z) =
X
zn
n=0
n!
= 1+z +
z2 z3 z4
+
+
+ .
2!
3!
4!
Example
exp(z) =
X
zn
n=0
n!
= 1+z +
exp0 (z) =
z2 z3 z4
+
+
+ .
2!
3!
4!
Example
exp(z) =
X
zn
n=0
n!
= 1+z +
exp0 (z) = 1 + z +
z2 z3 z4
+
+
+ .
2!
3!
4!
z2 z3
+
+ =
2!
3!
Example
exp(z) =
X
zn
n=0
n!
= 1+z +
exp0 (z) = 1 + z +
z2 z3 z4
+
+
+ .
2!
3!
4!
z2 z3
+
+ = exp(z).
2!
3!
Theorem P
Theorem P
Theorem P
n=1 nan z
n1
has
Theorem P
n1
n=1 nan z
has
Theorem P
n1
n=1 nan z
has
P
z n has radius of convergence R and
Want to prove: IF
P n=0 ann1
|z| < R THEN n=1 nan z
converges absolutely.
P
z n has radius of convergence R and
Want to prove: IF
P n=0 ann1
|z| < R THEN n=1 nan z
converges absolutely.
P
n
Q: Can we use
n=0 bn z has radius of convergence
the formula:
bn+1
1
R = limn bn ?
P
z n has radius of convergence R and
Want to prove: IF
P n=0 ann1
|z| < R THEN n=1 nan z
converges absolutely.
P
n
Q: Can we use
n=0 bn z has radius of convergence
the formula:
bn+1
1
R = limn bn ?
A: NO! We dont know this limit exists! (In general, it doesnt.)
P
z n has radius of convergence R and
Want to prove: IF
P n=0 ann1
|z| < R THEN n=1 nan z
converges absolutely.
P
n
Q: Can we use
n=0 bn z has radius of convergence
the formula:
bn+1
1
R = limn bn ?
A: NO! We dont know this limit exists! (In general, it doesnt.)
Let |z| < R and choose r s.t. |z| < r < R.
P
z n has radius of convergence R and
Want to prove: IF
P n=0 ann1
|z| < R THEN n=1 nan z
converges absolutely.
P
n
Q: Can we use
n=0 bn z has radius of convergence
the formula:
bn+1
1
R = limn bn ?
A: NO! We dont know this limit exists! (In general, it doesnt.)
P
n
Let |z| < R and choose r s.t. |z| < r < R. Then
n=0 an r
converges absolutely.
P
z n has radius of convergence R and
Want to prove: IF
P n=0 ann1
|z| < R THEN n=1 nan z
converges absolutely.
P
n
Q: Can we use
n=0 bn z has radius of convergence
the formula:
bn+1
1
R = limn bn ?
A: NO! We dont know this limit exists! (In general, it doesnt.)
P
n
Let |z| < R and choose r s.t. |z| < r < R. Then
n=0 an r
converges absolutely.
Hence the summands must tend to zero. Hence the summands
must be bounded:
P
z n has radius of convergence R and
Want to prove: IF
P n=0 ann1
|z| < R THEN n=1 nan z
converges absolutely.
P
n
Q: Can we use
n=0 bn z has radius of convergence
the formula:
bn+1
1
R = limn bn ?
A: NO! We dont know this limit exists! (In general, it doesnt.)
P
n
Let |z| < R and choose r s.t. |z| < r < R. Then
n=0 an r
converges absolutely.
Hence the summands must tend to zero. Hence the summands
must be bounded: i.e. K > 0 s.t. |an r n | < K n 0.
P
z n has radius of convergence R and
Want to prove: IF
P n=0 ann1
|z| < R THEN n=1 nan z
converges absolutely.
P
n
Q: Can we use
n=0 bn z has radius of convergence
the formula:
bn+1
1
R = limn bn ?
A: NO! We dont know this limit exists! (In general, it doesnt.)
P
n
Let |z| < R and choose r s.t. |z| < r < R. Then
n=0 an r
converges absolutely.
Hence the summands must tend to zero. Hence the summands
must be bounded: i.e. K > 0 s.t. |an r n | < K n 0.
Let q = |z|
r (0, 1).
P
z n has radius of convergence R and
Want to prove: IF
P n=0 ann1
|z| < R THEN n=1 nan z
converges absolutely.
P
n
Q: Can we use
n=0 bn z has radius of convergence
the formula:
bn+1
1
R = limn bn ?
A: NO! We dont know this limit exists! (In general, it doesnt.)
P
n
Let |z| < R and choose r s.t. |z| < r < R. Then
n=0 an r
converges absolutely.
Hence the summands must tend to zero. Hence the summands
must be bounded: i.e. K > 0 s.t. |an r n | < K n 0.
Let q = |z|
r (0, 1). Then
z n1
|an r n | z n1 K n1
|nan z n1 | = n|an |
r n1 = n
< nq .
r
r
r
r
P
z n has radius of convergence R and
Want to prove: IF
P n=0 ann1
|z| < R THEN n=1 nan z
converges absolutely.
P
n
Q: Can we use
n=0 bn z has radius of convergence
the formula:
bn+1
1
R = limn bn ?
A: NO! We dont know this limit exists! (In general, it doesnt.)
P
n
Let |z| < R and choose r s.t. |z| < r < R. Then
n=0 an r
converges absolutely.
Hence the summands must tend to zero. Hence the summands
must be bounded: i.e. K > 0 s.t. |an r n | < K n 0.
Let q = |z|
r (0, 1). Then
z n1
|an r n | z n1 K n1
|nan z n1 | = n|an |
r n1 = n
< nq .
r
r
r
r
P
n1 converges to (1 q)2 .
But (fact!)
n=1 nq
P
z n has radius of convergence R and
Want to prove: IF
P n=0 ann1
|z| < R THEN n=1 nan z
converges absolutely.
P
n
Q: Can we use
n=0 bn z has radius of convergence
the formula:
bn+1
1
R = limn bn ?
A: NO! We dont know this limit exists! (In general, it doesnt.)
P
n
Let |z| < R and choose r s.t. |z| < r < R. Then
n=0 an r
converges absolutely.
Hence the summands must tend to zero. Hence the summands
must be bounded: i.e. K > 0 s.t. |an r n | < K n 0.
Let q = |z|
r (0, 1). Then
z n1
|an r n | z n1 K n1
|nan z n1 | = n|an |
r n1 = n
< nq .
r
r
r
r
P
n1 converges to (1 q)2 .
But (fact!)
n=1 nq
P
n1 | converges.
By the comparison test,
n=1 |nan z
4 Contour integration
Suppose f : D C, is a path in D.
4 Contour integration
Suppose f : D C, is a path in D.
Let : [a, b] D be a parametrisation of .
4 Contour integration
Suppose f : D C, is a path in D.
Let : [a, b] D be a parametrisation of .
Definition
Z
Z
f =
4 Contour integration
Suppose f : D C, is a path in D.
Let : [a, b] D be a parametrisation of .
Definition
Z
Z
f =
4 Contour integration
Suppose f : D C, is a path in D.
Let : [a, b] D be a parametrisation of .
Definition
Z
Z
f =
4 Contour integration
Suppose f : D C, is a path in D.
Let : [a, b] D be a parametrisation of .
Definition
Z
Z
f =
Z
f =
f.
Example
f (z) = z 2 .
Example
f (z) = z 2 . f has antiderivative F (z) = z 3 /3.
Example
f (z) = z 2 . f has antiderivative F (z) = z 3 /3.
Let be any path from 0 to i.
Example
f (z) = z 2 . f has antiderivative F (z) = z 3 /3.
Let be any path from 0 to i.
Then
Z
f =
Example
f (z) = z 2 . f has antiderivative F (z) = z 3 /3.
Let be any path from 0 to i.
Then
Z
i3
i
= .
f = F (i) F (0) =
3
3
Remark
Most functions DO NOT have an anti-derivative.
Example
f (z) = z 2 . f has antiderivative F (z) = z 3 /3.
Let be any path from 0 to i.
Then
Z
i3
i
= .
f = F (i) F (0) =
3
3
Remark
Most functions DO NOT have an anti-derivative. Example
f : C \ {0} C, f (z) = 1/z.
4 Cauchys Theorem
If is a closed contour (= starts and ends at the same point, say
z0 ) AND f has an anti-derivative then by the Fund Thm of
Contour Integ
Z
f = F (z0 ) F (z0 ) = 0.
4 Cauchys Theorem
If is a closed contour (= starts and ends at the same point, say
z0 ) AND f has an anti-derivative then by the Fund Thm of
Contour Integ
Z
f = F (z0 ) F (z0 ) = 0.
4 Cauchys Theorem
If is a closed contour (= starts and ends at the same point, say
z0 ) AND f has an anti-derivative then by the Fund Thm of
Contour Integ
Z
f = F (z0 ) F (z0 ) = 0.
f : D C is holomorphic
Then
Z
f = 0.
f : D C is holomorphic
Then
Z
f + +
f = 0.
n
Example
1 =unit circle centre 0 radius 1 described
once anticlockwise.
f (z) = 1/zR on DR = C \ {0}.
Calculate 1 f , 2 f .
Example
1 =unit circle centre 0 radius 1 described
once anticlockwise.
f (z) = 1/zR on DR = C \ {0}.
Calculate 1 f , 2 f .
1 (t) = e it , 0 t 2.
Example
1 =unit circle centre 0 radius 1 described
once anticlockwise.
f (z) = 1/zR on DR = C \ {0}.
Calculate 1 f , 2 f .
(t) = e it , 0 t 2.
R 2
R1
0
1 f = 0 f (1 (t))1 (t) dt
Example
1 =unit circle centre 0 radius 1 described
once anticlockwise.
f (z) = 1/zR on DR = C \ {0}.
Calculate 1 f , 2 f .
(t) = e it , 0 t 2.
R 2
R1
0
1 f = 0 f (1 (t))1 (t) dt
R 2 1 it
= 0 e it ie dt = 2i.
Example
1 =unit circle centre 0 radius 1 described
once anticlockwise.
f (z) = 1/zR on DR = C \ {0}.
Calculate 1 f , 2 f .
(t) = e it , 0 t 2.
R 2
R1
0
1 f = 0 f (1 (t))1 (t) dt
R 2 1 it
= 0 e it ie dt = 2i.
Apply GCT to 1 , 2 and the domain D =
C \ {0}.
Example
1 =unit circle centre 0 radius 1 described
once anticlockwise.
f (z) = 1/zR on DR = C \ {0}.
Calculate 1 f , 2 f .
(t) = e it , 0 t 2.
R 2
R1
0
1 f = 0 f (1 (t))1 (t) dt
R 2 1 it
= 0 e it ie dt = 2i.
Apply GCT to 1 , 2 and the domain D =
C \ {0}.
The only point not in D is 0.
Example
1 =unit circle centre 0 radius 1 described
once anticlockwise.
f (z) = 1/zR on DR = C \ {0}.
Calculate 1 f , 2 f .
(t) = e it , 0 t 2.
R 2
R1
0
1 f = 0 f (1 (t))1 (t) dt
R 2 1 it
= 0 e it ie dt = 2i.
Apply GCT to 1 , 2 and the domain D =
C \ {0}.
The only point not in D is 0.
w (1 , 0) + w (2 , 0) = 1 + 1 = 0.
Example
1 =unit circle centre 0 radius 1 described
once anticlockwise.
f (z) = 1/zR on DR = C \ {0}.
Calculate 1 f , 2 f .
(t) = e it , 0 t 2.
R 2
R1
0
1 f = 0 f (1 (t))1 (t) dt
R 2 1 it
= 0 e it ie dt = 2i.
Apply GCT to 1 , 2 and the domain D =
C \ {0}.
The only point not in D is 0.
w (1 , 0)
R + w (2R, 0) = 1 + 1 = 0.
GCT 1 f + 2 f = 0.
R
R
Hence 2 f = 2 f = 2i.
f is holomorphic on D.
Then
f is holomorphic on D.
Then
I
f is holomorphic on D.
Then
I
X
an (z z0 )n
f (z) =
n=0
f is holomorphic on D.
Then
I
X
an (z z0 )n
f (z) =
n=0
f (n) (z0 )
1
an =
=
n!
2i
Z
Cr
f (z)
dz
(z z0 )n+1
f is holomorphic on D.
Then
I
X
an (z z0 )n
f (z) =
n=0
f (n) (z0 )
1
an =
=
n!
2i
Z
Cr
f (z)
dz
(z z0 )n+1
Then
Then
I
Mn!
.
rn
Then
I
Mn!
.
rn
M
r .
M
r .
M
r .
6 Laurent Series
A power series at z0 has the form
n=0 an (z
z0 )n .
6 Laurent Series
P
n
A power series at z0 has the form
n=0 an (z z0 ) .
This converges for {z C | |z z0 | < R}.
6 Laurent Series
P
n
A power series at z0 has the form
n=0 an (z z0 ) .
This converges for {z C | |z z0 | < R}.
A Laurent series has the form
X
n=
an (z z0 )n .
6 Laurent Series
P
n
A power series at z0 has the form
n=0 an (z z0 ) .
This converges for {z C | |z z0 | < R}.
A Laurent series has the form
an (z z0 )n .
n=
X
n=1
X
bn
+
an (z z0 )n
(z z0 )n
n=0
6 Laurent Series
P
n
A power series at z0 has the form
n=0 an (z z0 ) .
This converges for {z C | |z z0 | < R}.
A Laurent series has the form
an (z z0 )n .
n=
X
n=1
= +
X
bn
+
an (z z0 )n
(z z0 )n
n=0
bn
b1
+ +
+a0 +a1 (zz0 )+ +an (zz0 )n + .
(z z0 )n
z z0
6 Laurent Series
P
n
A power series at z0 has the form
n=0 an (z z0 ) .
This converges for {z C | |z z0 | < R}.
A Laurent series has the form
an (z z0 )n .
n=
X
n=1
= +
X
bn
+
an (z z0 )n
(z z0 )n
n=0
bn
b1
+ +
+a0 +a1 (zz0 )+ +an (zz0 )n + .
(z z0 )n
z z0
6 Laurent Series
P
n
A power series at z0 has the form
n=0 an (z z0 ) .
This converges for {z C | |z z0 | < R}.
A Laurent series has the form
an (z z0 )n .
n=
X
n=1
= +
X
bn
+
an (z z0 )n
(z z0 )n
n=0
bn
b1
+ +
+a0 +a1 (zz0 )+ +an (zz0 )n + .
(z z0 )n
z z0
6 Laurents Theorem
Theorem (Laurents Theorem)
Suppose f is holomorphic on the annulus
{z C | R1 < |z z0 | < R2 }, 0 R1 < R2 .
6 Laurents Theorem
Theorem (Laurents Theorem)
Suppose f is holomorphic on the annulus
{z C | R1 < |z z0 | < R2 }, 0 R1 < R2 .
Then we can write f as a Laurent series
f (z) =
an (z z0 )n +
n=1
on {z C | R1 < |z z0 | < R2 }.
X
n=0
an (z z0 )n
6 Laurents Theorem
Theorem (Laurents Theorem)
Suppose f is holomorphic on the annulus
{z C | R1 < |z z0 | < R2 }, 0 R1 < R2 .
Then we can write f as a Laurent series
f (z) =
an (z z0 )n +
n=1
an (z z0 )n
n=0
on {z C | R1 < |z z0 | < R2 }.
Moreover
1
an =
2i
Z
Cr
f (z)
dz
(z z0 )n+1
Let f (z) =
1
z(1z) .
Let f (z) =
1
z(1z) .
Let f (z) =
1
z(1z) .
Let f (z) =
1
z(1z) .
1
1
(1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + ) = + 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 +
z
z
Let f (z) =
1
z(1z) .
1
1
(1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + ) = + 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 +
z
z
1
z(1z) .
1
z(1z) .
1
z(1z) .
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 3 + 4 +
z
z
z
z
1
z(1z) .
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 3 + 4 +
z
z
z
z
Hence
f (z) =
if 1 < |z| < .
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
z2 z3 z4 z5
1
z(1z) .
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 3 + 4 +
z
z
z
z
Hence
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
z2 z3 z4 z5
if 1 < |z| < . This is the Laurent series on the annulus
1 < |z| < .
f (z) =
Remark
For us, singularities normally occur when f is not even defined at
z0 (usually because we are dividing by 0).
Remark
For us, singularities normally occur when f is not even defined at
z0 (usually because we are dividing by 0).
z0 is an isolated singularity if there are no other singularities
nearby:
Remark
For us, singularities normally occur when f is not even defined at
z0 (usually because we are dividing by 0).
z0 is an isolated singularity if there are no other singularities
nearby: i.e. there exists R > 0 such that f is holomorphic on the
punctured disc 0 < |z z0 | < R.
Remark
For us, singularities normally occur when f is not even defined at
z0 (usually because we are dividing by 0).
z0 is an isolated singularity if there are no other singularities
nearby: i.e. there exists R > 0 such that f is holomorphic on the
punctured disc 0 < |z z0 | < R.
Apply Laurents Theorem to this punctured disc:
f (z) =
X
n=1
X
bn
+
an (z z0 )n
(z z0 )n
n=0
Remark
For us, singularities normally occur when f is not even defined at
z0 (usually because we are dividing by 0).
z0 is an isolated singularity if there are no other singularities
nearby: i.e. there exists R > 0 such that f is holomorphic on the
punctured disc 0 < |z z0 | < R.
Apply Laurents Theorem to this punctured disc:
f (z) =
X
n=1
X
bn
+
an (z z0 )n
(z z0 )n
n=0
bm
b1
+ +
+a0 +a1 (zz0 )+ +an (zz0 )n +
(z z0 )m
z z0
where bm 6= 0.
bm
b1
+ +
+a0 +a1 (zz0 )+ +an (zz0 )n +
(z z0 )m
z z0
where bm 6= 0.
m=order of the pole (most negative power).
bm
b1
+ +
+a0 +a1 (zz0 )+ +an (zz0 )n +
(z z0 )m
z z0
where bm 6= 0.
m=order of the pole (most negative power).
b1 = residue of the pole (coefficient of (z z0 )1 term) =
Res(f , z0 ).
Lemma
Suppose f (z) = p(z)/q(z) where p, q holomorphic. Suppose
I
p(z0 ) 6= 0.
Lemma
Suppose f (z) = p(z)/q(z) where p, q holomorphic. Suppose
I
p(z0 ) 6= 0.
z +1
+ 25)2
(z 2
7 Calculating residues
7 Calculating residues
Lemma
If f has a simple pole at z0 then Res(f , z0 ) = limzz0 (z z0 )f (z).
7 Calculating residues
Lemma
If f has a simple pole at z0 then Res(f , z0 ) = limzz0 (z z0 )f (z).
If f (z) has a pole of order m at z0 then
d m1
1
m
Res(f , z0 ) = lim
((z
z
)
f
(z))
.
0
zz0 (m 1)! dz m1
7 Calculating residues
Suppose f has a pole of order 2 at z0 .
7 Calculating residues
Suppose f has a pole of order 2 at z0 . Then f has a Laurent series
f (z) =
b1
b2
+
+ a0 + a1 (z z0 ) + a2 (z z0 )2 +
(z z0 )2 z z0
on 0 < |z z0 | < R.
7 Calculating residues
Suppose f has a pole of order 2 at z0 . Then f has a Laurent series
f (z) =
b1
b2
+
+ a0 + a1 (z z0 ) + a2 (z z0 )2 +
(z z0 )2 z z0
on 0 < |z z0 | < R.
(zz0 )2 f (z) = b2 +b1 (zz0 )+a0 (zz0 )2 +a1 (zz0 )3 +a2 (zz0 )4 + .
7 Calculating residues
Suppose f has a pole of order 2 at z0 . Then f has a Laurent series
f (z) =
b1
b2
+
+ a0 + a1 (z z0 ) + a2 (z z0 )2 +
(z z0 )2 z z0
on 0 < |z z0 | < R.
(zz0 )2 f (z) = b2 +b1 (zz0 )+a0 (zz0 )2 +a1 (zz0 )3 +a2 (zz0 )4 + .
d
(z z0 )2 f (z) = b1 + 2a0 (z z0 ) + 3a1 (z z0 )2 +
dz
7 Calculating residues
Suppose f has a pole of order 2 at z0 . Then f has a Laurent series
f (z) =
b1
b2
+
+ a0 + a1 (z z0 ) + a2 (z z0 )2 +
(z z0 )2 z z0
on 0 < |z z0 | < R.
(zz0 )2 f (z) = b2 +b1 (zz0 )+a0 (zz0 )2 +a1 (zz0 )3 +a2 (zz0 )4 + .
d
(z z0 )2 f (z) = b1 + 2a0 (z z0 ) + 3a1 (z z0 )2 +
dz
lim
zz0
d
(z z0 )2 f (z) = b1 .
dz
Then
Z
f (z) dz = 2i
n
X
j=1
Res(f , zj ).
e iz
.
(z3)2
e iz
.
(z3)2
e iz
.
(z3)2
d
(z 3)2 f (z)
z3 dz
Res(f , 3) = lim
e iz
.
(z3)2
d iz
d
e = lim ie iz = ie 3i .
(z 3)2 f (z) = lim
z3 dz
z3
z3 dz
Res(f , 3) = lim
e iz
.
(z3)2
d iz
d
e = lim ie iz = ie 3i .
(z 3)2 f (z) = lim
z3 dz
z3
z3 dz
Res(f , 3) = lim
e iz
.
(z3)2
d iz
d
e = lim ie iz = ie 3i .
(z 3)2 f (z) = lim
z3 dz
z3
z3 dz
Res(f , 3) = lim
e iz
.
(z3)2
d iz
d
e = lim ie iz = ie 3i .
(z 3)2 f (z) = lim
z3 dz
z3
z3 dz
Res(f , 3) = lim
e iz
.
(z3)2
d iz
d
e = lim ie iz = ie 3i .
(z 3)2 f (z) = lim
z3 dz
z3
z3 dz
Res(f , 3) = lim
Z
f (x) dx =
lim
A,B A
f (x) dx
(1)
Z
f (x) dx =
lim
A,B A
f (x) dx
R R
f (x) dx
(2)
(1)
Z
f (x) dx =
lim
A,B A
f (x) dx
R R
f (x) dx
(2)
(1)
Z
f (x) dx =
lim
A,B A
f (x) dx
(1)
R R
f (x) dx
(2)
7 Applications
of the CRT: calculating infinite integrals
R
To calculate
f (x) dx:
7 Applications
of the CRT: calculating infinite integrals
R
7 Applications
of the CRT: calculating infinite integrals
R
7 Applications
of the CRT: calculating infinite integrals
R
7 Applications
of the CRT: calculating infinite integrals
R
7 Applications
of the CRT: calculating infinite integrals
R
f +
[R,R]
f.
SR
7 Applications
of the CRT: calculating infinite integrals
R
f +
[R,R]
f.
SR
R
SR
f 0 as
7 Applications
of the CRT: calculating infinite integrals
R
f +
[R,R]
f.
SR
R
SR
R [R,R]
f 0 as
f.
7 Applications
of the CRT: calculating infinite integrals
R
f +
[R,R]
f.
SR
R
SR
R [R,R]
f 0 as
f.