THE ARABS

ARABS
THE

BY
BOOKS BY

BERTRAM THOMAS

BERTRAM THOMAS

THE

THE ARABS
ARABIA FELIX

AND EXCURSIONS IN ARABIA

ALARMS AND

 ......

BERTRAM THOMAS.
(By
of tile
artist, Sir
Russell, R
RA
A)
the artist,
Walter Russell
Str Walter
(By courlelY
courtesy of
)

THE LIFE STORY OF A PEOPLE WHO HAVE

LEFT THEIR DEEP IMPRESS ON THE WORLD

By
By

BERTRAM THOMAS
O.B.E.
(Mil.): Ph.D.
(Cantab): DXitt.
D.Litt. (hon.)
Ph.D. (Cantab)
O.B.E. (MiL)
(hon.)
Bristol:
D.Sc. (hon.)
(hon.) Acadia,
Acadia, Nova Scotia
Bristol: D,Sc.
Scotia
For some
time Political
Political Officer
Mesopotamia: Assistant
Assistant British
British
Officer Mesopotamia:
some time
For
Trans-Jordan:
Prime
Minister
Representative,
Prime
Minister
Trans-Jordan:
Representative,
to the
the Sultan
Muscat and
and Oman
of Muscat
to
Sultan of
:

the Royal
Royal Geographical
Society:
Gold
medallist of
Gold medallist
of the
Geographical Society:
Antwerp: the
the
Royal Geographical
Society of
the Royal
the
of Antwerp:
Geographical Society
the Royal
Royal
Geographical
Society of
'York: the
of New York:
Geographical Society
Geographical
Society of
of Scotland:
Scotland: and
and
Geographical Society
of the
Burton Memorial
Memorial medallist
medallist of
Burton
the
Royal Asiatic
Asiatic Society
Society
Royal

DOUBLEDAY, DORAN AND CO.,

CO., INC.
DOUBLEDAY,
Garden
Garden City,
City, New York
1937
1937

GARDEN CITY,

COPYRIGHT, 1937
1937
& COMPANY, INC.
BY DOUBLEDAY,
DOUBLEDAY, DORAN &:
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
FIRST EDITION

N. Y,, U. S. A.

FOREWORD

I would acknowledge
indebtedness to
to exexacknowledge my
my indebtedness
Harvard University,
University,
at
at whose invitation
invitation II was privileged,
privileged, last
year, to
last year,
to deliver
deliver
at the
the Lowell
Lowell Instithe
Lowell Lectures
Instithe Lowell
Lectures on 'The Arabs'
Arabs at
Boston.
researches
tute,
Boston.
The
researches
necessary
for
those
lectures,
for
those
tute,
lectures,
necessary
in many
many Arab countries,
following fourteen
residence in
fourteen years
countries,
years residence
following
volume, of
life
prompted this
this setting
in a
a single
of a
a life
forth, in
setting forth,
prompted
single volume,
a
story
of
the
people,
a
story
of
wide
scope
and
varied
of
the
Arab
of
varied
people,
story
scope
story
a compass,
interest
so small
it does
interest for
for so
small a
as it
does an
compass, attempting
attempting as
of their
their history,
history, religion,
civilization and
outline
outline of
medieval civilization
religion, medieval
In these
these pages
pages my
my address
address is
to the
later-day politics.
politics. In
the
is to
later-day
general
reader.
reader.
general
fields of
of learning
Orientalist authorities
learning have
have
authorities in
in many
Orientalist
many fields
this brings
another
to another
been freely
freely drawn upon,
upon, and this
brings me to
been
A
authors
of
deep
obligation.
list
of
such
authors
acknowledgment
of
such
list
of
deep obligation.
acknowledgment
the
and their
their works
works forms aa brief
br'ief selected
bibliography at
at the
selected bibliography
end of
of the
the book.
book.
end
the
of the
index lowe
devotion and many
many of
I owe to
wife's devotion
to my
The index
my wife's
are
illustrations to
kindness of
of friends
whose names are
friends whose
the kindness
illustrations
to the
acknowledged
in
appropriate
places.
Finally,
the help
of
in
help of
appropriate places. Finally, the
acknowledged
FIRST

President A.
A. Lawrence Lowell
Lowell of
President
of

[v]
[v]

FOREWORD
to read through
so good
as to
those who have
have been
been so
through my
those
good as
my manuand
make
valuable
suggestions-Professor
Marscript
valuable
Professor
suggestions
script
goliouth,
Zada, Mrs
Professor Gibb,
Gibb, Mr Mahmood Zada,
goliouth, Professor
Sir Percy
L. R.
Cox is gratefully
D. L.
R. Lorimer and Sir
Percy Cox-is
regratefully reviewpoints are
not always
theirs,
membered. The viewpoints
are not
of
always theirs, of
course,
but
my
own.
but
course,
my

BERTRAM THOMAS

Christmas 1936
1936
THE WHITE FRIARS
SANDWICH
KENT

[vi]
[vi]

CONTENTS

Foreword
Foreword

v
PART ONE

THE RISE
of Antiquity
Antiquity
II The Arabs
Arabs of
The Prophet
II
II
Prophet Muhammad
Arab World
Wodd Conquest-Eastwards
III
III
Conquest Eastwards
Arab World Conquest-Westwards
IV Arab
Conquest Westwards

33
27
27

65
65
93
93

PART TWO

ARAB CIVILIZATION
Medieval State
and Its
Its Society
V The Medieval
State and
Society
VI The Arts
Arts
Sciences
VII The Sciences
VII

III

111

141
141
168
168

PART THREE

THE DECLINE
and Decline
Decline
VIII Disintegration
VIII
Disintegration and
Arabs of
Arabia
of Arabia
IX The Arabs
the West
West: Eastern
Eastern Repercussions
Rise of
of the
X Rise
Repercussions
:

[vii]
[vii]

195
195
221
2
25
252

CONTENTS
PART FOUR

REVIVAL
W orId War
XI The Arabs and
and the
the World
XII

Palestine
Palestine
Epilogue
Epilogue

275
275
293
293
21
3321

APPENDIX

Racial Origins
Arabs
the Arabs
Racial
Origins of
of the
Bibliography
Bibliography
Index

[[ viii
viii]]

337
337
347
347
353
353

ILLUSTRATIONS

Bertram Thomas

Tapping
Tapping aa Frankincense Bush
Scene
A Desert
Desert Scene
Ancient South Arabian
Arabian Inscription
Inscription
The Oldest Known Islamic
Islamic Monument
Showing
Early Arabic
Arabic Character
Character
Showing Early
Postures
of Prayer
Postures of
Prayer
The Courtyard
of Al Azhar Mosque
Courtyard of
Mosque
Sultan
The Tomb Mosque
of
Sultan
Barquq
of
Mosque
Barquq
of
The Sanctuary
and Lamp
Screen and
Sanctuary Screen
Lamp of
Sultan Barquq
Sultan
Barquq Mosque
Mosque
Glass Lamp
of Fourteenth
Fourteenth Century
A Glass
Lamp of
Century
King
Ibn Sa'ud
Sa'ud
King Ibn
A Small
the Pearling
Small Arab Dhow on the
Pearling Banks
A Water-Hole in
in the
the Desert
Policeman
ordan
Desert
Policeman
A Trans-]
Desert
Trans-Jordan
in
the
Coffee
in
the
Yemen
Coffee Country
Country
A Beduin
Beduin Group
Group
of
A Group
Arab Townsmen
of
Group
[ix
[ix]1

Frontispiece
Frontispiece
Facing
page
Facing page
6
6
6
6
22
26
65
142

148

150
150

8
15
158
23 8
238
242
242
242
242
246
246

6
24
246
250
250
250
250

ILLUSTRATIONS

Facing
Facing
Faisal
The Late King
Faisal
King
A Palestine
Palestine Arab
A Palestine
Palestine Jew
Jew
Arabs
at Work Together
Jews
and
at
Together
Jews
School
An Arab School
Arab Racial
Racial Types:
Types Hamitic Characters
Arab Racial
Racial Types
Typ~s: Mediterranean
Mediterranean Characters
Characters
Arab Racial
Racial Types
Types: Armenoid Characters
:

page
page
290
290
294294
294294
302
302
22
3322
342
34-2
2
342
34342
34- 2

MAPS
before Muhammad
Arabia before
10
Past
Divisions of Arabia
Past and Present
Present Political
Political Divisions
224224
Arab States
States under Turkish Dominion
before
the War
before the
276
276
Arab World Conquests,
to
Seventh
Seventh
to
Conquests,
Centuries
Eighth
End of
Eighth Centuries
of Book

[x 1

Part
Part

One
One

RISE
THE RISE

CHAPTER II

The Arabs of
Antiquity
of Antiquity
the full
To bear with a valiant front
front the
full brunt
brunt of
of every
stroke
every stroke
and onset
the fairest
of Fate,
FateJ were still
still the
fairest and best
of things.
thmgs.
and,
onset of
best of
FROM AN ANCIENT ARABIAN POEM.

A T THE DAWN of history

history Arabia formed aa wedge
wedge of
of
semibarbarism between Egypt
Egypt and Sumer. It
It was aa barren,
barren,

forbidding,
undesirable land,
barrier, in
in itself,
a natural
natural barrier,
land, a
itself,
forbidding, undesirable
to the
civilized man. So deficient
to
the intrusion
intrusion of early
in
deficient in
early civilized
it that not a single
rains
river was sustained
rains was it
sustained throughsingle river
throughits great
out its
great length
length and breadth.
breadth. Sharp
Sharp naked mountains
rose grimly
grimly from bleak
bleak uplifted
plateaux, and wide
rose
uplifted plateaux,
its greater
horizons of rolling
rolling sands made up
part. By
By
horizons
greater part.
up its
beat
these
day
a
merciless
sun
beat
down
upon
these
wildernesses,
merciless
wildernesses,
upon
day
and scorching
them j it
it was aa brown
across them;
scorching winds swept
swept across
treeless land
and well-nigh
land where Nature with
with niggard
well-nigh treeless
niggard
a cruel
cruel
decent shade and shelter,
hand withheld
withheld even decent
shelter, a
a
environment where only
a
brave,
a
cunning
and
a
hardy
a
brave,
cunning
hardy
only
Its inhabitants
race
inhabitants were wild
wild
could survive.
of men could
survive. Its
race of
must
peoples who,
surrounded
by
hardships,
nomadic peoples
who,
by hardships,
fortitude and,
display
pressed by
by hunger,
and, pressed
hunger,
display endurance and fortitude
develop
of aggression
ferocity. Clans of
aggression and ferocity.
develop qualities
qualities of
fierce
kinsmen grew
a fierce
but fundamentally
into tribes,
kinsmen
tribes, but
fundamentally a
grew into
distrust were their
individualism and an all-embracing
their
individualism
all-embracing distrust

[3]
[3]

THE ARABS
chief characteristics.
characteristics.
chief

beasts useful
Of beasts
useful to
to man,
man, the camel
solithese
in
alone
could
support
life
in
these
sandy,
waterless solialone could support life
sandy, waterless
tudes, and
and with
their herds
herds the Arabs wandered from
with their
tudes,
pasture
to
pasture,
from
water hole
hole to
to water hole,
to
hole,
pasture,
pasture
which
guided
at
night
by
the
stars
they
early
to
stars
the
they early learned to
guided at night by
their meat and drink,
know and
of their
source of
the source
and name. As the
drink,
their coarse garments,
their tents
tents of
garments, the
the sum
hair and their
of hair
their
the camel won their
of
their material
material existence,
their reverence
reverence
of their
existence, the
their
- aa reverence
reverence it
among their desert
still commands among
desert
it still
descendants of today.
descendants
today.
fall and collect
collect in
scant rains
in the
the coastal
rains did fall
coastal
Where scant
to
the
sea
the
the
sea
the
periphery
mountain
valleys
sloping
to
down
mountain valleys sloping
periphery
of
Arabia was more favoured as
as man's dwelling
place.
of Arabia
dwelling place.
in
floors
Copious
wells
in
the
valley
Hoors
and
shady
palm
groves
the
wells
valley
shady palm groves
Copious
about them permitted
permitted of
habitation, and in
time
of settled
settled habitation,
in time
about
the amenities
could be
be increased
increased by
by the
the introduclife could
amenities of life
introducthe
the
the
and
ass.
tion
of goats
and
cattle,
the
horse
the
ass.
settleThese
settletion of
cattle,
goats
colonies
into
who
ments developed
into
colonies
of
people
gradually
developed
people
gradually
acquired,
not already
already possess,
possess, characteristics
if they
did not
characteristics
they did
acquired, if
desert kinsmen.
kinsmen. Along
Along the
quite different
different from their
their desert
the
quite
coasts
fishermen were potential
potential boatbuilders
boatbuilders and
and seamen,
coasts fishermen
seamen,
time went on strange
overseas-the
and as
as time
the
strange mariners from overseas
first
perhaps from ancient
to barter,
barter, bringfirst perhaps
ancient Egypt-came
Egypt came to
bringof
agriculture.
ing
also
the
science
also
the
science
agriculture.
ing
From petty
petty beginnings
beginnings aa more corporate
corporate life
up
life grew
grew up
in
and
in favoured
favoured spots
aa comparatively
outspots
comparatively enlightened
enlightened outin contrast
contrast to
the insular
and unchanging
unchanging ways
ways of
look,
to the
insular and
of
look, in
in the
the desert.
the earliest
times such
the
desert. But in
earliest times
such settlements
settlements were
were
few and insignificant,
insignificant, and the
peoples of
Arabia were for
the peoples
of Arabia
for
the
the most part
part nomadic tribes
mainly regarded
regarded
tribes who were mainly
as
their
as barbarians
barbarians by
their
civilized
neighbours.
They
civilized
by
neighbours. They were
men of predatory
predatory habit,
habit, men given
given to
to robbery
robbery with
with vioviolence.
In
the
of the
the Bible
the Arab nomad
lence. In the very
first book of
Bible the
very first

[4J
[4]

THE ARABS OF ANTIQUITY

is
us in
in the
the person
person of
of Ishmael.
'He will
will
is summed up
Ishmael, 'He
up for us
his hand will
be aa wild man;
man; his
will be
every man,
man, and
be
be against
and
against every
hand
him.'
every
man's
against
him.'
This
of
course
is
the
traThis
of
course
is
the
traagainst
every
ditional
view throughout
the ages
to this
this day,
ditional view
and down to
throughout the
ages and
day,
the view of the
the neighbouring
neighbouring settled
man, the
the agriculthe
settled man,
agriculturalist and the
the trader,
the man who has
accumulated
turalist
has accumulated
trader, the
possessions
and
cherishes
security.
cherishes
security.
possessions
The inhabitants
of Arabia have
comprised these
these
inhabitants of
have always
always comprised
types, the
the militant
peaceful settler.
militant nomad and the
two types,
the peaceful
settler.
mutual antagonism
has
divided
them.
In
a
land
where
has
divided
them.
A mutual
In
a
land
where
antagonism
famine
and
ignorance
combined
to
prevent
a
rational
way
combined
to
a
famine
ignorance
prevent rational way
of life
life the
the settled
regarded the
a natural
natural
settled man regarded
the nomad as
of
as a
enemy,
the
nomad
regarded
the
settled
man
as
a
legitimate
the
the
settled
as
a
regarded
enemy,
legitimate
prey. Arabia
Arabia Deserta
Deserta was an
an unsubjugated
and savage,
savage, if
if
unsubjugated and
prey.
thinly populated
populated world,
world, whose denizens,
in the
the intervals
intervals
denizens, in
thinly
of their
their pastoral
pastoral pursuits,
pursuits, issued
on plundering
plundering
issued forth
forth on
of
raids into
the lands
lands of
the settled
towards the
of the
settled dwellers
dwellers towards
into the
raids
the
no
terror
for
them.
coasts.
Shedding
innocent
blood
innocent
blood
had
no
terror
for
coasts. Shedding
them.
They had their
code of
honour and
tribal
their own code
of tribal
tribal honour
and tribal
They
sanctions. Nor was it
it entirely
without
mercy.
right
without
The
of
sanctions.
mercy.
entirely
right of
asylum,
for
instance,
sacrosanct,
the
custom
whereby
the
was
for
custom
sacrosanct,
instance,
whereby
asylum,
aa refugee
refugee from another's
protection by
another's wrath once
once given
given protection
by
desert tribe
tribe could
feel as
as safe
they would
would
a desert
safe as
as they;
could feel
a
they; they
his offence,
never surrender
whatever his
offence, however ininsurrender him whatever
never
or
inducement
an
fluential
the
pursuer
or
tempting
the
inducement-an
the
fluential the pursuer
tempting
honourable tradition
tradition to
to which
which the
the desert
desert dwellers
dwellers of
of our
honourable
time are
true.
are true.
time
There was
was not
godly religion
in Arabia
Arabia before
before
not much godly
religion in
day. Those nomads who worshipped
worshipped anyMuhammad's day.
anynot
thing
at
all
(for
by
nature
they
were
not
spiritually
nature
all
at
spiritually
they
(for by
thing
minded men)
to have
have had aa predilection
predilection for
for trees
trees
minded
men) seem to
of
abodes
and
stones,
believing
these
to
be
the
abodes
of
spirits.
the
be
to
these
and stones, believing
spirits.
monolith was probably
probably a widely
widely
or monolith
stone or
The single
single stone

[5]
[5]

THE ARABS
cult and possibly
Semitic cult
spread
possibly the
the prototype
prototype of the
the
spread Semitic
tended
to
man
resettled
The
settled
doubtless
to
evolve
realtar.
altar.
uniligious
observances, but here again
again there was no uniligious observances,
its
had
settlement
favourite
Every
settlement
its
own
favourite
local
formity.
local
formity. Every
the spirit
spirit.
preferred here;
doom, was preferred
here;
Mana, the
spirit of doom,
spirit. Mana,
there
others
Gadd,
Yaghuth,
the spirit
luck, there; others were Yaghuth,
Gadd, the
good luck,
spirit of good
the helper;
helper; Wadd,
Wadd, the spirit
Many of
of
the
spirit of friendship.
friendship. Many
been
to
these
appear
to
have
been
propitiated
or
exorcised
exorcised
these spirits
propitiated
spirits appear
influence dreaded rather
rather
worshipped, their
their influence
rather
than worshipped,
rather than
cult of propitiating
this day
than invoked,
invoked, and to
to this
propitiating and
than
day a cult
is
exorcising
spirits
is
practised
throughout
coasts of
of
practised throughout the coasts
exorcising spirits
the
aueastern
covertly
where
the
aueastern and southern Arabia,
Arabia, covertly
1
thorities
are religious
thorities are
active, elsewhere quite
quite openly.l
religious and active,
openly.
idol worship,
times idol
late inIn
immediate pre-Islamic
pre-Islamic times
in~
In immediate
worship, a late
in
the
was
novation
practised
in
the
settlements
settlements
novation from Syria,
Syria,
practised
old trade
trade routes,
the spirits
came,
along
the old
routes, and some of the
spirits came,
along the
be represented
to be
by
images.
too,
too, to
represented by images.
of antiquity
Marriage
with the Arabs of
probably
Marriage with
antiquity was probably
at first
casual link
link bordering
at
very casual
promiscuity. It
It is
is
first a
a very
bordering on promiscuity.
little from the
differed little
the practice
to
likely
to have
have differed
practice attributed
attributed to
likely to
most primitive
primitive cultures,
whereby the
the woman remained in
in
cultures, whereby
the children
she bore came to
tribe and the
children she
her own tribe
to be
be memat the
the beginning
of her totem.
totem. Indeed,
Indeed, at
beginning of
the Chrisbers of
bers
of the
Christhat
children
it would appear
that
Arab
children
customarily
tian Era it
tian
appear
customarily
their mothers
mothers rather
rather than
their
took their
their names from their
took
than their
son of
the model of Simon son
rather
fathers,
after the
of Miriam rather
fathers, after
than Simon son
Jonas, and this
this .practice
to this
son of Jonas,
survives to
this
practice survives
the
tribes
the
of
the
deserts,
though
rarely
day
among
the
nomadic
tribes
of
deserts, though rarely
day among
settled Arabs. As time
time went on men came to
to
found among
among settled
take
take wives
basis
unto themselves
the more enduring
wives unto
themselves on the
enduring basis
familiar to
children were
to us,
us, and children
were born into
into the
familiar
the father's
father's
tribe. Endogamous
tribe.
marriages between cousins
doubtcousins were doubtEndogamous marriages
;

a
'For
rites see
Alarms and
and Excursions
Excursionl in
Arabia.
of the
For description
the rites
see my
in Arabia.
description of
my Alarms

[6]
[6]

y*

TAPPING A
FRANKINCENSE BUSH.
BUSH.
A FRANKINCENSE

A
DESERT SCENE.
SCENE.
A DESERT

THE ARABS OF ANTIQUITY

less
rule, and marriage
marriage by
by capture
common. Men were
the rule,
less the
were
capture common.
of
they could
could afford
there
course polygynous,
of course
afford it,
polygynous, where they
it, there
of wives
wives one
set to
being
no limit
limit set
the number of
to the
one man could
could
being no
over these
wives and
could divl3rce
have.
these wives
have. He had dominion over
and could
divorce
will, and if
his brother
brother inherited
inherited his
them at
if a
at will,
a man died
died his
his
Arabs love
love
widows as
as though
chattels. The Arabs
though they
they were chattels.
children,
must always
always have
have been
been desirable
desirable in
the
sons must
in the
children, and sons
are
those
which
desert,
where
the
aggressive
qualities
the
are
those which
desert,
aggressive qualities
Nature demands and rewards
the measure
measure of
rewards and
Nature
and the
of a
a man
kinsmen he
he has
to rally
rally to
to
is
the number of
of kinsmen
is the
has to
to his
his side
side or
or to
avenge
him.
Contraception
must
have
been
as
repugnant
him.
must
have
been
as
Contraception
avenge
repugnant
traditions insist
that female
then as
the Arab traditions
then
as now,
insist that
female
now, yet
yet the
sidelight
on
infanticide
commonly practised-a
infanticide was commonly
a
practised
sidelight on
Arabia's habitual
hunger.
habitual hunger.
Arabia's
Within the
the peninsula
peninsula the
unconcerned with
with an
an
the Arabs,
Arabs, unconcerned
pastoral life.
outside
world, lived
their frugal
lived their
life. When their
outside world,
their
frugal pastoral
brought
them
near
to
settlements
can
picwanderings
near
to
settlements
we
can
wanderings brought
picture them on the.
lookout to
to pick
pick up
up better
better weapons,
weapons, for
the lookout
ture
for
these
mounts formed the
consideratheir mounts
these and their
the supreme
supreme considerato this
this end
end they
may
have
taken
temporary
tion. And to
taken
tion.
have
servthey may
temporary service
merchants as
though
they
would
have
as caravaners,
have
would
ice with
^ith merchants
caravaners, though they
to
their
and
too
firmly
to
their
free
and
easy
life
of
the
been
wedded
free
been too firmly
easy life of the
as for
for agriculture,
deserts
to do
this for
none
do this
for long;
deserts to
agriculture, none
long; and as
of
the
would
have stooped
so
low,
for
the
traditional
view
so
traditional
of
for
the
view
the
would have
low,
stooped
is
desert
warrior, impecunious
impecunious and ragged
though
he
be,
he
desert warrior,
be, is
ragged though
that
job. And so
with other
other crafts.
so with
crafts.
is a
a slave's
slave's job.
that husbandry
husbandry is
There was,
was, of
no pottery,
pottery, for
fragile vessels
vessels have
have
of course,
for fragile
course, no
carried
their
water
in
skins,
no place
place in
in
carried
their
life. They
in nomadic life.
no
skins,
They
the
and practically
practically all
their simple
wants were met by
by the
all their
simple wants
hides
the hair
hair and hides
roughest weaving
weaving and fashioning
fashioning of the
roughest
their
camels.
provided
by
camels.
their
provided by
The single
single notable
in an
artless existence
existence
an otherwise
otherwise artless
art in
notable art
lovers of
notorious lovers
of
was poetry.
poetry. The desert
desert men were notorious

[7J
[7]

THE ARABS
titillating rhyme,
to which
their language
language lent
lent
which their
a thing
titillating
rhyme, a
thing to
itself,
and
in
spite
of
their
illiteracy
they
were
great
in
their
were
and
of
itself,
spite
illiteracy they
great
2
versifiers.
probably told
in rhymed
folklore 2 was probably
told in
versifiers. Their folklore
rhymed
prose,
though the
the boasting
measures, most beloved
beloved by
by
prose, though
boasting measures,
had chiefly
to
do
with
or
love
or
hospitality,
and
them,
war
or
and
with
or
love
to
them, had
chiefly
hospitality,
the
most assuredly
be subordinated
the
the sense
could be
to the
sense most
subordinated to
assuredly could
sound.
Arabs
today
fondly
cherish
a
tradition
that
some
of
tradition
a
that
of
sound.
today fondly cherish
the
most complex
metres in
in all
all the
variety known to
to
the most
the great
great variety
complex metres
Arabic
verse existed
the
illiterate
of
the
prethe
illiterate
Arabs
of
the
Arabic verse
existed among
among
preIslamic
however, scarcely
shared by
by
Islamic centuries;
a belief,
belief, however,
centuries; a
scarcely shared
our
authorities.
our authorities.
While Arabia
Arabia Deserta
Deserta followed
followed these
these primitive
primitive ways
ways
of Arabia
Arabia Felix
the mountainous
regions of
the far
far southFelix in
in the
souththe
mountainous regions
attracted
west were
relatively civilized.
west
civilized. Here spice
were relatively
spice groves
groves attracted
traders
from across
the seas,
and
soon
the
civilized
world
the
civilized
across the
traders from
soon
seas,
whence they
they came was sending
wares in
exchange for
its wares
in exchange
for
sending its
shipments
of
the
local
produce.
With
trade
cultural
trade
the
came
of
local
cultural
shipments
produce.
Arabian riches
influences,
the fame of
of those
south Arabian
riches
those south
influences, and the
throughout
the
ancient
East.
Our
Scriptures
went echoing
East.
the
ancient
echoing throughout
Scriptures
give
glimpses of
caravans, loaded
of caravans,
with frankincense
loaded with
frankincense and
give glimpses
precious
beyond the
to
the great
deserts to
coming from beyond
precious spices,
spices, coming
great deserts
the courts
courts of
Israel. But Israel
not
Arabia's
of Israel.
Israel was clearly
the
not
Arabia's
clearly
first
greatest mart.
mart. That title
title belongs
belongs to
to ancient
Egypt,
first or
or greatest
ancient Egypt,
for
the
use
of
frankincense
there
is
known
to
date
back
to
to date back to
for the use of frankincense there is
the third
third millennium
millennium B.C.
to which
which it
it was put
put
the
B.C. The purposes
purposes to
were in
in part
part magical,
magical, in
in part
part ceremonial
probably at
at
ceremonial and probably
first
both. It
burned on all
It was burned
all sacred
first both.
sacred and solemn
solemn occaoccaritual of
sions
the ritual
of the
temple, in
in the
the process
process of
of mummifiin the
the temple,
sions in
of princes
princes of
of the
the royal
royal blood
blood and of
animals,
cation
cation of
sacred animals,
of sacred
In Israelitish
Israelitish times
times it
it was burnt
burnt bebeand in
in funeral
rites. In
funeral rites.
it
brought
with
gold
fore
tabernacle of
the tabernacle
fore the
the Lord,
of the
was
it
with
Lord,
brought
gold
2
"For
the folklore
Beduin of
the South
South Arabian
Arabian desert
desert see
see my
my Arabia
Arabia
For the
of Beduin
folklore of
of the

Felix.
Felix.

[8
[8]]

THE ARABS OF ANTIQUITY

the three
and myrrh
by the
three wise
wise men to
to our
infant Lord,
and
our infant
myrrh by
Lord, and
later its
the ritual
later
its use
use in
in the
ritual of
worship appears
appears
of Christian
Christian worship
established in
in Justinian's
fully
Justinian's time
(sixth century)
as it
time (sixth
it
fully established
century) as
in
already
in
Hellenistic
court
ceremonial.
was
Hellenistic
court
ceremonial.
already
size and splendour
The size
the caravans
later
of the
caravans that
that later
splendour of
brought the
through Arabia
the Greco-Roman
the spices
Arabia to
to the
Greco-Roman
spices up
up through
brought
are proverbial.
proverbial. We can
picture the
the incense
incense harharworld are
can picture
vesters in
the southern
southern mountains tapping
tapping the
the silver
shrubs
in the
vesters
silver shrubs
for
the coveted
coveted gum;
merchants garnering
the merchants
for the
sackloads
gum the
garnering sackloads
of
the dried
dried sweet-smelling
resin
in
their
spacious
of the
resin
in
their
sweet-smelling
spacious gogodowns or
an
army
of
camels
couched
for
loador supervising
of
camels
couched
for loadsupervising
army
giving their
their final
instructions to
to agents
agents who will
will
ing and giving
final instructions
ing
accompany
marts of
the
to the
the marts
of the
the outside
outside world;
world; the
accompany them to
long
serpentine
caravans
winding
northwards
through
the
caravans
northwards
the
winding
long serpentine
through
the caravaners
wilderness,
caravaners ever
fearful of
of nomads swoopever fearful
wilderness, the
swooping
upon them,
here taking
taking aa guide
guide to
as safeto act
act as
safethem, here
ing down upon
conduct,
by
day
and
moving
forward
under
there halting
forward
under
conduct, there
halting by day
moving
cover
night, always,
may be
paying bribes
bribes to
to
cover of
of night,
be sure,
sure, paying
always, we may
the
tribes
through
whose
territory
they
passed
to
ensure
the tribes through
territory they passed to ensure
immunity
as has
has been the
way of
pious Mosof pious
the way
attack, as
immunity from attack,
the outside
the Islamic
centuries
lems
all down the
outside world all
Islamic centuries
lems from the
when making
making the
the pilgrimage
pilgrimage to
to the
holy places
places of
of Mecca
the holy
and Medina.
"Settlements
been dignified
with the
of
the name of
"Settlements which have been
dignified with
chief
cities
up
along
these
ancient
trade
routes,
the
chief
trade
the
these
ancient
cities sprang
routes,
sprang up along
of
the southwest.
the merchants
merchants lived
in
lived in
southwest. There the
in the
of them in
what must
must have
have been
been opulent
opulent and cultured
cultured surroundings
what
surroundings
for
the Arabia of
times. The main frankincense
of those
those times.
for the
linas they
groves
lay
probably
to
the
eastwards
as
they do today,
today, linto
the
eastwards
groves lay probably
in
feet up,
ing
the red
mountain valleys
up, in the
the
red mountain
valleys two thousand feet
ing the
the
destowards
Qara
facing
inwards
the
desinwards
and Qamr ranges
Qara and
ranges facing
route ran westwards
ert.
here the
the main caravan
caravan route
ert. From here
authoras a
a classical
along
the Wadi Hadhramaut,
Hadhramaut, where,
where, as
classical authoralong the
;

[9]
[9]

THE ARABS
exudes a
ity has
has it,
a sweet
sweet fragrance;
earth exudes
the earth
'even the
it, 'even
fragrance;
produced ... and balbalmyrrh,
frankincense and cinnamon is
is produced
myrrh, frankincense
their
sam and
plants,
though
their
perfume
very
other fragrant
and other
fragrant plants, though
perfume very
desert of
of Rub'al Khali,
Khali, lying
soon
passes away.'
soon passes
great desert
lying
away.' The great
so
to
the northwards,
northwards, presented
presented an insuperable
insuperable barrier,
barrier, so
to the
to Mariaba (Mar'ib),
that the
the route
route continued
continued westwards
westwards to
that
(Mar'ib)
a mounthat 'stands
'stands on a
which the
the Greeks
tell us
us was
was aa city
Greeks tell
which
city that
cultivate
the
of
trees
...
some
of
the
people
cultivate
the
fields,
tain
full
of
the
tain full of trees
fields,
people
produced at
at home or brought
others traffic
traffic in
either produced
in spices
others
spices either
brought
straits in
boats of
from Ethiopia
Ethiopia sailing
thither across
across the
the straits
in boats
of
sailing thither
1*
bark.'l*
Mariaba, the
capital of
of Saba and centre
the capital
centre
From Mariaba,
bark.'
of the
of
the traffic
traffic (not
capital of
the Yemen
the capital
far from Sana,
of the
Sana, the
(not far
turned
or
today),
the
route
turned
north
and
so
continued,
more or
north
so
the
route
continued,
today),
the Red Sea
Sea coast
less parallel
parallel with
coast to
to Taima,
Taima, aa very
very
with the
less
north of
Arabia. Taima was
ancient settlement
the far
in the
of Arabia.
far north
ancient
settlement in
the great
at the
crossroads of
the trade
trade routes
routes and
and so
so was the
of the
the crossroads
at
great
distributing
centre.
here
fresh
caravans
set
outfresh
caravans
set
From
here
out
centre.
distributing
the routes
routes in
times running,
running, one,
one, northwards
northwards to
the
in later
later times
to
Petra,
Damascus and Palmyra;
another, westwards
westwards
Petra, Damascus
Palmyra; another,
Egypt; aa third,
third, eastwards
to MesopoMesopothrough Sinai
to Egypt;
Sinai to
eastwards to
through
that grew
up
in
the
southwest
was
tamia. The civilization
in
tamia.
civilization that
the
southwest
was
grew up
built
of this
this spice
trade.
Settled
communities
built on
on the
the riches
riches of
trade.
Settled
communities
spice
lived within
within walled
practised agriculture
lived
walled towns,
comtowns, practised
agriculture and com
merce, wrote
wrote on wood and stone,
feared the
the gods
and
merce,
stone, feared
gods and
Their
inscriptions
show
them
to
have
honoured their
their kings.
honoured
to
them
have
kings.
inscriptions
been
been organized
organized principalities
dynasties and
and hegemhegemwith dynasties
principalities with
onies
to 1000 B.C. and some authorities
authorities cononies going
back to
congoing back
sider
many centuries
sider many
centuries earlier.
earlier.
in part
Their
Their religion
religion was in
part the
worship of
of the
the heavenly
the worship
heavenly
the river
valley civilizations
civilizations of
bodies, characteristic
characteristic of
of the
river valley
of
bodies,
Egypt
usually associated
associated with
with a
a
Mesopotamia and usually
Egypt and Mesopotamia
Ity

. .

. .

*This figure
to the
the numbered reference
refers to
This
figure refers
reference in
the Bibliography
Bibliography at
the
in the
at the
end
of the
the book,
book, and similarly
throughout the
the text
text.
end of
similarly throughout

[[10]
IO ]

t^'
-I'

NUBIA

HUB'
It
lIB' At
AL KJfALI
KHALI
DESEltT
DESERT

~.
.(

ABYSSINlANS

'f.,.
<>

ABJUlIJI BEFORE MIWAMMAD

JKUJUIMMJID
XMB1A
_

.1fdn
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J:

...-..-.

~-

[II]

THE ARABS
for it
developed agriculture,
it is
is supposed
that agriculturaagriculturasupposed that
developed
agriculture, for
lists
must early
have
noticed
that
certain
positions of the
the
noticed
that
lists must
certain
positions
early
heavenly bodies
bodies coincided
their seasonal
seasonal floods,
coincided with
with their
floods, and
heavenly
from this
this have
have gone
on
to
believe
that
the
heavenly
bodies
to
the
that
believe
gone
heavenly bodies
the source
source of
them. This
This was aa fertility
cult.
The
were the
of them.
cult*
fertility
moon,
under various
various names,
names, was aa chief
chief among
among gods.
moon, under
gods. The
sun,
perhaps, sometimes called
called Al-Iat,
his consort
consort perhaps,
sun, Shams,
Al-lat,
Shams, his
in
chief among
goddesses,
and
also
worshipped
also
was chief
was
among goddesses,
worshipped in
the
of
the
N
abatrea
and
Palmyra,
the
northern
borderlands
the
Nabataea
northern borderlands
Palmyra,
peninsula; others
were Thuraiyya,
Thuraiyya, identified
with the
the
others were
identified with
peninsula;
Pleiades, the
the rain
and
Uzza,
possibly
the
planet
rain giver,
the
Pleiades,
Uzza, possibly
planet
giver,
Venus. Another name for
the Venus god
god was Athtar (masfor the
(masculine in
or Astarte
Astarte Qf
south Arabia),
the Ashtoreth
Ashtoreth or
culine
in south
the
of the
Arabia), the
north.
north.
pagan cults
practised whose gods,
not far
Other pagan
cults were practised
far
gods, not
the community,
community, seemed to
to take
of the
take
removed from members of
aa fiendish
affiictions,
and
Sabreans
are
fiendish delight
in sending
Sabaeans
are
afflictions,
delight in
sending
against
committing
warned in;
in one of
their inscriptions
of their
inscriptions against committing
deeds offensive
offensive to
the gods.
gods. For these
were made wrathful
wrathful
deeds
to the
these were
by man's
man's violation
violation of
of forbidden
foods and forbidden
forbidden foods
forbidden days,
by
days,
and, to
to aa less
perhaps, by
by moral
moral lapses,
lapses, and they
they
less extent
extent perhaps,
and,
sent disease,
sent
pestilence
or
some
adversity
upon
the
offender
or
the
offender
disease, pestilence
adversity upon
until their
their wrath subsided.
be appeased,
until
subsided. They
could be
appeased, and
They could
ministering
to this
temples, sacrificial
altars and
this end
sacrificial altars
end were temples,
ministering to
priests.
This
was
a
propitiation
cult,
and
sacrifices
were
a
sacrifices
priests.
propitiation cult,
made of
bullocks
and
other
animals,
incense
of camels,
other animals, incense and
camels, bullocks
sweet-smelling
into the
the ritual.
ritual. In
In times
of
times of
spices entering
entering into
sweet-smelling spices
trouble the
the people
recourse
to
the
priest
or
other
holy
trouble
to
had
recourse
the
other
or
people
holy
priest
to discover
particular god
offended, what
man to
discover which particular
god was offended,
was the
the appropriate
the offence
of appeasing
offence and the
appropriate means of
appeasing
the
divine wrath.
wrath. In
In addition
the offering
of
sacrifices,
the divine
addition to
of
to the
sacrifices,
offering
statues and inscriptions
of
statues
were
erected
in
were
erected
in
honour
of some
inscriptions
gods. They
places of
pilgrimage,
of pilgrimage,
shrines and other
other places
gods.
They had shrines

[[12]
12 ]

THE ARABS OF ANTIQUITY

to which thank offerings
were
offerings and propitiatory
propitiatory gifts
gifts were
a._survival
brought,
survival of
the sacredness
of the
sacredness of
of these
these prebrought, and a
preIslamic shrines
shrines lingers
in
Arabia
where
such
Islamic
in
central
south
central
south
where
such
lingers
still the objects
local pilgrimages,
are still
in
objects of local
where, in
pilgrimages, and where,
case of dispute,
are made before
case
before them in
in the
the belief
belief
dispute, oaths are
the oath be false,
that,
the shrine
will avenge
shrine will
itself
that, should the
false, the
avenge itself
the false
false swearer.
swearer.
on the
cults are known to
to have been
Such cults
been practised
the
practised by
by the
the ancient
four separate
ancient south.
south. The names
names
separate peoples
peoples of the
of these peoples
the Greeks find
find confirmation
confirmation
peoples recorded by
by the
in their
their own inscriptions.
Thousands
of
inscriptions
in
of
have
inscriptions.
inscriptions have
been collected
in southwest Arabia,
collected in
not all
all of
of them
Arabia, though
though not
as yet
translated. They
are in
have as
yet been translated.
in a
a character
character which
which
They are
and
is
not
closely
related
to
the
Arabic
resembles Ethiopic
is
not
to
related
the
Arabic
Ethiopic
closely
it antedates
a thousand
character which,
character
thousand years.
years.
antedates by
which, indeed,
indeed, it
by a
'Of
these ancient
'Of fhese
ancient peoples-Mimeans,
Qatabanis
Minasans, Sabceans,
Sabseans, Qatabanis
peoples
Minceans appear
appear to
to be
be the
Hadhramautis the Minaeans
and Hadhramautis-the
the oldest
oldest
are
(ISOO
B.C.
?),
but
the
Sabceans
are
easily
the
famed.
B.C.
Sabaeans
most
the
the
?)
easily
(1500
Job and Jeremiah
Jeremiah suggest,
they
Indeed,
as the
the Psalms,
Indeed, as
Psalms, Job
suggest, they
their name to
to the
the entire
entire civilized
civilized south.
south.
often gave
gave their
often
Their queen,
queen, the
the Arabs tell
tell us,
us, was none
none other
other than
than
Their
an
of
our Queen
Queen of
of Sheba,
Sheba
being
an
anglicized
of
form
Sheba,
being
anglicized
Saba,
and her
her name was Bellas.
Belkis. That the
the Sabaeans
Sabceans had
Saba, and
in
a
queens
know,
for
a
Mesopotamian
king
in
750
rewe
for
know,
750 B.C. reMesopotamian king
queens
of them who gloried
gloried in
in the
the name
ceived tribute
tribute from one
one of
ceived
of Queen
Queen Shamsi
Shamsi and Ita'amara.
Ita'amara. But we learn
learn from JoJoof
of
in
land
Saba
the
Isephus
that
there
an
African
Saba
in
the
land
of
an
African
was
that
there
'sephus
her
for
and
Nubia,
too,
and
he
assigns
Egypt
Ethiopia
for
her
he
and
Nubia, too,
Ethiopia
assigns Egypt
Queen of
of Sheba
Sheba is,
is, of
of course,
course, claimed
claimed by
by
dominion. The Queen
dominion.
and
the Abyssinians
Abyssinians as
as their
their queen,
queen, and both Arabs
Abysthe
Abyscomsinians have
have traditions
traditions about
about her
her which
which clearly
clearly have aa comsinians
mon origin.
origin. The languages
languages of
of Ethiopia
Ethiopia and of
of the
the southern
southern
kingdoms were,
were, moreover,
moreover, kindred
kindred languages,
languages, and there
there
kingdoms
,

[ 13 ]
[13]

THE ARABS
intercourse between
was trade
trade and other
between these
these peoples
peoples that
that
other intercourse
to common cultural
cultural influences
must have led
led to
influences on both
must
both sides
sides
of the
the Straits
Mandab, if
indeed the
the two peoples
peoples
if indeed
of
Straits of
of Bab al
al Mandab,
in
were not
not of
neither
perhaps
'Arab'
in the
the
of kindred origin,
neither
'Arab'
origin,
perhaps

familiar
sense of
the word (the
reader interested
familiar sense
interested in
in racial
of the
racial
(the reader
origins is
is referred
referred to
Appendix), and it
it is
is conceivable
to an Appendix),
conceivable
origins
of
both
that
the legendary
ruler
been
queen
of
both the
that the
had
been
the
ruler
queen
legendary
unArabian and
and the
the African Sabreans-an
issue that
that is
an issue
is left
left unSabaeans
the queen
biblical story,
queen is
is referred
referred
decided in
in our biblical
decided
story, where the
to vaguely
to
vaguely as
the south.
as the
of the
south.
the queen
queen of
Arabia and ancient
ancient Nubia (one
(one or
both
Ancient south
Ancient
or both
south Arabia
riddle
the
may
solve
the
hieroglyphic
riddle
of
the
Land
of
Punt)
of
Punt)
may solve the hieroglyphic
clearly
with Babycontacts with
with ancient
ancient Egypt
Babyclearly had contacts
Egypt and with
of
lonia. Not only
the
spice
lands
of
south
Arabia
lands
south
lonia.
were
the
spice
only
famous,
but so
were the
the copper
turquoise mines of
so were
famous, but
copper and turquoise
in the
the
north. These brought
Egyptian garrisons
garrisons in
the third
third
the north.
brought Egyptian
millennium B.C.
Sinai
(Sinai
turquoises
adorned
Sinai
millennium
to occupy
B.C. to
turquoises
(Sinai
occupy
the Great
Great Pyramid),
times an
Egyptian
in later
later times
the
an Egyptian
Pyramid), and in
the
colony
was
pushed
forward
midway
down
the
western
midway
colony
pushed
trade
route at
Yathrib, the
the Medina of
trade route
settlement called
at a
a settlement
called Yathrib,
the
the future.
future.
Mesopotamian kings
swept westwestArmies of
of Mesopotamian
kings had early
early swept
wards across
across the
northern Arab borderlands,
borderlands, one
one of
the northern
of them
the Mediterranean,
to establish
itself on the
the shores
shores of
of the
for
to
establish itself
Mediterranean, for
the
routes must be
kept open
and
needed
continued
be kept
and
needed
the trade
trade routes
continued
open
the expedition
expedition of
vigilance
Assyrian times,
as the
into Assyrian
of
times, as
vigilance down into
the
the desert
the Arabs on the
Sennacherib shows.
shows. But the
the famed Sennacherib
desert
fringes
to rich
tresstand for
for no meek submission
submission to
rich tresfringes would stand
They
raided
caravans
when
they
hungry
passers.
raided
caravans
were
or
they
hungry or
passers. They
for
worth, and also
to keep
keep aa martial
for what it
it was worth,
also doubtless
doubtless to
martial
flame
generations of
budding youth
youth
successive generations
of budding
flame alive;
alive and successive
of
the tribes,
tribes, anxious
to show manly
prowess
emulate
anxious to
and
emulate
of the
manly prowess
of their
their heroes
heroe' or
well in
the eyes
eyes of
the
the
or stand
stand well
of the
the deeds
in the
deeds of
;

[ I4]

THE ARABS OF ANTIQUITY

for the
the most dandesert,
recruits for
dandesert, would ensure no lack of recruits
camels
in
later
gerous
adventure.
Their
camels-in
later
times
their
times their
gerous
horses, too
too-carrying
could swoop
horses,
carrying scarcely
scarcely any
weight, could
any weight,
swoop
as
as
down and disappear
as
swiftly
as
they
came,
easily
eluding
came,
disappear
swiftly
they
easily eluding
the
less mobile troops
a civilized
civilized enemy,
the less
would be
be
troops of a
enemy, who would
the
unable to
to pursue
pursue the raiders very
ignorance of
far from ignorance
of
very far
pastures and water holes and fear of the
the forbidding
heat
heat
pastures
forbidding
deserts. Depredations
of the
the burning
burning deserts.
must have
have grown
grown
Depredations must
serious indeed when,
when, in
in the
the middle
middle of
the
sixth
century
of the sixth century
last Babylonian
across the
B.C., the last
led an army
the desert
desert
B.C.,
Babylonian king
king led
army across
to
to ancient Taima,
Taima, which he invested
invested and where he
built aa
he built
to a
a Persian
palace, only
to yield
yield it
it erelong
Persian conqueror.
only to
palace,
erelong to
conqueror.
eastern seaboard,
The maritime Arabs of the
the eastern
through
seaboard, through
these
were
doubtless
in
these early
times,
doubtless
engaged
in
carrying
times,
early
engaged
carrying on
sea trade between Babylonia
the
the sea
Babylonia and India.
country,
India. Their country,
too,
may well
well have been the
the Land of Magan,
Magan, whence
too, may
the wood used by
the PriestPriestSumer drew her copper
copper and the
by the
his
at
King
Gudea
in
the
making
of
his
temple
at
Lagash.
But
in
the
making
temple
Lagash. But
King
the
until
west
the
eastern
Arabia
remained
unknown
to
the
west
until
the
to
eastern
the Christian
lifted by
approach
Era, when the
veil was lifted
by
Christian Era,
the veil
of the
approach of
one of Alexander the Great's
Great's campaigns.
campaigns.
across western
his conquests
conquests across
western Asia,
AlexanFresh from his
Asia, Alexanat the
der arrived
the mouth of
Indus near where Karachi
the Indus
of the
arrived at
his
now stands.
for
his
objective he planned
planned his
his
for
stands. With Babylon
Babylon
objective
coasts
of
Baluchistan
long
westwards,
skirting
the
coasts
of
Baluchistan
the
march
westwards, skirting
long
a fleet
fleet
built a
and Persia,
Persia, and to
to make the
the journey
journey possible
possible built
in attendance
these desolate
of
to sail
coasts in
attendance
desolate coasts
sail along
of ships
along these
ships to
intervals.
at
on him,
landing
food
and
supplies
at
frequent
him, landing
frequent intervals.
supplies
would
That march,
bristling
with
difficulties,
tax
even a
with
difficulties,
march, bristling
forces led
resources, but
the forces
led by
by Alexander
but the
modern army's
army's resources,
historic
it in
in 327
B.C.
On
the
historic
voyage
Nearchus,
achieved
the
B.C.
achieved it
Nearchus,
voyage
327
services
the
the admiral
.1ecured
the
services
of a
secured
the
of the
admiral of
the Greek fleet,
fleet,
that
was
Arabia
him
Persian
pilot and learned
learned trom
rom
that
Persian Gulf
Gulf pilot

[[is]
I5]

THE ARABS

aa peninsula
and that
that it
all but
but possible
possible to
to circumnavi.
it was all
circumnavipeninsula and
Later
on
some
of
the
Greek
ships
set
out
gate
it.
the
of
to make
ships set out to
gate it. Later
but perhaps,
for themselves,
the attempt,
the
themselves,
fortunately for
attempt, but
perhaps, fortunately
that
turned back,
back, possibly
possibly intimidated
by the
maelstrom that
intimidated by
the maelstrom
turned
normally
lashes
Cape
lashes
Musandam.
Cape
normally
not merely
merely as
as
Arabia was
was by
by this
time becoming
becoming known not
Arabia
this time
of spices,
spices, but
but as
as the
the highway
highway of
between
the
trade between
the land
land of
of trade
India
Hellenistic world,
world, for
for Egypt
India and
and the
the Hellenistic
Egypt and Babylonia
Babylonia
in
decline.
Indian
and
Arab
ships
braving
were
now
in decline. Indian
were
came, braving
ships came,
the
northeast monsoon,
with such
luxuries
loaded with
such luxuries
the winter
winter northeast
monsoon, loaded
early
Ptolemies
as
beryls,
ginger
and
pepper.
The
Ptolemies
as pearls,
pearls, beryls, ginger
pepper.
early
had particularly
particularly encouraged
the Red Sea
trade and had by
by
Sea trade
encouraged the
diplomatic
means established
communismall mercantile
mercantile communiestablished small
diplomatic means
ties
African and
and Socotra
coasts to
to serve
serve its
its needs,
needs,
Socotra coasts
ties on
on the
the African
of piracy
piracy in
those waters
waters that
that it
but
such was
was the
the fear
in those
it was
but such
fear of
Within living
customary
send armed guards
guards in
in the
the ships.
to send
ships. Within
living
customary to
memory
a
British
ship
was
driven
ashore
on
the
south
driven
ashore
a
the
British
south
ship
memory
of
Arabian
coast; she
plundered and every
Arabian coast;
she was plundered
member
of
every
her crew
ruthlessly murdered:
murdered: an echo,
echo, as
as it
were, of
it were,
her
crew ruthlessly
of
in the
Arabian exploits
the time of
Ptolemies when
of the
the later
later Ptolemies
exploits in
was ravaged
by
pirates
and
freebooters,
trade
the Red Sea
and
the
Sea was
trade
freebooters,
ravaged by pirates
suffered,
ships
were
taken
and
all
on
sold
into
taken
board
and
all
were
sold
Into
suffered, ships
slavery.
slavery.
To the
Romans, who became masters
masters of
of Egypt
Egypt in
30
the Romans,
in 30
B.C.,
this
condition
of
things
was
intolerable,
and
they
this
condition
of
B.C.,
intolerable,
things
they
excellent reason
soon found
reason for
effectively with
with
for dealing
found an excellent
dealing effectively
of the
the
it,
though their
their main objective
objective was the
the unlocking
unlocking of
it, though
riches of
of supposed
Eldorado
in
south
Arabia.
fabulous
fabulous riches
Eldorado
in
south
Arabia.
supposed
one hundred and thirty
thirty Roman ships
out
A fleet
of one
fleet of
set out
ships set
in 26 B.C. with ten
ten thousand
from Aqaba
Aqaba in
thousand Roman infantry,
infantry,
one thousand Nabataean
N abatrean Irregulars,
and
fifty
Jews.
lElius
fifty Jews. -^Elius
Irregulars,
of
of
Egypt,
himself
in
command
and
Gallus,
the
eparch
the
in
was
himself
Gallus,
eparch
Egypt,
had for
matters and terterfor his
his guide
adviser on
on tribal
tribal matters
guide and adviser

[[16]
16 ]

THE ARABS OF ANTIQUITY

rain-what
what
rain

we should
should term today
'political officer
officer to
to the
the
today 'political
force',
role the
the writer
has filled
the stormy
days
of
a role
writer has
in the
filled in
force', a
stormy days of
rebellion in
N abatrean, named
named
the
the Arab rebellion
in Mesopotamia-a
Mesopotamia a Nabataean,
Syllreus.
force was disembarked
Leuke Kome,
disembarked at
at Leuke
a
Syllaeus. The force
Koine, a
the
point
some
way
down
the
Red
Sea
coast,
and
thence
Sea coast, and thence the
the
point
way
impossible to
interior. It
into the
the interior.
march was begun
It is
is impossible
to folfolbegun into
low with
with certainty
the
actual
route
taken,
because
the
the
actual
route
because
the
taken,
certainty
place
of
those
days
are
no
longer
identifiable,
but
names
of
those
are
no
days
place
longer identifiable, but
the first
first fifty
for
the army
waterfor the
led the
fifty days
days Syllreus
Syllaeus led
army through
through watertrackless wastes,
less and trackless
wastes, and the
the men suffered
terribly
less
suffered terribly
from scurvy
of the
the gums
legs. It
that
It is
is suspected
scurvy of
gums and legs.
suspected that
a
Syllreus
had a personal
personal motive
motive for
not wishing
wishing the
for not
the Romans
Romans
Syllaeus had
to
too well,
well, and that
that in
in accompanying
accompanying them
them at
at all
to succeed
succeed too
all
he
hoped
his
object was to
to gain
knowledge
of
settlements
his object
of
settlements
he
gain knowledge
hoped
one day
day to
to make his
his own.
own.
Whether or
or not,
not, six
passed by.
by. The Romans
Romans had
six months passed
had
battles but
but no
no treasure,
treasure, and,
they began
won battles
and, disillusioned,
disillusioned, they
began
their
retreat. Since
may expect
have
Since a
a retreating
their retreat.
force may
to have
retreating force
expect to
in Arabia,
where superior
to fight
fight aa rearguard
action in
to
arms
Arabia, where
rearguard action
superior arms
- excite
and an enemy,
enemy, particularly
particularly at
at night,
night,
excite covetous
covetous eyes,
eyes, and
JElius Gallus
is
swift and
elusive, it
remarkable that
it is
is remarkable
and elusive,
that JElius
is swift
Callus
in
action
on
seems
only
to
have
been
involved
in
one
action
on
his
way
to
one
his
seems only
have been involved
way
back to
to the
the coast,
coast, which
he was
was able
to reach
reach in
in sixty
able to
which he
back
sixty days.
days.
the expedition
war
as war
From Strabo,
Strabo, who accompanied
expedition as
accompanied the
learn
that
Syllreus,
the
discredited
guide,
correspondent,
that
discredited
learn
the
we
Syllaeus,
guide,
correspondent,
in the
was sent
where he
he was beheaded
beheaded in
the
sent a
to Rome,
a prisoner
Rome, where
prisoner to
streets
the Romans consoled
themselves
consoled themselves
while the
a traitor,
as a
streets as
traitor, while
that despite
their losses
losses from disease,
with the
the boast
all their
boast that
with
disease,
despite all
soldiers
toil
and
hunger
only
seven
Roman
soldiers
were
actually
toil and hunger only seven
actually
that their
their plans
plans
killed in
But the
truth seems
to be
be that
the truth
seems to
in action.
killed
action. But
not
had been
been ill-conceived
and the
was
not
properly
the army
ill-conceived and
army
properly
equipped
a tropical
tropical campaign;
they were disappointed,
for a
disappointed,
campaign; they
equipped for
too,
in finding
wilderness and
and barbarous
barbarous villages
villages where
too, in
finding wilderness

[[17]
17]

THE ARABS
they expected
prosperous countryside
thriving towns.
towns.
a prosperous
and thriving
countryside and
they
expected a
They
never invaded
invaded Arabia
Arabia again,
this expedition
and this
is
again, and
They never
expedition is
the
example of
of aa European
invasion
of
Arabia
isolated example
Arabia
the isolated
invasion
of
European
Proper
the centuries.
centuries.
throughout the
Proper throughout
~lready declined,
declined,
Clearly
the southern
southern principalities
principalities had
had already
Clearly the
and Minreans,
and Attramatei
Attramatei disdisQatabanis and
Minaeans, Sabreans,
Sabaeans, Qatabanis
appear
in
the
mists
of
antiquity.
the
classical
writers
mists
of
in
the
the
classical
writers
When
appear
antiquity.
again
they no longer
these
southwest they
of the
the southwest
mention these
speak of
again speak
longer mention
peoples
nor tell
us of
of their
fate; henceforward
their fate
tell us
henceforward
peoples individually
individually nor
or
Himyarites.
they
speak
of
one
people,
the
Homeritre
of
the
Homeritae
or
they speak
people,
Himyarites.
the Himyarites
But the
the days
days of
of the
were
as
grass,
by the
the
for by
Himyarites were as grass, for
year
A.D. 350
the Abyssinian
and
year A.D,
Abyssinian king
350 the
king numbered Himyar
Himyar and
Yemen among
his
dominions.
his
dominions.
among
The next
next two
two centuries
witnessed aa fitful
fitful Abyssinian
centuries witnessed
Abyssinian
occupation
of southwest
Arabia. It
probably little
little
southwest Arabia.
It was probably
occupation of
more than
than aa shadowy
hold
on
the
coast,
except
hold
Yemen
the
coast,
shadowy
except
times of
of actual
actual military
military invasion.
invasion. AbysAbysintermittently at
at times
intermittently
power that
that
sinia
become the
the client
a new power
client of
of a
sinia had meanwhile become
the
Byzantine,
and
adopted
the
the
in Egypt,
and
had
had arisen
arisen in
Byzantine,
Egypt,
adopted the
religion
of
her
patrons;
and
hence
Christianity
came
to
be
her
hence
to
of
be
religion
Christianity
patrons
introduced
into south
the Abyssinians.
south Arabia by
introduced into
by the
Abyssinians.
Jewish
colonies already
existed there,
there, and
and these
had
these also
also had
Jewish colonies
already existed
their
rival imperial
connection.
The
Sassanids,
the
great
connection.
their rival
the
Sassanids,
imperial
great
Persian
dynasty of
Zoroastrian creed
nonproselytizing
Persian dynasty
of Zoroastrian
creed (a
(a nonproselytizing
and nationalistic
nationalistic religion
religion to
to which,
which, indeed,
indeed, none
but PerPernone but
sians
admitted), had arisen
out of
the ashes
sians were
arisen out
of the
were admitted),
ashes of
of
Babylon.
For
the
next
four
hundred
years
Persians
and
the
next
four
hundred
Persians
and
years
Babylon.
Byzantines
one with
with another
for supremacy
in
another for
Byzantines struggled
struggled one
supremacy in
world
politics, aa conflict
not without
without its
its influence
influence
conflict that
that was not
world politics,
on Arabia.
Arabi,,:.
That Christianity
Christianity was the
the religion
religion of
of foreign
foreign invaders
invaders
-the
Abyssinians-must
have militated
against its
must have
militated against
its acceptthe Abyssinians
acceptlocal Himyarites.
other hand,
the local
the other
hand,
ance
ance by
Himyarites. Judaism,
Judaism, on the
by the
;

rTi81
r81

THE ARABS OF ANTIQUITY

though
not a proselytizing
considerable
system, made considerable
proselytizing system,
though not
southwest
in
headway
whole tribes
tribes are
beare beArabia, where whole
headway in southwest Arabia,
it. Whether this
lieved to
to have
have embraced it.
this was
was from
lieved
from spiritspiritconviction or political
ual conviction
convenience is
not clear,
ual
is not
but
political convenience
clear, but
the
traditions concerning
the
events
that
followed
suggest
traditions
events
that
followed suggest
concerning
the two religions
that
for opposing
that the
religions stood for
opposing political
political factions,
factions,
in
in which case
case Judaism
to connote
connote aa particular
particular poliJudaism came to
polifaction must have
have grown
powerful.
tical
allegiance. This faction
tical allegiance.
grown powerful
sixth century,
in the
rose successfully
in
the early
it rose
throw
to throw
century, when it
early sixth
successfully to
off the
the Abyssinian
Abyssinian yoke.
yoke. Tradition
Tradition speaks
of
a
trench
off
of
a
trench
speaks
filled
with fire,
fire, of Christian captives
offered the
the choice
befilled with
choice becaptives offered
and
tween apostasy
burning,
of aa bishop's
bishop's martyrdom
martyrdom
tween
burning, of
apostasy
and wholesale
wholesale Christian massacre.
massacre. The Abyssinian
Abyssinian invainvasion
followed
undertaken
ostensibly
followed
was
sion that
that immediately
undertaken
immediately
ostensibly
to avenge
avenge these
these wrongs,
wrongs, though
tradition repreto
another tradition
though another
represents
the Abyssinians
Abyssinians and Himyarites
as struggling
this
sents the
at this
Himyarites as
struggling at
trade. Abyssinian
time for
for the
the control
the Red Sea trade.
Abyssinian vicviccontrol of the
tory
at
length
brought
to
an
end
the
last
Himyaritic
kingto
last
at
the
length brought
Himyaritic kingtory
dom under
under its
insurgent leader.
leader. The new
its Jew-convert
Jew-convert insurgent
viceroy from Aksum,
with the
bishop, set
set immediately
immediately
the new bishop,
Aksum, with
viceroy
to work to
to restore
restore the
great dam of
which had
the great
to
of Mar'ib which
been destroyed
destroyed by
by aa flood
Hood more than
half aa century
than half
been
before,
century before,
as
a commemorative tablet
bearing an inscription
inscription with
with aa
tablet bearing
as a
Christian
invocation to
to the
the Holy
Trinity
testifies
to
this
Christian invocation
testifies
to
this
Holy Trinity
day.
day.
Medievally
recorded Arab tradition
attaches enormous
tradition attaches
Medievally recorded
importance
to
this
famous
waterwork.
The ancient
waterwork.
ancient prosto
this
prosimportance
it
is bound up
the
south's
perity
of
the
south
is
up
with
it;
the
south's
decay
the
south
of
decay
perity
series
the tradition
embody aa series
with
its destruction.
tradition must embody
with its
destruction. But the
four or
five centuries,
of disasters
disasters stretching
over four
or five
back over
of
centuries,
stretching back
the
probably
more,
for,
as
saw,
the
Roman
invaders
even
we
as
saw,
probably more, for,
not continuous
continuous fertility
before the
the Christian
Christian Era found not
before
fertility
and
walled cities
they had expected,
but comparative
comparative
as they
cities as
and walled
expected, but
;

[[19]
19]

THE ARABS
desolation.
unlikely that
that Arab memory
memory went back
back so
desolation. It
It is
is unlikely
so
far
as the
the ancient
the
civilization
of
far as
ancient southern
southern kingdoms:
of
kingdoms: the civilization
the south,
the
on frankincense
in any
rested on
frankincense and
south, in
case, had rested
any case,
not
spices,
not
on
irrigated
crops.
spices,
irrigated crops*
The last
last Abyssinian
of the
the Yemen endured
Abyssinian occupation
occupation of
for
brief half
half century.
the decline
for a
a brief
the
decline of
of the
century. Whether from the
is probable,
or
colonists, as
as is
or
from
their
despotic
temper,
their
colonists,
probable,
despotic temper,
opposing faction
as
one tradition
tradition has
local opposing
as one
has it,
the local
faction that
that
it, the
leaned
towards
Persia
soon
got
the
upper
hand
again.
the
leaned
Persia
got
upper
again.
Southeastern
been conquered
conquered by
the
Southeastern Arabia had already
already been
by the
in the
the fourth
fourth century,
Persians in
Oman
already
ruled
by
Persians
ruled
century,
by
already
hundred years
years 8S so
so that
that the
the exPersian
viceroys for
for two hundred
exPersian viceroys
of Persian
into the
the Yemen
tension of
Persian influence
influence westwards into
tension
presented
few
difficulties,
and
that
influence
not enhad
not
enthat
influence
difficulties,
presented
the
Prophet
arose.
tirely
disappeared
when
arose.
the
Prophet
tirely disappeared
vast interior
Arabia remained
remained inviolate.
interior spaces
of Arabia
The vast
inviolate.
spaces of
The mass of
the Arabs lived
lived their
lives remote from,
of the
their lives
from, and
uninfluenced by,
by, these
imperialistic activities
activities along
these foreign
uninfluenced
foreign imperialistic
along
the
the fringes
of
the
peninsula.
In
the
north
Persians and
the
of
the
north
Persians
fringes
peninsula. In
Byzantines secured
attensecured themselves
themselves against
Byzantines
against unwelcome attenmarauders by
by encouraging
encouraging the
the growth
tions
of
tions of
of desert
desert marauders
growth of
two small
along their
their desert
desert frontiers.
two
small Arab buffer
buffer states
states along
frontiers.
Hira and Ghassan were states
which may
may well
well have
have owed
states which
their strategic
inherent virtues,
as
to their
location as
to inherent
virtues,
as much to
as to
strategic location
have seen
that the
the nomadic
however these
these abounded. We have
seen that
Beduin, goaded
goaded by
hunger, were an
nuisance
an immemorial nuisance
Beduin,
by hunger,
to the
the neighbouring
neighbouring civilizations.
best, when impelled
to
civilizations. At best,
impelled
that
which
governed
by
some
powerful
impulse
such
as
as
such
that
which
by
powerful impulse
governed
later
historic migrations
migrations that
that revolutionized
the world,
later historic
revolutionized the
world,
they
themselves capable
developing an impresof developing
imprescapable of
they showed themselves
in return
worst, they
were ever
ready, in
sive
at worst,
civilization at
ever ready,
sive civilization;
they were
;

aMy
vocabulary of
of the
the surviving
surviving Iranian
in
Iranian dialect
dialect found in
grammar and vocabulary
*My grammar
southeastern
published in
the JRAS. of
October 1930.
in the
southeastern Arabia was published
of October
1930.

[20
[20]]

THE ARABS OF ANTIQUITY

for
proper remuneration,
to give
give up
raiding and,
for proper
their raiding
remuneration, to
up their
and,
to act
to caravans
keep off
others
indeed,
as escorts
escorts to
act as
caravans and
and keep
off others
indeed, to
like
themselves who would attack
patrons; for
the
like themselves
attack their
their patrons;
for the
of
tribal
associations,
are
incorrigible
innomads,
in
spite
in
of
tribal
are
nomads,
associations,
spite
incorrigible inall
dividualists.
the centuries
has been
the
dividualists. So all down the
centuries it
it has
been the
to
policy
of
Powers
to
enlist
the
support,
by
the
lure
of
of
enlist
the
the
lure
of
policy
support, by
:financial
political advantage,
of
the
Arabs
nearest
financial and political
of
the
Arabs
nearest
advantage,
their
frontiers, and these,
these, given
the right
inducements,
their frontiers,
given the
right inducements,
afforded an
an effective
have co-operated
co-operated and afforded
have
effective rampart
rampart against
against
less favoured
the hosts
hosts of
of their
their less
kinsmen in
befavoured kinsmen
the
in the
the deserts
deserts beyond.
yond.
To start
with there
probably small
difference bebethere was probably
start with
small difference
tween
them. The men of
those under
under Ghassan,
of Hira like
like those
tween them.
Ghassan,
not
improbably, came originally
as marauders
marauders to
batten
not improbably,
to batten
originally as
the
on the
the industry
of
the
settled
cultivators.
Their
political
settled cultivators. Their political
industry of
value
a potential
potential buffer
buffer against
the desert
was appreas a
value as
desert was
against the
appreciated,
the
right
was
conceded
them
to
exact
a
landlord's
conceded
them
the
to
exact
a
landlord's
ciated,
right
tribute,
they were encouraged
up
to give
themselves up
tribute, and they
encouraged to
give themselves
to aa life
of hunting
hospitality while
while
life of
to
lavish hospitality
hunting and war and lavish
their
bards produced
produced poetry
poetry-an
aristocratic mode of
life
an aristocratic
their bards
of life
ex~.t1y
suited
to
the
desert
temper.
the
to
desert
suited
exactly
temper.
The Ghassanid
Ghassanid principality,
principality, successor
the vanished
vanished
successor to
to the
Palmyrene
state,
adopted,
as
the
client
of
the
Byzantines,
as
the
client
of
the
state,
adopted,
Palmyrene
Byzantines,
patrons, and Justinian
its
the
Christian faith
faith of
its patrons,
of its
the Christian
Justinian made its
kings
patricians
of
his
empire.
These
kings,
claiming
arisof
his
These
arisempire.
kings, claiming
kings patricians
tocratic Yemeni origin,
lived a
inherited
a seminomadic
seminomadic life
life inherited
tocratic
origin, lived
from recent
recent ancestors,
eschewing
a
capital
city
and
spenda
ancestors, eschewing
spendcapital city
ing
the
seasons
in
one,
in
another
of
their
now
their
in
another
of
seasons
now
in
the
one,
ing
of
the ruins
ruins of
favourite
resorts, where
where beyond
beyond the
the Jordan
favourite resorts,
Jordan the
architecture still
still
their palaces
palaces and churches
Byzantine architecture
of Byzantine
churches of
their
LakhThe
occasionally
serve
to
shelter
modern
Beduin.
Beduin.
shelter
serve
to
occasionally
mids of
claimed Yemeni origin,
also claimed
mids
of Hira,
Hira, who also
origin, were even
renowned, for
they had aa capital
capital city
professed aa
more renowned,
for they
city and professed
[[21]
21 ]

THE ARABS
ARABS.
.

pagan
that was
was not
the creed
of their
their Persian
pacreed of
Persian panot the
creed that
pagan creed
later
flirted
with
Christianity,
the
retrons:
indeed,
they
trons indeed, they later flirted with Christianity, the reByzantine enemy,
enemy, so
the princes
princes of Hira
Hira
ligion
that the
so that
the Byzantine
of the
ligion of
that
were compelled
publicly
to
abjure
that
faith,
though
the
to
were
faith,
though the
abjure
compelled publicly
common folk
folk came in
time to
to embrace it,
as
indeed
did
as
in time
indeed
did
it,
the luxurious
luxurious life
of
their
last prince.
prince. To the
desert Arabs the
life of
the desert
their last
these prosperous
prosperous borderland
borderland kinsmen
kinsmen seemed idyllic
idyllic ininthese
deed,
poetry sings
mostly of
their
of their
earliest Arab poetry
the earliest
and the
sings mostly
deed, and
latter
part
of
the
sixth
century
ancient
glories.
But
in
the
ancient glories. But in the latter part of the sixth century
both Byzantines
Byzantines and
had begun
begun to
to reduce
reduce their
their
Persians had
both
and Persians
commitments in
these northern
northern buffer
buffer states,
states, and the
the
in these
to
revert
to
their
primitive
borderland
Arabs
were
fain
fain
to
their
to revert
borderland
primitive
ways.
ways.
belongAncient Arabia
of them belongall of
Arabia had many
Ancient
many tongues,
tongues, all
ing
to
one
Semitic
family,
though
spoken
by
peoples
Semitic
to
one
family, though spoken by peoples who
ing
different racial
origin.'4 In
the
appear
to have
have been
been of
of different
racial origin.
In the
appear to
of
northern
borderlands were many
many settled
settled peoples,
peoples, all
northern borderlands
all of
5 In
them possessing
written
languages.
In
the
south
were
the
south
the
the
written
languages.
possessing
four
peoples, already
as known
four distinct
lettered peoples,
distinct lettered
already mentioned as
to
the Greeks,
the Arabia
Arabia of antiquity
famous.
to the
Greeks, who made the
antiquity famous.
Their languages
languages belonged,
belonged, as
their inscriptions
show,
to
as their
inscriptions show, to
the south
The
mass
of
the
occupythe
Semitic group.
Arabs
south Semitic
mass
of
the
group.
occupygreat heart
heart of
the peninsula
peninsula were,
were, on
the other
ing
the great
of the
on the
other
ing the
spoke
a
dialect
of
Semitic
which
hand,
unlettered. They
a
dialect
of
Semitic
which
hand, unlettered.
They spoke
of our
our
was not
not aa literary
literary language
before the
century of
the sixth
sixth century
language before
the Prophet
arose. The curious
Prophet arose.
curious thing
thing about
this
era,
about this
era, when the
north
north and central
central Arabian speech
speech is
correct
is that
that its
its most correct
in the
settlements such
such as
and
form was spoken
the settlements
as Mecca and
spoken not in
is
its
Yathrib,
but
among
the
nomads.
Arabic
but
nomads.
the
Modern
is
its offArabic
offYathrib,
among
spnng.
spring.
These various
various Arabian languages
languages were
were no
no mere local
local
:

*The reader
is referred
'The
interested is
to an Appendix,
Appendix, pp.
pp. 337
et seq.
seq.
reader interested
referred to
337 et
G
5Aramaic,
Lihyani and
and Hebrew.
Hebrew.
Syriac, Lihyani
Aramaic, Syriac,

[22]

AN ANCIENT SOUTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTION (IN RAISED CHARACTERS ON BRONZE PLATE FROlH SHABWA).
(By cOll7ies)' 0/ the B~'ftsh AIu&clI'Ut rDedicatio., b" 8adz9 Dhak,., Baf'ln"~ vassal of tIle Kiflg of IIadh,a.,.IIuul",
&0" of Ilskarall~ 10 Si" Dlul-il,un, },js sa'llcl'f,a"t~ and flu' gods and goddess 0 / SI,ab'u'at, IllS O~Ut1 sOlll and feel11"'0.1 clllldten and properly, Ius cJ,csight a"d t-J,c '-/,oughts of IllS l,ea,l, 'ZlJhicll I,r plays :t1JDV be ag.eeable Lto
tllem]')

THE ARABS OF ANTIQUITY

dialects. There existed between them differences
dialects.
differences comparacomparathat
the
those
divide
to
Romance
ble to those that divide the
languages. There
There
ble
languages.
ancient Semitic
must, of course,
parent
Semitic parent
course, have been an ancient
must,
to the Latin
tongue, corresponding
Latin ancestor
the Roancestor of
Roof the
corresponding to
tongue,
Dr
mance languages,
Margoliouth,
'the
classilanguages, and,
says
and, says
Margoliouth, 'the classical language
peninsula should naturally
been
cal
language of the peninsula
have been
naturally have
not the
the patois
patois of the Beduin,
but the
the idiom which had for
for
Beduin, but
so long
served
for
inscriptions
commemorating
laws,
conconinscriptions commemorating laws,
long
tracts,
the
treaties, dedications,
dedications, vows,
vows, epitaphs
tracts, treaties,
epitaphs and the
2*
like.'2*
like.'
south would almost
In early
times the
the languages
the south
almost
languages of the
early times
6
6
a
have
because they
certainly
enjoyed
prestige because
superior prestige
enjoyed a superior
certainly
they
the position
languages of aa civilization,
but the
position came
were the languages
civilization, but
in the
naturally to
to be reversed in
the seventh and succeeding
cennaturally
succeeding cenhi
were
by
which
time
they
iIi
decay,
because
turies,
the
turies, by
they
decay, because the
dialect was spoken.
Prophet arose where the northern dialect
Prophet
spoken. As
the tongue
tongue of Muhammad and the
the tongue
tongue of
the divine
divine
of the
the
in the
the Holy
Holy Qur'an,
thence
as
the
revelations
thence
as
revelations recorded in
the
Qur'an,
language of
that swept
the world,
became
of Arab armies that
it became
world, it
swept the
language
its pre-eminence
franca of an empire,
the
lingua franca
pre-eminence today
the lingua
empire, and its
today
the Islamic
is the
the natural
natural consequence.
this Arabic of the
Islamic
is
consequence. But this
to enjoy
then about to
it was then
period-it
in English
corenjoy what in
English corperiod
responds
Elizabethan 1ge-needs
anto an Elizabethan
age needs no superior
superior an*
responds to
its
to
establish
Semitic
tiquity
among
Semitic
tongues
to
establish
its
greatness;
tongues
greatness;
tiquity among
the Arabs in
their lanit,
pride of the
in their
lanit is
is inherently
great. The pride
inherently great.
alone on its
guage
its own marvellous structural
structural
rest alone
could rest
guage could
its
its
'From
its
design,
its
comprehensiveness,
its
flexibility.
its
flexibility.
comprehensiveness,
design,
it
the
it
own
inner
resources
it
could
evolve
the
mot
juste,'
and
it
inner
resources
o^n
juste/
a
inprovided,
centuries
before
our
Renaissance,
a
ready
inRenaissance,
ready
provided, centuries before
6
in the
the inscriptions
"The
Hebraisms which have been traced
inscriptions of the ancient
traced in
The Hebraisms
established descent
the established
descent of
lacking in
in northern
northern Arabic,
Arabic, the
south
found lacking
that are
are found
south that
Semitic and the
south Semitic
Ethiopic of
Abyssinia from south
the marked philological
philological
of Abyssinia
Ethiopic
of Babylonia
affinities
ancient Akkadian language
the ancient
of the
affinities of
Babylonia with south
language of
for the
Semitic,
alike suggest
the southern forms.
forms.
antiquity for
superior antiquity
Semitic, alike
suggest a superior

[23
[23]]

THE ARABS

strument
for the
the translation
lore of
of ancient
ancient Greece.
strument for
of the
the lore
Greece*
translation of
Even today,
today, incredible
incredible as
as it
may seem,
Arabs have
have selit may
the Arabs
selseem, the
of
the
deserts
to
dom to
to go
outside
this
ancient
language
the
this
of
deserts
outside
ancient
to
language
go
express
the
terminology
of
modern
sciences.
of
sciences.
the
modern
express
terminology
It
that the
the Arabs,
Arabs, whose tongue
tongue this
this was,
It is
is odd that
should
was, should
have
memory of
Sabaean and cognate
a memory
of the
the Sabrean
have shown so
so scant
scant a
cognate
of the
the
cultures,
the old
authorities tell
tell of
old Greek classical
classical authorities
cultures, yet
yet the
sending
of
gold
and
silver
plate
to
south
Arabia,
and
the
to
south
the
silver
and
of
Arabia,
plate
sending
gold
recent times
times has
unearthed Greek
Greek
archaeological
has unearthed
of recent
archaeological spade
spade of
of
Hellenistic
statuary
there,
from
which
may
judge
we
of
which
Hellenistic
there,
may judge
statuary
influences
penetrating Arabia before
day.
before Muhammad's day.
influences penetrating
According
to
the
Arabs,
however,
the
times
which
pretimes
preAccording to the Arabs, however, the
are
ceded
the Prophet,
Prophet, i.e.,
i.e., sixth-seventh
sixth-seventh century
ceded the
A.D., are
century A.D.,
of
par
excellence
the
Days
of
Ignorance,
the
Ages,
the
the
the
Dark
excellence
Ignorance,
Days
Ages, the
par
ahiliya. Arabia
Arabia-such
the conventional
JJahiliya.
is the
such is
conventional view-was
view was
wholly
ignorance
of enlightenment.
deficient of
enlightenment. Savagery
Savagery and ignorance
wholly deficient
were pagan,
pagan, remote
remote in
in their
their
stalked
stalked the
the land.
land. The Arabs were
deserts,
sequestered
from
outside
influences.
outside
influences.
deserts, sequestered
The great
great mass of
Arabs, it
it is
is true,
true, were pagans.
pagans.
the Arabs,
of the
as we have
Yet Arabia,
have seen,
Judaism
its leaven
leaven of
of Judaism
Arabia, as
seen, had its
and Christianity
in
settled
areas,
north,
south,
east
and
settled
east
in
south,
areas,
north,
Christianity
been estabwest. Jewish
Jewish communities particularly
particularly had been
estabwest.
the principal
principal settlements
along the
the
lished
in the
settlements along
for centuries
centuries in
lished for
route, notably
notably at
Yathrib and NajN ajancient
trade route,
at Taima,
ancient trade
Taima, Yathrib
ran.
ran.
is known to
of Arabia
Arabia is
have been
been
Jewish
penetration of
to have
Jewish penetration
of the
the
going
the early
Christian centuries
by way
way of
in the
centuries by
early Christian
going on in
north.
possibly those
those Jews
who
north. Some colonists
colonists were possibly
had
Jews
of Judea
been turned
turned out
out of
by Hadrian and
and Trajan
and who,
who,
been
Judea by
Trajan and
others are
are
built synagogues
wilderness j others
are told,
the wilderness
we are
in the
told, built
synagogues in
supposed
to
have
been
Edomites
from
Nabatrea,
and
to
been
Edomites
have
and
Nabataea,
supposed
Hebrew inscriptions
inscriptions have
have been
been found
in the
the far
southwest.
far southwest.
found in
the
settlements, as
also
Settled
tribes of
of the settlements,
as we saw,
Settled Arab tribes
saw, also
;

[24
[24]]

THE ARABS OF ANTIQUITY

embraced Judaism;
colonies found
found sursurJudaism indeed the Jewish
Jewish colonies
viving in
in Najran
N ajran today
today Arab tradition
prefers to
to regard
tradition prefers
as
viving
regard as
the blood,
of
the religion,
religion, rather than of the
blood, of
Israel.
of the
of Israel.
The Jews
Palestine seem to
to have
have come as
as agriculJews from Palestine
agricultheir
hence
chief
turalists;
their chief colony
colony was founded
founded among
the
turalists
among the
agricultural
community
of
Yathrib,
but
they
soon
took
but
soon
took
Yathrib,
community
agricultural
they
in which they
to
they easily
easily excelled
Arabs,
to arts
arts and crafts,
excelled the
the Arabs,
crafts, in
to commerce,
so
that
they
tended
to
be
also to
and also
tended
to be town
commerce,
they
their origin
origin among
among lettered
dwellers.
dwellers. In spite
lettered societies
societies
spite of their
after
are
supposed,
after
a
few
centuries
of
Arabian
domithey
are
centuries
of
Arabian
domisupposed,
they
their
old
have
to
given
up
their
old
native
tongue
and
to
have
cile,
to
native
to
have
cile,
given up
tongue
their sons
sons by
called
their tribes
tribes and their
by Arab names,
names, though
though
called their
at
time of the Prophet
they are
repreat the
the time
are repreProphet Muhammad they
as still
still possessing
sented
Yathrib as
possessing tables
tables of
of the
the law,
at Yathrib
sented at
atlaw, atto
their
rabbis
taching
great
importance
to
their
rabbis
and
observing
the
taching great importance
observing the
certain food taboos.
taboos. Their
Sabbath by
by certain
Their monotheistic
monotheistic relireligion,
as
shall
see
later,
an
early
attraction
for
the
as
shall
see
attraction
we
had
for
the
later,
early
gion,
Arab Prophet
and
a
considerable
influence
on
his
teachings.
on
considerable
influence
a
his
Prophet
teachings.
It
not appear,
to have
have been
been the
the only
It does
does not
however, to
only monoappear, however,
at the
theistic cult
cult at
time, for
the time,
for there
theistic
there were Arab communiwith one
one god,
Rahman,
and
some suppose
that many
many
ties
ties with
god, Rahman,
suppose that
so-called
J
udaistic
communities
of
ancient
Arabia
may
of
ancient
Arabia
so-called Judaistic
may have
of the
been Arab ones
the
ones professing
been
professing Rahmanism. The law of
is
said
to
market place
place of
the
Jewish
stronghold,
is
said
to
of Yathrib,
the
Yathrib,
Jewish stronghold,
the
Muas
time
as
late
have been
been Jewish
law
even
as
late
as
the
time
that
Jewish
seventh century,
there in
in the
the seventh
his home there
hammad made his
century,
in
decline.
though
Jewish
influence
already
in
decline.
influence
was
already
though Jewish
Christianity,
too, in
diverse and crude,
in forms however diverse
crude,
Christianity, too,
restates
buffer
was practised
practised in
the
two
northern
buffer
states
of reArab
northern
in the
in Najran
nown,
Ghassan and Hira
Hira; it
practised in
N ajran in
in
it was practised
nown, Ghassan
the south,
rivalling Mecca itself,
in the
the
a settlement
settlement rivalling
the
itself, and in
south, a
half-settled
townships of
littoral, the
the Persian Gulf littoral,
of the
half-settled townships
to
Bahrain.
penetrated even
even to Nejd,
N ejd, for
it penetrated
Bahrain. Not improbably
improbably it
;

[25
[25]]

THE ARABS
the
Kinda whose
whose seat
seat was at
at Yamama
Yam am a numbered
numbered
the legendary
legendary KInda
Imru
al
Kais,
the
famous
Christian
among
his
following
al Kais, the
Christian
among his following
warrior-poet of
the Arabs.
Christian communiArabs. Scattered
of the
Scattered Christian
warrior-poet
ties
would doubtless,
have been
been small
ties like
like these
these would
small
doubtless, however,
however, have
it is
minorities,
and
where
Beduin
professed
such
a
religion
such
a
where
Beduin
is
minorities,
religion it
professed
that the
the allegiance
spiritual about
it;
unlikely
about it
allegiance had anything
anything spiritual
unlikely that
probably it
political connotation.
connotation.
it had some political
more probably
Yet it
that the
the more enlightened
merit would appear
Yet
enlightened merappear that
the settlements
having trade
with
chants
trade intercourse
intercourse with
of the
settlements having
chants of
Jews
Christians both
both inside
and outside
the peninsula
peninsula
outside the
inside and
and Christians
Jews and
and caravaners
annually went up
up to
to
travellers who annually
caravaners and travellers
the
Syria
and
to
Mesopotamia
were,
during
the
centuries
to Mesopotamia were, during
centuries
Syria
not unfamiliar
that led
up to
to the
Prophet's birth,
birth, not
unfamiliar with
with rerethat
led up
the Prophet's
that
taught
the
existence
of
one
supreme
God,
ligious
cults
of
one
that
the
existence
cults
God,
supreme
ligious
taught
creator
all things,
whose instruments
were angels
and
of all
instruments were
creator of
angels and
things, whose
prophets, who sent
to earth
declared
earth and declared
sent down oracles
oracles to
prophets,
that taught
taught aa Judgment
himself by
by miracles:
miracles: cults
himself
cults that
Judgment Day
Day
the dead should
rise, the
the believers
enter into
into everevershould rise,
when the
believers enter
lasting
the unbelievers
unbelievers into
into everlasting
damnation.
life, the
lasting life,
everlasting damnation.
The very
very emphasis
emphasis which
which conventional
conventional Arab tradition
tradition
on
the
ignorance
and
barbarism
of
the
Arabs
beplaces
the
barbarism
of
the
beplaces
ignorance
fore the
fore
the time
of the
the Prophet
has
led
some
Western
authoritime of
authoriProphet has led
ties
ties to
perhaps unduly,
unduly, their
their contrary
to stress,
stress, perhaps
contrary opinion.
opinion.
'was not
not so
nor so
'Arabia,'
self-centred nor
so self-centred
so
'Arabia,' says
says Dr O'Leary,
O'Leary, 'was
great
extent
its
later
segregaself-contained;
indeed
to
a
to
indeed
a
extent
its
later
self-contained;
great
segregaIslam, and
and
tion seems largely
tion
largely due to
the influence
to the
influence of
of Islam,
consequently
the religion
of Islam
Islam was not
not evolved
evolved among
among
religion of
consequently the
remote tribes
tribes with
with only
slight contact
with the
contact with
the outside
outside
very slight
only very
but
in
the
midst
of
the
general
tide
of
West
Asiatic
world,
but
the
of
midst
the
tide
of
in
Asiatic
world,
general
51 *
Civilization.'l*
Civilization.
;

[26]

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"

THE EARLY ARABIC ALPHABET

FRO]\1 THE
THE TOMBSTONE
TO]\1BSTONE BELOW.
FROM
(By courtesy
eourtesy of
of the
t:he Royal
Royal Astatic
dstatu: Society)
Soetety)
(By

MONUISLAMIC MONUTHE
ANCIENT ISLAMIC
MOST ANCIENT
THE MOST
OF
TOMBSTONE
MENT KNOWN,
THE
TOMBSTONE
OF
KNOWN, THE
AL
KHAIR
HAJRI
ABD
AL
RAHMAN
IBN
KHAIR
AL
HAJRI
IBN
ABD AL

MENT

RAHMAN

CHAPTER II
II

The Prophet
Prophet Muhammad
to the
His humanity
the lower
lower creation.
forcreation* He /orhumanity extended itself
itself to

bade the employment

birds as
as targets
for marksmarksemployment of
living birds
of living
targets for
those who ill-treated
men and remonstrated with those
ill-treated their
their
his followers
camels.
followers had set
set fire
fire to
camels. When some of
to an
of his
to extinguish
it. Foolish
ant-hill he
ant-hill
he compelled
extinguish it.
Foolish acts
acts of
of
compelled them to
cruelty
superstitions were
old superstitions
cruelty which were connected with old
swept away
him . No more was a dead mans
man's camel
camel to
to
swept
by him.
away by
to perish
be tied
tied to
to his
his tomb to
thirst and hunger.
perish of
hunger. No more
of thirst
to be
the bleeding
was the evil
evil eye
eye to
be propitiated
propitiated by
bleeding of
certain
by the
of a certain
rain to
the rain
of the herd. No more was the
be conjured
proportion of
to be
proportion
conjured
to the
burning-torches to
of oxen
by
the tails
oxen.. . The manes
tails of
by tying
tying burning-torches
horses were not
not to
be cut,
cut, the
former being
being
and tails
tails of
to be
the former
of horses
meant by
their warmth and the
the latter
by nature
nature for
for their
a proprolatter as
as a
s* MARtection against
to be
be branded.
asses to
tection
flies: nor were asses
branded.**
against flies:
GOLIOUTH
.

. .

IN

. .

THE YEAR A.D. 570

thereabouts was born in
in Mecca
570 or thereabouts
aa son of the
the Arabs whose fame today
places him among
among
today places
all time: one who was destined
the
greatest men of all
destined to
to
the greatest
found a world religion,
religion, to
inspire aa revolution
revolution which raised
to inspire
his fellow
to eminence and to
to
his
fellow countrymen
obscurity to
countrymen from obscurity
change
the
whole
course
of
history.
the
course
history.
change
Muhammad, son of Abdullah son of Abd al
al Muttalib,
Muttalib,
came into
the
world
amid
lowly
surroundings,
good tritriinto the
lowly surroundings, of good
later to
bal ancestry,
to ennoble,
followers came later
his followers
bal
ennoble,
ancestry, which his
and which
uncharitably sought
to dehis detractors
detractors have uncharitably
which his
sought to

[27
[27]]

THE ARABS
base.
base.

died before
father had died
before his
his birth;
birth; his
his mother was
His father
to
die
soon
after
it,
leaving
the
orphan
boy
to be
be reared
reared by
by
after
the
to die
it, leaving
orphan boy to
a grandfather
relations, first
an uncle.
uncle. Both were
first a
relations,
grandfather and then an
kind
him, but
poor, and the
the boy
boy grew
up in
in
but both were poor,
kind to
to him,
grew up
that knew hardship.
homes that
hardship.
The Arabia
Arabia of
primitive land
of his
his day
the primitive
land we have
have
day was the
of
described.
part
of
its
people
consisted
of
its
described. The greater
consisted
of
greater part
people
pagan
tribesmen,
who
combined
the
roles
of
nomadic
the
roles
of
tribesmen,
pagan
herdsmen and warriors
warriors; they
proud and brave
brave
also proud
they were also
men who were accustomed to
to much freedom and who had
the yoke
never bent
bent the
the neck under the
yoke of foreign
never
foreign conqueror.
conqueror.
Each tribe
tribe had its
hereditary chief,
chief, but
but he
he was regarded
regarded
its hereditary
senior among
as little
little more than
than aa senior
equals, to
to whom alleas
alleamong equals,
a
giance
of
a
light
and
precarious
kind
due
in
times
of
of
was
due
in
times
of
precarious
light
giance
the great
of
the
crisis.
Life in
spaces
of
the
desert
encouraged
in the
desert
crisis. Life
great spaces
encouraged
equality.
another there
there with
with those
those
approached another
equality. No man approached
to
of
in
varying
degrees
of
regard
to
which
in
closely
regimen
regard
varying degrees
closely regiare accustomed.
mented societies
societies today
today are
accustomed. Other nations
nations
might
boast of national
national freedom. The freedom of
of the
the
might boast
desert was aa personal
personal freedom,
a freedom to
to kill
kill neighbour
neighbour
desert
freedom, a
or
brother, maybe,
maybe, without
without fear
constituted authoror brother,
of any
fear of
authorany constituted
a
ity,
a
to
forgive
the
murderer
of
a
kinsman
for
to
the
freedom
murderer
of
a
for
kinsman
forgive
ity,
the consideration
consideration of blood money,
money, again
again without
without recourse
the
recourse
were
to authority.
The
Arabs
men
of
inflammable
temper,
to
of
inflammable
authority.
temper,
swift
to
to
quick
to
anger
and
swift
to
shed
blood,
capable
of
being
of
blood, capable
quick
anger
being
to the
the emotions,
roused to
to battle
battle by
emotions, by
roused
imappeal to
by an appeal
by an imrecital
passioned
recital
of
some
poem
enshrining
a
valiant
exa
exvaliant
poem
enshrining
passioned
of
ploit.
frugal
pastoral
life
of
the
deserts
bred
the
solThe
the
life
deserts
the
solbred
frugal pastoral
ploit.
dier
or the
the bandit.
dier or
bandit. Periodical
Periodical drought
selfdrought demanded selfdiscipline or
to rapine
rapine and plunder;
plunder; inherited
inherited blood
blood
or drove to
discipline
feuds perpetuated
perpetuated aa lust
lust for
feuds
for vengeance;
necessivengeance insecurity
insecurity necessiwell
tated
as
skill
in
tated unremitting
unremitting vigilance
as
well
as
skill
in
the
art
as
the
art of
of
vigilance
riding and
and the
the use
weapons. With aa sense
self-esteem
use of
of weapons.
sense of
of self-esteem
riding
;

[28
[28]]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

went aa suspicion
suspicion of others and intolerance
intolerance of
of strangers.
strangers.
The Beduin were the products
products of
of aa cruel
cruel environment,
environment,
volatile men whose friendship
enmity were
were alike
alike caprivolatile
friendship and enmity
capricious. Such were the
the men to
to whom Muhammad's teachings
cious.
teachings
be addressed.
came early
early to
to be
addressed.
it was not from among
But it
that his
his religion
such men that
among such
religion
its inspiration.
inspiration. Islam was to
not in
the
to take
drew its
take shape
in the
shape not
the
but
among
the
settled
Arabs
of
entirely
different
deserts,
but
settled
of
different
deserts,
among
entirely
life was cradled
Its early
cradled by
by the
the cultural
temper.
cultural influences
influences
early life
temper. Its
of
city of Muhammad's birth.
birth. Mecca at
at that
that time
time was
the city
of the
as
well
and
progressive
a
settlement
as
probably
as
well
known
a
settlement
as
progressive
probably
the
though perhaps
perhaps no
no Arab city
existed within
within the peninsula,
existed
peninsula, though
city
had at
at this
this time
outside fame.
had grown
up
time acquired
fame. It
It had
acquired outside
grown up
around the
the well
where,
according
to
local
well of Zem Zem,
to
local
Zem, where, according
refreshment for
for her
son
tradition,
her son
tradition, Hagar
Hagar had found refreshment
Ishmael
cast adrift
by Abraham in
in the
adrift by
Ishmael when they
the
they were cast
this was at
wilderness. Whether or not
not this
at the
the root
root of
a belief
of a
wilderness.
belief
its environs,
in
the sanctity
of its
in the
a holy
environs, Mecca was already
sanctity of
holy
already a
so for
for some centuries
before the
the Prophcity and had been so
centuries before
city
Prophto the
the trade
trade brought
et's coming.
brought by
It was indeed
indeed to
anet's
coming. It
by an anrather than
than to
to any
local
industry
that
the
nual
pilgrimage rather
local
that
the
nual pilgrimage
any
industry
its importance
settlement
increased as
its rise,
as
settlement owed its
rise, and its
importance increased
it came to
to dominate the
after the
the decline
the trade
route after
trade route
of
decline of
it
in
the
of
Byzantine
shipping
in
the
of
the
the decay
Red
south and the
the south
Byzantine shipping
decay
Sea.
Sea.
a tribe
tribe
The inhabitants
belonged chiefly
to a
of Mecca belonged
inhabitants of
chiefly to
such
a
called the
the Quraish.
formed
a
settled
population
settled
called
Quraish. They
They
population such
this day;
that
is usual
usual in
townships to
to this
tribal,
that
is,
as
in Arabian townships
as is
is,
day tribal,
different
and
organization,
but
essentially
different
in
name,
origin
but
in name, origin
essentially
organization,
in
being composed
of merchants,
merchants, shopkeepers,
shopkeepers,
in function,
function, being
composed of
interests were
caravaners and
settlement its
its interests
a settlement
the like.
like. As a
and the
caravaners
doubtless
its outlook doubtless
served
by peace
peace and security
served by
security and its
miniature
own
marked by
by anti-Beduin
its
miniature
It had its
sentiment. It
anti-Beduin sentiment.
;

[29
[29]]

THE ARABS
government,
that the
the old
confederations
for now that
northern confederations
old northern
government, for
of Hira
Hira and
had decayed
decayed there
there were
were few,
few, if
if any,
of
and Ghassan had
any,
political
organizations
in
the
peninsula
comprehenmore
the
in
comprehenpolitical organizations
peninsula
sive than
than the
religious cult
cult was principally
principally
the city-state.
Its religious
sive
city-state. Its
the
worship
of
an
idol
named
Hubal,
recently
introduced
the worship of an idol
Hubal, recently introduced
from Syria;
it
had
other
idols,
too, representing
the much
had
other
it
too,
idols,
representing the
Syria
older
deities, Al Uzza,
Uzza, AHat
Al-Iat and Mana
Mana; aa monoolder Arabian
Arabian deities,
theistic creed
by aa tiny
sect of
held by
of Arabs known as
theistic
creed was held
as
tiny sect
Hanifs; and Christianity
and Judaism
Judaism were both
both proproHanifs;
Christianity and
fessed, probably
probably among
community and by
by
small foreign
fessed,
foreign community
among aa small
occasional
occasional visitors.
visitors.
little of
of the
the authentic
of Muas little
authentic childhood
We know as
childhood of
of Nazareth.
Nazareth. While yet
yet aa boy
boy he
as of
of Jesus
he
hammad as
Jesus of
At
the
age
of
twelve
found employment
minding
camels.
the
of
twelve
found
camels.
age
employment minding
he is
is believed
believed to
he
to have
have accompanied
his uncle
uncle on a
a long
accompanied his
long
caravan journey,
journey, not
not improbably
of those
those two
two
on one
one of
caravan
improbably on
that went
went up
up yearly
yearly to
fairs of
of Syria.
Meccan caravans
to the
the fairs
caravans that
Syria.
may picture
picture young
young Muhammad with
other boys
boys at
at
with other
We may
the time
time of
Mecca's own annual
held in
in the
the month of
of Mecca's
annual fair,
of
the
fair, held
A
of
vast
concourse
of
pilgrims
crowded
the
Dhul Hijja.
concourse
the
crowded
vast
pilgrims
Hijja.
streets
streets and alleyways.
Yathrib and
alleyways. Townsmen from Yathrib
Najran jostled
jostled Beduin
the near-by
deserts, aa motley
motley
Beduin from the
near-by deserts,
Najran
stream into
which boys,
boys, naturally
naturally curious,
would be
be drawn
into which
curious, would
by the
the appeal
variety of
of dress
of a
a variety
of accent,
dress and of
of
accent, of
by
appeal of
weapons.
In
the
hostelries
would
hear
the
In
the
Muhammad
the
hostelries
hear
weapons.
news of
with intent
voice and
and excited
excited gestold with
news
the desert
desert told
intent voice
of the
gesture; he
he would listen
listen breathlessly
breathlessly to
fresh
to caravaners
caravaners fresh
ture;
or Mesopotamia
bringing tidings
of the
the wars
wars
from Syria
Syria or
Mesopotamia bringing
tidings of
and
Persians,
of
strange
beliefs
and
between
Greeks
between Greeks
forPersians, of strange beliefs and foreign practices,
practices, and doubtless
doubtless the
the youthful
youthful imagination
eign
imagination
would be
to share
would
fired to
share such
be fired
such wonderful
wonderful experiences
experiences and
see
marching.
see great
armies marching.
great armies
of the
were those
those when the
the pilgrims
pilgrims
The gala
the fair
fair were
gala days
days of
;

0 ]
[3
[30]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

brought
gifts to
to the
the heathen
the middle
the
In the
heathen temple
middle of
of the
brought gifts
temple in
the idols
city
idols were
were housed.
housed. There,
a
at a
square where the
There, at
city square
the Ka'ba,
Ka' ha, as
be called,
they
disdistance
as it
distance from the
it came to
to be
discalled, they
in procession
robed and circled
circled round in
pace,
at a
a quick
procession at
quick pace,
their
He
would
see
them
revclapping
their
hands
and
singing.
would see them revclapping
singing.
the black stone
erently
kissing the
the sanctuary
in the
stone in
the wall
wall of
of the
erently kissing
sanctuary
and then
follow them as
as they
they withdrew
to make seven
seven
then follow
withdrew to
visits to
to the
the neighbouring
neighbouring hills
hills and
times throw
throw
visits
and seven
seven times
of Mina,
to the
of aa
stones
into the
the Valley
Valley of
stones into
and so
so to
the scene
scene of
Mina, and
camels and sheep
that
brought
the
wholesale
wholesale sacrifice
sacrifice of camels
that
sheep
brought the
rites
to an end.
end. This ritual
must have
have burnt
burnt deep
into
the
ritual must
rites to
into
the
deep
the grown
was to
to
young
impressionable mind,
mind, for
for the
young impressionable
grown man was
it into
into his
his own religion.
Trading in
in
incorporate
incorporate much of it
religion. Trading
briskly on for
for these
these thirty
days,
and
then
an
Mecca went briskly
and
an
then
thirty days,
end came to
to the
the Pilgrimage
Pilgrimage Fair
with public
public contests
in
Fair with
contests in
oratory
poetry, arts
which the
illiterate Arabs were
were
arts to
the illiterate
to which
oratory and poetry,
fondly
addicted.
addicted.
fondly
these Beduin
Beduin came again
they would do
by
so by
When these
do so
again they
stealth,
probably
to
raid
the
grazing
grounds
of
Meccan
stealth, probably to raid the grazing grounds of
off camels,
killing as
as by
by immemorial
merchants
merchants and carry
camels, killing
carry off
custom
anyone who stood
in their
their way.
way. The youth
stood in
custom anyone
youth Muhammad,
as
a
herdsman,
doubtless
experienced
doubtless
a
Meccan
as
herdsman,
hammad,
experienced
raiders, if
not the
the reality,
tradition
many scares
if not
of raiders,
scares of
reality, and tradition
many
at
eighteen
he
gives
him
his
first
military
adventure
at
first
adventure
his
eighteen when he
military
gives
desert
of
desert
braves
accompanied
his
uncle,
probably
in
pursuit
in
of
braves
his
uncle, probably
pursuit
accompanied
who had been
been paying
paying some such
unwelcome visit.
visit.
such unwelcome
the
in
now
in
the
service
of
service of
At twenty-four
Muhammad,
twenty-four
himself
Khadija,
a
rich
widow
merchant
of
Mecca,
found
himself
of
merchant
a
rich
Mecca,
Khadija,
leader
caravan going
to Syria.
This journey,
journey, affording
a caravan
leader of
of a
affording
going to
Syria. This
contacts
the outside
world to
to a
a man who was of maoutside world
contacts with
with the
ture age
and commanding
commanding position,
position, may
well have had aa
ture
may well
age and
but whether
profound
influence
on
his
religious
outlook,
his
influence
religious outlook, but
profound
life.
his
domestic
in
or
not, it
was to
to be
be the
the turning
turning point
or not,
it was
point in his domestic life.

[[31]
3I ]

THE ARABS
For so
well did
did Muhammad conduct
his patron's
patron's affairs
so well
conduct his
affairs
that
return
he
won
her
admiration,
and
they
were
that on his
return
his
he
her admiration,
they were
married. Khadija
Khadija was already
husbands.
married.
the widow of
of two husbands.
already the
She was many
years
older
than
Muhammad,
but
the
marolder
than
but
the marMuhammad,
many years
riage
with
her
brought
independence
an
enhanced
with
him
her
and
enhanced
riage
brought
independence
status
in the
the life
status in
life of
of Mecca.
Muhammad was greatly
Khadija. His
life
to Khadija.
devoted to
His life
greatly devoted
with her
her seems to
to have
have been
been entirely
happy,
and
so
long
with
so
entirely happy,
long
marry again,
unusual fidelity
as
he did
not marry
as she
she lived
did not
an unusual
lived he
again, an
fidelity
perhaps in
in the
that time.
time.
of Mecca at
at that
the polygamous
society of
polygamous society
perhaps
During
those
fifteen
years
of
early
married
life,
as
early
fifteen
of
those
married
as
life,
years
early
During
early
manhood passed
passed into
middle age,
he
lived
unobtrusively
as
into middle
he
lived
age,
unobtrusively as
father and like
like any
aa fond husband
husband and father
well-to-do
other well-to-do
any other
private
citizen.
citizen.
private
Tradition
speaks of
as aa man of
of striking
striking appearof him as
Tradition speaks
appearance
face, black
black piercing
piercing eyes
and aa
a fine
fine sagacious
ance with
with a
sagacious face,
eyes and
flowing
beard;
a
sincere
man,
rather
taciturn
in
speech,
but
rather
sincere
beard
a
taciturn
in
man,
speech, but
flowing
gifted
with
penetrating
insight
and
a
natural
rugged
eloa
with
natural
elogifted
penetrating insight
rugged
quence-a
the title
of 'the
'the
rectitude won him the
title of
quence a man whose rectitude
trustworthy';
and aa lover
a kindly
of children.
lover of
children. He
kindly man and
trustworthy* a
was illiterate;
merchants of
his
the Meccan merchants
of the
of his
illiterate; indeed,
indeed, few of
day
are
thought
to
have
acquired
literacy
and
then
only
as
to
then
are
thought
acquired literacy
only as
day
purpose of
their business
business accounts,
of their
as served
much as
the purpose
for
served the
accounts, for
books were
were as
a
rarity
in
Arabia.
But
illiteracy
as yet
a
in
Arabia.
But
was
rarity
yet
Illiteracy
no greater
handicap to
our own
to him than
to our
it was to
than it
greater handicap
medieval
English
kings
or
to
many
illustrious
oriental
poor
to
illustrious
oriental pomedieval English kings
many
tentates
our day
just read
read and write
write their
their own
tentates of
can just
of our
day who can
language.
learning
carries
less
prestige
in
in
backward
Book
less
carries
learning
language.
prestige
societies
the moral and intellectual
of nanaintellectual qualities
societies than
than the
qualities of
turalleadership,
with these
these Muhammad was abunabuntural leadership, and with
a
dantly
endowed.
He
an
unusual
grasp
of
realities,
a
of
had
unusual
realities,
dantly
grasp
was
deep
intuitive
understanding
of
man
nature;
he
nature
he
and
intuitive
of
deep
understanding
aa man that
believe in.
in. Although
Although religion
religion
could believe
other men could
that other
;

2 ]
[3
[32]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

to have been aa late
there being
being scarcely
seems to
late development,
development, there
scarcely
it until
any
until the
the commencement
his ministry
ministry
commencement of
of his
any mention of it
in
have been
been aa man of
in his
his middle age,
of serious
serious mind
age, he must have
mind
and pious
pious disposition,
one
in
his
travels
abroad
who
in
his
travels abroad and
and
disposition,
at
intercourse at home had been
intercourse
been curious
to learn
what other
curious to
learn what
other
practised. There
were no
no religious
books
believed and practised.
men believed
There were
religious books
in
his native
native Arabic,
and
could
not
have
unin his
Muhammad
could
not
have
unArabic,
derstood
scriptures
of
the
Jews
and
Christians
derstood the foreign
of
the Jews and Christians
foreign scriptures
even
if they
read aloud
aloud to
him. His
knowledge
even if
to him.
His knowledge
they had been read
of
these and other
other systems
could
only
have
been
such
of these
could
have
been
such as
as
systems
only
he heard
heard on 'the
of
men.'
'the lips
men/
he
of
lips
to have
have remarkable
remarkable relireliSuddenly
Suddenly Muhammad came to
He
had
reached
his
fortieth
year
when
gious
experiences.
reached
his
fortieth
when
experiences.
gious
year
in
retreat on Mount Hira he
he had
had aa vision
vision which
which he
behis retreat
in his
he bea
lieved
to
be
supernatural,
a
vision
to
call
men
to
repentbe
to
vision
to
lieved
call
to repentsupernatural,
to give
ance
better life,
up idol
idol worship
worship and
ance and the
the better
and to
to
life, to
give up
confess
the one and only
true
God,
an
inspiration
that
true
confess the
an
that
God,
only
inspiration
man's
peace of
were to
to be
be found
found in
in
of mind were
man's strength
strength and peace
resignation to
to the
the divine
will.
divine will.
resignation
From now on he
he began
began to
to speak
of visions,
visions, of
a faithful
of a
faithful
speak of
spirit,
later
identified
as
the
angel
Gabriel,
who
came
and
as
the
later
identified
came
angel Gabriel,
spirit,
put
God's
words
into
his
mouth;
they
were
communicainto
his mouth; they
put
he himself
tions, he
he claimed,
himself
of supernatural
claimed, of
tions,
origin, and he
supernatural origin,
was but
but the
the medium. He made no personal
personal claims
claims to
to
of
divinity
or
even
that
he
the
gift
of
prophecy
or
of
peror
of
the
that
had
even
he
or
perprophecy
gift
divinity
assert with
forming
the contrary,
he was to
to assert
with
miracles. On the
contrary, he
forming miracles.
a mortal
lifelong
dismortal man. This disthat he
he was a
consistency that
lifelong consistency
line
into
in
claimer
brings
him
in
one
way
into
line
of divine
claimer of
divine origin
way
origin brings
with
Testament prophets.
prophets. It
is aa reason,
reason, too,
too, why
why
It is
the Old Testament
with the
our
his religion
religion is
is really
really aa misnomer. It
It
for his
our English
English word for
is
or Muhammadan to
to the
the Arab.
is not
not Muhammadanism or
so there is
They
do not
Muhammad, so
is really
really no
not worship
worship Muhammad,
They do
'Christian'
analogy
with
our
words
'Christianity'
and
'Christian'
from
'Christianity*
analogy with our

[33
[33]]

THE ARABS
the
the

word 'Christ',
'Christ', though
though Buddhism and Confucianism
offer closer
closer parallels.
offer
religion, accordparallels. The name of the religion,
the
is not
not Muhammadanism but Islam
Islam: the
ing
to its
its devotees,
devotees, is
ing to
Arab believer
believer calls
not Muhammadan but
but Muslim.
Muslim.
calls himself
himself not
for the
These words,
the religion
religion and 'Muslim'
'Islam' for
words, 'Islam'
derive
(='Moslem')
believer, derive from an Arabic
for the
the believer,
('Moslem') for
as we should say,
root word which means 'surrender',
root
'surrender', or,
or, as
say,
'a
sublime
'a
sublime
resig'resignation':
its
full
connotation
being
connotation
its
full
being
'resignation'
resignation to
will/
nation
to God's wilV
prayer and fasting,
time in
in prayer
Muhammad spent
fasting, and
spent much time
the revelations
in this
revelations of
Allah came to
to
while
while in
this condition
of Allah
condition the
would
be
be
him. As he
he sat,
silent
and
musing,
he
suddenly
him.
silent
sat,
musing,
suddenly
face would change
overcome by
great trembling,
trembling, his
his face
colour,
change colour,
by great
his followers
followers these
By his
these
and he
he would
would pass
pass into
into aa trance.
trance. By
of
divine
of
divine
revelation.
seizures
as
signs
seizures were accepted
as
revelation.
Nonsigns
accepted
Moslem authorities,
the other
other hand,
observed
authorities, on the
hand, have observed
are the
that
hold that
that
that they
the symptoms
of epilepsy,
they are
epilepsy, and some hold
symptoms of
Muhammad was an
an
opinion
which
Gibbon
which
Gibbon
an epileptic,
opinion
epileptic,
as an absurd
the Greeks.
branded as
branded
of the
absurd calumny
Greeks.
calumny of
or perhaps
trance or
perhaps on regaining
regaining consciousin the
the trance
While in
conscious'recited' what he had seen
ness,
seen and heard to
to
ness, Muhammad 'recited'
the
friends about him,
the intimate
intimate friends
who,
according
to
to
Arab
him, who, according
the revelations
tradition, wrote down the
revelations on leaves
leaves of
grass
of grass
tradition,
or shoulder
shoulder bones
of mutton or
or whatever other
or
bones of
material
other material
availed.
couched in
in language
of
availed. These recitations
recitations were couched
language of
great
authority
purporting
to
be
the
voice
of
God,
in
a
great authority purporting to be the voice of God, in a
beauty recalling
recalling the
the prophetic
prophetic
literary style
of ecstatic
ecstatic beauty
literary
style of
manner of
the Old Testament.
Testament.
of the
first flush
these religious
Muhammad, in
in the
the first
flush of
of these
experireligious experideclared that
that 'There is
is but
ences,
but one
one God,
ences, declared
God, and Muhamis a
a messenger
that this
is the
the God of
mad is
of God'l
God' j that
of
this God is
messenger of
:

a
lThe
used in
in Arabic
Arabic means 'sent-one'
'sent-one'; the
the term
term 'prophet
'prophet', however,
however,
The word used
has the
usage.
the authority
of established
established usage.
authority of
7

[34]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

the Jews
Jews and the
the God of the
the Christians;
that it
is folly
the
it is
Christians; and that
folly
idols such
and wickedness to
to worship
worship idols
rub with
such as
as men rub
with wax.
wax.
of such
The proclamation
proclamation of
such beliefs
have
beliefs would doubtless
doubtless have
offence to
to his
his idol-worshipping
given
fellow Meccans,
and
given offence
Meccans, and
idol-worshipping fellow
did not
first Muhammad did
at
not go
and preach
publicly.
at first
out and
go out
preach publicly.
outset the
the outset
the revelations
revelations were disclosed
At the
disclosed within
within the
the
circle.
members
family
circle.
Some
believed
and
some
did
not.
believed
did
not.
family
Khadija, his
his wife,
wife, was an early
so was
was his
his
convert, and so
Khadija,
early convert,
but his
his uncle,
uncle, Abu Talib,
up,
cousin, Ali,
Ali, but
him up,
cousin,
Talib, who brought
brought him
to the
the end of
his life,
which came
remained an unbeliever
unbeliever to
of his
came a
a
life, which
few years
years later.
later. Of Muhammad's own conviction
few
conviction and
sinand sinthere would appear
appear to
to be no doubt.
cerity
doubt. He became
cerity there
to destroy
the
idolatrous
cults
his nanaaflame with
with zeal to
the
idolatrous
aflame
cults of
of his
destroy
his fellow
Arabs to
to monotheism
monotheism;
tive Mecca and convert his
fellow Arabs
tive
to bring
bring their
their attitude
with
in
other words to
attitude into
into conformity
in other
conformity with
of Judaism
the underlying
underlying conception
conce"ption of
the
Judaism and Christianity.
Christianity.
first principle
principle was the
the oneness
Muhammad's first
oneness of
of God
and the
universality of
of God. Although
Although God of
Jews,
of the
the Jews,
the universality
He was no
no narrow,
narrow, exclusive
tribal God;
of
exclusive tribal
God although
although God of
the
Christians, He was not
not composed
composed of
of Father,
the Christians,
Father, Son and
Holy Ghost.
fundamental attribute
is
oneness. It
attribute was oneness.
It is
Ghost. His fundamental
Holy
the slogan
of the
the Arabs of
the ages,
to this
they
this day
of the
the
ages, and to
day they
slogan of
a
are fanatical
on this
this issue.
issue. The very
very word 'Trinity'
is a
are
fanatical on
'Trinity' is
to
their
ears.
blasphemy
ears.
to
their
blasphemy
the dominant note.
Simplicity
note. The abstruse,
abstruse, and
Simplicity was the
of the
the Incarto
incomprehensible, doctrines
Incardoctrines of
to Muhammad incomprehensible,
and the
Trinity were
were utterly
inacceptable.
To
Munation and
the Trinity
nation
utterly inacceptable.
hammad Jesus
Jesus was just
just another
prophet. The orthodox
another prophet.
to him than
attractive to
of his
his day
day was thus
thus less.
than
Christianity
lesa attractive
Christianity of
j
indeed,
the
revelations
not
only
required
the
Judaism
not
revelations
the
only
indeed,
required
Judaism;
ritual
the
of
a
pure
monotheism,
but
even
the
ritual
of
the
concept
but
of
a
pure monotheism,
concept
in
prayer
ablutions,
turning
towards
Jerusalem
Jews,
the
Jerusalem in
Jews, the prayer ablutions, turning
Christians
prayer, the
the banning
banning of
pig's flesh
unclean. Christians
flesh as
as unclean.
of pig's
prayer,
;

[35
[35]]

THE ARABS
for giving
were rebuked
rebuked for
which had
had been
been oblaws which
these laws
obgiving up
up these
served by
served
by Jesus
Jesus and His apostles.
apostles.
did not
Muhammad clearly
not claim
claim to
to be
be the
the founder
founder of
of
clearly did
one-which
aa new religion
religion but
but the
of an
an old
the restorer
restorer of
he
which he
old one
called
may indeed
called the
the religion
of Abraham. We may
indeed suppose
religion of
suppose
differences to
theological
to have
have been
been aa subordinate
part of
of
subordinate part
theological differences
his teachings,
his
for
the
masses
he
addressed
pagans.
for
the
were
he
addressed
teachings,
pagans.
Intellectual
differences of
Intellectual differences
were doubtless
of opinion
doubtless of
less
of less
opinion were
moment to
It was
to Muhammad than
of the
the world.
world. It
than the
sins of
the sins
to
save humanity
to make men and women
to save
humanity from their
their sins,
sins, to
realize
realize their
their duty
to the
the one
one true
true God and their
their duty
to
duty to
duty to
one
one another,
that
filled
his
heart
and
mind.
that
heart
and
mind.
filled
his
another,
When Muhammad first
out into
the highways
first went out
into the
highways
byways to
to preach,
preach, his
his converts
were at
at first
first very
and byways
few.
converts were
very few.
of
or
Many
were
of
lowly
or
even
slave
origin;
others,
notably
even
were
slave
origin others, notably
Many
lowly
Bakr, Othman and Ali,
Ali, were men of
of position
position and
Abu Bakr,
influence. It
to
the
city
the
influence.
to
It required
damn
required courage
city gods
courage
gods and
to rebuke
rebuke practically
practically the
the whole of
his fellow
Meccans. At
to
of his
fellow Meccans.
first
people thought
thought him mad. His
His claims
to be
be aa prophet
prophet
first people
claims to
in
the old
patriarchal tradition
their derision.
derision. How
in the
old patriarchal
excited their
tradition excited
?
could
they accept
accept his
his teachings?
They
preferred
their
much
could they
teachings They
preferred their
own ancestral
to the
foreign religions
religions of
of
cults to
established foreign
ancestral cults
the established
Jews
even as
as they
Christians, even
locally, and
Jews and Christians,
they knew them locally,
teachings must have
have looked
to them like
like aa
looked to
Muhammad's teachings
hotchpotch.
In
any
case
they
rejected
outright
his
pretencase
his
In
any
they rejected outright
pretenhotchpotch.
sions
to be
be aa prophet.
prophet. They
challenged him to
to perform
sions to
perform
They challenged
if he was really
miracles
really aa prophet
prophet of
of God. For reply
reply
miracles if
of working
working miracles.
Muhammad disclaimed
power of
the power
miracles.
disclaimed the
the
To him
him the
the whole
whole creation
a miracle
miracle: the
the earth,
creation was a
earth, the
sky,
himself. To him the
the truth
of his
his message
message was aa
truth of
sky, man himself.
miracle,
and, said
'refused to
to give
said Muhammad,
Muhammad, God 'refused
miracle, and,
give signs
signs
of faith
and wonders
wonders that
lessen the
the merit
merit of
inthat would lessen
faith and increase the
the guilt
unbelief.'
crease
of unbelief.'
guilt of
;

[36
[36]]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

Later votaries
of
Later
votaries of

Muhammad have,
of this,
in spite
have, in
spite of this,
attributes. His
His nocturnal
nocturnal visit
visit
ascribed
to him supernatural
ascribed to
supernatural attributes.
to Jerusalem,
Jerusalem, for
and
thence
to
heaven
for
an
for instance,
to
and
to
thence
heaven
an
for
instance,
interview
with the
Almighty (neither
place,
incidentally,
the Almighty
interview with
(neither place, incidentally,
the Qur'an,
where aa vision
vision may
may be
be inis
mentioned in
in the
is mentioned
inQur'an, where
tended, or,
some Moslem scholars
are right,
right, aa dream)
if some
scholars are
or, if
tended,
dream)
has been
been believed
believed literally
literally by
by some
his followers
who
some of
has
of his
followers who
claim
Palestine
as
having
a
special
significance
for
them
claim Palestine as having a special significance for them
traditional belief
on
old traditional
account. By
that account.
on that
belief Muhammad was
was
By old
carried from
through the
on aa mysterious
the air
from Mecca through
air on
carried
animysterious animal called
called Boraq
and
set
down
at
the
temple
in
Jerusalem.
set
at the temple in Jerusalem.
Boraq
There
tethered Boraq
and thence,
thence, escorted
he dismounted,
There he
escorted
dismounted, tethered
Boraq and
by
the
angel
Gabriel,
ascended
through
the
seven
heavens,
ascended
the
the
seven
Gabriel,
angel
through
by
heavens,
visiting
patriarchs, prophets
prophets and
in their
the various
various patriarchs,
and angels
their
angels in
visiting the
apartments.
Gabriel was
was left
the seventh
seventh heaven
heaven Gabriel
left
Beyond the
apartments. Beyond
behind
permitted to
pass on
toand Muhammad permitted
to pass
on alone,
behind and
alone, towards the
the throne.
While he
he was
was still
two bowshots
bowshots off
throne. While
still two
wards
off he
he
felt
a
cold
shiver
pass
through
his
heart
and
the
hand
of
felt a cold shiver pass through his heart and the hand of
God on
on his
imposed upon
upon Muhammad
his shoulder.
shoulder. The deity
deity imposed
the
duty of
believers to
to pray
pray fifty
fifty times
but this
this
times a
a day,
of believers
the duty
day, but
was
reduced
to
five
on
the
advice
of
Moses.
Descending
to
on
of
Moses.
to
five
the
advice
reduced
was
Descending to
2
passed
Jerusalem,
he remounted
remounted his
his aerial
aerial Boraq
so passed
and so
Boraq 2 and
Jerusalem, he
through
the
skies
back
to
Mecca,
'thus
performing
the
'thus
the
back
to
skies
in the
Mecca,
performing in
through
tenth
of
a
night
the
journey
of
many
thousand
the
a
of
thousand
of
tenth part
night
journey
many
part
11 *
years.'l1*
years.'
as being
inconliteral interpretation
dismiss literal
We may
being inconinterpretation as
may dismiss
sistent
teachings. His
His prepreclaims and teachings.
with Muhammad's claims
sistent with
such
cepts
were
a
simple
and
rational
piety,
observances
such
observances
rational
a
piety,
simple
cepts were
as
prayer and
and fasting,
fasting, the
the sinfulness
idolatry, the
the worworof idolatry,
sinfulness of
as prayer
to
men's
acship
of
one
true
and
only
God
and
claim
to
men's
acclaim
one
true
of
only
ship
his
knowledgment
of
the
divine
authority
behind
his
message.
behind
divine
of
the
message.
authority
knowledgment
Still
the Meccans
Meccans scoffed.
believed, doubtless,
doubtless,
scoffed. They
Still the
They believed,
"The word Barq
Barf} in
Arabic means lightning.
lightning.
in Arabic

[[37]
37J

THE ARABS
that
his teachings
teachings were subversive
the social
that his
subversive of
of the
social order.
order. As
of business
business they
were
naturally
averse
from
changes
men of
were
naturally averse
they
changes
which they
they thought
thought might
be to
their loss,
which
to their
loss, and clearly
might be
clearly any
any
traditional cult
cult which brought
brought thousands
thousands of
change in
in the
the traditional
of
change
to
pilgrims
to
Mecca
each
year
to
be
looked
on
askance.
to
each
was
looked
be
askance.
pilgrims
year
not Muhammad preaching
preaching that
that the
the city
were
Was not
idols were
city idols
ineffectual and abhorrent?
of Muhammad's
abhorrent ? Some members of
ineffectual
own family
family were,
were, doubtless
political reasons,
reasons, among
for political
doubtless for
among
his
bitterest opponents,
though some,
like Uncle
Uncle Abu
his bitterest
some, like
opponents, though
his protector,
Talib, who was now his
well disposed
but
Talib,
protector, were well
disposed but
too
too good
conservatives
to
abandon
lightly
the
gods
to
the
conservatives
of
lightly
good
gods of
their fathers.
doubtless counselled
by the
the
their
fathers. Muhammad was doubtless
counselled by
doubters
to walk warily
trouble. Could he
avoid trouble.
he not
doubters to
not
warily and avoid
to
to
himself
instead
of
bringing
emkeep
his
revelations
his
revelations
himself
instead
of
emkeep
bringing
barrassment or worse upon
his family?
barrassment
family?
upon his
early converts
The early
to meet secretly.
converts were obliged
secretly. They
obliged to
They
listened
to Muhammad's sermons,
prayed according
according to
to aa
listened to
sermons, prayed
he
had
devised
for
them,
their
faces
formula and postures
devised
their
for
faces
them,
postures
turned towards
towards Jerusalem,
Jerusalem, and pledged
pledged themselves
themselves to
turned
to ababsins he most inveighed
particular sins
inveighed againststain
the particular
stain from the
against
idolatry,
infanticide.
falsehood, theft,
fornication, falsehood,
theft, infanticide.
idolatry, fornication,
Muhammad's converts
the
revelations inand
converts grew,
the
revelations
ingrew,
passages of
the Qur'an
to this
this early
creased.
of the
creased. The passages
Qur'an assigned
assigned to
early
are
few
and
short
and
deal
mainly
with
three
subperiod
are
short
deal
with
three
submainly
period
and
attributes
of
God,
morality
and
the
jects:
the
unity
attributes
the
of
the
God, morality
unity
jects
the first
coming Judgment
first two
Day. His teachings
teachings about the
Judgment Day.
coming
the Jews
Jews; the
the third
third was the
the Christian
were the
the teachings
teachings of
of the
Christian
life
the Resurrection,
Resurrection, Judgment
Day and the
the life
doctrine of
of the
doctrine
Judgment Day
to
come.
to come.
paradise is
presented as
of paradise
sensual picture
is presented
'a garThe sensual
as 'a
picture of
garit
flow
den of
delight existing
for
eternity;
it
flow
cooling
below
for
den
of delight
eternity
cooling
existing
uhin it
are streams of
it also
also are
of water unstreams,
perpetual, and
and in
streams, perpetual,
milk whose flavour
corrupted,
flavour changes
streams of
of milk
not,
changes not,
corrupted, and streams
:

[38
[38]]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

and streams
wine which are
delight to
to the
of wine
streams of
are a
a delight
the drinkers,
drinkers,
and streams
purified honey.
honey. Those
there will
will
of purified
streams of
Those who dwell
dwell there
enjoy
fruits
of
every
kind
and
have
the
forgiveness
of
fruits
of
kind
the
have
every
enjoy
forgiveness of
their Lord.
Lord. Each of
of the
blessed will
recline upon
upon aa richly
richly
the blessed
their
will recline
decked
bed, on either
either side
a garden
which the
the fruits
side a
in which
decked bed,
fruits
garden in
grow
within reach
reach of
his hands.
maidens of
of
of his
hands. Therein
Therein are
are maidens
grow within
modest glances
neither
men
nor
jinn
have
touched
whom
neither
modest
nor
have
touched
glances
jinn
before ....
they were
were rubies
rubies or
pearls.'
... As though
or pearls.'
before.
though they
'Hell
be brought
brought within
within sight
of every
beholder, on
'Hell will
will be
on
sight of
every beholder,
as
fire.
Judgment
Day,
as
a
burning
fire.
Those
who
are
damned,
a
Those
are
Judgment Day,
burning
damned,
jinn, remain in
it for
for aa long
time, tortorwhether man or
or jinn,
in it
whether
long time,
mented
prevented by
by
all escape
which is
is prevented
mented by
flames, all
by flames,
escape from which
long
fetters.
Above
the
hearts
of
the
the
fires
of
the
fetters.
hearts
of
the
damned
the
fires
of
long
Hell
be raised
raised on columns outstretched,
behind
which
shall be
Hell shall
which
behind
outstretched,
there is
no shadow or
protection against
against the
is no
or any
there
the flames,
for
flames, for
any protection
they throw off
or like
like yellow
like castles
castles or
off sparks
camels.
sparks like
yellow camels.
they
The denizens
denizens of
taste no
no coolness,
nor any
shall taste
of Hell shall
coolness, nor
any
drink
boiling water
water and ichor,
nor
any
food
but
save boiling
nor
drink save
food
but
ichor,
any
what chokes
eaters. All
must pass
pass through
through Hell,
but
All must
the eaters.
chokes the
Hell, but
Allah
delivers from it
They are
are
those whom He wishes.
it those
wishes. They
Allah delivers
those who have
have followed
the way
of
Allah,
but
only
for
of
followed the
but
for
those
Allah,
way
only
9*
them is
is intercession
intercession permitted.'9*
permitted.'
allegorical interpretation
interpretation of
heaven and
hell is
is held
held
and hell
of heaven
An allegorical
by
enlightened
Christians.
by
enlightened
Moslems
as
Christians.
The
as
by enlightened
by enlightened
could
rude Arabs
Arabs of
however,
could
probably
of Muhammad's day,
rude
day, however,
probably
as was accepted
only
have grasped
presentation as
accepted
a sensual
sensual presentation
only have
grasped a
the
sensual
by
Christians
up
to
quite
recent
times.
But
the
sensual
prestimes.
recent
to
Christians
presquite
up
by
the
of
the
picture.
taught
entation
one
side
Muhammad
side
of
is only
one
entation is
taught
picture.
only
shall be
aa spiritual
heaven, too,
too, where
there shall
be no sin,
where there
sin, where
spiritual heaven,
the Highest
Highest shall
infinitely transcend
transcend all
all
the presence
presence of
shall infinitely
the
of the
taken
out
of
be
other
joys, where
where all
shall
be
taken
out
of
men's
shall
all grudges
other joys,
grudges
shall reign.
hearts,
and peace
peace and concord
reign.
concord shall
hearts, and
insistence
went an insistence
to
come
With
life to
the life
of the
this vision
vision of
With this
[39]

THE ARABS
on aa life
be lived
lived by
by aa far
far stricter
stricter ethical
here below to
to be
life here
ethical
that to
which the
people were then
then accustomed.
code
than that
to which
the people
code than
accustomed.
But if
all these
these teachings
were already
enough
familiar enough
But
if all
teachings were
already familiar
and
Christian
communities
they
were
revoto
Jewish
to tiny
Christian
communities
revothey
tiny Jewish
to
a
great
of
the
inhabitlutionary
indeed
of
the
to
mass
a
nomadic
inhabitgreat
lutionary indeed
Arabia who lived
segregated lives,
lives, many
indeed
ants
ants of
of Arabia
lived segregated
many indeed
if ever
visiting Mecca or
Yathrib or
other
big
seldom
or Yathrib
or any
other
seldom if
ever visiting
any
big
settlement,
and
the
bulk
of
not
caring
for
religion
at
them
not
for
bulk
of
the
settlement,
caring
religion at
all,
not for
the settled
Arabs.
of the
settled Arabs.
for the
the gods
all, certainly
gods of
certainly not
Muhammad's consuming
to save
the Meccans
Meccans
save the
desire to
consuming desire
from their
in vain.
referred to
to the
the
revelation referred
sins was in
vain. One revelation
their sins
were
as
the
idols
enshrined,
as
'the
House
of
Ka'ba,
where
idols
'the
the
of
enshrined,
Ka'ba,
God',
but if
if the
the Meccans mistook
mistook the
the toleration
toleration of
of their
their
God', but
sanctuary
for
a
gesture
or
a
sop,
it
was
in
any
case
insufin
or
a
a
it
case
for
insufsop,
any
sanctuary
gesture
ficient
them. They
fellow townsman of
of
at this
for them.
scoffed at
this fellow
ficient for
They scoffed
a prophet
theirs setting
up as
prophet-Muhammad,
of themthemas a
theirs
Muhammad, one of
setting up
selves,
Muhammad, whom they
they remembered as
as aa boy,
boy,
selves, Muhammad,
and mother they
they knew and everybody
whose father
father and
coneverybody conthis
nected
with
him.
It
was
this
individual
that
dared
to
him.
It
that
now
individual
nected with
dared to
the deities
to them all
dared
be
all and dared
be contemptuous
of the
deities sacred
sacred to
contemptuous of
suggest
abolishing
the
source
of
the
fity's
prosperity.
They
the
of
the
source
suggest abolishing
pity's prosperity. They
must threaten
threaten him.
They bullied
bullied and mocked his
converts,
must
his converts,
him. They
or tribal
tribal connections
connections
ill-treating
those who had no family
ill-treating those
family or
to
protection. The plight
plight of
these followers
of
to afford
afford them protection.
of these
followers of
Muhammad-estimated
in the
the fifth
of
his
ministry
at
Muhammad estimated in
of
his
fifth year
year
ministry at
eighty-three
families,
perhaps
six
hundred
souls-grew
six
souls
grew
eighty-three families, perhaps
with the
the Prophet,
Prophet, they
serious. Taking
demore serious.
counsel with
Taking counsel
they deto
Abyssinia.
There
they
went,
were
symcided upon
upon flight
to
cided
flight
Abyssinia.
they went,
sympathetically
received by
by its
its Christian
king and given
Christian king
pathetically received
given
asylum.
asylum.
Muhammad and a tiny
band of
refaithful followers
followers reof faithful
tiny band
was, figuratively
speaking,
driven
mained in
in Mecca. But he was,
driven
mained
figuratively speaking,
the time.
by
underground for
for the
time. The Meccans were alarmed by
underground
0 ]
[4
[40]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

the
the growth
the
of the
growth of

were resolved
resolved to
to crush
movement and
and were
crush it.
it.

The Quraish
on silencing
intent on
Quraish were intent
or exexsilencing Muhammad or
pelling
or
worse.
They
issued
an
ultimatum
to
his
sechim
worse.
issued
an
ultimatum
to
sechis
pelling
They
tion
of the
the tribe,
Bani Hashim,
Hashim, demanding
demanding that
tion of
the Bani
that he
he
tribe, the
Bani Hashim were
unbelievers,
should be
be outlawed.
outlawed. The Bani
were unbelievers,
but to
their protection
protection from
of their
their own
to withdraw their
but
from one
one of
own
at the
the dictation
others would
have been
been aa shamenumber at
dictation of
of others
would have
shamedo the
to do;
the issue
was aa different
one.
ful
thing to
issue for
for them was
ful thing
different one.
They
proudly refused
refused to
to outlaw
in other
outlaw Muhammad;
other
Muhammad; in
They proudly
declined to
their
right
to
revenge
one
of
to abrogate
their
words declined
to
of
one
abrogate
right
revenge
their members.
members. The Quraish
renounced
intertheir
renounced
interQuraish thereupon
thereupon
course
with them,
course with
commercial and
and social.
social.
them, commercial
Persecution
the lot
of any
dared follow
Persecution was hence
hence the
lot of
follow
any who dared
the
loss
of
his
beloved
wife,
Khadija,
The
loss
of
his
the Prophet.
beloved
and
wife, Khadija, and
Prophet.
his
uncle
and
protector,
Talib,
his
strong
shield
and
Abu
his
his uncle
Talib,
protector,
strong shield and
the Bani Hashim,
Hashim, made his
his position
position parlous
parlous
aa counsellor
of the
counsellor of
turned for
indeed.
longer safe
him. He turned
safe for
for him.
for
indeed. Mecca was no longer
of
Taif,
but
Taif,
too,
aa refuge
refuge to
to the
neighbouring city
the neighbouring
of
but
Taif
too,
Taif,
city
proved
hostile, and he
once more to
to Mecca ununreturned once
he returned
proved hostile,
der
the protection
protection of
of an
an influential
influential heathen
heathen merchant.
merchant. Ten
der the
years
passed since
his ministry.
ministry.
since the
the commencement of
of his
years had passed
He was now fifty:
he
few
friends
and
few
followers.
he
had
friends
and
followers.
fifty:
Two years
years longer
he remained in
but he
he had
had to
to exexin Mecca,
Mecca, but
longer he
ercise
care,
though
he
was
free
to
address
himself
address
to
himself
he
was
free
ercise great
care,
though
great
to pilgrim
pilgrim visitors,
if these
treated him with
with
these generally
to
visitors, and if
generally treated
still reviled
ridicule and
and the
the Meccans still
reviled and
and
indifference
or ridicule
indifference or
persecuted
him,
his
converts
increased.
increased.
his
converts
him,
persecuted
to the
party of
pilgrims arrived
listened to
the
One day
day aa party
arrived who listened
of pilgrims
had
interest.
than
ordinary
interest.
They
come
preacher
with
than
more
They
ordinary
preacher with
an
journey from neighbouring
an eleven
eleven days
Yathrib, a city
city
neighbouring Yathrib,
days journey
hundreds
sect
to the
the north,
north, that
sect
for
of
its Jewish
that had had its
to
Jewish
no
to
had
have
years
and
a
city
whose
citizens
are
thought
to
are
citizens
whose
a
and
thought
city
years
Islamic mesfor the
the Meccans.
Meccans. To these
these pilgrims
pilgrims the
the Islamic
meslove
love for
;

I ]
[4
[41]

THE ARABS
felt drawn to
sage
They felt
to the saintly
saintly man
sage made an appeal.
appeal. They
Meccan
delivered it
who delivered
it and was the
the object
of
persecuobject
persecution. During
their sojourn
tion.
During their
sojourn they
they came more and more under
Muhammad's influence.
influence. Their conversion,
indeed, was to
to
conversion, indeed,
in
the
the turning
be the
point
in
the
fortunes
of
the
whole
moveturning point
ment.
their city
Yathrib converts
to their
city carrying
converts went back to
These Yathrib
carrying
salvation
new-found
of
a
salvation
and
of
a
with them the
the tidings
of a
with
of
a
tidings
the
for
of
the
religious
wonder.
They
yearned
for
the
fellowship
of
the
fellowship
religious
They yearned
consider how they
great teacher
to consider
could perperteacher and began
they could
began to
great
to
him
settle
the city
allow
suade the
the elders
to
allow
to
come
and
settle
elders of
of the
to
city
in
their midst.
in their
midst.
late been living
as we have seen,
Muhammad, as
seen, had of late
living on
in Mecca. Mecca was solid
solid against
sufferance in
the
sufferance
this, the
against this,
The
that
no
is
of
her
sons.
a
greatest
of
her
sons.
adage
that
man
is
a
prophet
adage
prophet
greatest
in his
his own country
said of Muhamin
might well have been said
country might
to this
up to
to this
this time.
time. Hostility
Hostility had never
never abated to
this
mad up
of
deserting
the
city's
deities,
this
renegade.
citizen,
guilty
of
the
this
deserting
city's deities,
renegade^citizen, guilty
man who dared imply
that the
the Arabs of
past ages
of past
imply that
ages were
fools how could
could Meccans feel
feel anything
ignoramuses
ignoramuses and fools;
anything
and
for
for
such
imputations
repugnance
their
but loathing
but
for their
imputations
repugnance for
loathing
author
author!
Two years
thus passed.
passed. The Yathrib converts
converts had come
years thus
this time
the Mecca Fair
to the
Fair again,
bringing with
with them an
time bringing
to
again, this
to Muhammad to
to return
return with them for
invitation to
invitation
for good.
good.
secret meeting
called and a
promeeting was called
a solemn promise
promise of proA secret
tection and succour
given. He was ready,
ready, nay,
but
succour given.
tection
nay, eager
eager but
felt
he could
not abandon his
his Meccan followers.
felt he
could not
followers. These in
in
for
case
reason
to
had
small
reason
for
wishing
to
remain
behind.
any
case
behind.
any
wishing
as gradually
They therefore
to fly
They left
therefore decided to
left as
too. They
fly too.
They
gradually
as
and as
as
possible.
Prophet
himself
reas unobtrusively
The
rehimself
Prophet
unobtrusively
possible.
the end,
to the
then
he,
too,
crept
away
in
disguise,
mained to
in
end,
he, too, crept away
disguise,
eluding those
those more extreme Meccan elements
elements who sought
eluding
sought
;

2 ]
[4
[42]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

to
to slay
slay him.
him.

For two days

days he
he hid
hid in
in aa cave
cave outside
outside Mecca,
Mecca,

then
(hijra 3S )) northwards
northwards
then continued
continued his
his perilous
perilous flight
flight (hijra
coast.
the
Sixteen
the
coast.
Sixteen
days
later
he
entered
Yathrib,
along
later
he
entered
along
days
Yathrib,
and
unnoticed,
though
one
tradition
gives
perhaps
quietly
one
tradition gives
unnoticed, though
perhaps quietly

him aa public
public entry
entry riding
riding aa she-camel,
she-camel, his
his turban
turban flying
flying

ominously in
in the
the breeze
breeze like
like aa standard,
standard, and
and being
being hailed
hailed
ominously
with acclamation
five hundred
hundred citizens
citizens who had
had come
come
acclamation by
by five
to
welcome
out
him.
out to
him. Yathrib
Yathrib in
in any
any case
case had
had done
done well.
well.
She had gained
gained for
for herself
herself the
the title
title to
to be
be known as
as 'The
'The
of
in
the
Arabic
City
the
Prophet'
;
in
Arabic
M
edinat
al
N
abi,
soon
to
Medinat
al
soon
to
Prophet'
City
Nabi,
be
be shortened to
to Medina,
Medina, as
as we know it
it today.
today.
The people
people of
of Medina who sympathized
sympathized with
with the
the
;

of hospitality;
hospitality; those
those who did
did not
not sufsufrefugees gave
gave them of
refugees
ill grace.
fered
grace. Some there
there were
were who opposed
fered them with
with an ill
opposed
them and intrigued
intrigued against
against them,
them, and among
this number
among this
the Jews.
the outset
outset aa plot
of
ground
prowere the
Jews. At the
of
ground was proplot
this
vided,
and
on
this
built
the
Prophet's
house
and
the
was
built
the
house
and
the
vided,
Prophet's
first
mosque, the
the two possibly
possibly under
roof, the
the mosque
mosque
under one
one roof,
first mosque,
in which
being aa simple
which aa palm
palm tree
tree served
the purserved the
simple room in
being
purpulpit as
befitted the
pose
of chair
chair or
or pulpit
as befitted
the essential
essential puritanism
puritanism
pose of
of
teachings. Revelations
of the
the Prophet's
Revelations camet
converts
came, converts
Prophet's teachings.
multiplied.
multiplied.
For ten
years Medina was the
of the
the Prophet
the home of
ten years
Prophet and
of
his
followers.
He
continued
throughout
this
the
continued
the refuge
his
of
followers.
throughout this
refuge
of dating
"The
is the
Islamic Era. Such manner of
'The hijra
the starting
of the
the Islamic
dating
hijra is
starting point
point of
differs
calendar. We date
date our era
Christian calendar.
differs conspicuously
that of
of our Christian
conspicuously from that
theirs from
from the
not date
date theirs
birth of
the Moslems do not
of course,
but the
the birth
of Christ,
Christ, of
course, but
his
the
in which he commenced his
the year
of Muhammad or
or even from the
the birth
birth of
year in
the hijra,
ministry.
to Medina (from
of his
his Bight
date it
it from the
the year
(from the
hijra,
flight to
ministry. They
They date
year of
is not
hence
of fiftY-two.
the age
reached the
hence A.H.)
reckoning is
fifty-two. This reckoning
age of
A.H.) when he had reached
without
the year
of flight
for the
the year
without significance,
year when Muhammad
flight marks the
year of
significance, for
to become
first
to preach
first enjoyed
openly. Islam was to
enjoyed 'temporal
'temporal protection
protection to
preach openly.'
aa theocracy,
a valid
to have a
valid and intimate connection with
theocracy, temporal
power to
temporal power
to the
instituted
Islamic tradition,
the orthodox Islamic
instituted religion,
right down to
tradition, right
religion, and the
War,
that the
has been
been that
the strongest
Turkey,
latterly Turkey,
temporal Islamic power,
power, latterly
strongest temporal
War, has
successor the caliph.
was the
seat of
the Prophet's
of the
the appropriate
caliph.
Prophet's successor-the
appropriate seat
3

[43]

THE ARABS
time with
with unabated vigour
vigour to
to teach
teach the
message which was
the message
to
to
him.
He
taught
men
to pray
pray44 and inin
being
revealed
revealed
him.
to
being
taught
to lead
spired
taught the
the wayward
wayward
lead better
better lives.
lives. He taught
spired them to
for authority.
Arabs respect
respect for
ten
years
were
also
also
ten
These
authority.
years
a
to
relito witness
witness the
the development
of
the
a
reli
of
the
movement
from
development
gion to
to aa theocratic
theocratic state.
hitherto aa persepersestate. The faithful,
faithful, hitherto
gion
cuted
minority, became involved
involved in
in a series
of military
cuted minority,
series of
military
that resulted
operations that
resulted in
becoming aa majority:
majority: the
in their
their becoming
the
operations
Prophet,
hitherto missionary,
missionary, became soldier
soldier and states
statesProphet, hitherto
man,
too, which,
which, at
his life,
to aa temporal
temporal
at the
the end of
of his
led to
life, led
man, too,
mastery
not only
Medina, but
but of
of the
the Yemen
mastery not
only of Mecca and Medina,
Najran.
southwards
southwards and Najran.
of
revelations which
which had counselled
counselled liberty
The early
early revelations
liberty of
conscience and religious
religious toleration
been utterly
utterly in
conscience
toleration had been
inacceptable to
to the
They had hounded
the unbelieving
Meccans. They
acceptable
unbelieving Meccans.
the
forth, they
they had sent
an embassy
off to
to Abyssent an
the Prophet
embassy off
Prophet forth,
Abyssinia
of his
his followers,
followers, and now
the expulsion
sinia demanding
demanding the
expulsion of
at the
they stretched
stretched forth
forth their
the movement
their arm to
to strike
strike at
they
that,
to
their
alarm,
growing
in
Medina.
to
their
in
was
alarm,
that,
growing
The enmity
enmity of
the Meccans was aa perpetual
perpetual menace.
menace.
of the
as a God-fearing
have
preferred
Muhammad as
man
would
have
God-fearing
preferred
peace, but
but as
not for
peace at
at any
price.
as a
a good
for peace
good Arab was not
peace,
any price.
that the
were set
The Moslems believed
believed that
set upon
the Meccans were
upon
their
extermination. Islam
Islam must
must now draw the
the sword in
in
their extermination.
defence of
itself.
defence
of itself.
Persecution
all
Persecution made Islam
militant. To the
the Arabs of
of all
Islam militant.
time
battle had been
been an honourable arbiter.
time battle
arbiter. The Arabs
were aa warlike
warlike people.
people. They
They possessed
possessed the
the manly
manly virtues.
virtues.
is the
the key
'The sword is
key of
hell; aa drop
of heaven and of
of hell;
drop of
in the
cause of
a night
blood shed in
the cause
night spent
spent in
of God,
in arms,
blood
arms,
God, a
is of
months of
of fasting
fasting and
and prayer:
is
of more avail
avail than
than two months
prayer
:

In
the second
second year
year at
a revelation
the direction
*In the
at Medina a
of
revelation changed
direction of
changed the
prayer from facing
Jerusalem to
to facing
Mecca.
facing Jerusalem
facing Mecca.
prayer

[44]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

falls in
in battle,
the Day
whosoever falls
battle, his
his sins
are forgiven:
sins are
at the
forgiven: at
Day
his
of
wounds
shall be
of Judgment
shall
be respendent
respendent as
vermilion
as vermilion
Judgment his
as musk and the
and odoriferous as
the loss
loss of
his limbs
limbs shall
of his
shall be
be
the
supplied
by
the
wings
of
angels
and
cherubim.'
To
ascribe
and
cherubim.'
ascribe
supplied by
wings
angels
this
to the
this to
the Prophet
Prophet himself,
does, is
is inconsistent
inconsistent
as Gibbon does,
himself, as
with
with the
the revelations
revelations in
in which
which peace
peace is
yet the
the
is exalted,
exalted, yet
Arab writers
to compose
writers who came to
compose in
in this
this vein
vein with
the
with the
zeal of
zeal
of patriotism
patriotism or devotion
give us
us an
insight into
devotion give
an insight
the
into the
desert man who was soon
psychology of the
the desert
to sweep
soon to
across
psychology
sweep across
the
the world and make himself
master of
of it.
it.
himself master
The intrigues
the Meccans with
the faction
faction in
with the
in Medina
intrigues of the
opposed to
to Muhammad grew
provocation to
threat.
to threat.
grew from provocation
opposed
A revelation
revelation carne,
justifying recourse
recourse to
to the
the sword
sword under
under
came, justifying
but
the compulsion
compulsion of
but
it
was
a
qualified
use
of
the
the
of tyranny,
it
a
use
of
the
tyranny,
qualified
defence
not
sword,
justifying
defence
but
not
attack.
This
led
the
but
attack.
This
led the
sword, justifying
Prophet
to despatch
reconnoitring parties
parties from time
time to
to
despatch reconnoitring
Prophet to
the enemy's
time to
to keep
keep aa watch on the
movements,
such
partime
such
movements,
enemy's
parto avoid
collisions. One party,
party,
ties being
being given
instructions to
ties
avoid collisions.
given instructions
however, responding
responding to
to its
old-time impulses,
impulses, raided
raided a
a
its old-time
however,
a Meccan and took two
caravan
of the
the Quraish,
killed a
caravan of
Quraish, killed
other prisoners.
prisoners. Now the
the raid
in Arabia
Arabia is
the equivalent
is the
raid in
other
equivalent
of
war.
By
desert
canons,
then
as
now,
one
is as
as honouris
as
of war. By desert canons, then
now,
able with
with them as
the other
us: for
the spoils
for the
as the
is with
with us
other is
able
spoils are
it
from
taken
in combat,
it
petty
a feature
feature differentiating
taken in
combat, a
petty
differentiating
is
theft,
which
to
the
Arabs
of
all
ages
is
wholly
despicable.
all
to
of
the
which
theft,
wholly despicable.
ages
as
In aa hungry
hungry land
a natural
natural condition,
is a
land raiding
In
and, as
condition, and,
raiding is
with
aggression in
war, the
motive is
is material
the motive
in Western war,
with aggression
self-interest.
self-interest.
Muhammad no sooner
of this
this aggression
aggression than
than he
heard of
sooner heard
his
defiance of his
condemned it;
it
had indeed
indeed taken
taken place
place in
in defiance
it had
it
condemned
as peacefully
orders. But even
now, had the
peacefully
the Quraish
even now,
orders.
Quraish been as
been comhave
Prophet
the
matter
could
disposed
as
the
the
matter
the
as
Prophet
disposed
blood
of
posed amicably
amicably by
by the
the normal payment
payment of
money
money
posed
:

[45
[45]]

THE ARABS
5 This course
the spoils.
of the
course the
and
restitution of
the Quraish
and restitution
Quraish
spoils. This
them
The
incident
the
spurned.
incident gave
the pretext
pretext for
for war.
war.
gave
spurned.
of Muhammad's exile
thouthe second
second year
a thouin the
exile a
Thus in
year of
to encounter
sand
Meccans marched north
north to
encounter the
the Prophet
sand Meccans
Prophet
a well,
at a
and
hundred men at
well, not
not far
Medina,
far from Medina,
three hundred
and three
called
only numerically
were the
the odds
overBadr. Not only
odds overcalled Badr.
numerically were
the
but
whelmingly
against
the
Moslems,
but
the
were
the
Meccans
were
Moslems,
whelmingly against
retired
into
far
better equipped.
The
Prophet
retired
into
a
small
hut
a
far better
small
hut
Prophet
equipped.
and offered
offered up
up special
prayers, then
then emerged,
reciting the
the
special prayers,
emerged, reciting
since 'Soon
'Soon shall
Qur'anic
verse, revealed
long since:
the hosts
shall the
revealed long
hosts
Qur'anic verse,
4*
be routed,
routed, and
their backs.'
backs.'4*
turn their
shall turn
and they
be
they shall
in Arab warfare
It was
was aa custom in
warfare of
of old,
as aa prelude
It
to
old, as
prelude to
side to
battle, for
for aa champion
each side
to enter
enter the
the lists
lists
battle,
champion from each
combat. Of Badr Arab tradition
tradition records
records three
three
in
individual combat.
in individual
the
such
combats, and in
case the
the Moslem was the victor.
in each
each case
such combats,
victor.
fell upon
to fury,
upon their
their adversaries,
The Meccans,
Meccans, goaded
adversaries,
fury, fell
goaded to
but in
obliged to
to fall
back for
lack
in vain,
at last
last were obliged
but
fall back
for lack
vain, and at
of
water and,
being
better
mounted,
were
able
to
retire
better
able
retire
of water
were
to
and, being
mounted,
from the
the field,
field, leaving,
killed and as
as
however, seventy
leaving, however,
seventy killed
the
many
wounded.
Although
this
the
first
battle
of
its
wounded.
was
first
its
this
battle
of
Although
many
kind between
between those
those who had been
been exiled
kind
exiled from Mecca and
those who had exiled
unbelievers, Muthose
believers and unbelievers,
exiled them,
them, believers
hammad commanded the
the kindly
treatment
of
prisoners,
treatment
of prisoners,
kindly
these remained
and some of
of these
remained and embraced Islam.
Islam. Others,
Others,
those who were poor
poor were
were rich,
rich, were ransomed j those
who were
freed.
Badr naturally
had an
freed. The success
success of
an influence
influence on
of Badr
on
naturally had
opinion. Success
such
odds
connoted
divine
Medina opinion.
such
Success against
odds
connoted
divine
against
5

of the
'The division
the wars to
to follow
follow the
the Prophet's
Prophet's death,
division of
the spoils
in the
death,
spoils in
of gold
whether of
or silver,
gold or
merchandise, was determined
cattle or
or merchandise,
silver, captives,
captives, cattle
by the
the division
division that
that followed
this incident
Nakhla. One fifth
at Nakhla.
fifth was the
the
followed this
incident at
by
set aside
for pious
the reProphet's
share and set
pious and
and charitable
charitable purposes;
purposes; the
aside for
reProphet's share
the raiders;
raiders; later
later practice
practice gave
mainder was equally
divided between the
equally divided
gave a
to aa horseman as
to increase
the mounted
mounted arm,
double
double share
share to
as an inducement
increase the
inducement to
arm,
the slain
and the
the share
share of
children.
of the
slain went to
to the
the widows and children.

[46]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

blessing j those
those
blessing;

Moslems who fought

fought at
at Badr
Badr were
were honhonlife
life and those
were slain
slain counted
those who were
counted

oured throughout
throughout

martyrs.
martyrs.
Mecca,
the defeat,
raised aa force
a
force of
of a
Mecca, smarting
defeat, raised
smarting under the
thousand horse
horse and two thousand
thousand foot
against the
foot to
to move against
the
city that
that dared give
protection. Now Medina
city
give Muhammad protection.
was not
not aa commercial city
like Mecca,
but aa group
group of
of vilvilMecca, but
city like
settlements
that
lived
lage
settlements
that
lived
by
agriculture,
so
that
its
out~
so
that
its
outlage
by agriculture,
fields were exposed
to the
lying fields
the ravages
ravages of
of an
an attacker,
and
lying
attacker, and
exposed to
doubtless with
with this
this consideration
consideration uppermost
uppermost
Muhammad, doubtless
in
in his
his mind,
mind, marched out with his
his smaller
force of
smaller force
of only
a
only a
to outlying
thousand
Uhud.
Meccans
advanced,
thousand men to
The
advanced,
outlying
accompanied
by their
have myself
myself witnessed
witnessed the
the
their women. (I
accompanied by
( I have
of the
the Bani Bu Ali
Ali tribe
tribe in
Arabia runrunwomen of
in southeast
southeast Arabia
ning at
at the
the heels
heels of
men, carrying
carrying full
their advancing
of their
full
ning
advancing men,
water skins.
the Arabs
Arabs of
of antiquity
skins. Another custom
of the
custom of
antiquity
was for
to go
into
battle
shouting
the
of
their
into
the
names
of their
for men to
battle
go
shouting
the
of
that they
might
do
nothing
ignoble
in
the
face
of
an
sisters
sisters that
in
face
nothing ignoble
they might
enemy.)
enemy.)
Before the
the battle
joined three
hundred of
of Muhamthree hundred
Before
battle was joined
a
of
mad's force
force defected
of
a
hypocritical
the leadership
defected under the
leadership
hypocritical
so valiantly
the Moslems fight
fight that
that the
the enemy
ally, yet
yet so
did the
enemy
ally,
valiantly did
at
last withdrew,
withdrew, having
no advantage.
advantage. Rumour
at last
gained no
having gained
slain
he had
had reached
reached them that
been slain-he
that Muhammad had been
had
had
a
faithful
indeed
fallen to
to aa javelin
javelin wound,
but
a
faithful
few
but
indeed fallen
wound,
Meccans
him so that
that the
the
rallied to
to his
his help
saved him-so
rallied
help and saved
left the
with Badr unavenged.
unavenged.
of Uhud with
field of
the field
left
invasion.
Medina now lived
under the
the continual
continual peril
peril of
of invasion.
lived under
and
The hostility
hostility of
Mecca
was
implacable,
soon
came
of
implacable,
news of
a great
there with
with a large
of a
news
large
assembling there
army assembling
great army
Muhammad
to
crush
was
Beduin contingent
contingent whose
whose object
to
crush
Beduin
object
all. All
All the
of Medina were clearly
once for
resources of
the resources
for all.
once
clearly
occasion there
necessary to
to parry
parry the
blow. On this
this occasion
there
the coming
coming blow.
necessary

[47
[47]]

THE ARABS
as at
was no marching
marching out
only were Muhamout as
at Uhud. Not only
mad's forces
forces concentrated
defences, but
concentrated within
within Medina's defences,
but
these
defences were of a
these defences
kind. A trench
trench was dug
a novel kind.
dug
across
side of
that was most exposed
to atacross the
the side
the city
of the
atcity that
exposed to
tack
tack-aa practice
practice of
the Persians-whence
the battle
battle that
that
of the
Persians whence the
ensued
to be
as the
ensued came to
be known as
the Battle
Battle of
of the
the Trench.
A tradition
tradition of prophetic
prophetic vision
vision recorded
recorded by
by Muhammad
the excavation
Ali runs
runs thus
thus: 'In
they came
'In the
course of the
excavation they
the course
a
to
to a hard stone.
stone. All exerted
themselves to
to their
their utmost
utmost but
but
exerted themselves
they could
could not break it.
It was therefore
therefore suggested
suggested to
it. It
to the
the
they
Prophet,
chalked
out
the
limits
with
his
had
out
the
limits
with
who
chalked
his
own
Prophet,
hands,
to allow
allow aa slight
the original
original plan.
deviation from the
hands, to
slight deviation
plan.
Taking up
up aa pickaxe
pickaxe he
himself to
to the
the task
task which
which
addressed himself
he addressed
Taking
others
to accomplish.
Getting down into
others had failed
failed to
the
into the
accomplish. Getting
stone
ditch,
he
struck
at
the
stone
which
gave
way,
emitting
at
the
which
he
struck
hard
ditch,
gave way, emitting
at the
of fire,
fire, on which the
the Prophet,
at
the same time sparks
sparks of
Prophet,
followed by
by his
his companions,
raised
a
cry
of
"God
is
Great"
a
of
is
followed
raised
cry
companions,
that
that he
he saw in
in the
the spark
that
he
been
awarded
said that
had
been
and said
he
spark
the
keys of
of the
Palace of
the Syrian
the Palace
the keys
of the
stroke
King. A second stroke
Syrian King.
stone was split,
the same spark
and the
the stone
out.
split, the
spark of light
light coming
coming out.
Once more "God is
aloud, the
the Prophet
is Great" was shouted
shouted aloud,
Prophet
observing that
that he had been given
keys of
of the
the Persian
the keys
Persian
given the
observing
kingdom. The third
broke the
stone to
to pieces,
pieces, and
third attempt
the stone
kingdom.
attempt broke
to
have
seen
the
the
announced
to
seen
the
keys
the Prophet
of Yemen
Prophet
keys of
coming
into
his
possession.
he
explained
that
he had
into
his
Then
he
he
that
possession.
explained
coming
been informed that
that his
followers
would
gain
possession
been
his followers
of
gain possession of
6 4*
all those
countries.'6 4*
all
those countries.'
The Meccans were now to
to advance.
advance. Although
Although they
they
sustained attack,
preferring
the
of
made no sustained
the
methods of
attack, preferring
sorties
siege,
troops of their
occasional sorties
their horsemen made occasional
siege, troops
:

6
'Many
hold that
that the
the military
military enterprises
Many Arabs hold
enterprises which subsequently
subsequently
of Islam across
the world were ordained by
brought
the spread
across the
by God
spread of
brought about the
to the
religion, Islam,
Islam, was in
in
and known to
the Prophet:
to them the
true world religion,
the true
Prophet: to
the moment of
of its
fulJ
vigour from the
full vigour
its revelation.
revelation.

[48]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

to withdraw from the
the trench
trench under
under aa shower
only to
shower of
arof aronly
stones. A deciding
rows and stones.
was aa shortage
of
deciding handicap
handicap was
shortage of
Medina
supplies,
for
the
gardens
failed
to
yield
that
failed
to
that
supplies,
gardens
yield

which was expected

them. This also
also affected
affected the
the dedeexpected of them.
and
both
forces would have welcomed
fenders,
forces
welcomed an
honouran honourfenders,
able compromise,
the supply
to
able
compromise, but the
factor was favourable
favourable to
supply factor
the
the besieged,
besieged, and a tempest
tempest of
of wind,
hail
and
rain
arose
hail
and
rain
arose
wind,
tents of the Meccans. They
to
scatter the
to scatter
the tents
sufThey had already
already sufdesertions and were compelled
fered from desertions
ignominiously
compelled ignominiously
to
withdraw.
to withdraw*
The course of events,
seeking, had
had
events, not of Muhammad's seeking,
him
to
elevated
to the
the leadership
Medina. His
His followers
elevated
of Medina.
followers
leadership of
had steadily
though aa hostile
hostile faction
faction still
still
steadily been increasing,
increasing, though
existed
particularly
in
times
of
crisis.
existed and became active,
in
times
of
crisis.
active, particularly
this faction
faction were the
to this
Belonging
the Medina Jews,
Belonging to
Jews, and
aside from time
Muhammad had to
to turn aside
time to
to time
time to
punish
to punish
for their
their treachery.
Following
Badr
he
banished
them for
he
had
banished
treachery. Following
the prime
prime offenders
offenders to
to Syria;
the Battle
Battle of
of Uhud he
the
Syria from the
to expel
tribe, who had
had occasion
occasion to
expel another Jewish
Jewish tribe,
;

sought
to encompass
his murder,
murder, to
to neighbouring
neighbouring KhaiKhaisought to
encompass his
after
bar;
and
after
the
Battle
of
the
Trench
he
laid
siege
to
the
Battle
the
he
laid
bar;
siege to
the fastnesses
fastnesses of
intriguing Quraiza.
After
their
surof the
the intriguing
the
their
surAfter
Quraiza.
render
prefer that
that their
their fate
tradition makes them prefer
render Arab tradition
fate
the
a
not by
the
Prophet,
but
by
a
Jewish
should be
be settled
but
settled not
Jewish
by
Prophet,
by
It
convert
to Islam.
judgment was duly
carried out.
out. It
Islam. His judgment
convert to
duly carried
in the
accorded with
with the
the Jewish
way prescribed
prescribed in
the Scriptures
accorded
Scriptures
Jewish way
of
Deuteronomy XX,
xx, 13.
males (three
(three hundred)
of Deuteronomy
14 the males
hundred)
13, 14-the
were
put to
to death,
females
and
children
enslaved,
children
were put
females
enslaved,
death,
4*
their
property was confiscated.
their property
confiscated. 4 *
Within aa year
Battle of
the Trench Muhammad
of the
of the
the Battle
Within
year of
set
forth from Medina to
to visit
visit Mecca for
for the
the purpose
purpose of
set forth
faithful
hundred
making
the
pilgrimage.
Although
the
few
faithful
the
the
making
pilgrimage. Although
the
followers
followers who accompanied
accompanied him went unarmed the Mec-

[49
[49]]

THE ARABS
cans were suspicious.
with Beduin
cans
out with
suspicious. They
They marched out
the
allies
allies to
to block
block the Prophet's
approach. He was forbidden
forbidden
Prophet's approach.
truce was entered
entered into
into between the
entry. A ten
ten years
the two
years truce
entry.
an
agreement
made
by
cities,
and
which
Muhammad
cities,
agreement
by
should
but would be
be allowed
to
occasion but
should withdraw on this
this occasion
allowed to
the pilgrimage
year, provided
provided his
his
make the
the following
pilgrimage the
following year,
followers again
came
unarmed
and
for
no
more
remained
followers
for
again
than
three days.
.
than three
days.
Pilgrimage time came round again.
Prophet set
set
Pilgrimage
again. The Prophet
forth for
for Mecca with
with two thousand devoted
devoted followers.
forth
followers.
This time
time there
performed the
the
there was no hindrance,
hindrance, and he performed
traditional
ceremonies.
But
his
outward
homage
at
the
traditional ceremonies.
his
homage at the
holy shrine
concealed an inward
shrine that
the idols
that contained
idols concealed
contained the
inward
holy
hour
resolution
to sweep
away
the
favourable
the
when
favourable
resolution to
them
sweep
away
should
and
devotion
of
his
following
strike. The strength
his
devotion
of
should strike.
strength
following
and his
his own bearing
bearing impressed
impressed the
the Meccans,
Meccans, and two
eminent
made, Khalid
Khalid ibn
al Walid and
converts were made,
ibn al
eminent converts
al As,
ibn al
As, destined
to be
be great
great military
military leaders
Amr ibn
destined to
leaders in
in
wars of
of world conquest.
conquest.
returned to
of which place
place he
The Prophet
to Medina,
Medina, of
Prophet returned
the master,
master, and according
to
historians
was now the
to
Arab
historians
according
forthwith
despatched embassies
to the
rulers of
embassies to
the great
the
forthwith despatched
of the
great rulers
earth,
the Byzantine
Byzantine emperor,
emperor, the
the
of Persia,
the Chosroes of
earth, the
Persia, the
of Egypt,
and
the
Negus
of
Abyssinia,
summoning
of
Aziz of
the
Egypt,
Negus
Abyssinia, summoning
to accept
apostle. The fire-worshipping
them to
accept God and His apostle.
fire-worshipping
Persian
emperor is
to have
have treated
treated the
the demand
is supposed
Persian emperor
supposed to
the Christian
Christian Byzantine
Byzantine emperor
with contempt,
with
contempt, whereas the
emperor
received the
the embassy
but he
he must fain
fain conceal
conceal
received
embassy favourably,
favourably, but
ecclesiastical
because
he
feared
his
ecclesiastical
hierarchy.
his
he
feared
his
hand
because
his
hierarchy.
A tragedy,
tragedy, to
to which
which momentous consequences
are atatconsequences are
attended the
the return
return of
this
tached by
by Arab authorities,
of this
tached
authorities, attended
the
mission.
killed on the
mission. Muhammad's messengers
messengers were killed
a contravention
border. It
contravention of
the laws of
Syrian
It was a
of the
Syrian border.

[50
[50]]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

act of war.
tribal morality,
tribal
morality, an act
three thousand
thousand
war, A force
force of
of three
was
in Medina and
men
hastily got
together in
and marched
marched
hastily
got together
It encountered an unexpectedly
north. It
unexpectedly large
opposing
north.
large opposing
force of the
at IVluta,
the lieges
just south
force
south of
of
Muta, just
lieges of Byzantium
Byzantium at
after suffering
the
the
loss
of
three
comthe Dead Sea and after
loss
the
of three comsuffering
manders was driven
to retire
Medina.
driven to
retire on Medina.
During
this time the
the Meccans had broken
broken their
their truce
truce
During this
with Medina by
by killing
killing an ally
ally of
Prophet's and,
of the
the Prophet's
aland, aloffered alternative
though
preferred to
to accept
alternative terms,
the
terms, preferred
though offered
accept the
their action.
consequences
time,
the
Prophet
action. Losing
no
the
consequences of their
time,
Losing
Prophet
gathered
ten thousand men,
men, placed
placed himself
himself at
at their
their head
head
gathered ten
and marched southwards towards Mecca.
In spite
the way
the Meccans had treated
treated him
spite of the
way the
life
through
life
now
an
old
of
sixty,
bore
an
old
man
of
Muhammad,
through
sixty, bore
forbore
to
declare
though
He
them no grudge.
to
declare
war
his
grudge.
though his
city capitulated
object
investment. The city
a
without a
object was investment.
capitulated without
blow, and the Prophet
in.
general
amnesty
marched
in.
A
blow,
general amnesty
Prophet
offenders. The Ka'ba was
ten offenders.
proclaimed for
was proclaimed
all but
for all
but ten
by the
the destruction
the other
purified by
destruction of Hubal and the
other idols;
idols
purified
the black
black stone of special
pilgrims had
the
special sanctity
sanctity which pilgrims
said
accustomed to
to stroke
kiss and which was said
been accustomed
stroke and kiss
to have been
been placed
placed there
there by
by the
prophet Abraham was
the prophet
to
the old
being incorporated
the
spared,
into the
old ceremonies
ceremonies being
incorporated into
spared, the
of the
the Islamic
rites
Islamic pilgrimage.
rites of
pilgrimage.
effect.
The conquest
conquest of
inevitable moral effect.
its inevitable
of Mecca had its
their idols
idols
the Quraish
Quraish soon became converts,
converts, and if
if their
Even the
interests
their material
were destroyed
destroyed before
before their
their eyes
material interests
eyes their
not only
to be
under the
the new dispensawere not
be safeguarded
dispensasafeguarded under
only to
but
to
be
enhanced.
The
surrounding
tribesmen were
tion,
enhanced.
tion, but to
surrounding tribesmen
stampeded
by the
the conquest.
Godless by
by inclination,
inclination, they
they
conquest. Godless
stampeded by
own
their
would doubtless
their
advantage.
doubtless have sought
advantage. At
sought
intranto
first this
to
support
the intranled them into
into opposition,
first
this led
support the
opposition,
of Taif,
within aa year
year Taif had capitulated,
sigeance
but within
Taif, but
capitulated,
sigeance of
;

I ]
[5
[51]

THE ARABS
to see
see even the
and thus
thus Muhammad lived
lived to
the surrounding
surrounding
Beduin submit. Thus did the
also become a
the Prophet
a
Prophet also
the middle-western
of a
a state,
temporal
the master of
middle-western
ruler, the
state, the
temporal ruler,
as the
Arabia, familiar
us today
the Hijaz.
province
familiar to
to us
province of Arabia,
Hijaz.
today as
had
The dissensions and the
the enmity
which
divided the
the
divided
enmity
settled
man
and
the
Mecca
divided
the nomad,
nomad, had divided
and Mesettled
end. Unity
to an end.
their place.
dina,
took their
place.
dina, were thus brought
Unity took
brought to
of an impending
invasion
is
Rumour of
Byzantine
invasion
is
held
to
held
to
impending Byzantine
to
collect
a
led the
force
have led
the Prophet
to
collect
a
force
and
march
north
north
Prophet
towards the
the Syrian
border. The rumour proved
proved insubinsubSyrian border.
the Arabs swept
stantial,
through
Jewish
and
ChrisChrisstantial, and the
swept through Jewish
tian villages,
villages, subjugating
religious toleration
tian
toleration
subjugating them. The religious
which Muhammad showed was an example
his folwhich
folexample which his
in
the
to
wars.
lowers were faithfully
to
follow
in
the
subseque.nt
wars.
subsequent
faithfully
not asked to
The inhabitants
to forswear their
their religion,
religion,
inhabitants were not
left
of their
and they
they were left in
in possession
possession of
their property;
property; they
they
to pay
pay tribute.
tribute.
were compelled
compelled only
only to
The pilgrims
pilgrims to
to Mecca now contained
contained an ever-increasing
ever-increasing
those
the
as profitable
of
faith. It
majority
of
those
professing
the
faith.
profitable
It was as
professing
majority
as it
to be
be aa Moslem now as
it had been unprofitable
in those
those
to
unprofitable in
issued
of
days
of
persecution
before
the
hijra.
Muhammad
issued
a
days
persecution
hijra.
to
be
that
only
were
in
future
to
be
perproclamation
Moslems
in
that
future
peronly
proclamation
to this
mitted to
to make the
the pilgrimage,
pilgrimage, and to
this day
mitted
day no nonMoslem has gone
gone to
to Mecca for
this purpose
purpose without
without
for this
in
Allah
affirming
his
belief
in
Allah
and
His
prophet.
his
belief
affirming
prophet.
It
last acts.
returning to
to
acts. On returning
It was one of Muhammad's last
his final
final pilgrimage,
declined and
Medina from his
pilgrimage, his
health declined
his health
a
fever.
For
he was overtaken by
a
mortal
fever.
twelve days
days
he
mortal
by
later
at public
he presided
presided at
public prayers,
prayers, and three
three days
later
the
days
his favourite
in the
the arms of his
died in
end came calmly.
calmly. He died
of
sixty-two
in
the
year
wife,
A'isha, at
in
the
at the
the age
of
wife, A'isha,
632.
year A.D. 632,
age
sixty-two
deOur knowledge
knowledge of
life and works is
is deof Muhammad's life
nonare no contemporary
rived from Arab sources.
sources. There are
rived
contemporary non-

[52 ]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

authorities. Western authorities
Moslem authorities.
authorities today
today suppose
suppose
that much of
that
of this
this knowledge
knowledge derives
derives from
from oral
oral tradition,
tradition,
cherished
by companions,
mostly illiterate
illiterate and
recorded
cherished by
and recorded
companions, mostly
in much the
later by
later
by believers
believers in
the same way
way as
as our
our Gospels.
Gospels.
is not
This is
not the
the view of pious
pious Arabs.
that
Arabs. They
believe that
They believe
his utterances
his
verbatim at
the
utterances were faithfully
recorded verbatim
at the
faithfully recorded
the
that
the
texts
of
the
Qur'an
were
committed
to
time,
texts
that
of
the
were
Qur'an
committed
to
time,
at the
the moment of
of revelation
revelation; it
it was
was only
collecwriting
the collecwriting at
only the
tion
that came about
the Prophet's
tion into
into book form that
about after
after the
Prophet's
that Muhammad
death.
they hold,
hold, is
death. Significant,
is the
the fact
fact that
Significant, they
in triumph,
ended his
his life
life in
triumph, aa national
national hero,
hero, aa ruler
well
ruler as
as well
as a
a prophet,
as
prophet, so
so that
that his
his every
every saying,
every
action,
every
saying, every action, every
manner, every
of his
his life
naturally have
have
incident of
life would naturally
manner,
every incident
of
interest
of
interest
and
investigation;
indeed,
they
been the
the object
been
investigation; indeed, they
object
believe
up immediately
after his
schools sprang
his death
believe schools
death
sprang up
immediately after
in which
dedicated
his service
which A'isha,
A'isha, his
his wife,
wife, and
and
to his
service in
dedicated to
Ali,
were foremost
foremost among
among the
the lecturers.
his son-in-law,
lecturers.
son-in-law, were
Ali, his
According
to
the
'more
is
of
the
life and
to
the
Arabs
'more
is
the
life
known
of
and
According
than
of
Muhammad
than
of
any
other
figure
in
hischaracter
other
in
of
of
hischaracter
figure
any
tory.'
tory.
He was aa man without
pride, without
without ostentation,
ostentation, withwithwithout pride,
out
not aa mealymouthed
man, but
but aa strong,
strong, just
just man
out cant,
cant, not
mealymouthed man,
munificence
and
man.
Such
indeed
was
the
munificence
of
the
of
indeed
was
Such
a generous
and a
generous
his
works that
he died
died in
his belongbelongof his
in debt,
that he
his good
debt, some of
good works
his
them
Jew-among
his
only
ings
in
pawn
with
a
a
in
with
shield,
only shield,
Jew among
ings
pawn
meal.
of
for
which
he
obtained
three
measures
of
meal.
three
measures
obtained
for which he
By
his people
people and times
times Muhammad
of his
standards of
the standards
By the
lived
normally moral
a bachelor
bachelor till
till twentylife. He was a
moral life.
a normally
lived a
twentysix,
the husband
husband of
wife till
After Khadija's
Khadija's
till fifty.
of one
one wife
six, the
fifty. After
in Mecca,
death
he married
married aa second
second wife,
death he
Mecca, and
Sauda, in
wife, Sauda,
the
from
the
time
he
came
to
Medina,
at
the
age
of
fifty-two,
at
to Medina,
from the time he
fifty-two,
age
chamthem
he
many
wives.
Eleven
of
occupied
of
Eleven
wives.
he acquired
occupied
acquired many
a
revelation
bers
around
his
house
at
one
time,
a
revelation
having
one
at
house
bers around his
time,
having
;

THE ARABS

absolved
limit of
wives which
which the
the revelaabsolved him from the
the limit
of four
four wives
revelations
imposed
upon
his
followers.
All
appear
to
have been
been
tions imposed upon his followers. All appear to have
of Abu Bakr,
Bakr,
elderly
except A'isha,
A'isha, the
daughter of
the daughter
elderly widows except
to Muhammad and
and
who was
was nine
nine when she
betrothed to
she was betrothed
time of
(a
normal
age
in
Arabia,
fourteen
at the
fourteen at
the time
of marriage
in
normal
marriage (a
Arabia,
age
is considered
where twenty
twenty is
the oriental
considered passee-the
oriental girl
of
passee
girl of
the equal
equal of
the European
European one
of
fourteen
indeed the
of the
is indeed
fourteen is
one of
elderly wives
widows of
of companions
companions
eighteen).
wives were widows
eighteen) The elderly
in
the
wars,
and
Muhammad
married
who had fallen
fallen in the wars,
married
them to
provide them with
homes. None
None
shelter them and
with homes.
to shelter
and provide
after
Khadija,
A'isha
is
thought
bore children;
indeed,
after
A'isha
bore
is
children; indeed,
Khadija,
thought
to
have been
been Muhammad's only
real wife,
wife, except
the Copt
to have
only real
except the
Copt
the presents
by
slave
girl, Mary,
of the
one of
slave girl,
sent by
Mary, who was one
presents sent
in
reply
to
the
embassy
summoning
Makawkis of
in
of Egypt
to
the
Egypt
embassy summoning
reply
the Prophet's
Prophet's divine
mission. Mary
Mary Muhim to
divine mission.
to accept
accept the
in
hammad freed
before marrying
marrying and she
favour in
freed before
she won favour
his sight
by
bearing
him
a
son,
but
the
child
died
in
the
his
a
but
child
died
in
son,
sight by bearing
of the
the Prophet's
Prophet's middle
middle age,
infancy.
the wife
wife of
Khadija, the
infancy. Khadija,
age,
The
sons
bore
him
four
sons
and
four
daughters.
four sons
four daughters.
sons all
all died
bore
died
the daughters
predeceased Muhamin
all predeceased
in infancy,
daughters all
infancy, and the
the
youngest
one,
Fatima,
the wife
the
as the
of
wife of
mad except
youngest one, Fatima, who as
except
a considerable
of a
Ali
became the
the mother of
considerable posterity.
Ali became
posterity.
pomp and lived
Muhammad despised
lived an utterly
despised pomp
utterly simple
simple
life.
bread,
dates
and
water,
he forbade.
dates
life. Wine he
forbade. Barley
water,
bread,
Barley
milk
honey formed his
diet, but
his simple
but mortification
mortification
milk and honey
simple diet,
of
the flesh
no part
religion. Except
Except for
the
of his
his religion.
flesh was no
for the
of the
part of
Fast
is thought
thought to
to have
have been
been odious
to
odious to
Fast of
it is
of Ramadhan it
him,
and
fakirs
and
dervishes
their
apdervishes
made
their
Moslem
fakirs
him,
aphis death,
then
pearance only
after his
centuries after
death, and then
only some centuries
pearance
in great
humility,
not
generally among
lived in
the Arabs.
Arabs. He lived
not generally
great humility,
among the
performing
the
most
menial
tasks
with
his
hands;
he
tasks
his
own
hands
most
menial
the
with
performing
the
ewes,
patched
kindled
the fire,
swept
the
floor,
milked
the
the
kindled the
ewes, patched
floor,
fire, swept
shoes. There was
his
his own shoes.
cobbled his
his own garments
garments and cobbled
.

[54
[54]]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

an essential
essential puritanism
puritanism in
in his
his system.
system. Divine
Divine revelation
revelation
the
to
believer
forbade the believer to wear either
either gold
gold or
or silk
silk-aa curb
curb
on covetous
covetous passions.
passions.
on
His moral teachings
teachings sprang
sprang from aa pure
pure and
and exalted
exalted
mind aflame
aflame with religious
religious enthusiasm.
enthusiasm. From being
being aa

persecuted preacher,
preacher, exiled
exiled to
to Medina,
Medina, he
he rose,
rose, by
by aa
persecuted
the Arabs believe
militant
militant statecraft
statecraft-the
believe aa civil
civil war not
not of
of
to political
his choosing
choosing-to
political power.
power.
his
This he enjoyed
enjoyed only
only in
in the
the last
last

years of
of his
his life,
life,
few years
and this
this he used for
for the
the spiritual
spiritual and material
material welfare
welfare
of
of Moslems. He must clearly
have acted
acted in
in accordance
accordance
clearly have

traditions of
of the
the Arabs,
Arabs, for
for without
without real
real
with the
the best
best traditions
with
sustained goodness
sincerity and sustained
goodness on
on his
his part
part those
those first
first
sincerity
ardent converts
converts would not
not have
have stood
stood by
by him through
through all
all
ardent
the vicissitudes
vicissitudes of
of aa crowded and critical
critical twenty-three
twenty-three
the
years. His authority
moral as
well
as well
authority clearly
clearly sprang
sprang from moral
years.
as intellectual
intellectual qualities.
as
qualities.
as we saw,
Muhammad, as
saw,

made no claims
claims to
to miracles,
miracles,
instrumental in
yet
the sociological
reforms he
he was instrumental
in setting
sociological reforms
yet the
setting
fellow countrymen
short
in
motion among
his fellow
little short
in motion
countrymen were little
among his
of
the
Arabs,
animated
his coming
the
of the
miraculous. Before his
the miraculous.
Arabs,
coming
at feud
by
feud one
the fiercest
fiercest passions,
immemorially at
passions, were immemorially
by the
with
the Battle
Battle of
of Uhud
incident following
with another.
another. The incident
following the
when Hind tore
the liver
liver out
out of Hamza and chewed it,
tore the
it,
strung
his
internal
organs
and
garlanded
herself,
shows
his
internal
garlanded herself,
organs
strung
to whom Muhammad brought
the
of man to
the manner of
brought the
message
of
brotherhood.
of
brotherhood.
message
the Arabs of those times
Another barbarous
barbarous practice
practice of the
a
at birth-a
birth
to death at
was that
of
putting
girl
children
that of putting girl children to
there as
in China,
practice
found today
China, engendered
engendered tltere
today only
only in
practice found
by
hunger
and
poverty.
in
seventh century
in Arabia
of the
Arabia of
the seventh
hunger
poverty.
century by
To this
not congratulate
this day
congratulate the wild man of the
day you
you do not
that may
a matter that
is a
deserts
it is
a daughter:
of a
birth of
deserts on
the birth
on the
may
daughter: it

[55
[55]]

THE ARABS
with propriety
propriety be
be passed
passed over
with
over

in
revelation
in silence.
silence. One revelation
a
is announced
'And when a daughter
announced
daughter is
to
to one of them his
his face
face becomes
becomes dark and full
full of
of anger.
anger.
himself from the
the people
people because
because of
He hides
hides himself
of the
the evil
evil of
of
is announced to
that which is
to him.
him. Shall
keep it
that
Shall he keep
it with
with
it in
disgrace
bury it
the dust.'
in the
dust.'
disgrace or bury
remains of
of aa companion
The tradition
tradition remains
used to
to
companion who used
in
weep
in
repentance
at
having
buried
so
many
of
his
female
at
buried
so
of
his
female
having
repentance
many
weep
children
horrible practice
practice the
the Prophet
children alive.
alive. This horrible
deProphet denounced and swept
away.
'Whoever
has
a
female
child,'
a
nounced
female
child,'
away.
swept
'and does not
says
ascribed to
to him,
him, 'and
a tradition
tradition ascribed
not bury
her
says a
bury her
in
his
alive,
nor
hold
her
in
contempt,
nor
prefer
his
male
child
nor
her
nor
hold
child
alive,
contempt,
prefer
to
her, shall
enter Paradise.'
Paradise.'
shall enter
to her,
all embracing.
humanity was all
His humanity
ceased to
to
embracing. He never ceased
the
of
champion
the
cause
of
against
the
ill-treatment
of
cause
woman
the
ill-treatment
of
against
champion
the practice
his
of inherithis contemporaries.
inheritcontemporaries. He condemned the
practice of
ing
the
with
the
rest
of
an
estate
as
though
she
were
the
rest
of
estate
as
widow
she
the
with
were
though
ing
not be
be aa despised
creature
to
be
aa chattel.
chattel. She must
must not
to
creature
be
despised
ashamed of
of and to
to be
be ill-treated
ill-treated any
more,
but
a
person
any more, but a person
to love
cherish and
and respect
respect: at
her feet
at her
feet lay
and cherish
the gates
to
love and
lay the
gates
of
paradise.
of paradise.
with slavery:
he laboured
the amelioration
for the
laboured for
And so
so with
amelioration
slavery he
of
the slaves'
liberating any
to
of the
that were presented
slaves' lot,
lot, liberating
any that
presented to
him.
taught that
that the
the slave
slave mother should
be
never be
him. He taught
should never
separated
her children
children-aa precept
obnot always
precept not
always obseparated from her
served
Arabian slavery
slavery-extolled
in later-day
extolled the
the freeing
served in
freeing
later-day Arabian
of slaves
as aa penance,
penance, lauded
the feeding
of the
lauded the
slaves as
the orphan
of
feeding of
orphan
in
and 'the
poor man who lies
the
lies in
in the
in times
times of
'the poor
of famine and
dust.'
dust.'
clearly aa man of
judgment. He
of sound judgment.
Muhammad was clearly
realist. He was aa gradualist.
To
have
attempted
to
was aa realist.
have
attempted to
gradualist.
achieve
his reforms
reforms in
a single
stroke
doubtless
have
in a
stroke
doubtless
have
achieve his
would
single
imperilled
them. He first
forbade his
his followers'
using
first forbade
followers' using
imperilled them.
attitude :
deplores
this attitude:
deplores this

[56
[56]]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

wine before coming
coming to
to prayers
prayers lest
they should
not underunderlest they
should not
were
stand
they
saying;
stage came
total
stand what they
at a
a later
later stage
came total
saying at
prohibition. Similarly
polygamy without
limit was
without limit
was radically
Similarly polygamy
prohibition.
radically
may marry
wives as
two or
three
restricted.
restricted, 'You may
as many
or three
as two
marry as
many wives
if
but
or four;
but
if
you
fear
you
cannot
be
equitable
between
four;
you
you cannot be equitable between
them, then
then marry
marry only
one. And you
you will
will never
never be
be able
able
them,
only one.
to be
be just
just between women no
no matter
you may
may
to
matter how much you
to do so.'
so.' Modern Moslem thought
thought is
is persuaded
persuaded
strive
strive to
that Muhammad was working
working towards
towards the
the abolition
that
abolition of
of
slavery
and
the
institution
of
monogamy,
but
whether
or
the
institution
of
but
or
whether
slavery
monogamy,
not,
the Arabs of his
his day
were not
not ripe
ripe for
these things.
things.
for these
not, the
day were
he achieved,
achieved, however,
however, was aa great
and wonderful
wonderful
What he
great and
;

advance.
advance*
The obstacles
obstacles that
that stood
way of
of his
aims Mustood in
his aims
in the
the way
practical man.
man. A visionary
visionary idealas a
hammad overcame as
a practical
idealhave left
untouched the
the savage
ism would have
left untouched
tribal culture
culture
savage tribal
of
recourse to
to
Arabia. Muhammad had recourse
of seventh-century
seventh-century Arabia.
the sword,
but
his
supposed
zest
for
is
scouted
by
but
his
zest
for
war
is
the
scouted
sword,
supposed
by
a Western prejudice.
prejudice. And in
boasts
in spite
of fond boasts
Arabs as
as a
spite of
of
their own prowess
prowess in
in battle
battle-the
so much of
the theme of
of so
of
of their
their verse-they
are
unanimous
in
the
assertion
that
in
the
assertion
that
are
unanimous
their
verse
they
Muhammad never
never killed
killed aa man with
with his
his own hands.
hands. To
him war was utterly
utterly distasteful,
he only
only took up
up arms
distasteful, and he
and justified
justified the
the taking
taking up
up of
in self-defence.
'Fight
of arms in
self-defence. Tight
but
in
of
God
against
those
who
attack
you
but
begin
attack
those
in the
of
the way
begin
you
against
way
not
not
hostilities,' he said.
'Verily God loveth
loveth not the
the
said. 'Verily
not hostilities,'
thou
aggressors.

And
if
they
incline
towards
peace
thou
if
incline
towards
peace
they
aggressors.
shalt
incline towards it.'
it.'
shalt also
also incline
The revelations
revelations which are
to the
the early
period
are ascribed
ascribed to
early period
as we have
before the
the Prophet's
had, as
before
flight from Mecca had,
Prophet's flight
to
do
with
faith
and
morals,
but
as aa comseen,
chiefly
to
faith
with
morals,
seen, chiefly
the
divine
munity
professing
Islam
grew
in
Medina,
so
the
divine
in
Islam
Medina,
grew
munity professing
Positive
character.
to take
take on aa political
revelations came
came to
revelations
political character. Positive
.

[57
[57]]

THE ARABS
secular
as well
well as
as religious
religious enactments
the
in the
enactments are
found in
secular as
are found
part
the Qur'an
to the
post-hijra period.
period. Each
the post-hijra
of the
Qur'an assigned
assigned to
part of
revelation is
out of
of some particular
particular
is said
to have
said to
arisen out
have arisen
revelation
6
*
6*
political
situation.
situation.
political
The great
bulk of
the Moslem scriptures
is, however,
however,
of the
great bulk
scriptures is,
devoted
the inculcation
inculcation of
moral precepts.
precepts. The
of high
to the
devoted to
high moral
essential
are
a
belief
in
an
all-embracing
universal
are
a
an
belief
in
essential teachings
teachings
all-embracing universal
God,
one
and
indivisible,
merciful
and
compassionate;
a
God, one and indivisible, merciful
compassionate; a
that God has
Himself through
through the
the
belief that
revealed Himself
belief
has revealed
(in
other
words,
a
revealed
religion)
;
a
belief
in
prophets
a
in
other
revealed
a
belief
words,
religion)
prophets (in
to
which
death
is
the
portal
and
which
is
aa
aa future
life
is
the
life
to
death
which
is
which
future
portal
continuation
the present
life. In
a fundamental
of the
In a
fundamental sense,
continuation of
sense,
present life.
Islam has
has aa large
large common basis
basis with
with our
our own
therefore, Islam
therefore,
of course,
having their
their roots
roots in
religion,
both, of
in Judaism.
course, having
Judaism.
religion, both,
The Moslem differs
differs from the
the Christian
he denies
in that
that he
Christian in
denies
that God sent
into the
the world for
redemption
its redemption
that
sent His Son into
for its
by
His suffering,
neither bebefor the
Essence was neither
the Divine
Divine Essence
suffering, for
by His
nor
can
beget.
The
Moslem
conception
of
God
gotten
conception of
gotten nor can beget.
is
less personal
personal than
than ours:
decrees are
are
is therefore
ours: His decrees
therefore less
predestined and not
be swayed
by
interabsolute
not to
interto be
absolute and predestined
swayed by
are, therefore,
priests in
in
cession
cession or
or sacrifice.
sacrifice. There are,
therefore, no priests
no
Islam,
no confession,
Islam, no
intercession, no absolution,
confession, no intercession,
absolution, no
sacrificial
sacrificial redemption.
redemption.
The Qur'an
Qur' an denies
denies that
that Jesus
Jesus Christ
Christ or
or any
other person
any other
person
can
be
the
Son
of
God;
asserts,
however,
that
of God; asserts, however, that Jesus
a
can be the
Jesus was a
virgin, and could
could work miracles.
miracles.
true
prophet, born
born of
a virgin,
of a
true prophet,
It
crucifixion; instead
instead His enemies
were perperIt denies
denies His crucifixion;
enemies were
or
to crucify
a
criminal
or
a
phantom,
believmitted
by God to
a
mitted by
criminal
a
believphantom,
crucify
a mortal
ing
it to
to be Jesus.
Jesus. Jesus
the
mortal man and on the
Jesus was a
ing it
the
Day
of
Judgment
will
reproach
both
the
Jews
the
of
and
will
both
the
Jews
Day
Judgment
reproach
Christians,
one for
the other
the one
for denying
other for
for deifyHim, the
Christians, the
denying Him,
deifyJesus, according
true
ing
to Muhammad, was a
a true
according to
ing Him. Yet Jesus,
references to
to
prophet
bit as
as himself,
as much as
himself, and references
prophet every
every bit
;

r ~81

THE PROPHET MUHAMl\IAD

MUHAMMAD
Him,
both in
an and by
by Islamic
Islamic usage,
take the
the
in the
the Qur'
Qur'an
Him, both
usage, take
form of
of 'Our Lord',
Lord', while
never referred
referred to
to
while His Mother is
is never
except
Lady.' When the
either is
menas 'Our Lady/
the name of
of either
is menexcept as
tioned,
moreover, it
is followed
followed by
by the
the phrase
it is
'on whom
tioned, moreover,
phrase 'on
be
peace.'
It
seems
quite
clear
that
Muhammad
treated
It
be peace.'
treated
quite clear that
Christians
with tolerance
their religion
religion and
and
Christians with
tolerance and respected
respected their
their places
places of worship*
worship. It
It was the
the misunderstanding
misunderstanding and
their
and
misrepresentation
that grew
wars that
out of
of subsequent
that
grew out
misrepresentation that
subsequent wars
led
the bitterness
the hatred,
hatred, now happily
bitterness and the
led to
to the
dying.
happily dying.
between Moslem and
and ChrisA fundamental difference
difference between
Christian is
in the
attitude
towards
their
scriptures.
the respective
is in
tian
attitude
towards
their
respective
scriptures.
To the
the very
of God,
the Qur'an
the former the
is the
so
Qur'an is
God, so
very word of
that
the contradictions
between it
it and
and the
in aa
that the
the Bible
contradictions between
Bible are,
are, in
Moslem's eyes,
rectification of
of the
the mistakes
mistakes that
that
eyes, God's rectification
have crept
crept into
the scriptures
of
Christians
and
Jews.
into the
have
of
Christians
scriptures
Jews.
This conception
conception does
the earlier
prophets'
not invalidate
does not
invalidate the
earlier prophets'
message, for
their message
message
for their
message,
message and Muhammad's message
are
to have
been the
the same: the
the earlier
earlier scriptures
beare held
held to
have been
scriptures became corrupted
and
hence
Muhammad's
mission
to
restore
mission to restore
hence
corrupted
them. Muhammad was not
teaching aa new religion:
it was
not teaching
them.
religion it
but an extension
extension or aa modification
modification of
the earlier
religions,
of the
earlier religions,
but
which he pronounced
pronounced equally
their pristine
God-revealed in
in their
pristine
equally God-revealed
purity.
purity.
On Muhammad's lips
lips our
our familiar
familiar Bible
Bible stories
stories seem
to
versions,
and
authorities
supauthorities
to us
us to
to be garbled
Western
supgarbled versions,
pose
that
they
were
forms
current
in
the
largely
unlettered
current in the largely unlettered
pose that they
tradition the
Arabian society
of Muhammad's day,
the
for by
Arabian
by tradition
day, for
society of
Hebrew
Jews
of
Arabia
in
many
places
forgotten
the
in
of
had
many places forgotten
Jews
tongue and had become illiterate.
that
illiterate. Moslems answer that
tongue
the change
be found
be in
in the
interests of
of reason,
the interests
to be
will be
found to
the
reason,
change will
to
the
morality
or
decency;
that
according
to
the
Qur'an
the
that
Qur'an
or
according
decency;
morality
in
to
prophets
did
not
commit
the
sins
attributed
to
them
in
attributed
the
sins
not
did
prophets
the Bible.
Bible.
the
:

[59]

THE ARABS
the West is
difficult of acceptance
More difficult
in the
is the
the form of
acceptance in
to
revelations
which
the
showed
God
creation 'jinn',
creation
the revelations
to have
'jinn',
created out of fire
fire before
created
before He created man out of clay,
clay,
to
are
unbelievers
among
are
believers
and
unbelievers
and
to
whom
believers
whom
among
Christian scholars
the
sent apostles.
scholars faced
faced in
God sent
with Christian
in the
apostles. As with
in evil
evil spirits,
as
beliefs in
Gospel
with first-century
spirits, such as
first-century beliefs
Gospel with
in
the
so
figure
in
the
Gadarene
miracle,
so
also
modern
Moslem
also
miracle,
figure
a more rational
scholars look
for a
scholars
look for
rational interpretation
of 'jinn'
interpretation of
'jinn'
one.
the traditionally
than the
traditionally accepted
accepted one.
the Moslem the
the acceptance
But orthodoxy
orthodoxy demands of the
acceptance
their entirety.
the faithfaithof the
of
revelations in
in their
the Qur'anic
Qur'anic revelations
entirety. To the
a
is
man-made
not
not
ful the
the Qur'an
ful
book,
of
the work of
Qur'an is not a
book, not the
of
just its
its passive
passive medium,
medium, nor of
Muhammad, who was just
as our
later
is not
later compilers.
It is
not merely
divinely inspired
merely divinely
inspired as
compilers. It
held
in
itself
Christian Scriptures
are
to
be.
It
'Its
is
divine.
Christian
are
held
to
be.
It
is
in
itself
divine.
'Its
Scriptures
eternal subsisting
is uncreated and eternal
substance is
substance
in the
the EsEssubsisting in
is incorruptible.'
Deity. Its
Its text
incorruptible.' Its
Its ordinances,
sence
of the
text is
sence of
the Deity.
ordinances,
its precepts
its sanctions
sanctions are
its
precepts and its
to have been
been not
are held
held to
not
for the
the exclusive
exclusive regeneration
revealed for
regeneration of seventh-century
revealed
seventh-century
are applicable
all countries
countries and all
times
Arabia,
they are
to all
all timesArabia, they
applicable to
the
the revealed
revealed word of
of God in
in man's
man's midst.
midst.
of Islam came to
The form and institutions
to take
institutions of
a final
final
take a
shape
last ten
ten years
years of
of the
the Prophet's
life.
shape during
during those last
Prophet's life.
Five cardinal
tenets emerged:
cardinal tenets
Five
emerged
the unity
((1)
I) Acceptance
Acceptance of the
the message
unity of God and the
message
of Muhammad.
(2)
performance of
prayers.
of daily
(2) The due performance
daily prayers.
rate.
(3)
The
poor
rate.
(3)
poor
the month of
(4)
of Ramadhan.
(4) Fasting
Fasting throughout
throughout the
if possible
(5)
Making if
possible the
the pilgrimage
pilgrimage to
to Mecca.
(5) Making
The Moslem rule
rule of life
life is
one.
Alcohol is
is foris no
one.
no easy
Alcohol
foreasy
bidden.
poor rate
rather
than
a
merit,
bidden. The poor
rate is
is an obligation
rather
a
than
merit,
obligation
for religious
for
religious law has
has decided
that one
the
decided that
one fortieth
fortieth of
of the
:

[60
[60]]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

is the
the property
property of
the poor:
poor: to
to give
income is
of the
less
give less
more
is
alms
is
is alms-aa meritorious
meritorious act
is
sin,
act and
a
and a
sin,
pious duty.
duty. The Fast of Ramadhan,
no morsel
morsel of
of
Ramadhan, when no
pious
food,
pass aa believer's
believer's lips
lips between
between
food, no drop
drop of drink may
may pass
is
dawn and sunset,
is
rigorous,
particularly
hot
more
in hot
sunset,
rigorous, particularly in
climates,
Fast. Prayer
Prayer five
five times
times aa day
climates, than our Lenten Fast.
day
is de
is
de rigueur
rigueur wherever the
the believer
believer finds
finds himself
himself at
the
at the
7
7-in
appointed
hour
between
dawn
and
early
evening
the
in the
appointed
early evening
of business
at his
his house,
his place
place of
business or
street,
or elsewhere;
elsewhere he
he
house, his
street, at
his activities,
his mind from worldly
must suspend
free his
activities, free
suspend his
worldly
thoughts and perform
perform the set
set devotions.
devotions. The spirit
of
thoughts
spirit of
its
in
Islam
Islam in its pure
religious conception,
like that
that of
of ChrisChrispure religious
conception, like
ennoble the
tianity, is
to elevate
the believer.
believer.
is to
elevate and ennoble
tianity,
has been
been noticed,
is not
not aa sacerdotal
religion.
As has
sacerdotal religion.
noticed, Islam is
It condemns mediation between
between man and his
his Maker,
Maker, 'who
It
Vho
is closer
closer to
before he was born,
born, and is
to him than
than
knew him before
Moslem
of
his
jugular vein.'
vein.' Any
of
good
character
can
his jugular
character
can
Any
good
in the
lead the
the prayers
prayers in
the mosque,
mosque, though
in
practice
an
imam,
in
lead
though
practice
imam,
for his
a leader
recognized for
his piety
piety and scholarship
a
leader recognized
scholarship and
8
devoted to
to the
the service
the mosque,
mosque, does
is aa
does SO.8
so. It
service of the
It is
devoted
a
simple,
dignified
form
of
worship
following
a
set
formula
of
set
formula
worship following
simple, dignified
9
of
postures and devotions
responses faintly
devotions 9 (petitions
of postures
(petitions and responses
faintly
in the
the English
church servsuggesting
English church
servlitany in
suggesting an unintoned litany
reice).
The
worshippers
do
not
bare
their
heads;
they
not
bare
their
heads;
they reworshippers
ice).
certain
their shoes
perform
certain
ritualistic
ritualistic
or sandals,
shoes or
move their
sandals, perform
line facing
ablutions
then assemble to
to form aa long
long line
ablutions and then
facing
a
(the Ka'ba),
the leader
leader taking
up
a
position
aa
Mecca (the
Ka'ba), the
up
position
taking
in the
little to
to the
the front
centre.
of them in
the centre.
front of
little

believer's
believer's

aa

to
to give
give

7
7(I)
(2)
(3) Midafternoon. (4)
or sunrise.
sunrise.
(4) Sunset.
Midday. (3)
(2) Midday.
(i) Dawn or
(5)
Evening (bedtime).
(bedtime).
(5) Evening
8
"Friday
is the
the Moslem day
for congregational
congregational worship
worship in
in the mosque,
mosque,
day for
Friday is
corresponding
to the
of the
the Jews,
the Sunday
of Christians.
the Saturday
Sunday of
Jews, the
Saturday of
corresponding to
9
"For
those here
here given
indebted to
to my friend Mr Mahmood Zada,
For those
Zada,
given II am indebted
of
in London.
of Sa'udi
Sa'udi Arabia in
of the
the Royal
Royal Legation
Legation of

[6rJ
[61]

THE ARABS

Posture
in aa reverent
reverent way,
way, with the
stand in
i.
Posture I.-They
They stand
ears.
the ears.
of their
their hands
hands raised
raised to
to the
palms of
palms
prayers in
in aa low reverent
reverent voice.
voice.
Affirmations and prayers
Affirmations
f
'God
greater than
else:
all else'
than all
is greater
God is

Posture
the arms are
are lowered and
2.
Still standing,
Posture 2.-Still
standing, the
left one.
the right
right hand placed
the left
one.
the
placed over the

f
ex'Glory
praise to
Blessed is
is Thy
to Thee,
God! Blessed
Thee, O Godl
Thy name and exGlory and praise
is Thy
Majesty. There is
one worthy
worthy of
of worship
worship and service
service
alted is
is no
no one
alted
Thy Majesty.
but Thee.
In the
of God,
the Merciful,
Merciful, the
the Compassionate.
the Name of
but
Thee. In
God, the
Compassionate.
Praise be
be to
of the
the Merciful,
Merciful, the
the Worlds,
the Comto God the
the Lord of
Praise
Worlds, the
passi~nate.
The
of
the
day
of
Judgment.
Thee,
God,
the
O
Master
day of Judgment. Thee,
God, Thee
of
passionate.
only do
do we worship,
worship, and Thee only
do we beseech
beseech for
for help.
help. Guide
only do
only
of those
those Thou hast
hast blest,
us
right path,
path, the
path of
the path
unto the
the right
those
us unto
not of
blest, not
of those
with whom Thou art
art displeased,
gone
those who have
with
have gone
displeased, nor of
of those
astray:
astray.'

The worshipper
worshipper then
then recites
recites aa portion
portion of
of the
the Qur'an
he
Qur'an he
e.g.has
committed to
to memory,
has committed
memory, e.g.
f

Say 'Verily
prayers and my
my worship,
and my
my death
are
death are
my prayers
Say
Verily my
worship, my
my life
life and
the Worlds. No associate
unto God;
associate has
have
unto
the Lord of
has He. Thus have
God; the
of the
the first
I am the
first to
surrender myself
myself unto
unto Him!
Him:
I been
I
been commanded and I
to surrender
'God is
greater than
than all
else:
all else.'
is greater

Posture
bent forward
forward at
at right
right angles,
Posture 3.-Bodies
Bodies are
are bent
3.
angles,
the
are lowered and placed
the hands are
placed on the
the knees.
knees.

'Glory
Lord, the
the Exalted.'
Exalted:
to my
'Glory to
my Lord,

A bow that
is repeated
A
that is
each time
time with
with the
the
twice more,
more, each
repeated twice
same words.
words.
position is
resumed.
Posture 4.-The
The standing
is resumed.
4.
standing position
f
'God
accepts him who is
grateful to
God accepts
is grateful
to Him.
a
LordI All
All praise
praise be
O our Lord!
be to
to Thee.
Thee.
God is
greater than
all else:
is greater
than all
else!

The worshippers
Posture 5.-The
worshippers next
next kneel
kneel down,
down, their
their
5.
bodies
bodies bowed over,
with the
the hands
hands on
on the
the
over, supported
supported with

[62
[62]]

THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

their heads
heads bowed reverently,
reverently,
ground, palms
palms downwards,
downwards, their
ground,
so that
so
that their
their brows touch
the ground.
touch the
ground.
to my Lord~
'Glory
High:
the Most High?
'Glory to
Lord, the

is repeated
twice more,
A bow that
that is
more, each
time with
with the
each time
the
repeated twice
same words and ending
ending-

'God is
greater than
is greater
than all
all

else.~
else?

6.
A sitting-kneeling
Posture 6.-A
position follows
follows with
with
sitting-kneeling position
the
resting on the
knees.
the knees.
the hands resting
f

to my Lord,
'Glory
Lord, the
Exalted:
the Most Exalted/
Glory to
(repeated
(repeated thrice)
thrice)
'God is
greater than
than all
else:
is greater
all else!

The words and obeisances

Posture 7.-The
obeisances as
as in
in Posture
Posture 5.
7.
5.
8.
Is like
like Posture
Posture 8.-Is
6 and concludes
Posture 6
concludes the
the first
first
phase of
of the
the devotions
is called
a Rakat.
Rakat. Prayers
Prayers are
devotions and is
called a
are
phase
some of
of two,
two, some of three,
three, some of
Rakats. To end
of four Rakats.
is said
with, aa prayer
prayer is
Prophets, the
the faithful
faithful and for
for the
the Prophets,
said for
for
with,
the
worshippers in
as the
the followingin some such
such form as
the worshippers
following
is unto
'Homage
sincere worship
worship is
to God and all
unto Him.
all sincere
'Homage be to
f
and
His
'Peace
of
God
blessings
be upon
the mercy
Peace and the
thee,
mercy of
blessings be
upon thee,
Prophet! Peace
Peace be
upon us
us and all
righteous servants
serfJonts of
all righteous
be upon
God.
O Prophet!
of God.
e
'1
bear witness
witness that
but one
that Muhammad is
one God and that
that there
there is
is but
is
l bear
serfJant and His messenger.
His servant
messenger.
'May
it please
please Thee,
to be
gracious to
to Muhammad and
be gracious
O God,
God, to
Thee, 0
'May it
wast
to Abraham
as
Thou
wast
gracious
Abrahom
the followers
followers of
as
Muhammad
the
gracious to
of
the folto bless
foland the
the followers
followers of
bless Muhammad and the
of Abraham and to
of Muhammad as
didst bless
followers
bless Abraham and the
the folas Thou didst
lowers of
lowers
Abraham, for
for surely
surely Thou art
art Praised
Praised and Magnified*
Magnified:
lowers of
of Abraham*

usually followed by
byis usually
This is
f
that
observe my prayers
'0
Lord! Grant that
I may
may always
prayers and that
that I
O Lord!
always observe
this supplicamy
offspring may
do so
so also
also and accept,
accept, O
0 our Lord,
Lord, this
supplicamay do
my offspring
all
tion
mine. Our Lord!
Lord! Forgive
Forgive me and forgive
forgive my parents
parents and all
tion of
of mine.
believers
day of
on the
the day
believers on
reckoning.'
of reckoning:

[63]

THE ARABS

the worshippers
worshippers turn
turn their
their heads
to right
right
heads to
And finally
finally the
greetingand left
left with
the greeting
with the
and
<Peace
you, and
and the
mercy of
of Allah/
Allah:
the mercy
with you,
'Peace he
be with

10

POSTURES OF PRAYER

lOFrom D.
D. S.
S. Margoliouth's
Margoliouth's Mohammed.
nBy courtesy
of G.
G. P.
P. Putnam's
Sons.
Putnam's Sons.
courtesy of

[64

11

III
CHAPTER III

Arab World Conquest-Eastwards

Conquest Eastwards

hE

THK

the rude
rude Arabs
Arabs were
were
PROPHET was dead.
dead. And now the
to
out of
of Arabia under
under the
the banner
banner of
Islam and
and
to surge
of Islam
surge out
the
great
nations
of
the
earth
and
set
going
a
vanquish
nations
the
of
the
earth
set
and
great
vanquish
going a
that went on for
for upwards
upwards of
a
century
to
movement that
a
to
of
century
as the
the wars of
the
follow,
which history
of the
follow, which
history remembers as
at
end
of
book.)
Saracenic
expansion. (See
map
at
of
Saracenic expansion.
(See map
book.)
The traditional
traditional view that
that the
the
the Arabs,
Arabs, following
following the
birth of
Islam, were fired
by religious
to march forth
forth
fired by
zeal to
birth
of Islam,
religious zeal
acon aa mission
mission of
of proselytizing
proselytizing the
the world
world is
is no longer
longer acceptable.
Although
Arabs
themselves
believe
that
the
that
believe
the
themselves
ceptable. Although
propagation of
the faith,
which they
were
widespread propagation
of which
of the
faith, of
they were
widespread
is
as God willed,
it is
the militant
willed, it
about as
the
militant instruments,
instruments, came about
the
of
at
extremely
unlikely
that
the
Beduin
hosts
at
the
time
of
the
hosts
that
Beduin
extremely unlikely
the Prophet's
had any
death had
the
convictions;
spiritual convictions;
strong spiritual
Prophet's death
any strong
the wars
that
and Arab authorities,
moreover,
tell
us
that
the
tell
us
authorities, moreover,
were precipitated
precipitated by
aggression on the
the part
part of their
their
acts of
of aggression
were
by acts
was
to
that
the
early
expedition
against
Syria
to
enemies,
that
the
enemies,
early expedition against Syria
Roman
check
of
the
Christian
Empire
the
Christian
of
the depredations
check the
Empire
depredations
that the
the raids
raids
against
peaceful Moslems over
the border,
border, that
over the
against peaceful

[65
[65]]

THE ARABS
against
the outcome of Persian provocaPersians were the
the Persi.ans
provocaagainst the
of the
the Medina
tion
militant policy
eastern Arabia.
in eastern
Arabia. The militant
tion in
policy of
caliphate
thus hold
hold to
to have been imposed
imposed by
by outside
they thus
caliphate they
political
events,
which
necessitated
massing
the
Arabs to
necessitated
massing
political events,
meet the
of
two
formidable
powers.
of
the invasion
invasion
powers.
the Arab interpretaHere we must part
interpretacompany with the
part company
tion
to
follow
those
Western
authorities
who
those
follow
tion of
of history
to
history
their inception
neither
believe
in their
that the
the Arab wars were in
believe that
inception
7*
purely
chiefly economic. *
religious nor purely
purely religious
political, but chiefly
purely political,
to
It
that drove the Arabs forth to
It was hunger
hunger and want that
their
wars of
Arabia
was
immemorially
their wars
of world conquest.
immemorially
conquest.
earlier population
in her earlier
hungry,
population movements
movements:
as is
is reflected
reflected in
hungry, as
the Hyksos
the
possibly the
Canaanite migration
the Canaanite
one; possibly
Hyksos
migration was one;
and Akkadian movements were others.
historic role
others. A historic
role of
of
that
hers
hers seems to
to have been that
that of
of a
a human reservoir
reservoir that
in the
the centuries
centuries before
periodically overflowed,
before the
the
overflowed, and in
periodically
of
Prophet
there
were
signs
of
another
welling
up.
South
to
there
another
to
Prophet
signs
welling up.
north
the decaying
north waves of peoples
peoples from the
are
Yemen
are
decaying
associated with the
the tradition
tradition of
of the
bursting dam of
associated
the bursting
of
Mar'ib, and doubtless
doubtless aa steady
steady spilling
over of
of borderline
borderline
Mar'ib,
spilling over
Arabs into
of Syria
the Euphrates
into the
the fertile
plains of
fertile plains
Syria and the
Euphrates
was
on.
Valley
always
going
on.
in
the
new powerful
powerful
Now
in
the
always going
Valley
state
state that
that was emerging
emerging within
within Arabia
Arabia the
the two old
old safety
safety
valves that
that had relieved
relieved population-pressure
population-pressure-infanticide
valves
infanticide
and internecine
were forbidden.
internecine warfare
warfare-were
forbidden.
To return
return to
to that
that day
day in
in Medina when the
the Prophet
Prophet
died.
died. He left
left no son
son to
to succeed
succeed him.
him. Tradition
Tradition represents
represents
his
his death
death as
as aa surprise
surprise and aa shock
shock to
to the
the faithful,
faithful, who
had come to
to regard
regard him,
him, in
in spite
spite of
of his
his protestations,
protestations, as
as
more than
mortal man. He does
does not
not seem to
to have
have foreseen
foreseen
than mortal
a
or to
to have named aa successor,
successor, but
but among
among his
his
a near end or
must
been
have
those
who
thought
these
companions
those
on
these
companions
thought
things. So long
long as
as he lived,
lived, however,
however, personal
personal rivalries
rivalries lay
lay
things.
7

[66 ]
[66]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST-EASTWARDS

CONQUEST EASTWARDS
dormant. His decease was now to
to raise
raise the
the thorny
thorny issue
of
issue of
succeSSIOn.
succession.
The Prophet's
nearest kinsman was Ali,
Ali, his
his cousin
cousin and
and
Prophet's nearest
'the
'the legatee',
the
of
his
daughter
Fatima,
husband
his
of
the
legatee',
daughter Fatima, the
father
father of the Prophet's
grandchildren,
whom
he
was
he was
Prophet's grandchildren,
of Abu Talib,
Talib, who had
had shielded
known to
to love,
the son of
the
shielded the
love, the
in
his
Prophet
in
his
dark
early
days.
Ali
one
of
the
first
Ali
was
of
one
the
first
Prophet
early days.
the cause,
cause, both
both in
peace and
converts,
too, and his
his zeal
zeal for
for the
in peace
and
converts, too,
never wavered.
wavered. His claims
claims looked
looked incontestable.
war,
incontestable.
war, had never
But Ali's
Ali's enemies
enemies were many.
aged Abu Bakr,
Bakr, father
father
many. The aged
of
the Prophet's
of A'isha,
A'isha, the
favourite
wife,
an
older
and
favourite
was
an
older
wife,
Prophet's
more venerable
venerable companion.
too, was one
the
one of
of the
He, too,
companion. He,
earliest
advice the
the Prophet
Prophet was
was
earliest converts,
converts, and one on whose advice
the greatest
reliance. The issue
known to
to have
have placed
placed the
issue was
greatest reliance.
decided
by
Omar,
a
companion
of
the
greatest
influence,
a
the
decided by Omar,
greatest influence,
companion of
and Omar sided
with Abu Bakr.
Bakr. Their more powerful
powerful and
sided with
active
following lost
time in
in forestalling
forestalling aa feud
lost no time
active following
feud and
to
one
leader.
They
and
acclaimed
rallying
the
faithful
the
to
and
faithful
one
leader.
met
acclaimed
rallying
They
dekhalifa (=caliph).
This term,
term, originally
originally deAbu Bakr khalifa
(=caliph). This
a
to
than
'successor',
to
be
a
title
rivalling
noting
no
came
be
title
no
more
than
'successor',
rivalling
noting
'emperor' In
in majesty.
greatly mortified
mortified that
that another
another
Ali, greatly
'emperor'
majesty. Ali,
preferred before
before him,
him, retired
for
a
time.
The
indecent
was preferred
a
indecent
retired for time.
it seemed to
of the
has been sughaste,
as it
the selection
selection has
to him,
him, of
haste, as
sugburial
the
gested
as
the
reason
for
his
precipitate
burial
of
the
his
reason
for
of
as
the
precipitate
gested
tradition
has
Prophet
in
the
he
died,
though
tradition
has
in
he
room
where
the
died, though
Prophet
a wish
it that
wish that
that public
public cerecerethat Muhammad had expressed
it
expressed a
be
avoided.
funeral
to
a
formal
funeral
should
be
avoided.
monial
to
a
monial attaching
attaching
view, had achieved
achieved someArabia,
to an Arab view,
Arabia, according
according to
Its tribes
thing
like
unity
under
the
Prophet's
genius.
tribes are
the Prophet's genius. Its
thing like unity
have been
been in
in adherence;
adher,ence; but
but now
supposed
to have
already to
supposed already
its founder,
with
be
of them,
them, supposing
Islam
to
be
dead
with
its
some of
Islam
to
founder,
supposing
sent
to
therefore
be
had
seceded.
expeditions
therefore
to
be sent
seceded. Military
Military expeditions
the point
out from Medina to
to compel,
point of
of the
the sword,
at the
out
sword,
compel, at

[ 67J

THE ARABS
the
to the
view
This view
the renegades
of the
the allegiance.
return of
the return
allegiance. This
renegades to
that Arabia,
Arabia, vast
vast and uncontrollable
uncontrollable land
land that
was,
that it
it was,
that
very outset
have formed aa political
political and rereshould at
at the
outset have
the very
should
to
be
ligious
entity
is
thought
by
Western
authorities
authorities
to
be
is
Western
thought by
ligious entity
its
for
even
itself
and
its
surhistorically
improbable,
Mecca
itself
for
even
surhistorically improbable,
rounding tribes
to the
up till
till
the movement up
in opposition
tribes were in
opposition to
rounding
It
is
two before
before the
the Prophet's
death.
It
is
probaa year
year or
death.
more
or two
probProphet's
at the
the time
time of
of Abu Bakr's
the
able
Bakr's succession
succession only
able that
that at
only the
with the
the
middle-western province
about Mecca and Medina with
middle-western
province about
formed
a
neighbouring
and
Nejdi
tribes
a
tribes
Moslem
Yemeni
Nejdi
neighbouring
the Prophet
Prophet had founded aa theocratic
theocratic
polity.
indeed the
polity. Here indeed
at
of
the end of his
his life.
life.
state,
only very
very suddenly
but only
state, but
suddenly and at the
tribes on
of Beduin
Beduin tribes
on its
its
Except
the nominal
nominal adherence
adherence of
for the
Except for
the
greater
part
of
the
peninsula
borders,
therefore,
the
of
the
borders, therefore,
greater part
peninsula
political
would appear
to have
pale of
lain outside
his political
outside the
of his
the pale
have lain
appear to
not to
to have been
been deeply
dominion,
and certainly
affected
dominion, and
certainly not
deeply affected
the
spiritual
teachings
of
Islam.
as
yet by
of
the
as yet
Islam.
spiritual teachings
by
himself the
the temporal
temporal and rereAbu Bakr now found himself
ligious
this first
first Islamic
of this
Islamic state.
state. The moment was
ligious head of
been opportune
to distract
one when it
it would have been
distract attenattenopportune to
the disintegrating
effects
of
the
Prophet's
sudtion from the
effects
of
the
tion
disintegrating
Prophet's sudden and unexpected
end,
prudent
to
find
active
employment
to
find active employment
unexpected end, prudent
for those
for
been lured
lured by
by its
its prizes
take
those Beduin who had been
to take
prizes to
a
of
arms
in
the
service
of
the
state.
up
a
profession
in
of
the
the
of
service
state.
up profession
tribes close
close at
at hand,
For the
the tribes
hand, who had become
become Moslems
from political
political expediency,
promptly seceded
seceded on
on the
the death
death
expediency, promptly
other leaders
of the
the Prophet
to rally
rally round
round other
leaders-pronounced
Prophet to
pronounced
'false prophets'
'false
prophets' by
the orthodox.
orthodox. Khalid
Khalid ibn
Walid, who
al Walid,
ibn al
by the
had earned military
military distinction
with the
the
distinction when serving
serving with
sent against
Prophet,
those who deserted
deserted to
to one
one
against those
Prophet, was sent
later won renown as
named Tulaiha and later
the 'Sword
as the
'Sword of
of
the
soldier
God',
the
greatest
soldier
in
the
Islamic
cause,
Khalid
in
the
Islamic
cause.
Khalid
God',
greatest
passed
to deal
deal equally
more forforwith still
still more
passed on to
equally successfully
successfully with

[68
[68]]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST

CONQUEST-EASTWARDS
EASTWARDS
midable opposition
under another
another false
prophet named
named
false prophet
opposition under
against the
the
Musailima. These and other expeditions
sent against
expeditions sent
their appointed
appointed end
and extended
seceders achieved their
end and
extended the
the
dominion of Medina throughout
throughout the
peninsula. Their
Their
the peninsula.
effect was to
effect
to transform the
the wild
wild Beduin
Beduin into
something
into something

like military
like
military organizations
organizations and
and to
the belief
belief that
to spread
that
spread the
soldiers in
in the Islamic
soldiers
Islamic cause
cause were licensed
to plunder
plunder or
licensed to
or
tribute from unbelievers
exact
exact tribute
unbelievers with
with whom the
the Moslems
Moslems
at war,
the pious,
pious, to
in the
cause insured
insured
were at
to the
to die
die in
the cause
war, while to
the believer
believer the delights
delights of
of paradise.
paradise. During
During the
the brief
brief
the
of
Abu
the
peninsula
was
brought
und~r
caliphate
of
Bakr
the
peninsula
caliphate
brought under
one political
political hegemony;
hegemony; there
there were
within
one
were no
no tribes
tribes left
left within
for others
lawful for
others to
Arabs were
were
to attack.
it was lawful
whom it
attack. The Arabs
the
raid
of
the
raid
could
only
legitimately
a unity.
unity. The spoils
of
a
could
be
spoils
only legitimately be
the outside
world. If
in Medina and
and Mecca
Mecca
looked for
in the
looked
outside world.
If in
for in
found for
wars aa religious
religious or
a pure
pure religious
religious ardour found
for the
the wars
a
or
aa political
political mandate,
the
Beduin
who
waged
them
were
the
Beduin
them
were
mandate,
waged
doubtless actuated
by worldly
worldly considerations.
considerations. Products
actuated by
doubtless
Products of
of
a cruel
cruel environment
of ages
war, their
their resultant
resultant
of war,
environment and of
a
ages of
that it
a flash
flash with
with
psychology was such
such that
it did
not change
in a
did not
change in
psychology
of
political
or
even
religious
allegiance.
the change
or
even
of
the
religious allegiance.
political
change
Arabia's powerful
powerful neighbours,
neighbours, Byzantines
Byzantines and
Persians,
and Persians,
Arabia's
had in
the days
of
their
strength
been
able
to
keep the
the
able
to
their
been
of
in the
had
strength
keep
days
at
of
time
the
pent
up,
but
at
the
time
of
the
Prophet
peninsular
peoples
but
the
Prophet
peninsular peoples pent up,
ancient
these powers
powers themselves
themselves were declining.
these
declining. Their ancient
grown into
into aa death
continuous
rivalry had grown
death struggle
struggle of continuous
rivalry
warfare. The year
year of
of the
the Prophet's
Prophet's birth
birth coincided
with
coincided with
warfare.
in
was
of Syria,
and
Aleppo
in
Persian
aa Persian
Persian invasion
invasion of
Aleppo
Syria,
While he
he was not
not yet
maybe while
while
possession. While
thirty, maybe
yet thirty,
possession.
at
caravan visit
to Syria
undertaken at
still away
visit to
that caravan
on that
still
Syria undertaken
away on
was
the behest
behest of
his future
wife, aa Greek army
marching
of his
future wife,
the
marching
army
place its
its own protege
the throne.
throne. At
into
Persia to
to place
into Persia
protege on the
the time
time he
he was telling
the unbelieving
unbelieving Meccans of
of those
those
the
telling the

[69
[6 9 ]]

THE ARABS
early visions
visions caravans from Syria
bringing
Syria must have been bringing
early
news that
that the
the Persians
were
back again,
back
Persians
again, overrunning
overrunning Syria
Syria
foland Palestine,
Palestine, invading
Minor; these
these foland
Egypt and Asia Minor;
invading Egypt
a
lowed
by
news
of
a
Byzantine
army
advancing
of
lowed shortly
Byzantine army advancing
shortly by
in the
through Armenia to
to attack
Persia in
the rear
rear and enter
enter
attack Persia
through
at end of book.)
the royal
royal city
city of
Dastagird. (See
map B at
of Dastagird.
the
book.)
(See map
throne
one period
period six
had
ascended
the
throne
of
six sovereigns
the
of
At one
sovereigns
so
riven
Persia
the course
so
riven
she
by
was
of six
six months,
she
course of
Persia in
in the
months,
by
internal
dissension. Both these
these great
powers on Arabia's
internal dissension.
Arabia's
great powers
their outlying
borders were
were exhausted,
in
borders
exhausted, their
outlying dependencies
dependencies in
discontent.
chronic
unrest from neglect
and
discontent.
For
them
chronic unrest
neglect
there
writing on the
the wall.
wall. The way
way was opening
a writing
for
there was a
opening for
warlike Arab hosts.
the hungry,
hungry, virile
hosts. The old
ramthe
virile and warlike
old ramparts to
to the
the north
north had crumbled.
crumbled.
parts
It was aa mistake
to suppose
that when these
these hosts
mistake then
It
then to
hosts
suppose that
did
appear they
they came like
Cromwell's Roundheads,
Roundheads,
like Cromwell's
did first
first appear
inspired with
with a fanatically
religious mission.
mission. It
It was not
not
inspired
fanatically religious
a
primarily
a
beneficent
eagerness
to
share
with
others
the
beneficent
with
to
share
others
the
eagerness
primarily
blessings of
that brought
them. Nor indeed
they
of Islam that
indeed did
did they
blessings
brought them.
to impose
in aa political
political sense
come to
for Islam in
sense had
Islam, for
impose Islam,
only recently
recently been imposed
many of
of themselves.
themselves.
only
imposed on many
Beduin
to
We cannot
cannot suppose
the
to
have
been pious,
pious, Godthe
been
suppose
the companions
fearing
zealots like
like the
of the
the Prophet;
Prophet; they
they
fearing zealots
companions of
of
desert
warriors
whose
were principally
principally raiding
bands
of
desert
warriors
whose
raiding
the new state
state was based
based primarily
primarily on selfallegiance
to the
selfallegiance to
interest. And whatever
whatever the
motives of
of the
the caliphs
interest.
the higher
higher motives
caliphs
of Medina and the
the settleof
the enlightened
of the
settleenlightened Moslems of
there
little
there
can
be
little
doubt
that
the
desert
himself
ments,
be
doubt
the
that
desert
man
himself
ments,
hope of
plunder.
was principally
principally inspired
by the
the hope
of plunder.
inspired by
Those earlier
earlier expeditions
of bona fide
religious confide religious
conexpeditions of
the leadership
of
the
Prophet
himself,
verts, one
one under the
the
verts,
leadership
Prophet himself,
were clearly
the Jews
Jews and
missions for
for the
clearly not proselytizing
proselytizing missions:
Christians
Christians subjugated
allowed to
to keep
keep their
their own
subjugated were allowed
:

0 ]
[7
[70]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST-EASTWARDS

CONQUESTEASTWARDS
if they
religion if
to. What they
they must
must do,
however
they cared to.
religion
do, however
(for
the Arabs conceived
conceived of
as being
being at
of themselves
themselves as
at war
war
(for the

with
with Byzantines)
Byzantines) was to
to pay
pay tribute.
tribute. Higher
motives can
can
Higher motives
be
ascribed
to
to
later
activities
carried
out
scarcely
be
ascribed
later
activities
carried out by
scarcely
by
desert warriors of
of less
less religious
religious zeal
whom, doubtdoubtdesert
zeal and
and to
to whom,
less, Islam was primarily
primarily aa political
political allegiance.
less,
allegiance.

But however cause

cause and purpose
purpose of
raiders themthemof the
the raiders
the
selves
may
for
the
part
have
been
economic,
the
most
selves may
part have been economic, the
with gave
the
immediate and stupendous
immediate
success met
met with
stupendous success
gave the
possibility
and
a
goal.
movement aa new impetus
a
new
The
impetus
goal.
possibility
of
permanent conquest
forced upon
upon the
the Arab imaginaof permanent
conquest was forced
imagination
feebleness of
of the
the resistance,
resistance, so
overtion by
the very
so easily
by the
very feebleness
easily overvictory to
to victory,
victory, from
come. The Arabs marched from victory
from
to ambition;
the modest
modest pillaging
raids
grew
to
ambition
ambition the
ambition to
raids
pillaging
grew to
be wars of territorial
territorial conquest;
conquest; Arab sovereignty
came
be
sovereignty came
to be
be the
of
the
desert
hosts.
the inspiration
to
the
desert
of
hosts.
inspiration
the Prophet
Prophet had planned
planned another
Before his
Before
his death the
another
expedition
against
the
Byzantine
borderlands.
This
expedition against the Byzantine borderlands. This was
forward by
by Abu Bakr,
Bakr, while
while Khalid,,
Khalid,
to go
allowed to
now allowed
go forward
religious zeal
than for
prowess,
less eminent
zeal than
for religious
for military
less
eminent for
military prowess,
of going
with five
hundred
next seized
opportunity of
off with
seized an opportunity
five hundred
next
going off
Iraq, his
his appetite
for fresh
braves to
to raid
raid Iraq,
fresh fame
braves
appetite whetted for
and riches.
riches. Khalid,
this latest
the luck
latest adventure,
luck
Khalid, on this
adventure, had the
that proverbially
proverbially attends
attends the
the successful
general. His arsuccessful general.
arthat
at
Hira,
at
this
time
the
seat
of
a
Christian
bishop,
rival
a
Christian bishop,
rival at Hira, at this time the seat of
Persia. The garrison
an upheaval
upheaval in
in Persia.
coincided with
with an
coincided
garrison was
though
able
to
maintain
itself
within the
depleted
and,
within
maintain
itself
the
able
to
depleted and, though
for
to
issue
forth
for
open
warfortification,
was
powerless
issue
warforth
to
fortification,
open
powerless
the raiders'
round was at
raiders' mercy.
mercy.
fare, so
at the
the country
so that
that the
fare,
country round
the raiders
Rira
was therefore
therefore well
well content
to buy
buy off
off the
raiders and
content to
Hira was
pay henceforward
henceforward annual
tribute as
as the
the price
price
promise to
annual tribute
to pay
promise
return
to
of
peace.
The
raiders
thereupon
withdrew,
some
to
return
raiders thereupon withdrew,
of peace.
nucleus of his
to their
their local
tribes, while
while Khalid
Khalid and the
the nucleus
his.
to
local tribes,
;

[7 I

THE ARABS
force
turned north
north up
the Euphrates,
Euphrates, plundering
plundering as
as they
they
force turned
up the
went,
to
join
forces
with
other
Medina
elements
operating
elements operating
went, to join forces with other
in
it
Syria
rather
than
Iraq that
rather
than
that loomed
For
was
it
in Syria.
loomed
Iraq
Syria
Syria.
large
in
Arabian
eyes,
expeditions
thither
suffered
thither
and
Arabian
suffered
in
expeditions
eyes,
large
dearth of
recruits. Had not the Prophet
Prophet himself
from
of recruits.
himself
no dearth
from no
shown the
the way
way I And now Abu Bakr had sent
sent three
three more
parties,
said
to
seven
thousand
tribesmen,
one facfacseven
thousand
number
to
said
tribesmen,
parties,
the redoubtable
al As,
As, a leader
tion under
under the
ibn al
leader whose
redoubtable Amr ibn
tion
generalship
in the
of the
the conquest
stands second
the annals
annals of
second
conquest stands
generalship in
only
to
that
of
Khalid
himself.
himself.
Khalid
to
that
of
only
The native
native population
population of
the Arabs knew,
knew,
of Syria,
as the
Syria, as
were
alienated
from
their
Greek
masters-the
Byzantines.
masters the Byzantines.
their
were alienated
out of
These,
by financial
difficulties arising
financial difficulties
embarrassed by
of
These, embarrassed
arising out
the Persian
Persian wars,
wars, were
were obliged
obliged to
and
the
to make economies,
economies,
one
subsidies to
to the
the
to suspend
of the
the most impolitic
one of
impolitic was to
suspend subsidies
Disaffection was
was
Beduin
tribes on the
the Arabian borders.
borders. Disaffection
Beduin tribes
the
upshot, and the
victims, although
nominally
Christian,
the victims,
the upshot,
although nominally Christian,
appear
have made common cause
with the
the Medina
to have
cause with
appear to
raiders-an
an interesting
raiders
the supposed
interesting commentary
commentary on the
supposed
the
of
the
invaders.
proselytizing
fanaticism
fanaticism
invaders.
proselytizing
The Arabs are
are not
not credited,
this stage,
having
at this
with having
credited, at
stage, with
of
campaign.
Each
tribe
had
any
concerted
tactical
plans
tactical
of
concerted
tribe had
any
plans
campaign.
its
banner round which it
while the
the leader
its own banner
it rallied,
leader
rallied, while
harangued
his
men
before
and
during
battle,
urging
before
his
harangued
during battle, urging them
to valiant
deeds. The old
on to
valiant deeds.
old Arab tactics
the raid
had
tactics of
of the
raid had
been
been aa sudden charge,
withdrawal, aa return
return to
the charge
charge
to the
charge, withdrawal,
and an exchange
weaker side
would
the weaker
side would
arrows, when the
exchange of arrows,
in
not
perhaps
submit
in
order
not
so
to
antagonize
the
stronger
so
to
the
perhaps
antagonize
stronger
as to
as
to be
be utterly
utterly despoiled.
But the
the Arabs were
were quick
to
despoiled. But
quick to
subtle and sounder
learn more subtle
tactics from the
the trained
sounder tactics
trained
Byzantine
as
they
were
less
as
bowmen
were
less
Byzantine soldiery.
soldiery. Although
Although
they
their
skill
accomplished
their
skill
and
courage
with
sword
and
with
and
accomplished
courage
lance established
established early
lance
in close
close fighting.
early superiority
superiority in
fighting.
!

2 ]
[7
[72]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST

CONQUEST-EASTWARDS
EASTWARDS
Compared with
with their
their adversaries,
adversaries, they
they were
were ill
ill
Compared
equipped; their
their bows,
bows, spears
spears and lances
lances were
were inferior,
inferior, and
and
equipped
even slings
slings are
are mentioned as
as part
part of
of their
their primitive
primitive
even
Only the
the commanders and
and aa favoured
favoured few
few
equipment. Only
equipment.
could at
at first
first boast
boast aa coat
coat of
of mail,
mail, though
though each
each man is
is
could
thought to
to have acquired
acquired aa helmet,
helmet, aa breastplate
breastplate and
and aa
thought
round shield.
shield. But the
the Arabs had not
not long
long to
to wait
wait before
before
round
acquiring better
better arms from prisoners
prisoners and
and the
the slain
slain and
and
acquiring
from armourers of
of the
the lands
lands they
they conquered.
conqu~red. They
They
learned, too,
too, to
to adopt
adopt the
the Persian
Persian practice
practice of
of digging
digging
soon learned,
trench around an encampment
encampment when resting
resting
a defensive
defensive trench
a
for
a long
long period.
period. On the
the move the
the force
divided itself
itself
for a
force divided
into
a
main
body,
flank
guards
and
advance
and
rear
flank
a
into
advance and rear
body,
guards
guard,
the last
last named bringing
bringing up
up the
the baggage,
baggage, war
guard, the
stores,
children, possibly
possibly also
also flocks
flocks and
and herds.
herds.
stores, women and children,
They
seemed
to
favoured
a
'five'
formation,
to
have
a
'five'
and
formation, and
They
drums were beaten,
the
stopping
of
which
signified
a
halt.
beaten, the stopping of
signified a halt.
The successful
early raids
the effect
successful early
raids had the
effect of
of attracting
attracting
more and more Beduin
Beduin adventurers
adventurers from the
the deserts,
so
deserts, so
that
south of
concentrations south
the Dead Sea
of the
asthe Arab concentrations
Sea asthat the
sumed alarming
they fed
by
fed themselves
themselves by
alarming proportions,
proportions, and they
ravaging
southern Palestine.
Palestine. The emperor,
emperor, greatly
greatly
ravaging southern
alarmed,
his brother
south from
sent his
brother Theodorus
Theodoras south
alarmed, had sent
the Arabs back into
Damascus,
forced the
into
Damascus, and he temporarily
temporarily forced
their
mountain
valley
bivouacs.
Then
a
new
factor
came
factor
their
valley bivouacs.
into
Khalid.
redoubtable Khalid.
the redoubtable
into play.
play. This was the
Khalid and his
after Hira,
his Arab braves,
Hira, had marched
braves, after
to Palmyra,
across
up
the
Euphrates
Valley,
thence
across
to
thence
the
Palmyra, and
Euphrates Valley,
up
in
Theodoras'
then
appeared
suddenly
before
Damascus
in
Theodorus'
then appeared suddenly before
rear.
have been a great
rear* Eschewing
temptation,
great temptation,
Eschewing what must have
they
turned
aside
and
marched
south
through
south
aside
turned
through Transthey
Jordan
to
effect
a
junction
with
their
Arab
comrades. The
their
with
a
to
effect
Jordan
junction
combined
Arabs,
probably
led
by
Khalid,
now
hurled themled
combined Arabs, probably
by Khalid,
;

[73
[73]]

THE ARABS

selves
the Byzantines,
selves against
up aa strong
strong
Byzantines, who had taken up
against the
position
between
Jerusalem
and
Gaza,
and
utterly
deGaza,
utterly deposition between Jerusalem
field and was later
the field
feated
fled from the
later
them. Theodorus fled
feated them.
recalled
and
the
Arabs
freely
dispersed
the
to Constantinople,
and
recalled to
freely dispersed
Constantinople,
of Judrea
themselves
the countryside
Samaria.
over the
themselves over
Judaea and Samaria.
countryside of
of her raiding
Medina awaited
the return
return of
that
awaited the
raiding columns that
in
she
vain.
had
before,
but
she
waited
in
vain.
They
but
left two years
had left
before,
years
They
to conquer.
had
to plunder,
forth to
set forth
had set
staying to
conquer.
they were staying
plunder, they
Rich
their feet,
far better
better blessed
blessed than
at their
than
countries lay
Rich countries
feet, far
lay at
their
Arabian
home.
The
sight
of
undreamed-of
their hungry
sight
hungry
prizes
invaders an invincible
these barbarous
barbarous invaders
of these
invincible
prizes made of
host.
their outlook.
in battle
battle was changing
outlook. They
Success in
host. Success
changing their
They
could
these
that a
a systematic
not help
of these
could not
systematic occupation
occupation of
help seeing
seeing that
fair
their grasp.
fair lands
lands was within
within their
grasp.
a brief
after a
At this
years of
the
this stage,
brief two years
of office,
office, the
stage, after
his modest house
house at
Medina.
died in
in his
Caliph
at Medina.
Caliph Abu Bakr died
successor
be
again
Ali's
claims
Again
a
successor
must
be
chosen,
a
and
Ali's
claims
chosen,
Again
again
were set
aside. The late
late caliph
caliph had taken
taken upon
upon himself
to
set aside.
himself to
nominate his
matter was thus
thus
his own successor,
the matter
successor, and the
taken
of the
the arena
arena of
of party
party strife.
Bakr's nominee
nominee
taken out
out of
strife. Abu Bakr's
was Omar ibn
al Khattab,
ibn al
Khattab, his
his own strongest
strongest supporter
supporter
the
at
the
time
of
the
Prophet's death.
death.
against
Ali's
claims
Ali's
at
claims
time of the Prophet's
against
Omar was aa religious
religious zealot
zealot and
and aa man of
of resolute
resolute action,
action,
of
the
faithful
aa man whose sincerity
sincerity won the
the approbation
of
the
faithful
approbation
of even
even the
the disappointed
disappointed Ali,
Ali, though
though later
later
the esteem
esteem of
and the
his
his name came to
to be
be execrated
execrated by
by the
the great
great division
division of
of
Islam
Islam that
that championed
championed Ali's
Ali's cause.
cause.
From the
the first
first days
days of
of Omar's
Omar's caliphate
caliphate news
news of
of the
the
of
their
raiding
columns
came
striking
military
successes
successes
of
their
striking military
raiding columns came
effect was
was
trickling back to
to the
the tribes
tribes in
in Arabia.
Arabia. The effect
trickling
much like
that of
of the
the discovery
discovery of
of aa gold
gold mine
mine in
in aa new
like that
forth its
its peoples,
peoples, the
the young
young men
country. Arabia oozed forth
country.
to
Khalid's
to join
join Khalid's forces,
forces, others
others with
with families
families to
to settle
settle adad-

[ 74]
[74]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST

CONQUEST-EASTWARDS
EASTWARDS
the northern
venturously
in the
northern borderlands.
borderlands. The implications
venturously in
implications
these early
of these
early migrations,
migrations, within
within ten
Prophet's
ten years
of the
the Prophet's
years of
death,
significant. The Arabs were not
not proselytizing
death, are significant.
proselytizing
bands
bands; they
merely out
plunder. They
were
out for
for plunder.
they were not merely
They were
already
colonizing
expeditions
.
already colonizing expeditions.
.. The weakness
the Hellenized
Hellenized garrisons
garrisons and
the
of the
weakness of
and the
friendliness of
friendliness
of the
the native
peoples combined
to bring
bring aa
native peoples
combined to
great
rallying and reinforcing
reinforcing of
of the
the Arabs.
Arabs. Palestine,
Palestine,
great rallying
except
Jerusalem and aa few coastal
ports that
that could
coastal ports
could
except for Jerusalem
be reinforced
reinforced from Egypt,
already
evacuated.
be
was
Daevacuated.
Egypt,
already
mascus,
the
capital
of
Syria
itself,
the
goal,
the
became
the
Arab
mascus,
Syria itself,
capital
goal,
and thither
they marched on the
the fleeing
fleeing
thither they
the heels
of the
heels of
Theodorus.
aided by
by malcontent
Theodoras. Khalid,
malcontent Christian
Christian ininKhalid, aided
habitants,
actually
into
the
city
but
could
not
marched
into
the
not
but
could
habitants, actually
city
hope
to hold it
it before aa greatly
Byzantine army
army
hope to
greatly superior
superior Byzantine
that
north, and he
prudently
that now approached
the north,
he prudently
approached from the
side of
retired down the
the desert
the Jordan.
desert side
of the
retired
Jordan.
In the
the valley
the Yarmuk he
he called
a halt.
halt. The ByzanByzancalled a
valley of the
west. The two forces
tine army
forces
tine
the west.
army approached
approached from the
the
faced
other for
period
the
hot
summer
under
hot
for a long
faced each
each other
long period
sun-a
the Arabs,
Arabs, for
for they
sun a delay
that favoured
favoured the
they grew
grew
delay that
stronger
by
a
steady
accretion
from
the
desert,
while the
the
the
desert, while
stronger by a steady accretion
enemy
grew weaker by
by defection
native irregulars,
of native
defection of
irregulars,
enemy grew
and soon
numerical strength
about
equal.
was
about
soon the
the numerical
equal. Khalid
strength
send
it north to
having
detached
a
part
of
his
force
to
send
it
to
force
to
his
of
a
detached
part
having
direcattacked from a
cut
himself attacked
a direcoff the
cut off
the enemy's
retreat, himself
enemy's retreat,
sector of the
tion
that forced
forced Theodorus
the Yarmuk
into a sector
Theodoras into
tion that
dewhere his
position was tactically
tactically hopeless.
hopeless. Here the dewhere
his position
and
the
fenders
were
thrown
into
great
confusion,
the
Arabs,
into
fenders were
Arabs,
great confusion,
a
their
advantage
with
energy,
obtained
a
decisive
pressing
with
their
energy,
advantage
pressing
victory: this
this famous Battle
the Yarmuk settling
in
of the
Battle of
settling in
victory:
Arabs
Palestine.
A.D. 636
the
fate
both
of
Syria
and
Palestine.
The
of
the
fate
both
A.D.
Syria
636
time this
it a second time-this
marched on to
to Damascus to
to invest
invest it
;

[75]

THE ARABS
time permanently.
permanently. Catapults
mangonels that
that ejected
time
ejected
Catapults and mangonels
the
Arabs
use
whose
had now
and
stones,
naphtha,
use the
fire
stones, fire
naphtha,
in the walls
learned, were used against
the gates
gates in
walls of Dalearned,
against the
it
said to
mascus,
ineffectually
it
would
seem,
for
the
city
is said
to
seem,
mascus, ineffectually
city is
have
been taken
taken by
the moat on inflated
inflated
have been
by men who swam the
skins,
running nooses
nooses over the turrets
turrets and
skins, flung
ropes with running
flung ropes
the
walls.
so
hauled themselves
themselves up
over
the
walls.
so hauled
up
at Yarmuk from which they
suffered losses
The Greeks suffered
losses at
they
remnants
of the
the
the imperial
never recovered,
recovered, and the
of
forces
never
imperial forces
retired
to the
the Taurus Mountains. The Arabs
retired northwards to
fell
quickly
following
up,
Baalbek, Aleppo
Aleppo and Antioch fell
quickly following up, Baalbek,
A
Hellenized
cities
Paleseasily
into
their
hands.
few
Hellenized
cities
of
Palestheir
hands.
easily into
year or two longer,
but the
the last
last of these,
tine
held out for a year
tine held
longer, but
these,
in
to
the
Jerusalem,
capitulated
to
the
Moslems
in
638
and
Cresarea
Caesarea
638
Jerusalem, capitulated
in 640.
in
640.
their gains
Consolidation
matter
Consolidation of their
difficult matter
gains was no difficult
for
native Semitic-speaking
peoples,
the Arabs. The native
for the
Semitic-speaking peoples,
Christian
though they
they were,
were, welcomed the
the Moslems as
as
Christian though
an interesting
deliverers-an
interesting commentary
commentary again
the supdeliverers
again on the
supfanaticism
the
posed proselytizing
fanaticism
of
the
conquerors.
is
Nor
is
conquerors.
posed
proselytizing
attitude
to
be
the Syrian
attitude
to
be
greatly
at.
Victims
for
the
wondered
at.
Victims
for
Syrian
greatly
the ravages
of the
centuries of
of Byzantine-Persian
centuries
wars, now
ravages of
Byzantine-Persian wars,
to one power,
to another,
power, now to
country had
subject
their country
another, their
subject to
been
the Emperor
been wrested from the
the Persians
Persians by
by the
Herac1ius
Emperor Heraclius
the
ten
only
ten
years
before
the
Moslem
invasion.
When
at
last
invasion.
at last
only
years
peace came they
by heavy
peace
they found themselves burdened by
heavy
taxation
their Christian
Christian sectarianism
penalized by
by
taxation and their
sectarianism penalized
the Orthodox Greek State
State Church.I.
the
They had risen
risen in
in
Church. 1 They
it
had
taken
revolt;
indeed, it
taken the
to raise
raise
the emperor
a year
revolt; indeed,
emperor a
year to
force that
that faced the
the force
the Arabs in
in the
Yarmuk, and,
the
the Yarmuk,
as the
and, as
event
the Syrian
irregulars
had
no
heart
for
event showed,
heart
for
showed, the
Syrian irregulars
in Egypt
lHeresy
Egypt and Syria
at this
time weakened the
the Byzantine
Byzantine power
power
this time
Heresy in
Syria at
Arab nationalism
nationalism weakened the
the Turkish
Turkish power
power in
Great War.
in the
the Great

as
just as
just

[76]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST

CONQUEST-EASTWARDS
EASTWARDS
fighting.
fighting.

The Greeks had come to

to be
be hated
hated far
far more
more than
than
the Arab invaders
invaders who,
who, at
at this
this early
early stage,
stage, assured
assured the
the
the
country
complete
religious
freedom.
freedom.
country complete religious
For the
the Arabs the
the mastery
mastery of
of Syria
Syria soon
soon led
led to
to the
the
tail wagging
wagging the
the dog.
dog. Syria
Syria was obviously
obviously of
of more
more acactail
count than Arabia,
Arabia, Damascus and
and Jerusalem
Jerusalem vastly
vastly susucount
perior cities
cities to
to Mecca and Medina,
Medina, and
and the
the Caliph
Caliph Omar,
Omar,
perior
that he was,
was, foresaw
foresaw the
the inevitable
inevitable displacedisplaceshrewd man that
of the
the political
political centre
centre of
of gravity,
gravity, which
which In
in fact
fact took
took
ment of
place at
at no very
very distant
distant date.
date. The Arabs
Arabs were
were notoriously
notoriously
place
a race
race of
of individualists,
strong men would
would rise
rise among
among
a
individualists, and strong
play for
for their
their own hands.
hands. Khalid
Khalid the
the Conqueror
Conqueror
them and play
was known to
to be
be aa member of
of All's
Ali's party,
party, and
and to
to have
have perpermitted him to
to be governor
governor would have
have made him
him powerful
powerful
mitted
indeed.
indeed.
After Damascus fell
fell Omar sent
trusted companion
sent a
a trusted
to
companion to
relieve Khalid of administrative
administrative duties.
the
duties. And now the
relieve
caliph
to visit
his army
army in
the field.
in the
decided to
field.
visit his
caliph decided
Omar's visit
visit was necessary
necessary to
the manner
to determine
determine the
to
of
the newly
territories and to
of the
of government
occupied territories
newly occupied
government of
the
lands.
of
decide
the
disposal
of
lands.
The
division
of
spoils
of
division
decide upon
spoils
disposal
upon
reof
money, goods
of conquest,
goods or captives,
captives, had reconquest, whether money,
mained in
proportions as
the Prophet.
as decreed
the same proportions
decreed by
in the
Prophet.
by the
the
at
That is,
one
fifth
went
to
the
caliph
at
Medina,
the
the
to
fifth
Medina,
is,
caliph
the
soldiers.
remainder
was
divided
equally
between
the
soldiers.
But
divided
remainder
equally
spoils
in the
the early
land had not
not in
of land
days been envisaged.
envisaged.
early days
spoils of
division
The Caliph
Omar
saw
that
the
acquisition
and
division
of
that
the
acquisition
Caliph
a
land
be
a
thorny
not only
the Arab soldiers
soldiers would not
land between
between the
thorny
only
problem,
ends he most
lead to
to the
the political
but would lead
political ends
problem, but
wished
that landed property
decreed that
to avoid.
wished to
avoid. He wisely
property
wisely decreed
was not
of
the
conqueror
but
belonged
but
not the
the
of
the right
belonged to the
conqueror
right
unthese were unoriginal
that, where these
holders, and that,
original private
private holders,
believers,
unbeliever's tax on it,
it,
believers, they
special unbeliever's
they must pay
pay aa special

r '7'7 1

THE ARABS
at Medina.
the
proceeds of which must be remitted
remitted to him at
the proceeds
a
tax.
unbeliever's
He instituted
tax, a capitation
capitation tax.
instituted another unbeliever's tax,
The Syrians
land tax bebelargely exempted
exempted from the land
Syrians were largely
the wars of conquest,
in the
that
their assistance
cause
so
that
of their
assistance in
cause of
conquest,
later to
Iraq,
tax was enforced,
to
double tax
the double
enforced, came later
Iraq, where the
at Medina.
the caliphate
of the
be the
revenues at
source of
be
the main source
caliphate revenues
Christian Syrians
the Christian
In
the light
light of
the times
times the
In the
of the
Syrians must have
as
regarded
the
imposts
as
light
indeed,
probably more
the
light indeed, probably
imposts
regarded
the heavy
taxation
cultivator than
favourable
to the
than the
the cultivator
favourable to
heavy war taxation
so that
the
of the
the hated
hated Byzantines,
Byzantines, so
that Omar's decree on the
the
benevolent
both
land question
was
both
benevolent
and
politic.
On
the
land
politic.
question
other hand,
later
other
II, half
half aa century
century later
hand, another Omar,
Omar, Omar II,
imposed severe
severe disabilities
peoples who would
disabilities on subject
subject peoples
imposed
not
ride in
not embrace Islam.
Islam. Unbelievers
Unbelievers must not ride
in aa bebewear
dress
the
or
might
not
the
dress
or
the
liever's presence.
presence. They
liever's
the
They might
a Moslem. They
themselves and not
arms of
of a
not
They must abase themselves
that
a
look to
to have their
their word believed
believed against
that
of
a
Moslem.
against
retain their
If
permitted to
to retain
their churches
If they
churches and synathey were permitted
synagogues
they
must
cease
using
church
bells
cease using church bells or
or conches
or
conches or
gogues they
to worship
call to
obtrusive call
any other
worship offensive
to Moslem
other obtrusive
offensive to
any
if they
prayed they
they must do so
under their
ears,
so under
their
ears, and if
they prayed
breath. The great
of
Medina
breath.
Omar
of
no
attempt
made
no
to
great
attempt to
the administrative
administrative machinery
upset the
machinery of
government
of local
local government
upset
as the
the Arabs found it,
for the
at this
the Arabs at
time had
as
this time
it, for
neither
neither the
the education nor
nor the
the experience
to
attempt
to
reconexperience
attempt reconthey wisely
wisely left
struction,
left well
well alone.
alone.
struction, and they
It was Persia's
It
Persia's turn
turn next.
next. The Persians
Persians were staggered
staggered
by the
the Byzantine
not so
so far
far
by
Byzantine collapse.
collapse. Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia had not
been unduly
since Khalid's
unduly harassed
harassed since
Khalid's visit
visit to
to Hira,
for
Hira, for
raids in
in that
raids
that region
not popular
popular with
with the
the Beduin,
region were not
Beduin,
the
met
with
being
far
more
formidable
than
the opposition
far
formidable
than
opposition
being
that in
that
in Syria.
The
conquest
of
Syria,
the
Persians
saw,
of
the
Persians
saw,
Syria.
conquest
Syria,
would liberate
liberate aa strong
force for
for use
use against
and
them, and
strong force
against them,

[78
[78]]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST

CONQUEST-EASTWARDS
EASTWARDS
soon an Arab army
marching down the
the Euphrates
to
army was marching
Euphrates to
Arabia that
that was
was biding
biding
join hands with another from Arabia
join
the Euphrates.
Euphrates. Qadisiya,
not
far
from
its
time west
west of the
its time
not
far
from
Qadisiya,
the
Hira,
the
Persian
stronghold.
Here
the
Arabs
atwas
Persian
Here
the
Arabs
atHira,
stronghold.
a
tacked
blinding sandstorm.
the Persian
Persian
tacked during
sandstorm. Rustem,
during a blinding
Rustem, the
his force
was routed.
routed. The Arabs,
Arabs,
general,
killed, and his
force was
general, was killed,
across
the
of
Mesopotamia,
crossed
pursuing,
swept
across
the
heart
heart
of
crossed
pursuing, swept
Mesopotamia,
to storm Mada'in,
the twin
cities of
the river
river Tigris
the
twin cities
of
Mada'in, the
Tigris to
Seleucia
Ctesiphon, the
the Persian
Persian winter
King
Seleucia and Ctesiphon,
winter capital.
capital. King
hold on
on the
the throne
was already
preYezdegird, whose hold
throne was
Yezdegird,
already precarious and who feared assassination,
carious
did
not
attempt
to
did
not
assassination,
attempt to
2
2
wealth and
hold Ctesiphon
hold
so the
the wealth
and treasure
treasure
fled, and so
Ctesiphon but fled,
of yet
yet another capital
passed into
into the
the hands
hands of
of the
the
capital city
city passed
Arabs.
Arabs.
The two battles
battles of Yarmuk in
in Syria
and Qadisiya
in
Syria and
Qadisiya in
8
whole Arabian
Iraqs
represent aa turning
turning point
point in
in the
the whole
Arabian
Iraq represent
steady migration
migration flowed
of
movement. From now on aa steady
flowed out
out of
return.
Arabia,
never
to
return.
Up
to
this
point
the
Arabs
to
to
this
the
never
Arabs
had
Arabia,
point
been
raiding columns based
based on Medina;
henceforth they
they
been raiding
Medina; henceforth
were armies
maintaining themselves
themselves in
in the
the field.
the
field. In
armies maintaining
In the
were
up
from
were
early
days
the
raiders
adventurers
picked
raiders
adventurers
the
picked up
early days
tribes here
growing in
numbers as
as they
in numbers
tribes
here and there,
there, growing
they marched
took
from
on
whole
tribes
took
part
in
milialong;
tribes
in large
now
whole
large milipart
along;
tary
operations.
The
idea
of
dependence
upon
Medina
idea
of
dependence upon
tary operations.
of Arabian
faded
into the
background; aa quickening
Arabian
ideal of
faded into
the background
quickening ideal
its place.
empire
took its
place.
empire took
The unprecedented
led immediately
immediately to
to
in Iraq
success in
Iraq led
unprecedented success
at
the
military camps
camps there,
one
at
the establishment
of two military
establishment of
there,
Basrah
now
site
where
Kufa
near
old
Hira,
the
other
on
a
site
a
Kuf a near old Hira, the other
;

lIThe
old ..arch
rch of
palace still
the Tigris
banks. It
It
stands on the
still stands
Persian palace
of the
the Persian
*The old
Tigris banks.
the world,
in the
is
the widest
widest span
span of
brick arch in
the British
is the
of any
world, and where the
any brick
under General
General Townshend turned
turned back in
in 191
5.
forces
forces under
1915s
term Mesopotamia.
Greek
the
"Iraq,
the
word,
has
now
superseded
the
Mesopotamia.
Arab
has
the
word,
superseded
lraq,

[79]

THE ARABS
as bases
stands,
these camps,
bases of operations
operations
stands, and these
designed as
camps, designed
north
and
south, grew
grew to
to be
be
against
the
Persians,
in
in
north
south,
against the Persians,
great cities
centuries.
in succeeding
cities in
succeeding centuries.
great
After
his flight
from
Ctesiphon,
Yezdegird held
held on
After his
Ctesiphon, Yezdegird
flight
bordespairingly
on
the
northern
Mesopotamian-Persian
northern
the
Mesopotamian-Persian bordespairingly
der for
for more than
than two years,
but his
his own unstable
unstable perperder
years, but
further by
sonal
position, weakened further
by abortive enterprises
sonal position,
enterprises
against
the invaders,
retire into
into Persia.
Persia. Thither
to retire
led him to
invaders, led
against the
the Arabs
Arabs followed
coming up
up with
with his
his forces
forces
followed him and,
the
and, coming
near the
the royal
royal city
of
Nihavand,
once
again
gained
of
a
near
Nihavand,
again gained a
city
life
decisive victory.
victory. Yezdegird
saved
his
life
by
flight
from
his
decisive
Yezdegird
by flight
the field,
by assassination.
later by
assassination.
to lose
it later
lose it
the
field, only
only to
Another Arab force
force operating
operating from Basrah was meanwhile
overrunning the
the southern
provinces of
of Khuzistan,
Khuzistan,
southern provinces
while overrunning
and aa sea
the islands
assault was made from Oman on the
sea assault
islands
and
of
on the
the Persian
Persian coasts,
Persian Gulf and on
the Persian
of the
coasts, an Omani
force
marching inland
city
to Persepolis,
which
fell as
force marching
inland to
as
Persepolis,
city fell
did
many others.
others.
did many
The capture
in A.D. 641
64I gave
the Arabs
gave the
capture of Nihavand in
aa strong
Persian foothold,
it was'not
was' not until
until several
several
foothold, though
strong Persian
though it
more
years
that
they
scaled
the
mountain
barriers
and
that
scaled
the
mountain
barriers
years
they
about
the
brought
about
the
fall
of
Ispahan,
Ramadan
and
other
fall
of
other
brought
Ispahan, Hamadan
garrisoned
interior. Nor was the
the pacificapacificain the
centres in
the interior.
garrisoned centres
tion
Persia to
to be
tion of
the easy
easy matter
that the
the pacification
pacification
of Persia
be the
matter that
of
of Palestine
Palestine and Syria
had
been.
In
the
the
been.
In
the
Levant
the Arabs
Syria
met with
with aa welcoming
welcoming reception
reception from Semitic-speaking
Semitic-speaking
peoples long
long subjected
to foreign
masters;
in
Persia they
they
in Persia
masters;
subjected to
peoples
foreign
met with
with stubborn
stubborn resistance
resistance born
born of
different cultural
of a
a different
cultural
consciousness and of
a proud
consciousness
proud imperial
past. Indeed Persia
Persia
of a
imperial past.
never
never became completely
Arabicized, as
as were Syria
completely Arabicized,
Syria and
Palestine,
for her language
and
her
institutions
survived
her
institutions
survived
Palestine, for
language
the
the conquests;
conquests; and,
indeed,
Islam
itself
to
undergo
Islam
itself
came
to
and, indeed,
undergo
a Persianized
Persianized development
to make Shi'ism
the
that was to
Shi' ism the
development that

[80]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST

CONQUEST-EASTWARDS
EASTWARDS
sect and one
great
to which
one to
which aa considerable
considerable
dissenting sect
great dissenting
minority
belongs to
to this
day. 'Never
has
this day.
'Never has
minority of Moslems belongs
captor
swiftly and subtly
been
captured
by
his
captive
been
his
captor more swiftly
subtly
captured by
captive
24
24 *
than Arabia by
by Persia,'
Persia,' says
says Dr Hogarth.
Hogarth. *
The Arabs,
astounding eclat,
were conquering
Arabs, with astounding
eclat, were
conquering
at the same time
Egypt
time as
as they
they were so
prose~
so successfully
Egypt at
successfully prosetheir
Persian
cuting
their
Persian
campaign.
The
inception
of
that
con~
of
that
concampaign.
cuting
inception
is
a
quest
is
the
subject
of
a
jolly
tradition.
Amr
ibn
al
As,
the
of
Arab
tradition.
ibn al As,
subject
jolly
quest
most prominent
lieutenants in
in Syria,
conceived
of Khalid's
Khalid's lieutenants
prominent of
Syria, conceived
of the conquest
conquest of Egypt,
Egypt, acted
his own initiative,
initiative,
acted on
on his
force from the
quickly
raised aa force
the Syrian
and
quickly raised
Syrian garrisons
garrisons and
as much as
marched, without
without as
your leave'
leave' from
the
as 'by
from the
marched,
'by your
caliph.
The
caliph,
on
hearing
of
it,
promptly
sent
orders
of
sent
orders
it,
caliph,
caliph.
hearing
promptly
after
zealous Amr,
commanding him to
to return
return unless
unless
after the
the zealous
Amr, commanding
he
was
too
far
engaged
in
operations;
and
to
meet
the
In
far
he
to meet the
engaged
operations;
situation the
general with
blind eye
the
his blind
with 'his
the intrepid
to the
situation
intrepid general
eye to
telescope'
as
it
were,
speeded
up
his
braves
and
crossed
as
it
his
braves
crossed
were,
speeded up
telescope'
the
frontier before
before acquainting
acquainting himhimthe Palestine-Egyptian
Palestine-Egyptian frontier
self
orders. On he
he went and abundantly
justified
his orders.
with his
self with
abundantly justified
to view this
himself. Modern authorities
inclined to
this
authorities are
are inclined
himself.
7
*
7*
tradition
with their
blind eye
to
the
telescope.
the
their own blind
to
tradition with
telescope.
eye
the safety
The conquest
necessary to
to the
safety of
of
of Egypt
conquest of
Egypt was necessary
at Alexandria
Syria
time, for
the Byzantine
Byzantine fleet
fleet at
for the
this time,
at this
Syria at
coastal towns of
continual menace to
to the
of Syria
the coastal
was aa continual
Syria
and the
Egyptians were aa subsubreinvasion. The Egyptians
of reinvasion.
the means of
ject people,
people, too,
too, and no happier
happier under
under their
their Greek rulers
rulers
ject
so
not
than the
had
been,
and
so
were
not
any
more
likely
than
the Syrians
likely
been,
any
Syrians
at
to resent
a change
change of
masters. Whether or
at not,
Amr,
at
of masters.
to
resent a
Amr,
not,
the
the
head
of
four
thousand
Arabs,
crossed
the
Egyptian
crossed
thousand
the head of four
Arabs,
Egyptian
frontier
in A.D.
A.D. 640.
It was aa small
force for
for so great
great an
small force
frontier in
640, It
allowed
thousand
undertaking,
but
reinforcements
of
five
of
five
reinforcements
but
undertaking,
encountered
he
him to
to march
march on Heliopolis,
where
encountered
and
Heliopolis,
he
maintained
or
defeated
Byzantines. For aa year
year or more
the Byzantines.
defeated the
f

[[81]
81 ]

THE ARABS
delta
at the
himself in
in aa fortified
the head of
of the
the Nile delta
fortified position
himself
position at
the
and
then
pushed
on
to
lay
siege
to
Alexandria,
the
capital.
to lay siege to Alexandria,
and then pushed
capital.
Heraclius
During
the
long
siege
the
unfortunate
Emperor
Heraclius
unfortunate
the
the
Emperor
long
siege
During
redied in
in Constantinople,
Egyptian patriarch,
patriarch, rethe Egyptian
died
Constantinople, and the
with
Amr
turning
thence,
concluded
a
treaty
with
by
which
which
a
concluded
by
treaty
turning thence,
so Egypt
the Greeks
Greeks agreed
Alexandria, and so
Egypt
cede Alexandria,
to cede
the
agreed to
masters
in
the
new
passed
into
the
hands
of
its
Arab
masters
in
the
year
its
of
into
the
hands
year
passed
A.D. 642.
642.
headquarters of
of government
The headquarters
government were moved from
Alexandria to
to Fustat,
Fustat, aa military
camp that
that the
the Arabs had
Alexandria
military camp
of
model
after
just
established
in
Egypt
after
the
of Kufa and
in
established
Egypt
just
in
after
Iraq and,
to grow
years into
Basrah in
in Iraq
like them,
into
them, to
and, like
grow in after years
aa mighty
city-Cairo.
of its
its foundation
the
foundation was the
Cairo. The year
year of
mighty city
the
of
Persian
at
year
that
witnessed
the
overthrow
of
the
Persian
king
that
witnessed
the
year
king at
a period
hands. It
period of
of amazing
amazing military
military
It marked a
Arab hands.
achievement; for
the lifetime
these two first
for during
lifetime of these
first
achievement;
during the
to
that
is
caliphs,
that
is
to
say,
within
twelve
years
of
the
Prophet's
twelve
the
within
say,
years
Prophet's
caliphs,
death, the
the untutored
untutored Arabs of
the
of the
the desert
desert had defeated the
death,
of the
empires of
armies of
the two great
armies
of the
the
great contemporary
contemporary empires
time, Persia
Byzantium, and had wrested
wrested from them
Persia and Byzantium,
time,
Syria,
Iraq, western
western Persia
Persia and Egypt.
Egypt.
Syria, Iraq,
But imperial
imperial expansion
meant
embarrassment for
the
for the
expansion
Arabian caliphate.
of the
political domination
Arabian
the political
domination
caliphate. The days
days of
the Caliph,
of Medina were numbered.
numbered. Omar the
of
a man of
Caliph, a
great
capacity,
doubtless
foresaw
it,
but
before
it
came
doubtless
foresaw
but
it
before
it,
great capacity,
about
about he
he was able,
by his
his edicts,
found the
the institutions
institutions
to found
able, by
edicts, to
of
Islamic state
of the
the Islamic
occupied territories
territories on aa sure
in the
the occupied
state in
sure
foundation.
foundation.
Omar's great
task was completed
before he
he fell,
fell,
great task
completed before
stabbed to
to death by
by aa Christian
of Persian
Persian origin.
Christian slave
slave of
origin.
His successor
successor in
in the
the caliphate
unworthy one.
one.
caliphate was an unworthy
Othman was an aristocrat
of great
great piety,
piety, but
aristocrat and a
a man of
but
he was conspicuously
conspicuously ineffective.
high offices
ineffective. The high
offices of
of state,
state,

[82
[82]]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST

CONQUEST-EASTWARDS
EASTWARDS
inside Arabia and without,
both inside
were flooded
flooded by
by nominees
nominees
both
without, were
of his
his family
regardless of
of their
their abilities.
The
faction regardless
abilities. The
family or faction
followers of
of All
Ali accepted
his unsatisfactory
election-by
election
accepted his
unsatisfactory
by
reluctant vote
aa reluctant
vote of a committee
committee of
bad grace
of six-with
six
with a
a bad
grace

to intrigue
and continued to
intrigue against
against him.
him. The new
Arab
new Arab
world,
fell more and more away;
Mu'awiya,
too, fell
world, too,
indeed, Mu'awiya,
away; indeed,
of
a
the governor
the
of
Syria,
a
gifted
kinsman,
already
cherished
Syria,
governor
gifted kinsman, already cherished
personal
ambitions.
ambitions.
personal
The Arab conquerors,
conquerors, supreme
supreme on
on land,
the sea
saw the
sea
land, saw
power
of
the
Byzantines
still
unchallenged
and
the
Greek
still
the
and
Greek
Byzantines
power
unchallenged
fleet,
a menace to
their Syrian
to their
and
fleet, based on Cyprus,
Cyprus, a
Syrian and
Egyptian
the northern
northern Arab,
Arab, unlike
unlike his
his
shores. Whether the
Egyptian shores.
southern kinsman,
lacked a sea
tradition but
but now took
took
sea tradition
kinsman, lacked
to the
the sea
nautical arm,
or
sea and rapidly
a nautical
to
arm, or
rapidly developed
developed a
native ships
and
seamen
to
transthe Arabs used native
whether the
and
to transships
port their
armies, they
ready in
in 649
to launch
launch aa
their armies,
they were ready
649 to
port
successful
the enemy's
base, and by
by this
this
sea base,
attack on the
successful attack
enemy's sea
stroke
Cyprus
fell
into
their
hands.
single
fell
into
stroke
their
hands.
single
Cyprus
this spectacular
Emboldened by
by this
they conceived
conceived
success, they
spectacular success,
plans
for
a
fleet
attack
against
Constantinople
itself. In
fleet
attack
In
for
itself.
against
Constantinople
plans
655
all
ready,
but
off
the
Lycian
coast
the
Arabs
off
the
the
but
coast
all
was
Arabs
Lycian
ready,
655
Byzantine fleet
fleet of
of superior
and
encountered
a Byzantine
encountered a
size, and
superior size,
though
themto scatter
scatter five
five hundred ships,
able to
ships, themthey were able
though they
the project
selves
project had to
to be
be
losses that
that the
such losses
sustained such
selves sustained
to
an
abandoned;
Mu'awiya
obliged
to
conclude
was
and
abandoned;
obliged
Mu'awiya
in
unsatisfactory
peace, owing
to aa crisis
that had arisen
arisen in
crisis that
owing to
unsatisfactory peace,
Arabia.
Arabia.
The caliphate
tottering. The very
magof Othman was tottering.
very magcaliphate of
to
lead
nitude
of
the
successes
without
was
destined
to
lead
without
successes
Arab
nitude of the
to its
and Othman's maladministration
maladministration and local
local ununits fall,
to
fall, and
wars
the
popularity
hastened
the
end.
Hitherto
the
of
conend.
the
hastened
popularity
quest
brought great
revenues from the
the Prophet's
Prophet's fifth
fifth
great revenues
quest had brought
The
Medina.
at
and the
the unbelievers'
unbelievers' taxes
to the
the caliph
taxes to
caliph at

[83
[8 3 ]]

THE ARABS
Caliph
Omar, while
while refusing
refusing to
to have a state
state treasury,
treasury,
Caliph Omar,
wisely
these funds
funds in
in characteristic
characteristic autoautoadministered these
wisely administered
cratic
Eastern fashion,
maintaining civil
civil and religious
religious
cratic Eastern
fashion, maintaining
officials,
providing for
pensions for
old and honoured,
the old
for the
for pensions
officials, providing
honoured,
for
charitable
bequests
and
the
like,
so building
building up
up aa
and
so
the
for charitable bequests
like,
strong
personal position.
position. Medina did
did well,
well, though
though its
its new
strong personal
luxurious standards
afHuence
had led
to luxurious
time to
led in
in Othman's time
standards
affluence had
of
contrast to
the simplicity
simplicity of the
the lives
of the
the
to the
in contrast
lives of
of living
living in
Prophet
his companions.
companions.
Prophet and his
But now,
now, under
under Othman,
the wars of conquest
conquest had come
But
Othman, the
to
temporary halt.
halt. No new worlds were being
being conquered
a temporary
to a
conquered
and
except
remote fringes
of Persia
Persia
Turkestan, and
and
the remote
Turkestan,
fringes of
except the
Medina revenues
revenues shrank to
a trickle
of their
their former flood.
to a
trickle of
flood.
Medina suffered
depression, and its
its government
a depression,
suffered from a
government
was blamed as
as better
in
enlightened
in
better governments
more
governments
enlightened
times
places have
have been
been blamed at
But
at such
such moments. But
times and places
a
Othman,
feeble old
seconded
by
a
maliciously
disold age,
in feeble
Othman, in
age,
by maliciously diswas
man
loyal
secretary,
not
the
to
face
such
a
situation.
not
the
to
face
such
a
situation.
loyal secretary,
The Arabs without,
without, who had fought
to fight
fight
fought and were to
again,
interests in
taxes as
being remitted
remitted
in such
such taxes
as were being
again, had interests
to
the caliph
at
Medina
and
there
notoriously
squandered
at
there
to the
caliph
notoriously squandered
on his
his relations
relations and his
unpopular following.
following. Both OthOthhis unpopular
man's
representatives governing
Iraq were
were very
very
man' s representatives
Egypt and Iraq
governing Egypt
and
the
peoples
wished
to
be
rid
of
them.
Prounpopular,
the
wished
to
be
rid
Propeoples
unpopular,
tests grew
grew into
body of
malcontents
revolt. A body
tests
into revolt.
of five
five hundred malcontents
from Egypt
Egypt came on deputation
deputation to
intercede
to Medina to
to intercede
with
after despairing
with the
the caliph,
caliph, but after
of satisfaction
satisfaction at
his
at his
despairing of
hands,
besieged
his
house,
broke
in
and
slew
the
old
his
in
broke
slew
man
the
old
house,
hands, besieged
while he
he was at
at prayers.
while
prayers.
The murder of
the discredited
discredited Othman by
by aa fellow
of the
fellow
Moslem was aa blow to
to the
the Medina caliphate
from
which
it
it
which
caliphate
never recovered.
Ali was now to
recovered. Ali
to achieve
his heart's
heart's desire,
achieve his
desire,
but
it was too
but only
too late.
elapsed before
before the
the
late. A week elapsed
only when it

[84
[8 4 ]]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST-EASTWARDS

CONQUEST EASTWARDS
excitement
excitement caused by
by the
the assassination
assassination died
down. AH
Ali is
died down.
is
at
the
represented at the hour of prayer
prayer going
to the
the mosque
represented
going to
mosque
in a poor
clothed in
poor cotton garment
coarse turban,
a coarse
garment and a
turban,
he despised
the
pomp
vanity of
the
and vanity
of
despised
pomp and
In
one
hand
the
world.
he
carried
the
In
carried his
his slippers,
in the
the other
other
slippers, in
his
his bow,
bow, and as he passed
passed reverent
reverent onlookers
onlookers would
would
salute
their new caliph.
to be
be caliph
caliph now it
it was
was
salute him as their
caliph. But to
essential
essential to
to command the allegiance
allegiance of
the Arabs of
Egypt,
of the
of Egypt,
their support
Syria,
in grave
doubt.
Persia, and their
Iraq, Persia,
Syria, Iraq,
support was in
grave doubt.
a disappointed
man.
felt
Ali, as
as we have seen,
man.
He
felt
Ali,
seen, was a
disappointed
that
his rights,
rights, based on aa close
close relationship
relationship to
to the
the
that his
had
been
Prophet,
already
violated on three
three previous
previous ocviolated
ocalready
Prophet,
followers held
casions;
his followers
held indeed
indeed that
the three
three previous
that the
casions his
previous
caliphs
usurpers and no true
true caliphs.
caliphs. The question
caliphs were usurpers
question
whether
the
Prophet's
only
surviving
the
a daughter,
whether
child, a
Prophet's only surviving child,
daughter,
and wife
wife of
of Ali,
the rightful
residual legatee
or not
not
Ali, was the
rightful residual
legatee or
issue and split
now became aa major
major issue
Islam
into
the
two
into
the
split
great
divisions of Sunni and Shi'a
today.
Shi' a as
as we know them today.
great divisions
under
Mu'awiya,
already
ripe
for
secession
Syria,
Mu'awiya, already ripe for secession from
Syria,
any caliphate,
caliphate, promptly
refused to
to acknowledge
acknowledge Ali
Ali as
as
promptly refused
any
in
the
murder
him
of
connivance
in
the
of
Othcaliph,
accusing
connivance
caliph, accusing
as
man. Egypt
Egypt and Iraq
Ali's representatives
representatives as
did accept
accept Ali's
Iraq did
governors, but
Ali were indeed
indeed to
to be
be caliph
Islam,
if Ali
but if
caliph of Islam,
governors,
the
to
outside
Syria
could
not
be
permitted
to
remain
outside
the
hegemremain
not
be
could
hegempermitted
Syria
ony, and to
to win Syria
active support
of Iraq
the active
support of
Iraq was
Syria the
ony,
left
necessary. And so
Iraq Ali
fled. Medina was thus
thus left
Ali fled.
so to
to Iraq
necessary.
without aa caliph,
her treasury
treasury was empty,
empty, her
her voice of
without
caliph, her
Arabia
authority
silent,
and
in
her
bereavement
ceased
bereavement
in
her
authority silent,
to
be
the
centre
of
the
caliphate.
to
the centre of the caliphate.
Islam was now divided
itself. Iraq
Iraq and Syria
divided against
Islam
Syria
against itself.
Christian Byzantium
their ancient
longer Christian
Byzantium
revived their
feud no longer
ancient feud:
revived
against Zoroastrian
Zoroastrian Persia,
Persia, but
but Moslem versus
versus Moslem.
against
interstate
into interstate
feud at
threatened to
to develop
develop into
The feud
at first
first threatened

for, like
like his
his master,
master,
for,

[85
[85]]

THE ARABS
warfare but
but resolved
resolved
warfare

itself
a fight
for temporal
itself into
into a
fight for
temporal
supremacy
within Islam.
hundred years
years Syria
tria hundred
Islam. For a
Syria trisupremacy within
until
at
Damascus,
until
the
umphed
under
the
Umaiyyads
at
the
the
under
Damascus,
Umaiyyads
umphed
the famous Abbasid
supremacy
passed to
Abbasid
under the
to Iraq
Iraq under
supremacy passed
caliphs
Baghdad.
of Baghdad.
caliphs of
But to
to return
Iraq did
not rise
rise unanimously
did not
Ali. Even Iraq
to Ali.
But
return to
unanimously
to
him, for
A'isha, the
Prophet's young
young and
and
the Prophet's
for A'isha,
to acclaim
acclaim him,
first
favourite
wife,
and
daughter
of
the
first
caliph,
Abu
Bakr,
the
of
and
favourite wife,
Bakr,
caliph,
daughter
gone
had always
been Ali's
implacable enemy,
Ali's implacable
who had
enemy, had gone
always been
there
him with
with two other
other of
Ali's personal
personal enemies
of Ali's
enemies
before him
there before
to raise
raise the
forces of
to one Arab tratraof revolt.
revolt. According
the forces
to
According to
dition
the Faithful'
her camel
in and
Faithful' rode
rode her
camel in
of the
and
dition 'the
'the Mother of
the day
of battle
out
the hostile
hostile forces
battle to
to
forces on the
out among
day of
among the
the
hearten them and then
then took
her place
the
fighting
took her
where
hearten
place
fighting
waxed
heat of
action seventy
'In the
of action
the heat
fiercest. 'In
waxed fiercest.
seventy men who
were successively
killed or
or
held the
bridle of
of her
her camel were
held
the bridle
successively killed
sat
wounded; and
and the
or
litter
in
which
she
sat
was
struck
the cage
or
in
she
litter
struck
wounded
cage
11 *
porcupine.'ll*
with
javelins and
the quills
like the
a porcupine.'
darts like
of a
and darts
with javelins
quills of
'The
Day of
the Camel,'
as this
this battle
battle is
is known in
the
in the
'The Day
of the
Camel,' as
went
in
favour
of
Ali
and
united
Iraq
in
favour
of
Ali
united
in
Arab memory,
went
memory,
Iraq in
his favour.
and
early
in
657
his
assembled an army
in
favour. He now assembled
army
early
657
the Euphrates
Mu'awiya, the
the
moved up
against Syria.
Syria. Mu'awiya,
Euphrates against
up the
the two
two
governor,
to oppose
him, and the
governor, marched down to
oppose him,
armies met in
armies
in the
the plain
plai~ to
to the
the west
the river
river opposite
west of
of the
opposite
in an account
Siffin.
tradition revels
of ninety
battles
Siffin. One tradition
revels in
account of
ninety battles
fabulous casualties
casualties in
in which
and fabulous
which both
both Ali
Ali and
and Mu'awiya
Mu'awiya
performed great
great fegts
fe~ts of
of valour
valour and Ali
Ali displayed
the
performed
displayed the
quality
of
mercy,
for
his
forces
were
enjoined
to
await
of
for
his
forces
were
to
await
mercy,
quality
enjoined
the
of their
their opponents,
to spare
Hight, to
to
the onset
onset of
in flight,
opponents, to
spare them in
the dead
dead and the
chastity of
respect the
bodies of
of the
the bodies
the chastity
of female
female
respect
captives.
tradition,
perhaps
authentjc,
has
Another
more
has
authentic,
tradition,
captives.
perhaps
it that
it
that battle
battle was
W3S joined
joined on one
in
July,
only
to
be
one day
in
to
be
day
July, only
broken
off
the very
next day.
day.
broken off the
very next
;

[[86]
86]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST-EASTWARDS

CONQUEST EASTWARDS
Ali's
pitched battle,
All's opponents
contrived to
to avoid
avoid a
a pitched
opponents contrived
battle,
which
might well
well have resulted
in aa victory
victory for
him. On
resulted in
which might
for him.
the
the second
the vanguard
vanguard of
Mu'awiya
of the
the morning
second day
of Mu'awiya
morning of
day the
copies of
the Holy
Holy Qur'an
Qur'an tied
tied to
their
advanced with copies
of the
to their
lances.
Awed
by
this
solemn
appeal
to
the
Tablets
lances.
of
by this
appeal to the Tablets of
God,
their opponents
were restrained
restrained from
from onslaught
God, their
opponents were
onslaught
against
Moslems. A truce
the parties
fellow Moslems.
truce followed,
followed, the
against fellow
parties
agreed
to abandon warfare and accept
year
a year
agreed to
accept adjudication
adjudication a
hence, when aa representative
representative of
meet for
of each
each side
side should
should meet
for
hence,
the purpose
purpose on the
the Iraqo-Syrian
frontier.
the
frontier.
Iraqo-Syrian
Ali had taken
taken aa fatal
he let
a
fatal step.
AH
let slip
step. Not only
only had he
slip a
great
opportunity to
to achieve
by agreeing
to
his ends,
achieve his
but by
ends, but
great opportunity
agreeing to
arbitration
all he
he abandoned the
point of
at all
the cardinal
cardinal point
arbitration at
his
of his
case.
In the
the eyes
of his
his following
his right
right was aa divine
case. In
divine
eyes of
following his
not
of
argument.
A
considerable
right,
not
a
claim
susceptible
a
claim
of
considerable
susceptible
argument.
right,
body of
next day,
that the
his supporters
left him next
of his
the
supporters left
day, holding
body
holding that
judgment
should
have
been
God's,
i.e.
battle,
and
these
been
should
have
i.e.
and
these
God's,
battle,
judgment
be known,
known, were
were henceforth
Khawarij, as
they came to
as they
to be
henceforth his
his
Khawarij,
enemies.
forces lost
heart, and,
his
lost heart,
Ali's forces
conscious of
enemies. Ali's
of his
and, conscious
led
them
sorrowfully
back
to
Kufa.
losing
cause,
he
he
back
to
led
Kufa.
cause,
sorrowfully
losing
The conference
to decide
decide whether Ali
Ali were
were aa true
true
conference to
caliph
or
not
duly
assembled.
Mu'awiya's
representative
caliph or not duly assembled. Mu'awiya's representative
his cause,
less aa man than
than the
the
was one
one devoted
no less
to his
devoted to
was
cause, no
gallant
ibn
al
As,
the
conqueror
of
Egypt.
He
had
of
the
ibn
al
Amr
As,
conqueror
Egypt.
gallant
returned
Mu'awiya's service
Ali's reprereprein Syria
service in
to Mu'awiya's
returned to
Syria when All's
sentative
in Egypt,
Egypt, a post
the governorship
sentative assumed the
post he
governorship in
at the
was
covet himself.
himself. All's
Ali's representative
representative at
the
to covet
was known to
conference was aa lesser
person and one
one whose attachment
lesser person
conference
deliberato Ali's
Ali's cause
result of their
their deliberacause was suspect.
to
suspect. The result
interpreted by
by
tions
took place)
deliberations took
tions (if
place) was interpreted
any deliberations
(if any
He
hand.
Mu'awiya
as
giving
him
a
free
hand.
forthwith
proa
free
as
progiving
Mu'awiya
in AJD.
Jerusalem in
A.D. 660 and thus
claimed
at Jerusalem
himself caliph
claimed himself
caliph at
of Syria,
dynasty of
founded
the Umaiyyad
founded the
capital
Syria, whose capital
Umaiyyad dynasty

[87
[8 7 ]]

THE ARABS

was Damascus.
Ali's cup
full, and before
before another
was
Damascus. All's
cup was full,
on
the
year had
had passed
passed he
he was assassinated
the doorstep
assassinated
of
doorstep of
year
the mosque
mosque at
by three
three fanatics
fanatics who had at
at
in Iraq
at Kufa in
the
Iraq by
cause.
one time
his cause.
one
time espoused
espoused his
of the
the Medina caliphs.
Thus ended
the fourth
last of
ended the
fourth and last
caliphs.
They
had all
been early
all of
of them been
converts and companions
early converts
They had
companions
of deep
of the
the Prophet;
they were
were men of
religious convicof
convicdeep religious
Prophet they
lived
tions,
amid
power
and
riches
lived
simple,
and
riches
men
who
tions,
strict,
simple, strict,
power
of four
four of
God-fearing
three out
of them should
out of
lives. That three
should
God-fearing lives.
have come to
to violent
violent ends
a commentary
is a
the strong
ends is
have
commentary on the
strong
;

their people.
of their
passions of
passions
people.
the seat
seat of
of the
the transfer
transfer of
of government
government from
With the
Arabia
to Syria
change came over
the rulers.
a great
over the
Arabia to
rulers.
Syria a
great change

son of
and second
caliph of
Yezid,
the son
of Mu'awiya
second caliph
of DaYezid, the
Mu'awiya and
mascus,
feeble
and
dissolute,
but
that
did
not
inbut
feeble
was
that
did
not indissolute,
mascus,
in future
validate his
his succession,
caliphs were
were in
rule,
for caliphs
future to
to rule,
validate
succession, for
as
did
the
piety and religion
as
did
the
early
caliphs
not in
virtue of piety
in virtue
not
religion
early caliphs
as Arab aristocrats
of
Medina, but
in virtue
virtue of
hereditary
but as
aristocrats in
of hereditary
of Medina,
right.
right.
The tragedy
tragedy of
Ali's assassination
not end there.
there.
of Ali's
assassination did
did not
two sons,
Hassan
and
Husain,
were
also
fated
to aa
His two
were
also
to
fated
sons,
Husain,
violent
end.
Hassan,
who
had
inherited
his
father's
pohis
end.
father's
inherited
violent
Hassan,
position
in Iraq,
Iraq, but
but not
his ambition,
to
sition in
not his
ambition, submissively
agreed to
submissively agreed
retire on
on aa pension
to
Medina
in
favour
of
Mu'awiya
retire
to
in
favour
of
pension
Mu'awiya
the instrument
rather than
than be
be the
of plunging
plunging Irak
instrument of
Irak Moslems
rather
into civil
brethren. There in
with their
into
their Syrian
in Medina
civil war with
Syrian brethren.
he
he lived
piously and devoted
himself to
to charitable
charitable works,
works,
devoted himself
lived piously
to
be
only
to
be
poisoned
eight
years
later
by
one
of
his
wives.
later
one
his
of
wives.
only
poisoned eight years
by
of
his
father's
fervour,
Husain,
with
more
endowed
with
of
his
father's
Husain,
fervour,
of wresting
dreamt of
wresting Iraq
by an
Yezid. Lured by
an invitainvitaIraq from Yezid.
tion from a
tion
a discontented
in Iraq
Iraq to
to come and lead
discontented faction
lead
faction in
them in
in revolt
revolt against
the
Syrian
yoke,
he
trustingly
the
he
against
Syrian yoke,
trustingly
crossed the
the desert,
but on approaching
he discovered
discovered
crossed
desert, but
approaching Kufa he

[88
[88]]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST-EASTWARDS

CONQUEST EASTWARDS
that he
that

had been misled

misled as
to the
the extent
of the
the unrest
as to
extent of
unrest and
and
that
approach had been
been anticipated
by the
the Caliph
Caliph
his approach
that his
anticipated by
Yezid's representative,
representative, who had sent
thousand
sent out
out five
five thousand
to surround him.
men to
It is
It
possible that Husain could
have escaped
escaped into
into the
the
is possible
could have
desert
desert and awaited a more favourable
favourable opportunity,
and
opportunity, and
sister spent
this
his sister
the
night
imploring
him
to
this course
course his
the
him
to
spent
night imploring
take,
but
his
passionate
belief
in
his
cause
drove
him
on.
his
but
in
belief
his
cause
drove
on.
take,
passionate
One tradition,
tradition, doubtless
apocryphal, tells
he and
doubtless apocryphal,
tells of
of how he
and
his
of supporters
cut off
retreat after
after
his handful of
off their
their own retreat
supporters cut
the manner of
of the
the brave
brave men of
old by
by digging
digging aa trench
of old
the
trench
rear and filling
with faggots.
Husain, aa
in
in their
their rear
it with
filling it
faggots* Then Husain,
sword in
in one hand and aa Qur'an
in the
the other,
his
led his
Qur'an in
other, led
martyrs
forward.
One
of
the
opposing
chiefs,
the
moved
martyrs
opposing chiefs,
by the
the heroism,
heroism, himself
himself deserted
to their
deserted to
their side,
side, knowing
by
knowing
that it
led to
to the
joys of
paradise.
full
well that
full well
the immediate joys
it led
of paradise.
to aa supernatural
supernatural strength,
irresistible
Steeled
Steeled to
strength, they
they were irresistible
their
in
but
their
enemy,
greatly
outnumbering
in close
close combat,
combat,
enemy, greatly outnumbering
only to
keep off
a shower of
them, had only
off and send
to keep
of arrows
send a
arrows
them,
till
into
one
they
fell,
till
only
to achieve
success. One by
one
achieve success.
into them to
fell,
only
by
they
Husain remained.
remained. Though
struck.
in
the
by
an
arstruck
in
the
an
armouth
Though
by
row,
the
grandson
of
the
Prophet
could
still
have
been
could
still
the
been
row, the grandson
Prophet
spared
by aa merciful
merciful enemy
mercy was wanting,
wanting,
this mercy
enemy j but this
spared by
and he
lacerated with the
thirtythe wounds of
of thirtyfell at
at last,
he fell
last, lacerated
three
lance. His body
body was trampled
strokes of
of sword and lance.
three strokes
trampled
on,
his head was cut
off and brought
brought to
to the
the governor
of
cut off
on, his
governor of
Kufa,
it, struck
with his
his cane across
struck with
Kufa, who,
who, when he saw it,
the bleeding
mouth. 'Alas
burst out
out an aged
'Alas l' burst
the
stander-by
aged stander-by
bleeding mouth.
'on
those
lips
I
have
seen
the
lips
of
the
Prophet
of God P
of
the
seen
the
I
have
on those lips
Prophet of
lips
The surviving
Ali the
the Martyr
children of Ali
sisters and children
Martyr
surviving sisters
Yezid
were
in
chains
before
the
Caliph
at Dathe
before
in
chains
were brought
Caliph
brought
had
he
them
mascus,
might
have
rid
himself
of
cared
rid
himself
who
mascus,
might
to
them
allowed
but instead
exercised his
his clemency
to
instead exercised
but
clemency and
;

1*

[89 ]

~HE

THE ARABS

centuries grew
depart. Their
Their posterity
later centuries
in later
grew and were
posterity in
depart.
the
witnessed
times
especially
revered.
I
have
many
times
witnessed
the south
many
especially revered. I

of
of the
the hand of one of
Arabian
native holding
holding the
back of
the back
Arabian native
them
to his
his own nostrils,
nostrils, to
to take
a hearty
hearty sniff,
sniff, believing
believing
take a
them to
that he
he imbibed
imbibed virtue
this act.
their
act. In Persia and Iraq
that
virtue by
Iraq their
by this
to work,
not obliged
descendants till
times were not
recent times
till recent
descendants
work,
obliged to
to
them.
for
alms
to
them.
all would give
for all
give
But it
it was the
the imams,
Ali, Hassan,
But
Hassan, Husain and
i.e., Ali,
imams, i.e.,
Husain's
nine lineal
the special
lineal descendants,
Husain's nine
descendants, who enjoyed
enjoyed the
special
a branch
the Shi'
branch of
of Islam as
as the
the only
veneration of
Shi a
of the
veneration
rightonly rightand
whose
ful caliphs
following
the
Prophet,
tombs,
the
ful
tombs,
Prophet,
caliphs following
are found today
today overglorious specimens
of Persian
Persian art,
overart, are
glorious
specimens of
in Iraq
Iraq and in
in Khorasan
Khorasan-places
looking the
the Euphrates
of
places of
looking
Euphrates in
are the
notable and venerated
Shi'a
pilgrimage. The most notable
venerated are
the
Shi'a pilgrimage.
of Ali
Ali at
N ajaf and the
the mosque
mosque of
mosque of
of Husain at
Kerat Najaf
at Kermosque
last imam of
bela. The twelfth
twelfth and last
of this
this hereditary
hereditary apostolic
bela.
apostolic
the Shi'as
not die,
die, it
it is
is held,
held, but
succession
of the
succession of
Shi'as did
did not
but disapdisapat Samarra. He is
into a
is alive
peared into
a cave
still, after
cave at
alive still,
after
peared
nearly aa thousand
thousand years,
years, though
though hidden
hidden from men's
men's eyes,
nearly
eyes,
to
himself some day
to
denounce
and
overand will
will manifest
manifest himself
overday
anti-Christ who will
an anti-Christ
will appear
appear and disturb
the
throw an
disturb the
earth before
before the
Day.
mahdi,
as
this
earth
the Judgment
The
Judgment Day.
mahdi, as this
has on at
at least
least one
one occasion
been
is called,
twelfth imam is
twelfth
occasion been
called, has
impersonated
in
the
Sudan
with
disconcerting
effects
to
in
the
with
to
effects
disconcerting
impersonated
the
tranquillity
of
British
authorities.
public
peace
and
of
British
authorities.
tranquillity
public peace
is the
of Ali
It
the martyrdom
Ali and
and his
his sons,
It is
almost more
sons, almost
martyrdom of
doctrine of their
than the
the doctrine
their exclusive
hereditary right
to
exclusive hereditary
right to
succeed the
Prophet, that
that characterizes
characterizes the
the Shi'a
succeed
the Prophet,
Shi' a faith
faith
these saints
of later
later times,
times, and around these
martyrs the
the
of
saints and martyrs
the East
famous Passion play
East is
is woven,
woven, to
to sadden
the
sadden the
play of the
streets of
Shi'a towns of Persia
Persia and Iraq
of the
the Shi'a
Iraq on the
the
streets
tenth
of Muharram. The growth
of this
this movement
tenth day
day of
growth of
is bound up
the conquest
is
up with the
old Persian
Persian empire,
of the
the old
conquest of
empire,
5

0 ]
[9
[90]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST

CONQUEST-EASTWARDS
EASTWARDS

for
the Arabs in
with aa more
man
in overcoming
for the
communities with
overcoming communities
culture than their
advanced culture
their own themselves
became PerPer.
themselves became
their religion
sianized,
to undergo
thi!
also came to
sianized, and their
religion also
undergo this
Persianized
Schism
developed
early
arounc
Persianized development.
Schism
arounc
development.
developed early
Ali's divine
the
of Ali's
divine right
right to
to succeed,
the
the principle
on the
based on
principle of
succeed, based
of exclusive
exclusive spiritual
heirship
to the
the Prophet,
Prophet, aa docdoc
belief of
belief
spiritual heir
ship to
Persians made peculiarly
trine the
peculiarly their
trine
the Persians
their own.
own. This
This doctrine
doctrine
of
hereditary apostolic
by which
which divine
virtue
of an hereditary
succession by
divine virtue
apostolic succession
in the
the Prophet's
Prophet's seed
came near
a doc
could
pass only
only in
could pass
seed came
near to
to a
doctrine
incarnation, and whatever
whatever the
teachings of
of the
the
trine of
of incarnation,
the teachings
idea
not
the
could
Prophet,
the
idea
could
not
have
been
or
distastefu1
have
been
new
or
distasteful
Prophet,
Christianity, who were
were then
then or
or
to converts
to
converts from Christianity,
Shi'a form of
later
to embrace the
the Shi'a
challenge
later to
of Islam.
Islam. As a
a challenge
to the
the legality
legality of
the Umaiyyad
Umaiyyad caliphs,
in the
the
of the
to
Shi' ism was in
caliphs, Shi'ism
to
a
political
weapon
for
endcourse
of a
a century
to
a
course of
become
century
political weapon for ending
in the
the Islamic
state.
Islamic state.
ing Arab dominance in
the Damascus caliphate
Arab
Meanwhile under the
the Arab
caliphate the
armies
carried on their
their campaign
in
eastern
Persia
with
the
in
eastern
Persia
armies carried
with
the
campaign
that had carried
there.
same indomitable
indomitable spirit
carried them there.
spirit that
Within twenty
years
of
the
fall
of
they
had
fall
of
the
of
Nihavand
Within
twenty years
they had
overcome
the two easternmost
provinces of
of Khorasan and
easternmost provinces
and
overcome the
into
and
were
raiding
into
Afghanistan,
undaunted
by
Seistan
Seistan
Afghanistan, undaunted by
raiding
unpacified areas
areas behind
them.
native
outbreaks in
in the
the unpacified
behind them.
native outbreaks
of
Hajjaj
ibn
Yusuf,
the
strong
governor
of
Iraq,
seems
to
to
the
ibn
Yusuf,
Iraq,
strong governor
Hajjaj
have been
moving spirit
of
these
distant
activities,
and
these
distant
of
been the
the moving
have
activities,
spirit
recruits for
fell off,
off, presumably
presumably as
as a result
result of
of
for them fell
when recruits
improved
conditions
of
life
in
growing
communities,
of
life
in
Arab
conditions
communities,
growing
improved
fast becoming
for
the old
old camps
becoming
of Basrah and Kufa were fast
for the
camps of
under
resorted
to
compulsory
levies
under
penalty
rich
cities,
he
levies
to
resorted
he
rich cities,
penalty
compulsory
are supposed
of
less than
twenty thousand men are
than twenty
death. No less
of death.
supposed
drafted to
Persian wars from Iraq.
to have
have been
been drafted
to the
to
the Persian
Iraq. Even
field is
then
the shortage
is known to
to have
of men in
in the
the field
then the
shortage of
of
course
to the
the bold
Perdriven
bold course of enlisting
driven Arab generals
enlisting Pergenerals to
1 ]
[9
[91]

THE ARABS
sian
irregulars before
before Persia had been properly
properly subjusian irregulars
subjuthe
of
five
and
that
victorious
the victorious army
five thousand that
gated,
army
gated,
in 669
fall of Balkh in
crossed the Oxus after the fall
crossed
is held to
to
669 is
fifth Persian.
Persian.
ha
ve been
been one fifth
have
the invincible
a generation
invincible Arabs had overrun
Within a
generation the
the
entire province
the entire
province of Trans-Oxiana and annexed the
the
At
this
cities
Bokhara.
mighty
cities
of
Samarkand
and
this
point,
mighty
point,
mankind the Cauborderland between two races
races of mankind-the
a borderland
cusoids and the Mongoloids
it is
note Arab
interest to
Mongoloids it
is of interest
to note-Arab
cusoids
limit.
its
into
Asia
military
expansion
into
Asia
reached
its
uttermost
limit.44
military expansion
*The
as also
also into
into inner Africa and
~he expansion
expansion of
of Islam
Islam into
further Asia,
ASIa,' as
into further
eastern Europe,
to these
It came about
eastern
Europe, does
does not
not properly
these Arab wars. It
belong to
properly belong
either as
result of
of waves of
the result
of conquest
carried on by
by non-Arab
later,
as the
later, either
conquest carried
peoples
the proselytizing
proselytizing zeal of Moslems,
Moslems,
peoples who had embraced Islam or from the
this last-to-be-acquired
others. The starting
Arabs and others.
last-to-be-acquired Transstarting point
point was this
Oxus fringe
of Islam.
Islam. The Emperor
Ghazna, who had made
fringe of
Emperor Mahmud of Ghazna,
himself independent
the Persian
Persian Samanids,
Samanids, invaded India,
India, and the
independent of the
his son early
the Punjab
of the
early in
in the
the eleventh cenprovince of
Punjab was annexed by
province
by his
to
tury. Another wave of
of Iranian
Iranian Moslems overran
overran Gujerat
Gujerat and Kashmir,
Kashmir, to
tury.
be followed
followed a century
by an Afghan
Afghan annexation of
Mooltan,
later by
of Sind and Mooltan,
century later
thus Islam was spread
and thus
northern India.
the
across northern
India. Thence towards the
spread across
close of
the thirteenth
thirteenth century
carried under aa Turkish house
house through
close
of the
it was carried
through
century it
the Deccan into
into southern
India. The Turks from the
the steppes
of Central
Central
the
southern India.
steppes of
Asia carried
into southeastern
Europe in
in the
carried Islam into
the fourteenth
southeastern Europe
fourteenth century.
Elsecentury. Elsethe extension
extension of
of Islam came about
about by
peaceable means. From India
India
where the
by peaceable
it
the East Indies,
it naturally
by trade
intercourse through
Java
trade intercourse
naturally spread
spread by
through the
Indies, Java
its particular
becoming its
the missionary
of south
south
efforts of
becoming
particular stronghold
stronghold from the
missionary efforts
Arabians who had settled
settled there.
there. From Egypt
up the
the
carried up
Egypt Islam was carried
Nile
a much later
time the
Nile into
into the Sudan,
at a
later time
the establishment
establishment of
of Arab
Sudan, and at
sultanates in East Africa,
Zanzibar, led
to its
its penetration
penetration into
led to
into
Africa, notably
notably Zanzibar,
equatorial Africa.
Africa.
equatorial

[92]

CHAPTER IV
IV

Arab 117
World
orid C
onquest-W
estwards
Westwards
Conquest

STWARDS the
the wave of
of Arab expansion
"WSTWARDS
expansion along
the
along the
coast of Africa rolled
north coast
rolled more uncertainly.
uncertainly. It
It was a
a
walls of
of Carthage,
slowed-down wave that
that broke over
over the
the walls
Carthage,
been reigning
reigning in
a midway
point, after
a
after caliphs
in Damasmidway point,
caliphs had been
for upwards
of a
a quarter
upwards of
of aa century
cus
cus for
do*
century and Arab doquarter of
minion eastwards
its utmost
well-nigh reached its
utmost Asiatic
Asiatic
eastwards had well-nigh
the Oxus.
limit
beyond the
limit beyond
Oxus.
On this
this western front
their early
front the
the Arabs,
after their
conArabs, after
early conof
Egypt,
had
for
a
generation
been
content
with
quest
a
for
been
with
content
Egypt,
quest
generation

plundering forays
into Cyrenaica,
into
forays into
Cyrenaica, Tripoli
plundering
Tripoli and latterly
latterly into
Tunis-then
and to
be identified
with our
called Ifrikiya
identified with
Tunis then called
to be
Ifrikiya and
word 'Africa'-and
with aa light
precarious occupaoccupa'Africa
and with
light and precarious
of the
the lowlands.
prone to
to ascribe
ascribe this
this
tion
are prone
lowlands. Authorities
Authorities are
tion of
to
the
fierce
opposition
delay
in
a
determined
penetration
the
in
a
fierce
to
opposition
penetration
delay
of
the native
native inhabitants
north Africa
Africa on the
the grounds
inhabitants of
of north
of the
grounds
that
the Berbers
Berbers were aa race
not so
naturally predisposed
predisposed
so naturally
race not
that the
to the
the Arabs as
the kindred
kindred Aramreans
of Syria
been,
as the
Aramaeans of
to
Syria had been,
were therefore
therefore prepared
prepared to
to defend more vigorously
and were
vigorously
alien
fresh alien
their
nationality, customs
their nationality,
customs and language
against fresh
language against
incursions.
incursions.
'

.-[93]
[93]

THE ARABS
the Arab hunger
Rather it
it would seem that
that the
hunger for fresh
had
the
been
sated
been
sated
by
the
conquest
the Near and
territory
conquest of the
territory
by
eastMiddle East.
East. The superior
material rewards of the
the eastsuperior material
the
Afriwith
of
the
north
Afriern
as
compared
with
those
as
ern campaigns
compared
campaigns
as a
a stronger
deserts acted
can
magnet, while
while the
acted as
can deserts
stronger magnet,
atthe way
that lay
in the
formidable
obstacles that
formidable obstacles
way of the eastern atlay in
this
It
at
time.
would
be
Arabs
the
at
this
time.
It
be
tainments
occupied
the
tainments fully
fully occupied
Berbers
if
the
unorganized
Berbers
could
have
strange
indeed
if
the
indeed
unorganized
strange
stemmed aa flood
which was submerging
the imperial
imperial Perflood which
submerging the
of their
their own language
sians,
people not
less proud
proud of
a people
not less
sians, a
language and
customs
possessing aa highly
highly developed
political and
customs and possessing
developed political
military organization.
organization.
military
The difference
in race
outlook between Berber
Berber and
difference in
race and outlook
the
is wont to
for the
to be
Arab is
be overstressed.
overstressed. Even allowing
allowing for
in north African populations
that followed
Arab strain
populations that
strain in
seventh and eleventh
eleventh centuries,
the infiltrations
the seventh
centuries, the
the
infiltrations of the
the
non-Arabic
of
of
the
High
Atlas
indigenous
non-Arabic
speaking
Berbers
Berbers
the
Atlas
speaking
High
indigenous
as being
strike the
the writer
writer as
akin to
today strike
to Arabs he
he
being racially
today
racially akin
in Aleppo
has
has met in
the faraway
of Oman j
faraway mountains of
Aleppo and the
in
cultural sense,
in aa cultural
Berbers were made up
up of tribes
tribes
sense, too,
too, the Berbers
their minds could
of
pastoralists, and their
of rude
rude pastoralists,
could scarcely
have
scarcely have
different
of essentially
different
temper
from
those
of
been of
been
those of the
the
essentially
temper
invaders.
early
early Arab invaders.
of Cyrenaica
are said
The lowlands
lowlands of
have
said to
to have
Cyrenaica and Tripoli
Tripoli are
been
been early
and
easily
Islamized,
but
traditions
speak
but
traditions
of
early
easily Islamized,
speak of
the
of Tunisia
as Jews
the Berbers
Berbers of
Tunisia as
Jews and Christians,
though it
it
Christians, though
is more likely
that they
is
likely that
pagans
practising
anianithey were chiefly
chiefly pagans practising
cults like
mistic
of their
brethren to
their brethren
the west
westmistic cults
like the
the bulk
bulk of
to the
central Maghrib
the Berbers of central
Maghrib (Algeria)
and
western
western
(Algeria)
time of the
Maghrib
the time
the Arab invasion
invasion
(Morocco). At the
Maghrib (Morocco).
the Byzantines
the coasts,
prefect of
the
Byzantines were masters
masters of
of the
a prefect
of
coasts, a
the
the emperor
ruling
from
Tripoli
to
Tangier,
but
it
is
to
but
it
is
Tripoli
emperor ruling
Tangier,
outside the
that outside
the garrisoned
garrisoned towns the
thought
the Berbers
Berbers had
thought that
;

[94
[94]]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST-WESTWARDS

CONQUEST WESTWARDS
never at
been properly
properly subjugated
whoever the
at any
never
the
any time been
subjugated whoever
invader-Byzantine,
Vandal, Roman or
Phrenician.
invader
or Phoenician.
Byzantine, Vandal,
In the
the year
earlier spasmodic
warfare of
the
of the
year 670
670 the earlier
spasmodic warfare
place to
that boded
boded
to something
Arabs gave
far more serious
serious that
gave place
something far
alike for
ill
and Byzantine
ill alike
for Berber independence
independence and
Byzantine

suze~
suze-

rainty. This was the

the establishment
regular military
military
establishment of
a regular
of a
rainty.
camp
at
Qairawan
to
the
south
of
Tunis
as
a
base
of
oper~
at
the
to
south
of
Tunis
as
a
base
of opercamp
ations,
after
the
model
of
Basrah
and
Kufa-a
camp
after
the
of
Kufa a camp that
that
ations,
years to
be the
the capital
capital city
to grow
in a
destined to
a few years
was destined
to be
grow in
city
of the
the Arab west.
is associated
with the
Its conception
west. Its
associated with
the
conception is
a
haughty
brave
leader,
who,
greatly
Arab hero Uqba,
a
and
brave
leader, who, greatly
Uqba, haughty
to the
the taste
taste of
Arabs, was no soft-spoken
of the
the Arabs,
to
soft-spoken diplomat
diplomat
but aa master
master of
the sword,
and whose
whose exploits
exploits at
the head
head
of the
but
at the
sword, and
of aa body
body of
riding madly
madly through
the
oases
of
of
of horsemen riding
oases
of
the
through
the
northern
Sahara
fringe,
striking
terror
into
the
foe,
the northern
fringe, striking terror into the foe,
north African
to this
this day.
in north
African deserts
deserts to
make him aa legend
legend in
day.
Uqba
seems
to
have
lost
the
confidence
of
his
caliph,
to
lost
confidence
the
of
have
his
for
Uqba
caliph, for
he was superseded
for
a
time
by
one
Dinar,
not
so
flashy
a
time
for
not
so
he
Dinar,
by
flashy
superseded
perhaps, but
but aa more farseeing
one, for
for Dinar's
Dinar's
a soldier
a
soldier perhaps,
farseeing one,
policy of
the Berbers
Berbers and regarding
regarding the
the ByByof conciliating
conciliating the
policy
zantines as
the main enemy
enemy was one that
ultimately
that was ultimately
as the
zantines
adopted and proved
proved successful.
Uqba was reresuccessful. Meanwhile Uqba
adopted
instated, and according
to
tradition
he
kept
as
his
Dinar
as
to
tradition
he
his
instated,
kept
according
prisoner in
thus took
took him on his
his raids
raids against
in chains
chains and thus
against
prisoner
is
cut his
the
Berbers.
Greatly
daring,
he
is
held
to
have
cut
his way
held
to
he
the Berbers. Greatly daring,
way
in 682,
through to
Atlantic shores
682, but
but on
shores at
at Tangier
to the
the Atlantic
Tangier in
through
return was ambushed in
the Atlas and slain,
his return
in the
his
slain, Dinar
sharing
his
fate.
fate.
his
sharing
temporary reconquest
reconquest of
the Arabs
of Qairawan
A temporary
Qairawan from the
to
tradition
under aa priestess
(kahina)
,
according
to
tradition
aJ
ewunder
Jewaccording
priestess (kahina),
was
ess
the priestly
tribe
of
Levi
(Kahina=Cohen),
Levi
tribe
of
of the
ess of
(Kahina=Cohen),
priestly
resistance which
the outstanding
outstanding feature
of aa period
feature of
the
period of resistance
lasted for
years, while
while Moslem fortunes
fortunes waxed and
for twenty
lasted
twenty years,

[95
[95]]

THE ARABS
that some Berbers are said to have apostatized
waned so
so that
apostatized
the Arabs persuaded
It was only
the
aa dozen times.
times. It
persuaded the
only when the
interests lay
their interests
Berbers
that their
Berbers that
Islam, when the Berlay with Islam,
bers
of
joining
hands
with the Arabs
bers saw the
the opportunity
joining
opportunity
to
the
Hellenized
and
Latin
populations
the
north
to expel
populations of north
expel
Africa
to Spain
across
Africa to
following them across
Sicily and of following
Spain and Sicily
the
treasuries
the
the
treasuries
of
southern
Europe,
that
sea to
to plunder
the sea
that
Europe,
plunder
if
the
the
westwards
was
made
smooth
j
but
if
the
the Arab path
smooth;
path
as
liberators
a forthe Arabs as liberators from a
Berbers
ever regarded
forBerbers ever
regarded the
find
to
eign
yoke
they
were
soon
to
find
that
they
had
only
they
eign yoke they
only
changed
changed masters.
the power
it fell
fell the
fell in
in 697-698,
Carthage
697698, and with it
Carthage fell
power of
local Berber allies
their local
the Byzantines
the
allies of
Byzantines and that of their
Tunis and Algeria.
The
Arabs
had
obtained
the
command
Algeria.
sea in
in the
the Mediterranean at
at about this
this time,
the sea
of
of the
time, and
in the
fleet played
their fleet
of Cartheir
played an important
part in
the siege
important part
siege of
thereafter
its
to
was
thereafter
its
co-operation
to
afford
effecthage,
and
afford
effecco-operation
thage,
assistance in
tive assistance
in the
the movement westwards to
to the
the shores
tive
shores
Atlantic and northwards across
across the
of the
the Atlantic
the straits
straits into
into
southern Europe.
Europe.
With the
the investment
investment of
of Tangier
Tangier in
in 710,
7IO, Spain
Spain loomed
the
but
there
was neither
neither
up
temptingly
beyond
the
straits,
but
there
straits,
up temptingly beyond
need nor desire
desire on the
the part
part of
of the
the Arabs for
for further
further exexIt
was
the
allied
pansion.
It
the
allied
Berbers
seized
the
chance
Berbers
who
seized
the
chance
pansion.
of
of improving
improving their
their material
material condition
condition by
by promptly
promptly setsetoff
on
ting off
piratical raids
raids to
to the
the Balearic
Balearic Islands
Islands and
and to
to
piratical
ting
southern
southern Spain.
Spain.
Spain at
at this
this time
time was ruled
ruled by
by aa Visigothic
Visigothic aristocracy,
aristocracy,
Spain
but
but it
it was not
not aa united
united country.
country. As in
in Persia
Persia before
before its
its
fall, the
the state
state had been undermined by
by internal
internal dissensions
dissensions
fall,
and traitorous
to collapse
collapse before
before
traitorous factions
factions and was ready
ready to
a
a conqueror
conqueror possessing
possessing the
the military
military prowess
prowess of
of the
the Moslems.
lems. Visigothic
Visigothic and Spanish-Roman
Spanish-Roman antagonisms
antagonisms had
had only
only

[96 ]
[96]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST

CO~QUEST-WESTWARDS
WESTWARDS

ately
been composed;
between Visigoth
Visigoth nobles
nobles themthemstrife between
composed strife
ately been
still continued;
utterly estranged
estranged by
by
,elves
,elves still
the Jews
continued; the
Jews were utterly
lersecution;
the enslaved
not care
care who
who
enslaved classes
classes did
did not
>ersecution; and the
years aa struggle
had been
in
'uled
them. For aa hundred years
uled them.
been in
struggle had
and
nobility;
the
king,
supported
by
)rogress
between
king
)rogress
king
nobility the king, supported by
he clergy,
to establish
an hereditary
hereditary dynasty
anxious to
he
establish an
clergy, was anxious
dynasty
vith
despotic powers
powers; the
the nobles,
nobles, ambitious
their own
vith despotic
ambitious for
for their
preferred to
to elect
one of
themselves to
,ggrandisement,
elect one
of themselves
to
iggrandisement, preferred
he
it became vacant,
he throne whenever it
at time
time of
of
vacant, thus,
thus, at
uccession,
political unrest
unrest by
by supporting
supporting some
one
some one
uccession, causing
causing political
another.
andidate,
some
another.
andidate,
The only
only continuity
that period
period had been
been aa conconcontinuity during
during that
of
Jewish
persecution
by
the
king's
council,
in
inuity
of
the
in
Jewish
council,
inuity
persecution by
king's
vhich church
influence was dominant.
dominant. At the
the outset
church influence
Fhich
outset the
the
"ews
and prospered
protection of
of the
the old
under protection
"ews increased
increased and
old
prospered under
~oman law.
in theory,
theory, did
impose disabilities;
law. This,
did impose
Ionian
marThis, in
disabilities; marinstance, were
were forbidden,
iages
with Christians,
for instance,
Christians, for
forbidden, and
iages with
ews might
might not
public
office
or
own
Christian
slaves,
not occupy
office
or
Christian
slaves,
occupy public
the
law
was
administered
laxly,
and
all
mt
in
practice
administered laxly, and all
>ut in practice the
been allowed.
Early in
in the
hese
things had been
allowed. Early
the seventh
seventh cencenhese things
under
a
bigoted
Visigoth
sovereign,
the
law
ury,
however,
a
under
the
bigoted Visigoth sovereign,
ury, however,
arne
to
be
more
rigorously
enforced,
and
Jews
were
ofwere
ofame to be
Jews
rigorously enforced,
ered the
being baptized
baptized into
Catholic
into the
of being
the Catholic
ered
the alternative
alternative of
aith
suffering banishment
banishment and the
the confiscation
of their
their
confiscation of
or suffering
aith or
and
flowed
under
successive
Iropertyl
Persecution
ebbed
flowed
successive
Persecution
troperty/
later when
at its
height but
years later
o.onarchs.
its height
but a
a few years
It was at
aonarchs. It
to
forswear
their
religion
penalty
ews
were required
on penalty
their
to
forswear
ews were
religion
required
henceforth profess
profess and practise
practise Christianity;
.f
>f death
death and henceforth
Christianity;
whereby they
they must
n oath
n
for future
future kings,
oath was devised
devised for
kings, whereby
Christian
not to
to permit
permit Jews
Jews to
violate the
the Christian
'ndertake
to violate
ndertake not
aith
or allow
allow them 'to
open up
up the
the path
path of
prevarication
of prevarication
'to open
aith or
hovering on the
the brink
brink of unbelief.'
unbelief.' In the
the
oo those
those who are
are hovering
to
himself
o.iddle
of
the
century
the
king
had
to
bind
himself
to
to
diddle of the century the king
;

[97
[97]]

THE ARABS
all Jews
maintain the
prosecute all
Catholic religion,
the Catholic
maintain
Jews and
religion, prosecute
to
were
heretics, and
and those
those who refused
refused to
to be
be converted
converted
to be
be
heretics,

burnt alive.
alive. Thirty
years later
later Jews
stoned
to death
or burnt
death or
stoned to
Jews
Thirty years
banishof
banishwere required
to
receive
baptism
under
penalty
under
receive
to
were
penalty
baptism
required
of hair.
hair.
ment, scourging
loss of
ment,
scourging and loss
in A.D.
that in
It
to be
wondered at,
A.D.
be wondered
It is
is scarcely
therefore, that
at, therefore,
scarcely to
with
those
694
the
Jews
were
guilty
of
conspiring
with
those
of
who
were
the
conspiring
guilty
Jews
694
north Africa,
Africa, with
with aa
dwelt
in lands
lands beyond
sea, i.e.
i.e. north
the sea,
dwelt in
beyond the
that brought
brought
view
to overthrowing
overthrowing the
the state-a
a conspiracy
state
view to
conspiracy that
which
the
upon
its
perpetrators
penal
measures
by
the
forforits
by
perpetrators penal
upon
their property,
others
were
reothers
tunate suffered
loss of
rethe loss
of their
suffered the
tunate
property,
duced
Within fifteen
fifteen years
the Moslems ininto slavery.
duced to
years the
slavery. Within
vaded
and
brought
the
Jews
deliverance.
the
deliverance.
vaded Spain
Jews
brought
Spain
of the
the Visigothic
Visigothic
year before
before the
the landing
landing the
death of
the death
A year
for
the
succession
the
king
and
the
ensuing
struggle
succession
for
had the
the
king and the ensuing struggle
the land.
land. Roderick
Roderick
usual
throughout the
effects throughout
usual disturbing
disturbing effects
and Achila,
two nobles,
were the
the rival
rival claimants
to the
the
claimants to
Achila, two
nobles, were
throne;
Roderick
was
chosen,
whereupon
Achila
and
his
Roderick
Achila
his
throne;
chosen, whereupon
refuge, as
as VisiVisiimmediateto Africa
fled to
Africa for
for refuge,
immediate" supporters
supporters fled
goth
in 642
similar circumstances
nobles had done in
circumstances
642 under similar
goth nobles
the
and probably
probably on many
many earlier
earlier occasions.
meanwhile the
occasions. But meanwhile
rule
north Africa
Africa had passed
passed into
hands, the
the
rule of
into Moslem hands,
of north
of the
ruler
the caliph
of Damascus was
was
ruler and representative
representative of
caliph of
to
an Arab,
Arab, Musa ibn
Nusair, and
and Musa readily
readily agreed
ibn Nusair,
agreed to
espouse
Achila's
cause.
Achila's
cause.
espouse
first invasion
The first
ostensibly
invasion of
of Spain
undertaken ostensibly
Spain was undertaken
to assist
in reality
assist Achila,
rather to
to
to
probably with
a view
view rather
with a
Achila, in
reality probably
than
plunder
than
to
conquest,
for
the
caliphs
are
supposed
to
for
the
are
to
plunder
conquest,
caliphs
supposed to
these
have regarded
these
later
military
expeditions
dislater
in the
the disregarded
military expeditions in
tant outposts
tant
with misgiving.
misgiving. Musa probably
probably
outposts of empire
empire with
it as
as just
just another summer raid,
raid, aa means
means of
keepthought of it
of keepthought
the
ing
the
Berbers
happily
occupied;
three
years
before
they
Berbers
three
before
ing
happily occupied
years
they
had raided
raided Majorca,
and
passed
only
the year
before had
had passed
Majorca,
only the
year before
;

[98
[98]]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST-"WESTW

ARDS
CONQUEST WESTWARDS

on
to the
the mainland,
mainland, skirmished
and rereskirmished through
on to
Andalusia and
through }\.ndalusia
turned
to Algeciras
Algeciras loaded
loaded with
with spoils.
But if
he did,
he
turned to
if he
did, he
spoils. But
underestimated
his Berber
Berber general,
general, the
freed slave
underestimated his
the freed
slave Tariq,
Tariq,
been appointed
who had been
of Tangier,
for Tariq
appointed governor
governor of
Tangier, for
Tariq
was now to
conquer Spain.
to conquer
Spain.
force of seven thousand
thousand men,
men, mostly
mostly Berbers,
With aa force
Berbers,
the
Tariq
crossed
the
straits
in
the
year
A.D.
7
I
I
and
landed
straits
crossed
in
the
A.D.
and
landed
Tariq
711
year
that
near Gibraltar,
a
name
that
immortalizes
his
own,
for
it is
is
a
near
his
immortalizes
Gibraltar,
own, for it
the
of the
the arabic
Jabal Tariq,
i.e. the
the
the anglicized
arabic Jabal
anglicized form of
Tariq, i.e.
Tariq. At first
the force
in
piracy
and
of Tariq.
first the
force indulged
in
mount of
and
indulged
piracy
terror far
highway robbery
robbery along
the coast,
coast, spreading
far and
and
along the
highway
spreading terror
unpopular King
King Roderick
Roderick gathered
gathered aa force
to
wide.
wide. The unpopular
force to
at Salado
battle took
took
oppose
the invaders,
a great
Salado a
invaders, and at
great battle
oppose the
and Roderick,
the
place.
in Tariq's
favour, and
Roderick, the
day went in
Tariq's favour,
place. The day
of
the
treachery
of
his
political
enemies,
was
victim
of
the
of
his
victim
treachery
political enemies,
slain.
by the
the knowledge
this success
slain. Emboldened by
success and by
by this
knowledge
that
the native
populations hated
hated their
their Gothic
rulers,
that the
native populations
Gothic rulers,
Tariq
conceived
the
bold
plan
of
marching
on
the
capital,
the
the
bold
of
conceived
plan
marching
capital,
Tariq
at
that time
time Toledo. The Jews
the
assisted the
at that
Jews welcomed and assisted
natural enough
revenge
for
their
long
perseinvaders,
a natural
for
their
invaders, a
revenge
enough
long persecution,
and their
their reward
reward came later
trade
later when Spanish
cution, and
Spanish trade
their
hands.
Cordova
fell
by
treachery,
passed
largely
into
fell
by treachery,
passed largely into their hands.
the
priesthood did
await the
the Moslems
did not
not await
the aristocracy
aristocracy and priesthood
only
one
serious
battle
to fight
but
to
serious
battle
had
but fled,
fled, and Tariq
fight
Tariq
only
during
his
triumphal
on
Toledo,
which
city,
march
which
his
Toledo,
city, again
again
triumphal
during
by
treacherous act,
threw open
gates to
to him.
its gates
him.
act, threw
open its
by treacherous
Tariq's
boldness
had,
by
one
lightning
stroke,
destroyed
one
boldness
stroke,
had,
destroyed
lightning
by
Tariq's
the
rule in
and
Musa,
lord
of
north
Africa,
of
north
lord
in Spain,
the Gothic
Gothic rule
Africa,
Musa,
Spain,
the
to
though
staggered
by
the
event,
was
quick
to
seize
the opopseize
the
event,
quick
though staggered by
adding Spain
to the
the caliphate
caliphate-despite
the
portunity
of adding
despite the
Spain to
portunity of
his
own
to
riches
caliph-and
incalculable
riches
to
his
purs,~'
He
incalculable
and
purse.
caliph
gathered
an army
year
thousand men and next year
of eighteen
eighteen thousand
gathered an
army of
head. Tariq's
at their
their head.
way had
himself
in Spain
himself landed
landed in
Tariq's way
Spain at

[99
[99]]

THE ARABS

been
the bold
bold and
the
of marching
one of
and dangerous
been the
marching through
through the
dangerous one
of the
the country
to the
the capital,
leaving great
very heart
forheart of
capital, leaving
great forcountry to
very
invited disaster,
disaster, for
in
tified
in his
his rear,
a plan
plan that
that invited
for in
cities in
tified cities
rear, a
normal
conditions his
retreat might
might well
well have been cut
off.
cut off.
his retreat
normal conditions
Musa followed
the more orthodox course
course of
of laying
followed the
laying siege
siege
to
places on his
his way.
way. Seville,
a former capital
fortified places
to all
all fortified
Seville, a
capital
and
the intellectual
intellectual centre
of Spain,
strongly garricentre of
and the
garriSpain, was strongly
and
stood
his
siege
for
many
months,
soned
for
his
other
stood
soned and
many months, and other
siege
cities
which the
the Goths were
were powerful
powerful stubbornly
recities in
in which
stubbornly reafter
and
after
two
years
of
sisted,
but
one
by
one
these
fell,
these
one
one
but
fell,
sisted,
years of
by
his
arduous
Musa,
too,
reached
his
objective,
reached
arduous campaigning
objective,
campaigning Musa, too,
of his
there was to
to disgrace
Tariq,
Toledo.
his first
first acts
acts there
Toledo. One of
disgrace Tariq,
whose brilliant
his jealousy,
jealousy, but
but within
within
brilliant success
success had aroused his
whose
at
the
hands
aa few
weeks he
he himself
to suffer
himself was to
suffer similarly
at
the
few weeks
hands
similarly
of
caliph
who
recalled
him
to
Damascus.
recalled
to
Damascus.
of an
an ungrateful
ungrateful caliph
The pacification
pacification of
to his
his successors,
but after
of Spain
fell to
after
successors, but
Spain fell
four
years Moslem hold
hold was already
sufficiently
consolifour years
consolialready sufficiently
the mountainous
mountainous
dated
the whole
whole country
for the
dated over
over the
country (except
(except for
strip
northern coast,
Asturias, which continued
to be
be
of northern
continued to
coast, Asturias,
strip of
to permit
permit of raids
raids over
the Pyrenees
aa Latin
principality) to
over the
Latin principality)
Pyrenees
In the
the north
the France of
the future
future was at
this
into
north the
into Gaul.
Gaul. In
of the
at this
time
the making,
making, but
but the
south was divided
up
into
petty
in the
the south
time in
divided up into petty
principalities perpetually
perpetually at
at war one
another. It
It was
one with
with another.
principalities
this disunity
that
gave
the
invaders'
this
among
the
Franks
the
that
the
invaders'
disunity among
gave
lust for
for plunder
plunder the
the necessary
necessary provocation
provocation and opporopporlust
Under
Samh,
fifth successor
of Musa,
these
the fifth
tunity.
successor of
Samh, the
tunity.
Musa, these
sporadic
raids gave
place to
to aa more ambitious
ambitious design.
sporadic raids
gave place
design.
Narbonne was captured
in A.D.
A.D. 720,
place that
a place
that served
served as
as
captured in
720, a
for more extended
and
in
which
the
a base
base for
extended operations
and
in
which the
operations
Arabs maintained
maintained aa footing
forty years.
years. But
But
for nearly
footing for
nearly forty
on Toulouse aa Moslem attack
battering rams
rams was
was
attack with
with battering
invaders being
the invaders
being weakened by
quarrels
easily
easily repelled,
repelled, the
by quarrels
between
between Arabs and Berbers.
Berbers.
[[100]
100 ]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST

CONQUEST-WESTWARDS
WESTWARDS
Emboldened, however,
however, by
by the
the internecine
internecine warfare
warfare in
in
Emboldened,
the small
small Frankish
Frankish states
states continued
continued to
to indulge,
indulge, aa
which the
Saracen
force
was
large
Saracen
force
assembled
by
Abdul
Rahman,
one
assembled
Abdul
large
Rahman, one
by
of
of Musa's successors,
successors, who now himself
himself crossed
crossed the
the PyrePyrenees
nees; Avignon
Avignon fell
fell in
in 730,
730, the
the march was continued
continued down
the
the Garonne,
Garonne, and Bordeaux was captured
captured-thence
the ininthence the
vaders
vaders turned
turned northeastwards,
northeastwards, with
with the
the rich
rich city
city of
of Tours
Tours
as their
their objective.
objective. But between Tours and
and Poitiers
Poitiers they
they
as
intercepted by
by an army
army of
of Franks
Franks under
under Charles
Charles
were intercepted
Martel, the
the grandfather
grandfather of
of Charlemagne,
Charlemagne, who had
had
Martel,
to resist
resist them.
them. The Saracens
were no
no match
match
marched south to
Saracens were
for the
the Franks on this
this occasion,
occasion, and after
after an
unequal
for
an unequal
they fled,
fled, abandoning
abandoning all
all their
their war stores.
stores.
contest
contest they
This battle
battle of Tours,
Tours, or
or Poitiers
Poitiers as
as it
it is
is sometimes
sometimes
called,
was
the
turning
point
of
Arab
fortunes,
marking
the
the turning point of
fortunes, marking the
called,
;

limit
penetration into
the conquest
of
into France.
of Arab penetration
France.11 If
If the
limit of
conquest of
Gaul was ever
ever contemplated,
which
is
doubtful,
the
ambiis
which
the
ambidoubtful,
contemplated,
tion was born
born of
tradition of
rather
of infallible
a tradition
infallible success
tion
of a
success rather
than of
a sober
of a
difficult situaa new and difficult
sober appreciation
situaof a
appreciation of
tion.
soldiers were of
of comparatively
tion. The Frankish soldiers
imcomparatively imperturbable
temper,
and
they
withstood
the
light
cavalry
withstood
the
light cavalry
they
perturbable temper,
of
the latter
latter had
a way
to which the
of the
in a
the volatile
volatile Saracens
Saracens in
way to
said that
not
that had
is sometimes heard said
not been
accustomed. It
It is
been accustomed.
would
the
have
swept
defeated Charles Martel they
the Arabs defeated
swept
they
to
the
through
Europe,
and
Islam
would
have
come
to
take
the
through Europe,
to the
place
the importance
of Christianity.
importance attached to
Christianity. But the
place of
battle
is
probably
exaggerated,
for
the
Arabs
is
battle of A.D. 732
732
probably exaggerated,
had by
after a century
shot their
their bolt
bolt after
this time
time shot
century of warby this
fare;
they
represented
but
a
tiny
fraction
fare they represented but a tiny fraction of the Moslems
in
in Spain,
the wars of
of expansion
thus the
really came to an
expansion really
Spain, and thus
forces.
the caliphate
end from the
of the
exhaustion of
inherent exhaustion
the inherent
caliphate forces.
;

in 717
1The defeat
the Arabs before
before Constantinople
of the
defeat of
Emperor
by the Emperor
717 by
Constantinople in
West
fortunes in the West.
Leo
setback to
to Arab fortunes
Lea III
first decisive
decisive setback
III was the
the .first

[[101]
101 ]

fell back on Narbonne,

After
After Tours they
Narbonne, and for the
they fell
occasional
following
seven
years
occasional
raids were made,
seven
made, the
following
years
most impressive
734 when the Rhone was
being that of 734
impressive being
and
Avignon
crossed,
Aries
sacked
Aries
recaptured. For twenty
crossed,
twenty
Avignon recaptured.
years
more
they
were
content,
however,
content, however, passively
passively to hold
they
years
in revolt and massacred
rose in
Narbonne,
till the
the Franks rose
Narbonne, till
if
But
if
France
was
no longer
their
their garrison.
longer to be mogarrison.
for
for
a
strip
of
coast
along
lested,
Spain,
except
lested, Spain, except
along the Bay
Bay of
strip
the caliph
a possession
Biscay,
caliph of DamasBiscay, had become a
possession of the
to abandon its
its
in
the
course
of
of
time
was
largely
cus,
and
in
the
course
cus,
largely to
of
the
faith
the teachings
Catholic faith and follow the
Catholic
teachings of the Arab
to turn many
into mosques.
its churches into
prophet and to
many of its
mosques.
prophet
outset Spain,
the
At the
with
Morroco,
formed
the
province
the outset
Morroco,
Spain,
province
the
of Maghrib,
of
whose
capital
was
at
Qairawan.
There
the
at
Qairawan.
capital
Maghrib,
the supreme
caliph's
caliph's representative
supreme governor,
representative was the
governor, and
left
to
to
left
to
a
subprefect
to
rule,
first
from Seville
Spain
was
first
Seville
rule,
Spain
subprefect
later from Cordova. The strong
individuality
and later
of the
the
strong individuality of
to make trouble
trouble for
for the
the Arabs. At home,
Berbers was soon to
home,
in north
these Berbers were a
a subject
in
north Africa,
people of
the
of the
Africa, these
subject people
condition
that
made
them
feel
that
feel
resentful;
whereas
Arabs,
a
condition
resentful
Arabs,
in
in Spain,
not only
only were they
they not
not aa subject
people, they
they were
were
Spain, not
subject people,
themselves
or at
least they
they had taken
taken aa
themselves the
the conquerors,
conquerors, or
at least
major part
part in
in the
the conquest.
conquest. All
All was well
well so
so long
long as
Berbers
as Berbers
major
and Arabs were actually
comactually engaged
engaged in
in pursuit
pursuit of
of some common advantage,
advantage, but
but once
once the
the objective
objective was secured
secured and
peace came about,
about, the
the Berbers
Berbers were
were in
in no
no mood to
to be
be
peace
treated
treated as
as less
less than equals.
equals. The arrogance
arrogance of
of some of
of the
the
officials
officials and soldiers
soldiers sent
sent from imperial
imperial Damascus was
more than they
of their
their dissatisfacdissatisfacthey would stand,
stand, and out
out of
tion
tion grew
grew large-scale
large-scale revolts.
revolts.
A rising
of Berbers
Berbers in
in Morocco in
in 741
741 was signalized
signalized
rising of
a
of
of
allegiance
to
Damascus,
and
the Arab
by
a
repudiation
to
and
the
Damascus,
by repudiation
allegiance
troops sent
sent to
to crush
crush it
it from Qairawan
Qairawan were
were themselves
themselves
troops
;

[ 102 ]
[102]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST-WESTWARDS

CONQUEST WESTWARDS
vanquished. Peace was restored,
but it
it was only
only aa temtemrestored, but
vanquished.
porary peace,
peace, and the
the events,
in any
any case,
case, were
were bound
bound to
to
events, in
porary
in Spain.
have serious repercussions
repercussions in
Another ominous
ominous
Spain. Another
feature was the declining
authority
of
the
Umaiyyad
of
the
declining authority
Umaiyyad
caliphs of Damascus themselves.
of their
prethemselves. The loss
loss of
their precaliphs
carious
in north
carious footing
north Africa and Spain
only aa quesfooting in
Spain was only
quesif the
tion of time,
time, for if
the Moors 22 were intolerant
intolerant of
of caliphate
caliphate
local Arab governors,
despotism the
the local
individualists that
that
despotism
governors, individualists
less ready
they
were, were not
not less
ready to
a means of
to seize
seize a
of realizing
they were,
realizing
their own personal
their
personal ambitions by
by becoming
becoming independent
independent
in A.D. 745,
rulers.
rulers. Tunis,
to throw off
its althe first
first to
aloff its
Tunis, in
745, was the
to Damascus;
Damascus; parts
parts of
legiance to
of Morocco followed;
then
followed; then
legiance
Spain
herself, within
years of
of Tariq's
conquest,
within thirty-five
thirty-five years
Spain herself,
Tariq's conquest,
the caliphate
repudiated the
as.serted her
her independence.
caliphate and asserted
repudiated
independence.
later a young
Ten years
years later
young Arab prince
prince who had fled
fled from
after the
Syria
to north Africa
Africa after
fall of
of his
his dynasty,
the
the fall
Syria to
dynasty, the
al Mu'awiya,
landed
in
Spain
and
famous Abdul Rahman al
in
landed
Mu'awiya,
Spain
was soon acclaimed its
its ruler.
ruler.
In the
the more backward territories
territories of
north Africa
Africa conIn
of north
conto
ditions
grew anarchic,
powerless
the caliph
was
ditions grew
anarchic, and the
caliph
powerless to
prevent
dissolution
of
his
dependencies
into
barbarous
dissolution
his
into
dependencies
prevent
robber states.
the time
time the
the Umaiyyad
Umaiyyad dynasty
dynasty was
states. Thus by
robber
by the
overthrown and the
of government
government shifted
shifted from
the centre
centre of
Damascus to
Baghdad, only
remained loyal,
to Baghdad,
Qairawan remained
loyal, and
only Qairawan
little
than
this final
African allegiance
had
little
than
more
become
final African
this
allegiance
nominal in
in A.D. 800 under the
Aghlabids. Though
the ruling
Though
ruling Aghlabids.
was
the territory
territory of
these Aghlabids
of
Qairawan
small,
of these
of
the
Qairawan
small,
Aghlabids
their
fleet
in
they
are
historically
notable
because
their
fleet
in
827-43
notable
because
are
82743
historically
they
the very
conquered Sicily
planted Islam at
at the
very
thus planted
conquered
Sicily and thus
threshold of
of the
the Papal
Papal See.
See.
threshold
in
"The word Moor,
Moor, clearly
to be identified
with the
the word Morocco,
Morocco, is
is in
identified with
clearly to
fact
a European
European term
term that
acquired the
the loose
usage for
for Spanish
Spanish Moslems
loose usage
that acquired
fact a
time they
doubtless by
whether of
or Berber
by this
this time
generally,
of Arab or
Berber ancestry;
they
ancestry; doubtless
generally, whether
intermixed.
were intermixed.

[[103]
!O3 ]

THE ARABS
From the
the moment the
the Arabs had established
established supremacy
supremacy
over
Byzantines at
the fate
the islands
the
islands of
of the
sea the
fate of
of the
at sea
the Byzantines
over the
Mediterranean
by one
one they
they passed
passed
Mediterranean was sealed,
sealed, and one by
into
hands. In
In the
the eastern
Mediterranean the
eastern Mediterranean
the first
first
into Moslem hands.
to
generation
of
Arab
newcomers
to
Syria
and
Egypt
raided
Syria
Egypt raided
generation of
the
the
Crete and Cyprus
of Rhodes,
islands of
the islands
Rhodes, Crete
Cyprus (holding
(holding the
last-named
intermittently for
for three
three and aa half
half centuries
centuries
last-named intermittently
till
conquered it
it during
during
Coeur de
till Richard
de Lion came and conquered
Richard Creur
the crusades)
Mediterranean the
the island
of
island of
the western
western Mediterranean
In the
the
crusades) . In
Pallentaria,
steppingstone between
between Africa
Africa and Sicily,
was
a steppingstone
Pallentaria, a
Sicily,
early
and Sardinia
plundered.
Sardinia were plundered.
Corsica and
occupied, and Corsica
early occupied,
It
the turn
turn of
been raided
raided from
next the
It was next
of Sicily.
Sicily had been
Sicily- Sicily
Egypt
as
early
as
the
middle
of
the
seventh
century,
but
as
the
the
seventh
of
as
middle
early
century, but
Egypt
the
remained loyal
loyal to
to the
the Byzantines
Byzantines till
till 826.
island remained
826. The
the island
Berbers
with aa sprinkling
of Arab chiefs
chiefs then
then obtained
a
obtained a
Berbers with
sprinkling of
footing
Palermo, spent
fifty years
years gradually
gradually reducing
reducing
in Palermo,
footing in
spent fifty
the western
western part
part of the
island and by
by 962
its
the island
its
the
had
become
962
had
invaded
at
about
the
same
time
masters.
Malta
at
the
invaded
about
masters. They
time
They
till I09I
as
were resident
another
ruled it
it till
as Sicily,
resident for
for another
Sicily, ruled
1091 and were
three
years, when they
they departed,
departed, leaving
three hundred and fifty
fifty years,
leaving
behind them their
their dialect
Arabic, which
which is
is the
the language
language
behind
dialect of
of Arabic,
of
the Maltese to
to this
this day.
of the
day.
these islands
north Africa
Africa Moslem
From these
islands and from north
pirates
ravaged
southern
Europe.
In
the
earliest
days Bersouthern
In
the
earliest
Berpirates ravaged
Europe.
days
bers
bers from Sicily
joined
with
others
from
Tunis
to
raid
the
with
others
Tunis
to
the
raid
Sicily joined
Italian
and
Italian coasts,
coasts,
the
pirates from here
here
the savage
savage Barbary
Barbary pirates
and elsewhere kept
kept up
the old
old activities.
allegiance
activities. Owing
up the
Owing allegiance
to
to none,
none, they
they were lured
lured by
by the
riches of
of seaports
the riches
and
seaports and
carried
off
monasteries,
they
carried
off
captive
women
and
church
and church
monasteries, they
captive
treasures, which,
which, according
to one Arab authority,
authority, were
were
treasures,
according to
idolatrous India for
sold to
to idolatrous
The
terror
which
their
for gold.
terror
which
their
gold.
swift visitations
visitations caused
swift
led to
to the
the building
caused in
in Italy
of
Italy led
building of
watchtowers along
the
between Naples
Naples and Palermo
Palermo
coast between
along the coast
.

104 ]
[[104]

ARAB WORLD CONQUEST-WESTWARDS

CONQUEST WESTWARDS
this day.
the Saracens
which stand to this
Saracens enlisted
as
enlisted as
day. Later on the
Italian state
state against
mercenaries of one Italian
another. On one
one
against another.
the Adriatic
such expedition
the
Adriatic and seized
seized the
expedition they
they reached the
in
roads.
the
Venetian
roads.
On
another
the
important
shipping
in
another
the
shipping
important
Bar! fell
of Bari
fell into
town of
into their
their hands,
its
hands, and,
and, recognizing
recognizing its
it
themselves
strategic
to keep
decided to
it
themselves
importance, they
strategic importance,
they decided
keep
it as a base for future
future operations.
and fortify
fortify it
operations.
sultans of
Ban threw off
The sultans
of Bari
off their
their allegiance
to Sicily
allegiance to
Sicily
a very
(where
different signifi(where Moslem occupation
occupation had a
very different
significivilization had begun
to flourish
cance,
flourish there)
and
cance, for civilization
begun to
there) and
lived by
their
lived
plundering
the
south,
their
onslaughts,
according
south,
by plundering
onslaughts, according
the most savage
to Western historians,
kind. But
historians, being
being of the
savage kind.
it was the fabulous treasures of Rome itself
itself that
it
that had long
long
attracted the Barbary
one
Africa, and one
Barbary pirates
pirates of north Africa,
in
the holy
find
summer morning
to find
840 the
morning in A.D. 840
holy city
city awoke to
its walls.
eleven hundred Saracens before its
eleven
swarmed
walls. They
They
St Peter and the
in to
in
to plunder
Cathedral of
of
the Cathedral
plunder the Church of St
of
St
to violate
violate the
the graves
of
pontiffs,
but
just
St Paul and to
but
as
graves
pontiffs,
just as
they re-embarked a violent
violent storm swallowed up
up their
their
they
on
and
man
board;
seventy-three
spoil-laden
ships
every
board;
seventy-three spoil-laden ships
every
authorities record,
so Christian
record, for
for the
the pirates
pirates themselves
themselves
so
Christian authorities
left no records
records of
of these
these
unlettered men who have left
were unlettered
times.
times.
Saracens' next
next step
step was to
to obtain
obtain a footing
footing on
The Saracens'
a
such
where
became
the
Calabrian
coast,
they
such
a menace
Calabrian
the
coast,
they
that the
the pope
pope of
of the
the time,
time, John
John VIII,
VIII, was compelled,
compelled, in
in
that
Their
of
,
87
to
pay
tribute
as
the
price
of
peace.
depredaas
tribute
the
to
8
depredaprice
peace.
pay
878,
lasted for
for another
another generation
generation until
until Pope
Pope John
John X
tions lasted
tions
Italian
soil.
from
Moslem
able to
to drive
drive the
the last
last
Italian soil. Moswas able
lems remained
remained in
in occupation
occupation of
of Sicily
Sicily for
for 200 years
years longer
longer
lems
the Normans came in
in 1091,
1091, while
while their
their occupation
occupation of
of
until the
until
later
in
the
Spain
continued
for
many
centuries,
though
in
the
later
for
many centuries, though
Spain continued
period their
their dominance
dominance gradually
gradually declined.
declined. The small
small
period

[105 ]
[105]

THE ARABS
in the
the north
Latin
north of the
the peninsula
peninsula grew
in
Latin kingdoms
grew in
kingdoms in
till
the
southwards
encroached
little
power and little
till the
little by
by little encroached
power
in 1492,
they were driven
final
of Moors in
final expulsion
1492, when they
expulsion of
back
Africa. The Spanish
back to
to Africa.
mosques were transformed
Spanish mosques
secret comcenturies more secret
two
into churches,
though
for
centuries
for
into
churches, though
munities
the Arab prophet
prophet till
till they,
faith of the
the faith
munities practised
they,
practised the
the
and
banished
too,
the
Moriscos,
were
banished
from
the
land,
the
land,
Moriscos,
too,
earlier
withit
But
it
was
the
earlier
withIslam faded
But
a memory.
into a
Islam
faded into
memory.
ninth century
drawal
the end of the ninth
drawal from Italy
century
Italy towards the
decline.
Saracenic decline.
that
that marked the
the beginning
beginning of Saracenic
to attain
attain the
power was never again
the
Arab military
again to
military power
after
the
centuries
eminence
it enjoyed
in those
those first
eminence it
first two centuries after the
enjoyed in
seventh and eighth
Prophet, the
the seventh
eighth centuries
centuries of our era,
era, when
Prophet,
their
the
the
their
dominion
from
the
Himalayas
the Arabs imposed
Himalayas
imposed
later activithe Pyrenees.
across
Asia and Africa
Africa to
to the
activiacross Asia
Pyrenees. The later
in the
the Mediterranean may
ties of
the Moslemized Berbers in
may
of the
ties
standards
of
warfare,
but
seem heinous,
judged by
standards
of
modern
but
heinous, judged
warfare,
by
regarded
as
legitiboth robbery
robbery and slavery
were
probably
as
both
legitiprobably regarded
slavery
mate by
by at
least some of
the maritime southern Europeans
Europeans
of the
at least
the injuries
of
the sum of
of the
the time,
of the
inflicted
time, and against
against the
injuries inflicted
the
the
the
set
of
the
Arab
era
by
the
conquests
must
be
set
the
splendour
be
era
conquests
splendour
by
the
that
when
a
civilization dawned upon
that followed,
a great
upon the
followed,
great civilization
Islamic world,
the seats
seats of
of the
Islamic
the eastern
eastern
world, and Iraq
Spain, the
Iraq and Spain,
with
links
and western
western caliphates
with
connecting
links
of
Egypt
of
caliphates
connecting
Egypt and
great
centres
of
learning.
Sicily,
became
centres
of
Sicily,
great
learning.
This splendour
beginnings, as
as we have
seen.
have seen.
splendour had modest beginnings,
in seventh-century
A tiny
revolution in
Arabia
sent
a
stream
sent
Arabia
a
stream
tiny revolution
seventh-century
of Arabs overrunning
of
the civilized
world. The ancient
civilized world.
ancient
overrunning the
infused
with
a
peoples
were
infused
with
a
quickening
influence,
the
old
peoples
quickening influence, the old
lifeblood
lifeblood invigorated
invigorated by
by aa young
pulsating
young and strongly
strongly pulsating
Islamic civilization
heart, and the
the Islamic
civilization came into
being. Thereinto being.
Thereheart,
after for
for four centuries
centuries or more,
after
more, while
Europe lay
while Europe
slumlay slumin the
the Middle Ages
immediately before
before her
bering in
her own
bering
Ages immediately

[[106]
I06]

ARDS
ARAB WORLD CONQUEST-WEST\V
CONQUEST WESTWARDS
it was the
Renaissance,
the Islamized
countries-under
Islamized countries
under Arab
Renaissance, it
that
outset
became
rulers
at
the
outset-that
pre-eminent
the earth
at
the
in the
earth
rulers
pre-eminent in
for
their learning,
their culture
their material
material prosprosculture and their
for their
learning, their
3
perity.a
perity.
s
8Although
Saracen is
is sometimes applied
applied to
to all
these Arab wars,
wars, it
a
all these
it is
is a
AIthough Saracen
for the
slovenly
European term for
of the
the early
early period
period generallythe Moslems of
generally
slovenly European
or whoever else.
else.
Arabs,
Arabs, Berbers or

[[107]
107J

Part: Tvvo
Part
Two

CIVILIZATION

ARAB CIVILIZATION

CHAPTER V
State and Its
The Medieval State
Its Society
Society

T
T.iE

poured out
JLHJ
.HE original
out of
of Arabia
Arabia
original Arab warriors who poured
after
immediately after the
the Prophet's
Prophet's death were for
the most
for the
immediately
unlettered and semibarbarous men. They
part unlettered
They were
on aa
were on
part
lower cultural
cultural level
level than
than the
the peoples
peoples they
they overcame,
overcame, the
the
peoples
of
Egypt,
Mesopotamia
and
Persia
in
particular,
in
Persia
Egypt, Mesopotamia
peoples
particular,
ancient civilizations-however
civilizations
however much
each of them heirs
heirs of ancient
then
in decay.
If they
rest on their
at first
first rest
laurels as
as
then in
their laurels
could at
decay. If
they could
their
themtheir
descendants
adapt
themconquering
invaders
invaders
descendants
must
adapt
conquering
to justify
to their
their new world in
justify ascendancy
selves
selves to
in order to
ascendancy
among
themselves. That
cultured than themselves.
among communities more cultured
the
learning was perhaps
perhaps an advantage,
the newcomers had no learning
advantage,
for the
for
it entailed
the lands they
they
for it
entailed a
a minimum of
disturbance for
of disturbance
occupied-local
instance, went on
for instance,
administrations, for
occupied local administrations,
a
they did
before. The Arabs were not
not imposing
as they
much as
did before.
imposing a
They had none to
to impose.
impose. What time
time had
new civilization.
civilization. They
in
to do was to
invigorate the scattered
to invigorate
in store
store for
for them to
life and
then in
decline and give
civilizations
in decline
civilizations then
give them a new life
character
their own.
character of their
reif we reTha
revolution is
is most easily
Thatt revolution
easily understood if
[ II I ]
cm]

THE ARABS
member
brought out
of Arabia with them
out of
it was they
member what it
they brought
that made for
to
world, the
the factors
factors that
for
distracted world,
and distracted
to a
a tired
tired and
extension
of their
their dominion
to the
the recognition
led to
of
dominion and
and led
extension of
recognition of
in
first
the
their
nations.
The
Arabs,
in
the
first
place,
nations.
their eminence
eminence among
Arabs,
place,
among
a great
were the
mighty influences:
religion
influences a
of two mighty
source of
the source
were
great religion
and
great language
language; the
one aa creed,
rational and
the one
and a
a great
creed, simple,
simple, rational
in
democratic, that
that proved
capable
inspiring
of inspiring
in essence
essence democratic,
proved capable of
world
supernational
loyalties
and
growing
to
dimensions;
to
and
dimensions
growing
supernational loyalties
it was fitted
the other
a tongue
tongue so
and flexible
to
that it
flexible that
so rich
rich and
fitted to
the
other a
become
classical as
well as
the religious
religious
as well
as the
become the
the scientific
scientific and classical
as Latin
idiom
an empire,
in much the
the same way
Latin served
served
idiom of
of an
way as
empire, in
for
medieval Europe.
But it
took time
time for
for these
these influences
influences
it took
for medieval
Europe. But
to pervade
the
earlier
cultures
and
then
prevail
within
then
earlier
to
cultures
within
the
prevail
pervade
them. The first
rude warriors
warriors spent
itself
to
of rude
them.
first wave of
itself
to
spent
different
ends.
Khalid
and
these
original
conKhalid
Amr
these
Under
different ends.
original conquerors
were largely
the generation
generation that
that saw
saw
of the
Beduin, of
querors were
largely Beduin,
birth.
The
the new religion's
birth.
majority
could
only
just
have
could
the
have
religion's
majority
only just
to the
movement, aa great
great many
from
given
adherence to
the new movement,
given adherence
many from
expediency,
though others,
course, from honest
conof course,
honest conothers, of
expediency, though
first raids
viction, but,
but, as
the first
raids showed,
animated
as the
were
animated
viction,
showed, they
they
chiefly
by the
the hope
hope of
material condition,
of improving
their material
condition,
chiefly by
improving their
rather than
with zeal
to share
with others
a comzeal to
than aflame
aflame with
rather
share with
others a
common salvation.
is the
the message
the Caliph
salvation. Illuminating
of the
Illuminating is
message of
Caliph
to a
a distant
Omar to
distant expedition.
and tribute,'
he
'Pacification and
tribute,' he
expedition. 'Pacification
to
be
remonstrated,
'are
to
be
preferred
to
loot
that
soon
passes
'are
to
loot
that
soon
remonstrated,
preferred
passes
away.'
away.'
The all-conquering
were in
in the
the first
first place
and for
for
all-conquering Arabs were
place and
the
the most part
part hungry,
hungry, brave
brave and
and ruthless
ruthless warriors.
warriors. Their
Their
the psychology
psychology
psychology of
Deserta: they
they
of Arabia
Arabia Deserta
psychology was the
inherited a
a belief
in force;
inherited
belief in
they had been
been reared
reared in
in an
an enenforce; they
force was necessary
vironment where force
necessary and
and therefore
therefore acacsocial
quired
social
justification;
they
were
by
conviction
as
by
were
conviction
as
quired
justification; they
by
by
nature
militant
and
nature manly,
manly, militant
aggressive, and
and the
the immediate
immediate
aggressive,
:

[ I I2]
[112]

THE MEDIEVAL STATE

first easy
and dazzling
dazzling rewards of their
their first
easy conquests
conquests not
not only
only
this
secular
fixed
them
in
its
ways.
It
justified
this
secular
creed,
but
but
fixed
in its ways. It
creed,
justified
was fitting,
that the
the first
the Arabs
Arabs adapted
first coin
coin the
fitting, perhaps,
perhaps, that
adapted
from the
the Byzantines,
Byzantines, about aa half
century later
later (A.H.
70),
half century
( A.H. 70)
it
should bear
bear the
the design
it
did,
in
place
of
a
Byzantine
and
in
did,
design
place of a Byzantine
in hand,
-emperor,
staff in
holding aa sword.
a caliph
sword.
hand, we have a
emperor, staff
caliph holding
In
In Arabia they
they had been
been ranged
ranged tribe
tribe against
tribe;
against tribe;
would
at
first
think
at
first
think
of
themselves
as
fightthey
naturally
of
themselves
as
they
naturally
fighting under
under aa supertribal
banner, the
enemy being
being the
tribes
the enemy
the tribes
supertribal banner,
ing
outside their
to be
be
outside
their own allegiance
therefore to
allegiance and meet therefore
The
spoiled.
Arab
tribe,
before
its
recent
allegiance
to
the
before
its
recent
the
to
tribe,
spoiled.
allegiance
larger unit,
of aa clan
new larger
out of
basis was
clan whose basis
unit, had grown
grown out
to a
a member of
tribe from
blood kinship.
kinship. Injury
blood
of a
a tribe
Injury done to
as
injury
done
to
the
tribe
as
aa whole,
outside
as
outside was regarded
to
tribe
the
as
whole,
regarded
injury
and any
the tribe
tribe could
could avenge
avenge it
it; so,
so, too,
the
any member of the
too, the
offender need not
not be
be the
the target;
target; any
any other
original
other memoriginal offender
ber of
of his
his tribe
tribe would do equally
well
for
the
purpose of
ber
well
for
the
of
equally
purpose
the
revenge.
Such
usage
had
the
sanction
of
pracimmemorial
sanction
of
revenge.
usage
practice
tribal Arabia to
this day
day in
in spite
endures in
in tribal
to this
tice and endures
of the
the
spite of
Prophet's reforms.
reforms.
Prophet's
The immediate revolution
revolution that
wroughtthat Muhammad wrought
later
to grow
into
a
great
practical
brotherhood-was
the
brotherhood
was the
later to
a
grow into great practical
basis was not
not
creation, in
in effect,
a supertribe
of a
creation,
effect, of
supertribe whose basis
sanctions
blood kinship
kinship but
but aa religious
faith,
sanctions
were
whose
blood
faith,
religious
loyalties must outweigh
those
revealed
by God and whose loyalties
revealed by
outweigh those
alleof either
either kin
kin or
the new alleor tribe.
tribe. Those who embraced the
of
a
giance
became
of
this
supertribe,
a
chosen
people
chosen
of
this
became
members
people
supertribe,
giance
another.
not to
to injure
but to
to assist
one another.
sworn not
assist and succour
succour one
injure but
the
had
been
condemned
by
the
Prophet,
Aggression
been
by
Prophet, and
Aggression
Western
believe that
he planned
planned or even
that he
not believe
authorities do not
Western authorities
of
wars
of
conquest
foresaw
the century
of
of
wars
foresaw the
conquest which immedicentury
But
if
the
early raiding
raiding parties
ately
followed
his
death.
the
if
death.
followed
his
parties
early
ately
of
worldly minded the
the caliphs
were tribally
were
caliphs of
tribally minded and worldly
,

[ II3 ]

THE ARABS
sent on their
Medina
their heels
heels
were pious
Medina were
good men who sent
pious and good
influence
the
of the Prophet's
others
the influence of
under the
others who had come under
Prophet's
character
recreligious
teachings,
Arabs
of
high
character
and
moral
recof
high
teachings,
religious
of
them
men
of
the
settlements
doubtless,
so
titude,
most
the
settlements
of
so
most
of
doubtless,
titude,
the
that
the
seed
of
the
religious
movement
was
sown
in
the
in
the
that the seed of
religious
course of time came to
outside
in the
to a
the course
a
world and in
outside Arab world
splendid
fruition.
fruition.
splendid
till then,'
'In
of the
the world,
the whole history
In the
world, till
then,* says
says Marhistory of
'the
maduke Pickthall,
a
convert
to
Islam,
'the
conquered
Pickthall, a convert to Islam,
conquered had
been
of the
the conqueror,
the mercy
at the
matter
been absolutely
conqueror, no matter
mercy of
absolutely at
how complete
his
submission
might
be,
matter
though
no
his
submission
be,
might
though
complete
the conqueror.
he
be of
of the
as the
the same religion
is
he might
religion as
conqueror. That is
might be
it is
still
of war outside
outside Islam.
Islam. But it
is not the
the Isstill the
the theory
Istheory of
lamic
to the
the Moslem Laws of
of War,
lamic theory.
War,
According to
theory. According
those
peoples
who
embraced
Islam
bethe conquered
of the
those of
Islam
beconquered peoples
all respects.
came the
the equals
conquerors in
in all
respects. And those
those
of the
the conquerors
equals of
their own religion
keep their
to pay
pay aa tribute
chose to
to keep
tribute
who chose
religion had to
for
cost of
of their
their defence,
that enjoyed
after that
for the
the cost
full
defence, but after
enjoyed full
liberty
of
conscience
and
secured
and
protected
conscience
were
secured
of
in
liberty
protected in
10 *
their occupations.'lo*
their
occupations.'
so among
among these
these diverse
diverse peoples
peoples across
across western
western Asia
Asia
And so
and north
north Africa
Africa burst
burst this
this new conqueror.
conqueror. In
In many
many of
of
a
these
these lands
lands a wide gulf
divided the
the alien
alien nobility
nobility from
gulf had divided
the
the native
native populations.
populations. The social
social structure
been one
one
structure had been
in
in which
which luxury
luxury and culture
culture flourished
flourished at
at the
the top
top; below,
below,
the
the common herd were in
in aa condition
condition not
not much above serfserfdom. The Arab invaders,
invaders, unlettered
unlettered men,
men, no
no lovers
lovers of
of
luxury, innately
innately democratic,
democratic, were strangers
strangers to
to such
such ininluxury,
equalities. The religion
religion brought
brought by
by them inveighed
inveighed against
against
equalities.
colour
or
colour or race
race prejudice,
prejudice, taught
taught human equality
equality and
and human
brotherhood.
brotherhood. Servility
Servility was foreign
foreign to
to the
the nature
nature of
of the
the
man of
of the
the deserts.
deserts. His coming
coming introduced
introduced to
to the
the subject
subject
peoples aa sense
sense of
of release
release from servitude.
servitude. If
If the
the Arabs
Arabs had
had
peoples
4

[ 114]

THE MEDIEVAL
~lEDIEYAL STATE
much to learn,
those they
they conquered,
conquered, they
they
learn, culturally,
culturally, from those
an example
of
had an
human
worth
to
set
to set forth,
it was
example of
forth, and it
this
as military
this that
that led
led to
to the acceptance,
military
acceptance, as

prowess led
to
led to
prowess

the
their dominion. Hence these
the extension,
these scattered
scattered
extension, of their
one
came
peoples
by
one
to
be
swallowed
up
in
aa superin
by
peoples
up
supernational
state.
national state.

Moslem community
The small lYIoslem
a supertribe
community grew
grew from a
supertribe
a superstate
to a
of Moslems within Arabia to
of
mixed races
races
superstate
and religions
religions without.
without.
at first
The leader of the supertribe
lVluhammad,
first Muhammad,
supertribe was at
in theory
its creator.
alone
God
alone
ruled
the
community
its
creator. But in
ruled
the
theory
community
his
through
his
divinely
revealed
ordinances
delivered
through
delivered
divinely
through
through
the Prophet's
the
Prophet's lips,
the Prophet
Prophet died
Allah's
died Allah's
lips, and when the
in
the
guidance
was
stored
up
in
the
Prophet's
ordinances
and
ordinances
up
Prophet's
guidance
the
traditions. The Prophet's
Prophet's successor,
the
caliph,
according
traditions.
successor,
caliph, according
to original
to
intention, was not
not to
to be
be aa ruler
ruler over
people,
his people,
over his
original intention,
a pontiff,
for all
all believers
not aa sovereign,
pontiff, for
not
believers were
not even a
sovereign, not
inequal.
Prophet, to
to insuccessor of
of the Prophet,
merely a successor
equal. He was merely
the
administer
between
Mosterpret
the
holy
law
and
administer
justice
between
1\fosjustice
holy
terpret
faithful. It
lems, merely
merely a commander of the
the faithful.
It was a theotheolems,
in which the
the nominal head,
cratic
the caliph,
cratic state
state in
head, the
caliph, must
tribal
shaikh
could not,
guide,
not
by
personal
caprice
(the
tribal
shaikh
could
not,
guide,
by personal caprice (the
not even by
by personal
personal right,
right, but
but in
in aceither,
of course),
aceither, of
course), not
cordance
the laws of
revealed,
and
the
of God already
cordance with
with the
revealed,
already
so long
as he kept
faithful must obey
the caliph
faithful
only so
kept within
long as
obey the
caliph only
the
bounds
set
by
the
Qur'anic
ordinances.
the
set by the Qur'anic ordinances.
In this
this community,
rights of intertribal
intertribal rereIn
community, wherein rights
individual
venge
were
surrendered,
an
offence
against
an
individual
offence
surrendered,
against
venge
to be
by the
the offender
himself, though
though the
the comoffender himself,
was to
be expiated
expiated by
interested that justice
munity, as
religious duty,
justice
as by
duty, were interested
munity,
by religious
should
be done.
done.
should be
N ow the
the Qur'
an contained
rulings which had
Now
contained legal
Qur'an
legal rulings
situations and
been revealed
revealed to
a great
to meet a
variety of situations
great variety

[ lI5]

THE ARABS
needs.
may well
well have been not
not very
very
of the
the sanctions
sanctions may
needs. Some of
of
tribe
the
the
usages of
Quraish, the
different from the
of the tribe of Quraish,
the usages
different
case they
of Mecca,
in which case
Prophet's
tribe of
settled tribe
Mecca, in
they
Prophet's own settled
to
Arab
the
must have
have been
suited
to
the
early
urban
suited
been admirably
must
early
admirably
that sprang
up around the
the great
military
communities
communities that
great military
sprang up
offshoots of
camps of
of Basrah,
Fustat, etc.,
of aa similar
similar
etc., offshoots
Basrah, Kufa,
Kufa, Fustat,
camps
for instance,
suffer his
social
his ofofculture. The thief,
social culture.
instance, must suffer
thief, for
The
underlying
principle
fending
to
be
cut
off.
off.
to
of
hand
be
cut
underlying principle of
fending
this law was the
the principle
principle of
retaliation or
or reciprocity,
reciprocity,
of retaliation
this
a
tooth
for
an
eye
and
a
tooth
for
a tooth.
tooth.
the principle
principle of
of an eye
for
the
eye
eye
old
Semitic
The taUo
was, of
an
old
Semitic
conception
of
the
of course,
of
the
talio was,
course,
conception
in
Under
Jewish
code,
a
conception
quite
Arabian
in
spirit.
a
spirit.
Jewish code,
conception quite
to go
Islam
there was no
no permission
go beyond
beyond the
the measure
Islam there
permission to
of the
be equitable
retaliation,
criminal's own deed:
it must be
of
the criminal's
deed it
equitable retaliation,
of
of
punishment.
and religion
religion forbade
an
example
an
forbade making
punishment.
example
making
kindliness
Moreover it
it was a
in him who showed kindliness
merit in
a merit
and forgave
the
offender.
the
offender.
forgave
Shari' a, or
the Code of
of Sanctions
or the
the Islamic
Islamic law,
Sanctions
law, was the
Shari'a,
collated from the
part of
the divine
revelacollated
the Qur'an.
of the
divine revelaQur'an. As part
tions, law and religion
were thus
complementary, and so
thus complementary,
so
tions,
religion were
to
infringe
religious
ordinance.
It
to disobey
Shari'a
to
was
Shari'a
to
It
ordinance.
disobey
infringe religious
specified
conditions,
for
instance,
about
marriage
and
for
instance, about marriage and
specified conditions,
divorce, laid
laid down how family
must be
be diinheritances must
didivorce,
family inheritances
of
private
property
those
of
vided, limited
limited the
the rights
and
those
of
vided,
rights
private property
individuals
contracts,
forbade
usury,
defined
the
individuals making
forbade
defined
the
making contracts,
usury,
of husbands
husbands and wives,
wives, of
of masters
rights of
masters and slaves
slaves and
of
and of
rights
parents and daughters.
laws, whether
whether or
or not
not revealed
revealed
daughters. Such laws,
parents
for specific
of general
for
validity of
the validity
divine
cases, acquired
specific cases,
acquired the
general divine
ordinance. They
were
applied
by
orthodox
Moslem
comordinance.
orthodox
comThey
applied by
munities
as now.
munities then
then as
now.
collation of the
The first
first collation
Qur'an was not
not made before
before
the Qur'an
Bakr's day,
and
for
a
long
time
afterthe Caliph
Caliph Abu Bakr's
for
a
aftertime
day,
long
wards the
lack
the lack of literacy
the slowness
slowness of
of bookbookliteracy and the
:

[[116]
II6]

THE MEDIEVAL STATE

restricted the dissemination
dissemination of the
copying
the written
written word,
word,
copying restricted
the
verses
the
the
verses
of
the
Qur'an
by
though
learning
a
heart was a
Qur'an by heart
though learning
those first
first two or
passion with
with the pious.
pious. Now during
or three
three
during those
passion
the Arabs were overrunning
overrunning Egypt,
Syria,
decades while the
Egypt, Syria,
cultures that
Iraq
Persia, brushing
that were
were difdifbrushing against
against cultures
Iraq and Persia,
ferent from and more complex
ferent
complex than
than their
their own,
the leaders
leaders
own, the
came to
to be
be confronted with
with problems,
problems, political
political and social,
social,
for which they
they could remember no specific
specific scriptural
scriptural guidguidthey were thrown back
back. on their
their private
private judgjudgances,
ances, and they
ment.
the Arab conquerors,
Time passed,
passed, and the
acconquerors, growing
growing actheir position
customed to
to their
of
in
dominance
position of
in the
the community,
community,
came to regard
not
not unnaturally
regard life
life through
through different
different eyes.
unnaturally carne
eyes.
deserts their
their social
social structure
structure had been simple
In
In the
the deserts
and
simple and
as
Arabia
known
homogeneous.
Such
aristocracy
as
Arabia
had
homogeneous.
aristocracy
in the
families in
tribes and the
the shaikhly
the tribes
comprised the
the rich
rich
comprised
shaikhly families
settlements. Ancestry
merchant class
class of the
the settlements.
in
the
one
case,
one
the
in
case,
Ancestry
in the
patronage in
the other,
indiwealth and patronage
exalted certain
certain indiother, exalted
small attention
in spirit
social
the Arab paid
paid small
to social
viduals,
attention to
viduals, but in
spirit the
natural and easy
of
refinements;
his was aa natural
refinements; his
easy assumption
assumption of
to
rated
freeequality;
he
grovelled
to
none
and
rated
personal
freehe
equality;
grovelled
personal
dom over
things; it
it was sufficiently
all things;
aristocratic for
for
over all
sufficiently aristocratic
to be
be aa worthy
tribe, and the
him to
scion of an ancient
ancient tribe,
the only
worthy scion
only
bards
felt
felt
reverence
for
were
bards
individuals he instinctively
individuals
reverence
instinctively
and warriors
warriors of
of renown.
its depressed
class of course;
indeed,
His world had its
course; indeed,
depressed class
there were two clearly
clearly marked (and
there
enough)
(and rightly
rightly enough)
classes
classes in
slaves. Muhamin his
of life:
life freemen and slaves.
his scheme of
followdistinctions
mad had discouraged
class
distinctions
among
his followamong his
discouraged class
to
claims to
ers. Islam,
Arabia, frowned on human claims
ers.
Islam, within
within Arabia,
superiority.
It
counted
the
lowly
equal
with
the
great,
the
with
the
It
counted
great,
lowly equal
superiority.
the only
recognized goodness
of superiority.
It
criterion of
as the
superiority. It
goodness as
recognized
only criterion
this reflected
in this
was essentially
temper and in
reflected
in temper
democratic in
essentially democratic
:

[ 117]

THE ARABS
the desert.
the spirit
of the
first caliph,
desert. Had not the
the first
the
indeed,
spirit of
caliph, indeed,
to
the
the
gone
to
the
lengths
of
dividing
the
spoils
of the
the raid
raid
spoils of
lengths
dividing
gone
equally
between young
young and old,
slave and free,
and
free, male and
old, slave
equally between
female,
for were not
believers brothers
brothers?? Had not
not the
all believers
not all
the
female, for
in coarse
coarse linen
second
linen and sandals
sandals of
clothed himself
second clothed
himself in
of
fibre;
he not on that
that historic
historic visit
visit to
to Jerusalem
refibre had he
to reJerusalem to
ceive
its surrender
surrender entered
walking, while
while at
his
entered the
the city
at his
ceive its
city walking,
side
his servant
rode the
that they
they had shared
bethe horse that
side his
servant rode
shared between them turn
turn by
turn, on the
the journey
journey thither?
thither?
by turn,
since the
Thirty years
years had passed
the Prophet's
Prophet's death.
death. They
Thirty
passed since
They
The
thirty years
years of continuous
purely
continuous fighting.
were thirty
fighting.
purely Arab
and Moslem theocracy
theocracy of
grown to
to become
of Arabia had grown
a political
political state
religions and peoples.
peoples. Medina
state of
a
of many
many religions
old
had been
been superseded
by
Damascus.
The
old
ideological conDamascus*
had
conideological
superseded by
of
as
of
ception
of
the
caliph
as
the
interpreter
of
holy
law
in
aa
the
the
in
interpreter
holy
caliph
ception,
theocratic state,
state, holding
office in
in virtue
virtue of
of great
his office
theocratic
great piety,
holding his
piety,
rule
had now given
given place
place to
the
rule
of
the
sword,
aa
to kingship,
the
the
of
sword,
kingship,
the
hereditary
dynasty.
Damascus,
now
the
capital
of
an
emof
capital
hereditary dynasty. Damascus,
pire predominantly
predominantly non-Moslem,
non-Moslem, brought
brought personal
personal rule
rule
pire
and political
political expediency.
misgivings the
the truly
expediency. Whatever misgivings
truly
orthodox felt,
they were powerless
powerless to
to prevent
prevent what had
felt, they
about by
by the
of growth.
the inexorable
inexorable compulsion
come about
compulsion of
growth. When
Islam had been aa small,
self-contained
Islam
small, homogeneous,
homogeneous, self-contained
Arabian community
the
Prophet
himself,
or an early
Arabian
the
or
himself,
community
Prophet
early
been
had
it
its
caliph,
been
able
to
control
it
as
its
judge
able
as
to
control
caliph,
judge and guide,
guide,
but
but the
the ever-widening
horizons of
a vast
vast empire
empire and the
of a
the
ever-widening horizons
increasing
its affairs
affairs led
inevitably to
to aa
led inevitably
of its
complexities of
increasing complexities
devolution of
devolution
military leaders
leaders and
and governors
governors of
of
of powers
to military
powers to
provinces,
problems
doubtless
called
more
for
whose
doubtless
called
for
provinces,
problems
statecraft
than for
theology. It
for temporal
statecraft than
for theology.
It was an age
temporal
age for
rulers rather
rather than
than for
spiritual guides.
guides.
for spiritual
rulers
The Arabs were engaged
in world
world war,
ever conquering,
war, ever
engaged in
conquering,
ever advancing.
heaven may
may condemn
advancing. However much heaven
;

[[118]
lI8 ]

THE MEDIEVAL STATE

aggression
proclaim equality
of peoples
peoples before
before God,
aggression or proclaim
equality of
God,
have
been
there could
no doubt
doubt in
in the
the minds
minds of
of men,
men,
victors and vanquished
vanquished alike,
Arab racial
victors
about Arab
racial prealike, about
prein that
eminence
that century
eminence in
of triumphant
triumphant ascendancy.
century of
ascendancy.
as yet
Across
Across aa world as
yet minority-Arab
minority-lVloslem
and minority-Moslem
minority-Arab and
of Arab military
ran aa network of
military garrisons,
garrisons, and
and peoples
of
peoples of
all nations
nations and languages
acknowledged
the
Arab
all
the
Arab
languages acknowledged
these garrisons
of holy
law
sceptre. Within these
the ordinances
ordinances of
sceptre.
garrisons the
holy law
were observed. Outside them the
Arabs with
with aa wide
wide tolerathe Arabs
toleration
the subject
peoples to
to continue
continu~ their
tion allowed
allowed the
their own
subject peoples
their own sanctions.
legal usages,
usages, practise
practise their
sanctions. The 'people
of
legal
'people of
that
book'
is
to
those
the
book'-that
is
to
say,
those
having
scriptures,
namely
the
say,
having scriptures, namely
Christians and,
for some less
Jews, Christians
less clear
clear reason,
reason, starstarand, for
Jews,
Sabians-were
absolutely
free
to
practise
worshipping
Sabians
were
free
to
worshipping
absolutely
practise
to the
their
religions subject
the two
two special
special forms
their own religions
forms
subject only
only to
a land
tax and a
of tribute,
land tax.
tax. It
It was the
the exception
of
tribute, a poll
poll tax
exception
rule for
for them to
to be
not the
the rule
be subjected
subjected by
by an occasional
and not
occasional
of Damascus to
to disabilities
intolerant
disabilities
intolerant and harsh caliph
caliph of
of
Omar
II
such
as
the
restrictive
ordinances
ordinances
of
II which
which we
such as the restrictive
have noticed.
noticed.
term 'Christian',
Still
to attach
a stigma
attach to
to the
Still a
the term
'Christian',
stigma came to
not
N
asrani,
i.e.
Nazarene,
which
has
not
wholly
disappeared
i.e.
has
Nazarene,
wholly disappeared
Nasrani,
in much the
the same way
from some Moslem lands
this day,
lands to
to this
day, in
way
a contemptuous
that
the term
term Jew
sound
among
once had a
that the
Jew once
among
contemptuous
ways, however,
however, the
Christian
the Arabs
other ways,
societies. In
In other
Christian societies.
a broad
broad toleration.
toleration. They
showed what was for
those days
for those
They
days a
did not
psed no
no terrorism
terrorism in
proselytizing. They
not
in their
their proselytizing.
used
They did
at
that
compel
apostasy
to
Islam,
whereas,
by
contrast,
at
that
to
contrast,
Islam, whereas, by
compel apostasy
._._very
very time
time the
the Christian
church was compelling
compelling Jews
Jews to
to
Christian church
apostatize in
dire penalties.
penalties.
in Spain
under dire
Spain under
apostatize
the Umaiyyad
It
doubtful if
many of
of the
Umaiyyad provincial
provincial
if many
is doubtful
It is
the
of
of
the
subject
governors
really
desired
conversion
conversion
desired
peosubject peogovernors really
as
as well
convenient docility
docility as
well as
ples, for
loss of
of a
a convenient
for it
it meant loss
ples,

[[119]
II9]

THE ARABS
taxes
loss of taxes
loss

their garrisons.
to support
which went to
garrisons. One
support their
to have put
indeed
of
Khorasan
is
governor
of
is
indeed
known
to
put
governor
in the
his pious
obstacles
the way
pious caliph
recalled.
obstacles in
caliph and was recalled.
way of his
his
at
but
The religious
religious ends were achieved by
his
successor
but at
by
of
the
of
a
weakened
garrison,
and
when
taxes
taxes
the expense
garrison,
expense
rebellion which lost
lost
came to
to be
be reimposed
reimposed brought
brought on aa rebellion
to the
for many
Trans-Oxiana to
the Arabs for
many years.
years.
The general
persecution by
by the
the
absence of religious
religious persecution
general absence
what
Arabs,
is well
well shown by
by
happened in
in
Arabs, however,
however, is
happened
the Umaiyyad
Egypt. At the
the end of the
period the
the population
population
Umaiyyad period
Egypt.
for nearly
of
Egypt, then
then Arab-ruled
Arab-ruled for
nearly aa century,
century,
of Lower Egypt,
was still
predominantly Christian,
and
five
years
still predominantly
five
hundred
Christian,
years
Persia
passed before
in aa majority.
before the
the Moslems were in
majority. Persia
passed
Persians
As
fire
the
afforded yet
were
afforded
another
example.
the
Persians
fire
example.
yet
the
were
book
worshippers,
they
not
people
of
the
and,
and,
worshippers, they
people
to keep
entitled to
lands on
strictly
not entitled
their lands
strictly speaking,
speaking, were not
keep their
the tributary
laid down for
for Jews
the
tributary terms Muhammad had laid
Jews
and Christians,
or
indeed
to
practise
their
faith.
in
indeed
their
faith.
But
in
to
Christians,
practise
little
practice
they
fared
little
worse
for
their
obduracy.
True
for their obduracy.
practice they fared
suffered the
there were instances
confiscathere
instances where Persians
Persians suffered
the confiscation
their properties
of their
an exceptional
tion of
properties-an
thing
to
happen
to
exceptional thing
happen
of Omar's liberal
in
the light
light of
land decrees-but
that was
in the
liberal land
decrees
but that
as punishment
as
by military
military commanders where they
they had
punishment by
too
too stubbornly
resisted the
the invaders,
such escheated
escheated
invaders, and such
stubbornly resisted
lands
lands were administered
administered for
for the
the common good.
good.
or Moslem communities
the purely
purely Arab or
the
Within the
communities the
theocratic sanctions
those observed.
sanctions were those
theocratic
In Islam
Islam 'reobserved. In
'reis the
the law and the
is religion.
ligion
the law is
religion.' When purely
purely
ligion is
is
there
no
other
practised
there
is
other
law,
for
all
law
derives
for
all
derives from
law,
practised
religious
principles, based
based on religious
texts. But these
these
religious principles,
religious texts.
were not
not narrowly
narrowly conceived
in those
those early
centuries.
conceived of
of in
centuries,
early
indeed, great
great jurists
jurists
when the
the Arabs were in
in the
the ascendant;
ascendant indeed,
were to
to arise
the law
law aa liberal
liberal interpretation,
interpretation,
arise and give
give the
5

[120
[120]]

THE MEDIEVAL STATE

leading
be aa judge
judge in
to wide development.
in the
the Moslem
leading to
development. To be
community
of the
the Qur'an
was the
first
the first
Qur'an was
community a deep
deep study
study of
requisite,
that the
the judge
judge or
or qadhi
qadhi-aa term
term familiar
to
so that
familiar to
requisite, so
the reader
reader of The Arabian Nights
Nights-was
therefore origiorigithe
was therefore
of religion,
though his
office was not
not in
nally aa man of
his office
in itself
itself
religion, though
nally
aa holy
one, for
for Islam has
has no priests,
priests, no
no hierarchy,
no
holy one,
hierarchy, no
consecration
for sacred
duties. Such
been
consecration for
sacred duties.
Such officials
officials had
had been
first sent
first
by the
the Caliph
the military
military camps,
sent off
off by
to the
Caliph Omar to
camps,
in
times qadhis
sent to
to the
camps of
in later
later times
the camps
of Qairawan
Qairawan
qadhis were sent
in
north Africa
Africa and away
away beyond
beyond the
the Oxus
Oxus to
to Bokhara
Bokhara
in north
were
and Samarkand. They
not
limited
to
purely
magisto
limited
They
purely magisterial
terial duties
but presided
at public
prayers and witnessed
duties but
witnessed
presided at
public prayers
marriages,
missionaries, too,
too, and
and so
so played
played an
an imimmarriages, were missionaries,
portant
part
in
bringing
about
the
conversion
of
the
nonin
the
the
conversion
of
nonbringing
portant part
Arab populations.
populations.
These qadhis,
almost at
by strange
and
at once
once by
strange and
qadhis, faced almost
complex
problems
and
seeking
in
vain
for
specific
law
in
for
vain
complex
problems
seeking
specific
Qur'anic
guidance, came to
be guided
by practices
practices ascribed
ascribed
to be
Qur'anic guidance,
guided by
to
the Prophet.
precedents were codified
to the
codified and,
and,
Prophet. These precedents
known as
Traditions =Sunna,
hence
the
term
'Sunni'
for
'Sunni'
hence
the
term
for
as Traditions
^=Sunna,
him who practiced
practiced them.
them. To the
the Sunnis
the Traditions
Traditions had
Sunnis the
aa validity
validity inferior
inferior only
sanctions. By
the Shi'as,
to Qur'anic
Qur'anic sanctions.
Shi'as,
By the
only to
the
of Islam,
the Traditions
Traditions were
were held
held
the other
branch of
other great
Islam, the
great branch
them
to be
be largely
apocryphal,
for
the
source
of
many
of
for
of
to
the
source
many
largely apocryphal,
was to
to be
be found among
companions who supported
the
supported the
among companions
as usurpers.
first
three caliphs
the Shi'as
regarded as
usurpers.
Shi'as regarded
first three
caliphs whom the
therewere
Only
those
traditions
attributed
to
Ali's
camp
thereto
Ali's
attributed
traditions
those
camp
Only
the
two
fore
to
them.
Hence
in
details
of
law
the
details
in
them.
fore acceptable
to
acceptable
main divisions
of
Islam,
which,
as
saw,
originally
as
we
of
divisions
saw, originally
Islam, which,
succession
the
split
issue of
of caliphate
the political
over the
caliphate succession-the
political issue
split over
to
in
came
hereditary
versus
the
elective
principle-came
to
adopt
in
the
elective
versus
adopt
principle
hereditary
some particulars
particulars different
different law usages.
usages.
at
~The
usages were at
their own usages
"The non-Moslems following
following their
[ I2I ]
[121]

THE ARABS
the population,
first
majority of the
population, but soon Moslem
a majority
in a
first in
the
cities
appeared
where
the
Beduin
military camps
camps had been,
been,
cities appeared
military
in alien
alien cultures,
and
urban communities,
with roots
roots in
cultures,
and mixed urban
communities, with
rethere
came
about
a
change
of regrew
up,
and
gradually
change
gradually
grew up,
faith
dominant
in
the
favour
of
the
faith
of
the
ligious
adherence
in
adherence
ligious
race.
race.
first two or
holy law under the
the Arabs in
in those first
The holy
three centuries
progressive
and
underwent
three
centuries was essentially
essentially progressive
The
Moslem
considerable development.
Laws
phases of
of considerable
development.
phases
said to
to have had no
of
Evidence in
in those early
days are said
of Evidence
early days
also the
till the seventeenth century;
in Europe
equal
Europe till
century; so also
equal in
to have been a
Moslem Laws of Contract are claimed to
their European
European counterparts.
thousand years
counterparts. The
years ahead of their
of the Arabs begat
mercantile laws of
begat bills
bills of exchange;
to
mercantile
exchange; to
their
practices we owe our words 'cheque',
'douane',
i.e.
their practices
i.e.
'cheque', 'douane',
'tariff/ Much of the
diwan,
perhaps 'tariff.'
the Code Napoleon
Napoleon
diwan, and perhaps
other modern Western law,
and other
law, also,
is held
held to
to derive
derive
also, is
Arab
from the
the corpus
of
medieval
jurists.
jurists.
corpus
For several
in the
the ascendant
the Arabs
several centuries
centuries while
while in
ascendant the
after our eleventh
were great
It was mostly
reformers. It
eleventh
great reformers.
mostly after
the later
century
later period
period of decay
that their
their
during the
century and during
decay that
criminal and civil
criminal
reduced to
to the
the rigid
rigid
civil law came to
to be reduced
that led
forms that
led to
to stagnation.
their best
best were
at their
stagnation. The Arabs at
liberal minded. Legal
research
liberal
research
and
the
consequent
the
evoluLegal
consequent evolution
unrestricted but
but encouraged,
tion of new laws was not only
only unrestricted
encouraged,
criminal and civil
civil law differed
greatly, not
not only
only
so that criminal
differed greatly,
between one country
between two periods
periods
but between
another, but
country and another,
In
in the history
history of the
the same country.
The
Arabs
were
not
not
country.
to adopting
the law usages
averse to
usages of
of other
peoples, placed
placed
other peoples,
adopting the
no hindrance
hindrance to
to the
the extension
extension of
of alien
alien sanctions
sanctions where
conflict with
these did not
not conflict
with the
in the
the
the sanctions
sanctions found in
Qur'an.
laid
sanctions were categorically
Qur'an. Where Qur'anic
Qur'anic sanctions
categorically laid

[[122]
I22 ]

THE l\.IEDIEVAL
MEDIEVAL STATE
as for
for instance
instance in
in the
hand
down,
however, as
the cutting
off the
the hand
down, however,
cutting off
or
theft
for
for
fornication, the
the dictates
holy
for theft or flogging
dictates of
of holy
flogging for fornication,
writ were observed.
observed.
writ
There were periods
periods of
of upheaval
upheaval when godless
godless govergovernors took the law into
into their
and
arbitheir own hands
hands and acted
acted arbitrarily. In
'strong action'
was admired,
a.rlmired, strong
In an age
action was
age when 'strong
trarily.
strong
action
usually taken,
taken, and tyrannous
methods, such
such
action was usually
tyrannous methods,
as
and
torture
to
extort
confession,
were
not
as imprisonment
torture
to
extort
imprisonment
confession, were not
in Iraq.
holy law
was
unknown in
far the
the spirit
of holy
law was
Iraq. How far
spirit of
is shown by
abandoned at
at this
this time
time is
by the
the conduct
conduct of
the
of the
local
prefect
of
Kufa,
a
local
Judge
Jefferies,
under
a
who
under
Kufa,
prefect
Judge Jefferies,
Hajjaj,
the famous mail-fisted
mail-fisted governor
of Iraq,
Iraq, transtransHajjaj, the
governor of
cut off
fixed
burnt alive;
hand of
of one
threatfixed and burnt
off the
alive cut
the hand
one who threatened the
life of
of another;
hundred lashes
to aa
another gave
the life
three hundred
lashes to
gave three
are
suspected
thief.
Kufa,
are
told
and
may
well
believe
it,
thief.
we
told
Kufa,
suspected
may well believe it,
enjoyed
long spells
spells of
any crime
crime whatever,
whatever,
of freedom from any
enjoyed long
was
and its
man
promoted
to
be
prefect
of
Basrah
its strong
to
be
of
Basrah
promoted
strong
prefect
as
well.
as well.
The change
rule from the
the Umaiyyads
Umaiyyads to
to
dynastic rule
change of dynastic
the
with aa widening
scope for
religious
coincided with
for religious
the Abbasids coincided
widening scope
law.
tendency of
of the
the age
that came about
as aa
law. It
about as
It was a
a tendency
age that
result
of
far-reaching
social
and
religious
changes.
Consocial
Conof
result
far-reaching
religious changes.
Islam had steadily
been going
on to
to absorb
absorb aa
versions to
to Islam
versions
going on
steadily been
large
alien
element
of
public
opinion.
decay
of the
the
of
alien
element
The
decay of
public opinion.
large
the
Umaiyyads,
as
we
saw,
brought
about
largely
by
as
about
was
saw,
largely by the
brought
Umaiyyads,
growing
Proselytism had
Persian converts.
converts. Proselytism
of Persian
strength of
growing strength
naturally
been followed
by aa wave of
religious fervour;
of religious
followed by
fervour;
naturally been
the
everywhere
there
was
an
intense
interest
in
the
Qur'an
in
interest
an
intense
there
Qur'an
everywhere
and an
study,
doubtless,
of
its
legal
aspects.
Among
its
of
an eager
legal aspects.
eager study, doubtless,
basis of holy
Sunnis,
the basis
holy law by
by the
the
extended the
Sunnis, who had extended
of Traditions,
jurisprudence
addition
four schools
schools of jurisprudence
addition of
Traditions, four
in the names of
sprang
up within
within the
of
the century,
century, preserved
preserved in
sprang up
Hanbali.
their founders,
Hanafi, Shafi'i,
their
Maliki, Hanbali.
Shafi'i, Maliki,
founders, Hanafi,
5

[ 123

THE ARABS
Such
in the
the law were by
by no means the
the
Such developments
developments in
only
feature of
period which folfolof the
the period
most important
or most
important feature
only or
capital from Damascus to
lowed
the change
change of
to Baghdad.
of capital
lowed the
Baghdad.
The functions
the caliph
caliph were
were transformed,
transformed, and,
of the
functions of
and, most
radical
of
all,
perhaps,
an
end
came
to
the
supremacy
of
to
the
an
end
radical of all, perhaps,
supremacy of
the
Arab, as
such, within
within the
the political
system. Under the
the
as such,
the Arab,
political system.
the
of
Damascus
the
dominant
note
in
the
state
caliphs
note
in
state
had
the
of
Damascus
caliphs
been Arab racial
racial superiority.
wars of
expanVictorious wars
of expanbeen
superiority. Victorious
sion
to give
an ununthe imperial
continued to
sion had continued
imperial Arabs an
give the
The
caliph
himself
an
paralleled
national
prestige.
himself
national
was
caliph
prestige.
paralleled
absolute
patriarchal setting:
the
great
the
ruler in
in an Arab patriarchal
absolute ruler
setting;
great
offices
by Arabs.
Arabs. With the
the advent of
of the
the
held by
offices of
of state
state were held
after
the
caliphs
of
Baghdad
in
the
second
century
after
the
Prophet
in
the
of
century
Prophet
Baghdad
caliphs
the wars
of conquest,
conquest, chief
instrument of
of Arab supremacy,
chief instrument
the
wars of
supremacy,
had come to
to an
an end,
the
centre
of
the
caliphate
the
of
the
centre
end,
caliphate moved
east
where Arab Moslems were
were in
in aa minority,
minority, and Pereast where
Persians
held the
the upper
upper hand.
hand.
sians held
The Abbasid
Abbasid caliphs
were no longer
longer absolute
absolute Arab
caliphs were
rulers but
the old
model, 'acceptafter the
old Sassanian
Sassanian model,
rulers
but emperors
emperors after
acceptrightly-guided
ing
of address
address rightly-guided
a reverence
reverence and a manner of
ing a
10 *
Caliphs
rebelled against
as blasphemous.'
blasphemous.'10*
Caliphs would have rebelled
against as
They
were no
no longer
subjects in
their subjects
accessible to
to their
in open
longer accessible
They were
open
by ministers
ministers of
court
but surrounded
court but
surrounded by
of state,
at first
first Persians,
state, at
Persians,
in whom were
powers. The pomp
pomp and luxury
in
were 'Vested
vested great
great powers.
luxury
of
their courts
courts vastly
vastly excelled
excelled Damascus and was in
an
of their
in an
altogether
the rude
rude simplicity
of
different world from the
altogether different
simplicity of
Medina.
An era
era of
of great
prosperity was dawning,
age of
an age
of
great prosperity
dawning, an
refinement in
in living
and
an
age
in
which
the
arts
and
refinement
in
arts
which
the
and
living
age
sciences flourished.
flourished. Rich revenues
sciences
revenues poured
poured in
the
in from the
conquered
territories,
the
land
tax
was
collected
from
the
land
tax
collected
now
territories,
conquered
Moslems and unbelievers
the latter
must
unbelievers alike,
latter must
alike, though
though the
still
their
still pay
pay their poll
too, and the
the national
national income
income
tax, too,
poll tax,
c

[ 124]

THE MEDIEVAL STATE

grew to
to vast
vast proportions.
proportions.
steadily grew
steadily

state treasury
treasury and
and
The state
the caliph's
caliph's privy
privy purse
purse profited
profited together,
together, as
as later
later in
in times
times
the
of
of adversity
adversity they
they suffered
suffered together.
together. The most
most famous
famous of
of
the Baghdad
Baghdad caliphs,
caliphs, Harun al
al Rashid,
Rashid, aa contemporary
contemporary
the
of
of Charlemagne,
Charlemagne, was popularly
popularly believed
believed to
to have
have amassed
amassed
private fortune
fortune of
of nine
nine hundred
hundred million
million dirhams
dirhams-aa
a private
a
twenty millions
millions sterling
sterling perhaps!
perhaps !-which,
even
mere twenty
which, even
for
wild
for
wild
exaggeration,
is
a
safe
enough
indicaallowing
is
a
safe enough Indicaexaggeration,
allowing
tion of
of phenomenal
phenomenal prosperity.
prosperity.
tion
caliph, his
his plentiful
plentiful palaces,
palaces, bodyguards
bodyguards and
and harem
harem
The caliph,
supported by
by state
state expenditure,
expenditure, as
as were
were the
the army
army
were supported
the civil
civil administration;
administration i all
descendants of
of the
the
all descendants
and the
Prophet enjoyed
enjoyed state
state pensions,
pensions, and
and poets
poets and
and musicians
musicians
Prophet
impulsive and princely
princely rewards
rewards in
in these
these spacious
won impulsive
spacious
days
of
the
eastern
caliphate.
days of the eastern caliphate.
The form of government
a thoroughgoing
autocgovernment was a
thoroughgoing autocracy.
The
caliph
was
supported
by
his
wazir,
at
first
a
his
a
at
first
caliph
supported by
wazir,
racy.
as
private
and
personal
duce
as
it
were,
who,
while
in
favour,
duce
it
in
while
were, who,
favour,
personal
private
of patronage
patronage and
and upon
upon whose ininhad supreme
powers of
supreme powers
tegrity
and
ability
depended
the
just
government
of
the
the
of
the
just government
ability depended
tegrity
times.
the
all the
times. He made and unmade governors,
appointed all
governors, appointed
state and combined in
in his
his person
principal
officers of
of state
civil officers
person
principal civil
the exfor the
the
court for
exfunctions of an appellate
the lucrative
lucrative functions
appellate court
tensive
judiciary of
the young
aspirant,
the
ear
the
ear
of Islam.
Islam. To the
tensive judiciary
young aspirant,
his
of
led to
to place
of the
wazir led
the wazir
fortune, and conversely
conversely his
place and fortune,
until the
the day
opposition
adversity, until
day when the caliph
caliph
opposition meant adversity,
relieved
lost
with
that
particular
wazir
and
relieved
him
that
with
lost patience
particular
patience
of
if not
his head.
not his
of his
office if
his office
The reader
the pages
with the
familiar with
reader familiar
pages of The Arabian
Nights
that the
the Arab-ruled country
need no reminding
will need
country
reminding that
Nights will
it
of
But
it
would
be
unfair
*a man's country.'
the times
times was 'a
of the
country.'
contribution.
to
that
this
was
a
peculiarly
Arab
contribution.
a
this
to suppose
that
peculiarly
suppose
doubtless part
The sex
of women was doubtless
sex inferiority
part of the
inferiority of

[ 125]

THE ARABS
universe and man's dominance
established
order of the universe
established order
evolution common the
of
a
sociological
the
over
phase
over woman a phase
sociological evolution
over.
world over.
the Arabs woman's status,
Doubtless
under the
Doubtless under
status, though
though
in the later
deteriorated
upheld
by
religious
precepts,
deteriorated
in
later
upheld by religious precepts,
Western view,
centuries.
however, that
that the
the
centuries. The common '''estern
view, however,
woman was at
at all
repressed under the
the Arabs,
Arabs, meets
times repressed
all times
Pierre Crabites,
with aa vigorous
by Judge
Judge Pierre
with
Crabites, an
challenge by
vigorous challenge
after a
the Cairo mixed tribunals,
a
American judge
judge in
tribunals, who,
who, after
in the
Moslem
in
the
of
law
as
administered
in
the
long
experience
long experience
Egyptian capital,
thesis that Muhammad
capital, has favoured the thesis
Egyptian
of women's rights
was probably
probably the
the greatest
greatest champion
rights
champion of
seen.
the world has
has ever seen.
the
'Muhammad's outstanding
contribution, says
outstanding contribution,'
says Judge
Judge
in
resides
cause
woman
'to
the
the
Crabites,
'to
the
cause
of
resides
in
the
property
Crabites,
property
rights that
that he
he conferred upon
upon the wives
wives of his
his people.
people. The
rights
technical
of
a
if
so
juridical
status
of
a
wife,
if
so
technical
a
may be
status
term
be
wife,
may
juridical
is
as
that
a
is
exactly
the
same
as
that
of
a
husband.
pardoned,
The
exactly
pardoned,
far as
so far
in so
as her
her property
property is
is concerned,
concerned, is
Moslem spouse
is
spouse in
as free
as a
free as
a bird.
permits her to
to do with her
her
as
bird. The law permits
financial
whatever she
pleases without
she pleases
financial assets
assets whatever
without consulting
consulting
such matters
her
matters he
he has no
no greater
greater rights
rights than
her consort.
consort. In such
than
34 *
would have any
stranger.''34*
any perfect
perfect stranger.
Before the
the Propet's
rights of
inof inPropet's time Arab women's rights
heritance were negligible,
died his
heritance
negligible, and when aa man died
his sons
sons
as well
inherited
well as
as his
his property.
inherited his
his widows as
property. A revelation
revelation
inalienable share in
her an inalienable
in aa relative's
relative's estate.
ensured her
estate. The
divisions of inheritance
divisions
inheritance were categorically
laid down:
to
down to
categorically laid
the
the mother one third
third of aa man's
man's estate
unless
he
had
estate unless he
in which case
case one sixth.
brothers, in
left but
but two
sixth. If
If a
a man left
brothers,
thirds of
of the
daughters
the estate
passed to
to them,
them, if
estate passed
if one
one
daughters two thirds
her
to
there
were
daughter
her
share
was
to
be
one
half.
be
half.
there
were
Where
daughter
sons and daughters
share to
a daughter
daughter and two
two shares
sons
to a
shares
daughters one share
5

[ 126 ]

THE MEDIEVAL STATE

to a son.
son. A husband was to
to
to be
be entitled
to one
half of
his
entitled to
one half
of his
if she
she died
wife's property
property if
died without
without child,
child, otherwise
otherwise one
wife's
one
on. The general
quarter,
so on.
underlying principle
principle was
was
general underlying
quarter, and so
that the
the rewards of male relatives,
relatives, in
inheritance, were
were
that
in inheritance,
the female-a
female a principle
double those of the
by
no
means
as
principle by no means as
it seems,
as it
inequitable
being based
on the
the theory
theory that
that the
the
based on
seems, being
inequitable as
female
be supported
by aa husband,
husband, while
while the
the male
male will
will
will be
female will
supported by
have to
a
wife.
a
wife.
to support
have
support
The right
right of bequest
bequest among
at death
thus
death was thus
among Arabs at
cannot will
will his
his property
property so
as to
to
circumscribed.
circumscribed. The Arab cannot
so as
wife
deprive
his
wife
or
his
children
of
their
rightful
share
of
his
children
his
or
of
their
share
of
deprive
rightful
his estate;
he cannot cut
his wife
wife off
off with
with less
than the
the
cut his
his
less than
estate; he
as her right
share
under religious
religious law.
share specified
law. By
divorce
right under
specified as
By divorce
only
will
she
be
deprived
of
it.
be
of
will
she
it.
deprived
only
the marriage
A feature
of the
marriage contract
which Judge
Judge Pierre
contract which
feature of
Pierre
Crabites
its fluidity-that
for special
Crabites singles
is its
that
special praise
singles out for
praise is
fluidity
any
wise
provision
may
be
written
into
it;
thus
the
girl's
be
written
into
thus
wise
it
the
any
provision may
girl's
of the
father
can reserve
reserve the
the right
right of
girl to
to divorce
under
the girl
father can
divorce under
certain
or even
right to
to divorce
unthe right
even the
circumstances or
certain circumstances
divorce unthe event
conditionally,
in the
the man's
man's remarriage,
of the
event of
conditionally, e.g.
e.g. in
remarriage,
or
require the
the bridegroom
bridegroom to
forego the
the right
to forego
or he
he can
can require
of
right of
he
divorcing
his
daughter.
Moreover,
he
says,
'A
wife,
his
wife,
daughter. Moreover,
says,
divorcing
not even
take her
her husband's
husband's
technically speaking,
does not
even take
speaking, does
technically
name.
girl born Aisha
Aisha bint
bint Omar (Aisha
name. A Moslem girl
(Aisha
daughter
of
Omar)
may
marry
ten
times,
inditen
of
times, but her indiOmar) may marry
daughter
husbands.
viduality
is not
not absorbed by
by that
that of
her various
various husbands.
of her
viduality is
not aa moon that
reflected light.
She
shines through
that shines
She is
is not
through reflected
light.
planet, with
and aa legal
legal personality
personality
She
a name and
with a
She is
a solar
solar planet,
is a
of her own I'
The law
required the
the man's
man's utterance,
utterance, 'Il
of divorce
law of
divorce required
interval of a
divorce
thee,' to
to be
three times
times with
with an interval
said three
be said
divorce thee,*
between each
idea being
being to provide
provide
occasion the idea
each occasion-the
month between
reconciliatime
which
for
of three
three months during
for a
a period
during which time reconciliaperiod of
;

!'

fc

127]
[[127]

THE ARABS
tion could
be effected.
effected.
could be
tion

felt
As soon as
as estrangement
estrangement was felt
could
council
between the
the married
a family
family council could be
married couple
between
couple a
formed in
a rapprochement.
rapprochement. Divorce
about a
in order
order to
to bring
formed
bring about
is attributed
was
not encouraged
encouraged by
the
Prophet,
to whom is
the
was not
Prophet, to
by
it
was
disthe
saying
that
of
the
permissible
things
it
one disthe saying that of the permissible things
tasteful
to God. Although
there was no lifelong
tasteful to
lifelong alimony
alimony
Although there
itself conceived as
in itself
for the
the divorced
divorced wife
dowry was in
as
the dowry
wife the
for
was
entitled
to
an
obstacle
to
divorce,
for
the
wife
entitled
to
a
wife
the
for
an obstacle to divorce,
sum equivalent
equivalent to
paid to
to her
her at
at her wedding,
wedding,
to the
the dowry
dowry paid
aa sum therefore
therefore fixed
high when the
the man was in
in a gallant
fixed high
gallant
mood. It
It was fixed
at the
the highest
fixed at
compatible with
highest amount compatible
the
the
position of
parties and the
of the
the contracting
the social
social position
contracting parties
the
ability
of
the
husband
to
pay.
Where
the
dowry
was
the
to
of
dowry
pay.
ability
the
small
and the
the poor
poor husband later
later acquired
acquired wealth,
wealth, the
small and
qadhi in
case of
the sum on the
the husband's
husband's
in case
of divorce
assessed the
divorce assessed
qadhi
status
contract.
improved
status
instead
of
the
original
contract.
instead
of
the
original
improved
not only
rights on women,
women, he
he
The Prophet
conferred rights
Prophet not
only conferred
taught men to
to treat
wives considerately
treat wives
taught
considerately and humanely,
humanely,
not preferring
preferring one over another: the
gift of aa robe
to
the gift
robe to
one,
for
instance,
was
to
entail
robes
all
round;
and
so
for
entail
robes
all
so
to
one,
round;
instance,
with conjugal
conjugal felicity:
brought amelioration
with
amelioration in
in marfelicity: he brought
riage,
Islam
divorce and inheritance
inheritance laws-hence
laws
hence early
riage, divorce
early Islam
is
'under
rightly guided
Caliphs'
is
held
to
have
protected
'under rightly
held
to
have
guided Caliphs'
protected
her interests
interests and given
her aa status
never been
been
status which had never
given her
hers before.
hers
before. In later
times, however,
the generous
later times,
however, the
generous spirit
spirit
fell away
waned,
practice fell
from
the
precept,
and
the
low
waned, practice
away
precept,
standards came to
to be the
the established
established fashion.
fashion.
In
In the
the medieval
medieval state
the man could
could take
take not
not merely
state the
merely
the
the four
four wives
wives which
which religious
law
permitted
at
any
law
at
religious
permitted
any
one time,
slave concubines
time, but
but slave
practice
concubines without
without limit-a
limit
a practice
which present
considers to
to have
have been
been aa
present interpretation
interpretation considers
violation of Islamic
enlightened Arabs frown
violation
Islamic canons and enlightened
frown
on wherever they
with
it
in
their
midst
today.
meet
it
with
in
their
midst
they
today. He

r I281

THE MEDIEVAL STATE

could
unbeliever so
she was
so long
could marry
as she
a 'chaste
was a
'chaste
marry an unbeliever
long as
the
of the Book',
Book', e.g.,
J ewess, aa Christian
Christian or
or aa
woman of
a Jewess,
e.g., a
but not
not an idolatress,
idolatress, e.g.,
a
Hindu.
could
Sabian,
a
Hindu.
He
could
Sabian, but
e.g.,
marry his
his slave
if he
he first
first of
all freed
freed her,
her, or
slave girl
of all
or could
could
girl if
marry
cohabit with
as his
her as
his concubine,
concubine, without
marriage,
cohabit
with her
without marriage, so
so
as she
she was not
long
not an idolatress.
of conconidolatress. The children
children of
long as
the later
later
cubines
many of
cubines were legitimate;
of the
indeed, many
legitimate; indeed,
Abbasid caliphs
caliphs were sons
of concubines,
a
parallel
found
sons of
a
concubines,
parallel found
today
in Arab
Arab countries.
in some aristocratic
aristocratic families
families in
countries.
today in
with
free
FirstConcubinage
with
free
forbidden.
women
was
forbidden.
FirstConcubinage
cousin marriages
cousin
common;
they
are
still
the
rule
were
still
are
the
rule
common; they
marriages
rather than the
the exception
in many
many parts
parts of
Arabia,
rather
of tribal
tribal Arabia,
exception in
the man has
has the
the right
right to
the hand of
of the
daughter
where the
to the
the daughter
of his
his uncle
uncle (father's
(father's brother)
brother) whatever
the disparity
of
whatever the
disparity of
age,
she
the
other
hand
having
no
corresponding
right
the
on
other
age, she
having
corresponding right
to
his. The prohibited
prohibited degrees
marriage were for
the
to his.
of marriage
for the
degrees of
most part
part similar
to those
those of
the Old Testament,
though
similar to
of the
Testament, though
aa Moslem may
may not marry
his niece
niece as
as is
is permitted
permitted by
by the
the
marry his
Jews,
nor may
may he
or even
even two unrelated
unrelated
he marry
sisters or
Jews, nor
marry two sisters
been suckled
women who,
who, as
as children,
the same
suckled by
children, had been
by the
wet nurse
nurse; the
also
to
cohabitation
also
to
the same stricture
stricture applied
cohabitation
applied
with
concubines. Brother
marriages, forbidsister marriages,
forbidBrother and sister
with two concubines.
den
by Islam,
may have
Persian practice,
practice, where,
affected Persian
have affected
den by
where,
Islam, may
to
have
been
under Zoroastrianism,
such
unions
are
said
to
been
are
such
unions
said
under
Zoroastrianism,
permissible.
permissible.
The woman could
not have
have more than
than one husband
could not
the
interests
at
justified
in
the
interests of the
the
in
a time-an
time
an inequality
at a
inequality justified
establishment
child-that
to say,
to
ensure
the
establishment
without
ensure
to
the
child
that is
is to
say,
the law
parent. Although
Although the
spirit of
doubt
the spirit
of the
its male parent.
doubt of
of its
had been
rights and protect
those
to give
been to
protect those
give women new rights
to
led
circles
to
abuses,
and
rights,
practice
in
unenlightened
circles
led
in
abuses,
unenlightened
rights, practice
a
to
cash
be
the dowry
for
the
girl
often
to
be
a
cash
payment
to
came
the
often
for
the
payment to
girl
dowry
a
rich
old
her
parents, so
so that
the poor
poor and needy
needy a rich old
that with the
her parents,
;

129]
[[129]

THE ARABS
suitor
was probably
probably preferred
preferred to
poor young
young one,
the
to a
a poor
suitor was
one, the
girl's
the occasion
occasion of
of her
her first
first marriageon the
inclinations
marriage
girl's inclinations-on
being
subordinated
to
her
interests
as
conceived
of by
by her
her
conceived
as
to
interests
subordinated
her
being
parents.
marriage
contract
of
Morocco,
quoted
by
Levi,
A
contract
of
Morocco, quoted by Levi,
marriage
parents.
is as
is
as followsfollows
'Glory
be to
to God,
the Lord of
of the
the Worlds
\Vorlds!
God, the
'Glory be
'The
honourable Kaddur,
being
of
age and living
in
of
'The honourable
Kaddur, being
age
living in
Algiers,
a
trader
by
calling,
son
of
Sulayman,
has
conhas
contrader
of
son
Sulayman,
by calling,
Algiers, a
tracted aa marriage
marriage by
by God's
God's blessing
blessing .. with
with the
noble
the noble
tracted
virgin
Fatima,
passed
the
period
of
puberty,
18
years
18
now
of
the
Fatima,
puberty,
years
passed
virgin
period
of
daughter
of
bin
Ali,
weaver,
domiciled
bin
of
Muhammad
of age,
domiciled
Ali, weaver,
age, daughter
is contracted
in
Algiers. The marriage
marriage is
contracted in
consideration of
of
in consideration
in Algiers.
aa dower of
of blessed
blessed augury
amounting to
to 30
of
douros, of
30 douros,
augury amounting
which
is at
at once
due, before
before consummation of
of the
the
once due,
half is
which half
marriage,
and
the
remaining
half
payable
within
four
the
half
within
four
payable
marriage,
remaining
years. The husband
husband will
only be
be acquitted
this debt
debt
will only
of this
acquitted of
years.
bride's father
was contracted
her
by
means. The bride's
father was
in her
lawful means.
contracted in
by lawful
name,
and
this
by
virtue
of
the
powers
conferred
on
of
this
virtue
conferred
the
him
name,
by
powers
by God and
and after
after obtaining
obtaining her
her consent,
consent, expressed
by
expressed by
by
silence,
which is
is considered
the equivalent
to
consent.
The
considered the
to
consent.
silence, which
equivalent
husband has
has appeared
appeared in
in person:
person: he
he has
has accepted
the
accepted the
contract,
the
offer
and
the
acceptance
have
been
made
as
the
offer
the
as
contract,
acceptance have been
required
by Law.
required by
'All
that precedes
precedes has been
been witnessed
wit'All that
witnessed (by
(by two wit9*
nesses)
.'9*
nesses).'
The usual
usual procedure
procedure of
the Arab wedding
on
of the
that on
wedding was that
the nuptials
the
the day
nuptials guests,
male and female,
bidfemale, were bidday of the
guests, male
to the
the house
house of the
the girl's
girl's father,
den to
the men forgathered
father, the
forgathered
in one part
in
part and the
the women,
veiled
and
secluded,
veiled
in another.
another.
women,
secluded, in
The qadhi
or imam called
called forth
forth the
witnesses, aa male
male
the witnesses,
qadhi or
representative
of
the
bride,
another
of
the
bridegroom,
of
the
another
of
the
bride,
representative
or,
bridegroom, or,
in the
absence of
in
the absence
female
witnesses,
of one male,
two
female
male,
witnesses, though
though
to
all witnesses
to have all
witnesses female was not
the presence
presence
not lawful,
lawful, the
I

[[130]
130 ]

THE MEDIEVAL STATE

of one male witness
witness being
imperative. The witnesses
witnesses then
then
being imperative.
signified
their agreement
agreement to
to the
the terms
the marriage,
marriage,
terms of
of the
signified their
whereupon the
the qadhi
qadhi took the
the hands
hands of
bride and
and
of the
the bride
whereupon
held
bridegroom
and
held
their
hands
together
in
such
a
way
their
hands
in
such a way
bridegroom
together
that their
while all
present recited
recited the
the
that
their thumbs touched,
all present
touched, while
opening chapter
of the
the Qur'an.
Qur'an.
chapter of
opening
In aa polygynous
society
the state
of lifelong
state of
polygynous society the
lifelong spinsterspinsterwas
hood for aa girl
extremely
rare.
The
girl
normally
was normally
girl
extremely rare.
girl was
married for
the first
first time
the age
of thirteen
thirteen or
for the
at the
married
time at
or fourteen
fourteen
age of
-girls
reach
physical
maturity
at
an
earlier
age
in the
reach
at
an
earlier
the
girls
physical maturity
age in
the West;
she
usually
given
no
choice
in
East than the
she
was
no
choice in
West;
usually given
the matter of
first husband
husband any
her first
the
of her
she is
is today
than she
any more than
today
in
was her
her father's
in backward Arabian communities-that
communities that was
father's
concern.
generally not
not consulted
matter, bebeconcern. She was generally
consulted in
in the
the matter,
ing
of
tender
age
and
without
knowledge
of
the
world.
of
tender
without
age
ing
knowledge of the world.
Some such
this was followed.
mother of
of
as this
such procedure
followed. The mother
procedure as
aa son
old enough
to
take
a
wife
approached
the
mother
to
son old
take
a
wife
the
mother
enough
approached
of
the girl
girl she
if they
they both
both agreed
she thought
of the
desirable, and if
thought desirable,
agreed
to the
the girl's
the suitor
suitor approached
the match the
or in
in
to
father, or
girl's father,
approached the
default
her nearest
male kinsman
kinsman to
arrange matnearest male
to arrange
matof one,
default of
one, her
ters.
marriage contract
then drawn up
contract was then
ters. A marriage
up specifying
specifying
the
dowry
and
other
legal
obligations.
Marriage
being aa
the dowry
other legal obligations. Marriage being
in
civil
contract, it
could be
be performed
performed by
by aa qadhi
qadhi (not
it could
civil contract,
(not in
there
the mosque,
however)
or
by
any
Moslem
provided
there
or
the
provided
mosque, however)
by any
were two reputable
reputable witnesses.
witnesses.
Another and
exceptional form of
of marriage
marriage that
that came
Another
and exceptional
to
be practised
practised among
the Shi'a
of Iraq
Iraq and
Shi'a Moslems of
to be
among the
their
to
Persia,
particularly
during
pilgrimage
to
their
sacred
more
Persia,
particularly during pilgrimage
union
shrines,
was
the
mut'
a
marriage,
a
temporary
union
for aa
a
the mut'a marriage,
temporary
shrines,
term of
years or
months or
days, as
as
fixed
or weeks or even days,
or months
fixed term
of years
the case
case might
might be.
be. It
entail reference
to a woman's
reference to
not entail
It did
did not
the
class
kin and
practised by
a limited
limited and special
poor class
kin
and was
was practised
special poor
by a
to
itself
lent
of
a system
that lent itself to abuse,
It was a
abuse,
of townswoman.
townswoman. It
system that

[[131]
13 1 ]

THE ARABS
the Shi'a
although perfectly
perfectly within
religious law,
Shi'a religious
within the
law, the
although
children
of such
marriages being
being legitimate.
such so-called
children of
so-called marriages
legitimate* But
as we have
have seen,
the female member
as
seen, generally
speaking, the
generally speaking,
of
was
carefully
protected
hon0urthe Moslem family
of the
carefully protected and honourfamily
the
and
her
honour,
involving
the
family
ably
betrothed,
her
honour, involving
family
ably betrothed,

honour, was counted

the greatest
greatest concern.
concern*
counted of
of the
honour,
Divorce
Arabs, as
as we have
have seen,
seen, involved
involved an
under the
the Arabs,
Divorce under
entail
the
dowry
and
did
not entail
outright
payment
based
on
did
the
based
dowry
outright payment
lifelong
difficulties which the
the
the difficulties
of the
In spite
lifelong alimony.
alimony. In
spite of
Prophet
set
in
the
way
the
could
normally
divorce
in
the
man
set
the
normally
Prophet
way
quite easily
without recourse
a court
court by
by uttering
uttering the
the
to a
recourse to
quite
easily without
times. The woman
simple
noticed three
three times.
formula already
simple formula
already noticed
could
not obtain
obtain divorce
mental disease,
so lightly,
could not
divorce so
disease,
though mental
lightly, though
and
other
similar
infectious disease,
cruel
behaviour
other
similar
behaviour
infectious
cruel
disease,
grounds
were
recognized
as
sufficient;
physical
imperfecwere
as
sufficient; physical imperfecrecognized
grounds
also
party gave
grounds for
for annulment,
tion
in either
either party
as also
tion in
annulment, as
gave grounds
marriage contract
the
false description
description in
in the
the marriage
the bride
bride
the false
contract of the
duras
virgin. The mother had custody
the children
children duras a
a virgin.
of the
custody of
the father,
the age
age for
boys
ing
infancy and thereafter
thereafter the
for boys
father, the
ing infancy
of
Islam
to
which
the
and girls
varying
with
the
sect
and
with
the
of
to
the
sect
Islam
varying
girls
parents
belonged.
A
divorced
wait
three
woman
divorced
must
wait
three
parents belonged.
months before
before marrying
the widow four
four months
again, the
marrying again,
bought aa female
ten days.
days. Similiarly,
and ten
a man bought
female slave
if a
slave
Similiarly, if
he
she could
to pass
pass before
before she
he must allow
allow the
necessary time
the necessary
time to
could
be
in order
obviate the
the risk
risk of
be his
his concubine,
order to
to obviate
of doubtful
doubtful
concubine, in
parenthood.
parenthood.
The veiling
veiling of
thought to
to have
have been
been rare
rare in
of women is
is thought
in
the
the early
early days
days of the
period. The common Western
the Arab period.
It is
is Arab or
view that
that it
Islamic in
origin is
contested by
by
view
in origin
or Islamic
is contested
educated
the practice
practice today
educated Arabs who are
are opposed
to the
and
opposed to
today and
who hold
hold that
that the
the only
veiling
required
in
Islam
is
the
cov~
in
is
Islam
the
covonly veiling required
ering
of the
the head and neck,
face. Be that
that as
not the
the face.
as it
it may,
neck, not
ering of
may,
of
one that
has survived
the practice
practice of close
the
close veiling
is one
that has
survived only
veiling is
only

[[132]
13 2 ]

THE MEDIEVAL STATE

among
the rule
rule rather
is still
still the
rather
among Moslem communities and is
than the
in most Arab countries.
the exception
than
countries.
exception in
Such Arab authorities
that the
the custom
authorities suppose
custom was
was in
in
suppose that
Persian
or
Byzantine,
that
in
the
Arab
period
it
origin
Persian
or
that
in
the
Arab
Byzantine,
origin
period it
first
was
adopted
by
the
wives
of
Baghdad
caliphs
and
first
adopted by the wives of Baghdad caliphs and
the great
great ladies
about the
that it
was aa fashion
ladies about
the courts,
the
so that
it was
fashion
courts, so
of
rank; hence,
hence, naturally,
naturally, it
it spread
downwards
and
outof rank;
downwards
and
outspread
wards.
wards.
In the
the early
early period,
period, they
hold, it
was nowhere
popular
it was
nowhere popular
they hold,
and it
never took root
among the
the peasantry,
peasantry, where
where the
it never
root among
the
to work unveiled
unveiled side
side by
by side
with her
her
female
continued to
female continued
side with
in the
menfolk in
the fields
fields as
in
she does
does today-though
as she
not in
today though not
Arabia-but
gradually acquired
acquired rigidity
rigidity in
the towns
towns
it gradually
Arabia but it
in the
and was made law
law by
the Caliph
al Qadir
Billah (eleventh
Qadir Billah
(eleventh
Caliph al
by the
ordered
that
must
wear
a veil
veil when
century)
who
that
ordered
women
a
must
century)
the mosque
mixing
with men and appearing
in the
or other
other
mosque or
mixing with
appearing in
public
places.
public places.
this day.
born in
in
So it
has continued
to this
it has
continued down to
girl born
day. The girl
strictest
must, on reaching
reaching maturity,
maturity, wear aa veil
veil
circles must,
strictest circles
and never
never again
show
her
face
to
any
male
except
her
husher
husface
to
male
her
except
again
any
band and
those of
of her
her relatives
prohibited dethe prohibited
dewithin the
relatives within
and those
to
of
marriage.
For
a
woman
to
expose
to
the
public
grees
to
the public
expose
grees of marriage.
gaze
her hands
and her
wrists
her feet
feet (ankles
than her
hands and
(ankles and wrists
gaze more than
to
be
regarded
as
shameful,
the
must be
be concealed)
came
as
the
to
be
shameful,
regarded
concealed)
rigour
of
veiling
and
seclusion
increasing
the
higher
her
the
seclusion
of
higher
increasing
veiling
rigour
the slave
the
slave girl
status
the social
scale. Here the
social scale.
in the
status in
girl and the
the
world
at
a
great
advantage,
braving
the
peasant
girl
were
a
at
were
braving
advantage,
great
peasant girl
al Qadir
Billah's
with naked
naked face
and fancy
But al
free. But
with
face and
Qadir Billah's
fancy free.
of
class
the
great
blow
to
the
educated
class
of
proscription
was
a
to
blow
a great
proscription
in the
life of
woman who,
who, up
up to
to this
this time,
played aa part
part in
the life
of
time, played
in
the
restrictions
the
and
from
the
time
of
these
restrictions
in
the
these
of
the
time
and
from
the empire,
empire,
the position
position of
the woman under the
the
eleventh
of the
eleventh century
century the
deteriorated.
Arabs deteriorated.

[[133]
133]

THE ARABS
The harem system,
system, the
the practice
practice of
seclusion
of enforced
enforced seclusionPersian
women, it
is believed,
believed, were
were secluded
before
it is
secluded long
Persian women,
long before
the coming
of
the
Arabs-was
soon
established,
Arabs
soon
of
the
was
and
the
established,
coming
were now confined
to their
houses by
by force
force of
of
their houses
women were
confined to
public
opinion.
They
seldom
went
out
at
all;
never
alone
at
all
out
alone
public opinion. They
and rarely
rarely by
by day,
of course
social intercourse
intercourse between
between
course social
day, and of
This banishment
of women from
the
impossible. This
banishment of
the sexes
sexes was impossible.
the
and from society
of most
most
is a
a noticeable
feature of
noticeable feature
the streets
streets and
society is
oriental
this day.
to this
oriental towns
towns to
day.
It
became the
the fashion
of the
the wealthy
wealthy classes
classes
fashion for
for women of
It became
to
be secluded
part of
of the
the house
by themselves
themselves and
in a
to be
a part
house by
secluded in
be
waited upon
upon by
though the
practice of
of mutimutithe practice
be waited
eunuchs, though
by eunuchs,
been expressly
lating
for these
these duties
duties had been
forslaves for
lating slaves
expressly forbidden by
by the
the Prophet
himself.
social
practices
These
social
himself.
bidden
practices
Prophet
led,
to the
the gradual
effacement of
of women from
moreover, to
led, moreover,
gradual effacement
public
public worship
the Friday
in the
festivities and from public
worship in
public festivities
Friday
mosques,
in
contrast
to
the
earlier
days
not
in
contrast
to
the
earlier
when
women
not
days
mosques,
only
attended
mosques
but
gave
lectures
in
them.
lectures
in
but
them.
attended
gave
only
mosques
backSuch
usages which have been
been handed
handed down to
to the
the backSuch usages
Arabs of
day are
are responsible
the current
ward Arabs
of our
our day
for the
current
responsible for
Western view
that women under
under the
were throughthroughthe Arabs were
view that
out
lower order
creation. In
those
first
centuries
out a
of creation.
those
a lower
order of
first centuries of
In
of
the
period, however,
the position
of the
the Arab woman
the Arab period,
however, the
position of
different. She was not
closely veiled
veiled and little
was very
not closely
little
very different.
than
her
European
or
Asiatic
sister
of
more segregated
than
her
or
Asiatic
sister
of
segregated
European
the
indeed, in
in Spain
to mix freely
freely
the time;
she continued
continued to
time; indeed,
Spain she
to pray
openly in
the mosques.
mosques. There had
with men and to
with
in the
pray openly
been no prejudice
prejudice against
her education
early Islam,
been
in early
education in
and
Islam, and
against her
the
literate
and
accomplishedthe upper-class
women
were
literate
upper-class
accomplished
a millennium
indeed,
millennium ago
ago when Al Azhar University
University of
of
indeed, a
was
Cairo was first
first opened
it
attended
by
and
it
attended
men
women
opened
by
the Arab jurist
jurist Abu Hanifa could
alike;
could declare
in
declare in
alike; and the
that
our eighth
as much entitled
to
entitled to
eighth century
century that woman was as
;

[[134]
134 ]

THE MEDIEVAL STATE

as man. In
profession of law as
Iraq, in
practise the profession
In Iraq,
in Egypt
practise
Egypt
and in
the
in Spain
periods it
it was
the
was the
Spain during
during the enlightened
enlightened periods

same women played

same:
notable parts
parts-Sukaina,
N afisat al
al
played notable
Sukaina, Nafisat
of
the
Prophet,
Umm
Hm,
the
of
Ilm, a great-great-granddaughter
great-great-granddaughter
Prophet,
first caliph
Salma,
wife of the first
Baghdad, Zubaida,
Zubaida,
of Baghdad,
Salma, the wife
caliph of
al Rashid,
the wife of Harun al
Khadija, the
the sister
of
sister of
Rashid, Khadija,
in Egypt,
the
Saladin in
Egypt, and in
in Spain
the
wife
of
Abdul
Rahwife
of
Abdul
RahSpain
man III,
were devoted
to letdevoted to
letIII, to mention but a few. Some were
to good
ters, some to
good works,
works, and colleges,
hostels
ters,
colleges, orphanages,
orphanages, hostels
for the
the blind,
the aged
the infirm,
still proudly bear
blind, the
infirm, still
aged and the
proudly bear
the names of women founders.
the
In these
selfsame days
these selfsame
its way
way into
into
days chivalry
chivalry found its
it had come from the
Europe
way of Spain.
the
Spain. To Spain
Spain it
Europe by
by way
eastern lands of the
the Arabs. Hence it
eastern
it would seem that
that the
the
in the
belief
belief which persists
persists in
the West concerning
the general
general
concerning the
the Arabs is
is based
degradation
based on obobdegradation of women under the
in reality
the
Arabs
at
servances
later decadence;
the
servances of later
at
decadence; in
reality
their
perhaps the most chivalrous
people in
the
their best
best were perhaps
chivalrous people
in the
world.
world.
all through
Slavery,
persisted all
the Arab
of course,
course, persisted
through the
Slavery, of
period.
It
was
a
recognized
and
legitimate
institution
of
institution
a
It
recognized
legitimate
period.
time
sancsociety.
It
had
existed
from
time
immemorial,
was
sancexisted
It
immemorial,
society.
Christian censurvived the early
tioned
by Judaism
Judaism and survived
centioned by
early Christian
resolute
a
resolute
opponent
turies. Muhammad himself
himself was clearly
turies.
clearly
opponent
such reforms for
of
the evils
wrought such
evils of
of slavery
all the
of all
slavery and wrought
its
possible in
in his
his time.
time. Manumission
as were possible
its amelioration
amelioration as
of
praised but
but gave
not only
slaves was not
of slaves
gave atonement for
only praised
are they
small
brothers,' he taught,
'Your brothers/
sins. 'Your
small sins.
they who
taught, 'are
under
them
are
your
servants,
God
having
placed
your
are your servants,
your
having placed
his
care
care;
he whose brother
has been
been placed
placed under his care
brother has
care and
and he
must feed
that which he eats,
clothe him
with that
feed him with
must
eats, and clothe
himself. Do not ask them
with
wherewith he
he clothes
clothes himself.
with that
that wherewith
if you
to
they can,
can, and if
than they
to do
do more than
assigned them
you have assigned
:

[[135]
135]

THE ARABS
to cope
aa task
task greater
greater than
than they
with, then give
give
cope with,
they are able to
them the
the help
require/
they require.'
help they
The Arabs of
to take
take the
of subsequent
generations were to
subsequent generations
in
it.
sanction
look
for
and
look
for
implied
sanction
in
it. Acthe spirit
for the
word for
implied
spirit
most
cording
to
the
enlightened
present-day
interpretathe
to
enlightened present-day interpretacording
Islam there
warrant for the keeping
keeping
tions
there was never any
tions of
of Islam
any warrant
slaves
of
prisoners of war,
war, nor should slaves
of slaves
other than prisoners
slaves other
have been
been bought
bought and sold.
sold. Under medieval caliphs,
have
caliphs, however,
bequeathed and
slaves were freely
sold, bequeathed
ever, slaves
freely bought
bought and sold,
inherited, as
they still
in Arabia.
Arabia. They
They were inferior
inferior
as they
still are
are in
inherited,
social
civil
discertain
beings,
suffering
certain
recognized
civil
and
social
disrecognized
beings, suffering
abilities.
abilities.
to their
their slaves
Yet the
slaves removed
the attitude
the Arabs to
attitude of
of the
to
slave
the stigma
the
elsewhere
attaching
to
slave
status,
elsewhere
status, for a
stigma
attaching
is
the
feature
present-day Arabian slavery
is
the general
feature of present-day
general
slavery
a grovelling
the
mentality, which the
absence
of a
absence of
abject mentality,
grovelling and abject
untravelled European
may
naturally
suppose
inevitable.
untravelled
inevitable.
European may naturally suppose
the slave
as free
*The slave
slave of
of his
otherwise as
free
'The
is the
his master,
but otherwise
slave is
master, but
as you,'
as
generally speaking,
runs an Omani saying.
Still, generally
you/ runs
saying. Still,
speaking,
scale of
the
blood-feud scale
ran a freeman
the blood-feud
of values
for a
freevalues ran:
a freefreeman for
a
woman
for
a
for
a
slave.
man,
a
for
a
woman,
a
slave
a
a
slave
for
slave.
man,
woman,
essential democracy
the Islamic
The essential
Islamic system,
of the
system, howdemocracy of
slaveborn individuals
ever,
rise to
individuals to
to rise
to command
ever, allowed slaveborn
to
acquire
great
wealth.
armies,
to govern
govern provinces,
to
armies, to
provinces,
acquire great wealth.
the Arabs slaves
to found Moslem dynasties
Under the
slaves rose
rose to
dynasties
in Egypt
many famous caliphs
in
of
elsewhere, and many
Egypt and elsewhere,
caliphs of
slave mothers. But
Baghdad had slave
But these
these were exceptional
Baghdad
exceptional
slaves. The vast
of the
class did
vast majority
the class
the menial
slaves.
did the
menial
majority of
offices and the
offices
the hard work.
work.
The holy
provided some ways
in which a
a slave
slave
holy law provided
ways in
had
could win freedom: aa concubine,
for instance,
concubine, for
instance, who had
borne her
her master children
children became freei
free a
a slave
slave of
of either
either
sex who came into
into possession
within aa certain
sex
possession of
of an
an owner within
certain
:

[[136]
136 ]

THE MEDIEVAL STATE

degree
relationship was automatically
of blood relationship
freed; a
degree of
automatically freed;
slave
might,
with
his
master's
consent,
redeem
himself
by
with
his
slave might,
master's consent,
himself by
or labour,
though in
the latter
case he
he remained
remained
purchase or
in the
latter case
labour, though
purchase
his master's
protection. This
This was perhaps
perhaps aa rare
rare
under his
master's protection.
to
thing
to
happen,
for
the
master
had
the
right
to
hire
out
aa
the
for
to
the
hire
out
thing
happen,
right
slave to
slave
to work for
is practised
practised in
the Persian
Persian Gulf
for him,
in the
as is
him, as
fisheries
to
pearl
fisheries
to
this
day,
or
to
use
his
slave
as
pledge.
this
to
his
use
slave
as a
a pledge.
pearl
day,
a valuable
Slaves were a
property in
medieval times,
times, and
Slaves
in medieval
valuable property
doubtless
doubtless only
only those
religious scruples
those masters who had religious
scruples
as they
conceded slaves
rights as
entitled
to.
Buyslaves such
were
such rights
entitled
to.
Buythey
ing
and
selling
slaves
was
a
highly
profitable
business,
slaves
ing
selling
highly profitable business,
not
not only
in the
but with
with them
them-the
countries but
the Arab countries
the Slavonic
Slavonic
only in
peoples ominously
preserving in
in name the
the memory
memory of
the
of the
peoples
ominously preserving
role they
role
they played.
played. The Venetians
Venetians are
to have
have had a
are said
said to
itself in
in the
eighth century,
slave
slave market in
in Rome itself
the eighth
century, and
the
the Moors at
Cordova, two
two centuries
the slave
slave market of
at Cordova,
centuries
of the
later, was famous for
its wares of
fair captives
captives from
for its
of fair
later,
northern Spain.
white slaves
northern
slaves from Central
Central
Spain. Thousands of white
the
eastern
caliphate
by
way of
Asia were drawn into
Asia
into the eastern caliphate by way
of
Samarkand,
while black
black slaves
in the
the bazaars
bazaars of
of
slaves swarmed in
Samarkand, while
Samarra and Baghdad.
Baghdad.
Early in
in the
became an article
the Arab conquests
of
it became
article of
Early
conquests it
faith
that there
be no enslavement
enslavement of
Moslems,
there could
of Moslems,
faith that
could be
the
relaxed
In
rule
though
in
the
tenth
century
this
rule
relaxed
by
the
tenth
this
was
by the
though
century
that
sect
of Carmathians
Carmathians in
in Arabia
Arabia itself
itself on the
the grounds
that
sect of
grounds
nineonly they
they were
were true
Moslems, and as
late as
as the
the nineas late
true Moslems,
only
suffered
teenth
to have suffered
are known to
teenth century
century Turcomans are
a similar
illusion. In
seventeenth
and
eightseventeenth
a
similar illusion.
In our sixteenth,
sixteenth,
eighthunted
Turkish
and
Barbary
corsairs
hunted
and
eenth
centuries
corsairs
eenth centuries
Barbary
enslaved Christian
Christian mariners
the Mediterranean,
in the
mariners in
enslaved
Mediterranean, some,
some,
Bristol
the
Ireland
very
daring,
reaching
parts
of
Ireland
and
the
Bristol
of
very daring, reaching parts
sent on missions
Channel;
missions of ransom
Channel and monks who were sent
in the
brought back
back harrowing
harrowing stories
the galleys.
life in
the life
of the
stories of
galleys.
brought
;

[[137]
137]

THE ARABS
One of
of the
the most famous victims
was, of course,
course, Cervantes,
victims was,
Cervantes,
in
chains.
life in chains.
thus five
his life
of his
five years
who spent
spent thus
years of
But let
us not
be forgetful
of our
record, for but
but
our own record,
not be
let us
forgetful of
a brief
brief century
century ago
Britain
and
practised
slavery
America
Britain
a
practised slavery
ago
as
in their
tobacco and sugar
plantations, and Gladstone as
in
their tobacco
sugar plantations,
a young
young Member of
could make his
his maiden
of Parliament could
a
time
enAt
Britain
speech
in
defense
of
the
system.
one
time
Britain enone
in
defense
of
the
system.
speech
into
the
joyed
a
monopoly
of
importing
slaves
into
the
Spanish
slaves
a
of
Spanish
importing
monopoly
joyed
in the
for slaves
slaves appeared
colonies,
appeared in
the
advertisements for
colonies, and advertisements
most reputable
reputable of
Moreover,
plantation
our newspapers.
of our
most
Moreover,
plantation
newspapers.
slavery
than the
the domestic
incomparably more inhuman than
slavery was incomparably
slavery
of the
the Arabs of
medieval period.
period.
of the
the medieval
slavery of
The common people
caliphs of
of Baghdad
Baghdad
the caliphs
people under the
than
enjoyed
greater
liberty
and
greater
prosperity
than
could
could
greater prosperity
enjoyed greater liberty
Personal
be found in
other
country
whatsoever.
Personal
in any
whatsoever.
other
be
any
country
as the
a feature
cleanliness
world-as
the lack
feature of
of the
the Arab world
lack
cleanliness was a
of
it was characteristic
Europe-this
of it
characteristic of
of contemporary
contemporary Europe this
arising
doubtless
from
the
frequent
required by
by
the
doubtless
ablutions required
arising
frequent ablutions
prayer and other
rules of
life. While in
of life.
in Europe
Moslem prayer
other rules
Europe
the
were bound to
lands they
they cultivated
cultivated and the
the serfs
to the
the
serfs were
the lands
artisans
their servile
their
counterparts
still had their
servile status,
their
artisans still
status,
counterparts
under the
the Arabs,
Arabs, the
the smiths
cultivators, were free
under
smiths and the
the cultivators,
free
men. Difference
Differen~e of rank and wealth
wealth existed,
of course,
course,
existed, of
in
medieval
but without
without the
rigid distinctions
but
the rigid
in
distinctions of
of society
medieval
society
Europe.
hindrance to
to education.
Learning
education. Learning
Europe. There was no hindrance
was held
the highest
held in
in the
highest respect,
respect, freedom of
thought was
of thought
several centuries
centuries encouraged
for several
and secular
secular subjects
encouraged and
subjects
taught in
in the
the mosques.
Decay came later
later when the
the Arabs
taught
mosques. Decay
satisfied with a way
came to
to be
be satisfied
way of
life as
conservative
of life
as conservative
as in
in earlier
earlier times
and hidebound as
it had been
been liberal
liberal and
times it
light-giving.
light-giving.
social structure,
The social
structure, while
while containing
features repellent
containing features
repellent
in
a
in a twentieth-century
twentieth-century view,
view, must in
in fairness
be compared
fairness be
compared

[[138]
I3 8 ]

MEDIEVAL STATE
THE :MEDIEVAL
with other systems
itself. :i\10re
More dedesystems contemporary
contemporary with itself.
a
on
the
of
social
the letter
pends
the spirit
letter of
than the
of its
its
spirit of a social system
pends
system than
Middle Ages
regulations, and in
in the :i\1iddle
Eastern enlightenregulations,
Ages Eastern
enlightenment was pre-eminent
in the
the world,
pre-eminent in
world, and the
the religion
of the
the
religion of
Arabs insisted
insisted with the
the greatest
emphasis
on
humanihumanigreatest emphasis
tarianism.
tarianism.
as being
To conceive of the
the Arab system
being in
in the
the likeness
likeness
system as
it
of
its
of our own,
with
a
grafting
onto
it
of
its
less
pleasant
less
own,
grafting
pleasant
is wholly
wholly
features,
wholly misleading
misleading; it
it had another
another and wholly
features, is
it was in
in essence as
as in
differing
in origin
origin patriarchal.
patriarchal.
differing ethos: it
between
The approved
relationships
man
and
woman,
parwoman, parapproved relationships
ents and children,
servants
ents
masters
and
servants
approximated
children,
approximated
ideals of Abraham rather
to the ideals
those of
to
rather than
than to
to those
Lenin.
of Lenin.
It is
is not so much that one was four thousand years
It
years behind
behind
as that
that they
the
other as
the other
they were products
products of two differing
endiffering environments and two utterly
utterly opposed
philosophies.
vironments
opposed philosophies.
as a
a sex
sex enjoyed
If
under the
the Arabs women as
If under
less of
of the
the
enjoyed less
social and political
social
political liberties
liberties than they
enjoy
under
modern
they enjoy
civilization
European civilization-mixed
mixed dancing,
dancing, mixed bathing
bathing and
European
still objectionable,
to the
the orthodox
the
like are
objectionable, of course,
are still
the like
course, to
was
no
woman
-yet
went
unmarried
and
thereby ununthereby
yet
naturally
debarred
from
motherhood,
and
motherhood
motherhood,
naturally
all time
the prof
oundest respect.
time in
in the
profoundest
respect.
was held
held by
of all
by Arabs of
there
all
If
were deprived
of
all
political
privileges
there
If slaves
slaves were
privileges
deprived
political
of
life
rewards
in
material
is still
difference by
far
in
the
material
of
life
far
the
less difference
is
still less
by
in 'subsistence
'subsistence cultures')
between the
the freeman and the
the slave
slave in
cultures',
the 'haves'
'haves and
such
Arabia today,
as in
in Arabia
such as
today, than between the
is said
said in
'have-nots'
in our
in
civilization. This is
our European
'have-nots' in
European civilization.
medieval
no way
to
slur
over
those
features
of
the
medieval
Arab
features
of
the
those
slur
over
to
way
way
life which in
in aa twentieth-century
reof life
twentieth-century view are reway of
huit
had
in
pugnant,
but
as
an
indication
that
in
practice
it
a
huindication
that
but
as
practice
pugnant,
its own,
the worst
manity of
untainted by
a humanity
of its
own, a
by the
humanity untainted
manity
industrialism*
features
economic industrialism. Without
of our modern economic
features of
;

[ 139]

THE ARABS

aa wide
wide humanity,
humanity, indeed,
the old
could
old Arab system
indeed, the
system could
the
earlier
systems
of
so
many
scarcely
have
displaced
scarcely have displaced the earlier systems of so many
from the
different
across the
the medieval
medieval world
world from
different peoples
the
peoples across
Himalayas
to
the
Atlas,
and
survived
in
a
large
measure
to
in
a
the
survived
measure
Atlas,
Himalayas
large
this day.
day.
down to
to this
'What struck
in the
the decay
wrote
struck me even
even In
poverty,' wrote
decay and poverty,'
an
a
few
years
back,
'was
the
joyousness
of
a
the
an Englishman
'was
years back,
joyousness of
Englishman
that life
with
anything
I
had
seen
in
Europe.
that
life compared
with
had
seen
in
I
compared
anything
Europe.
These peoples
peoples seemed
quite independent
our cares
cares of
seemed quite
of our
of
independent of
life,
our anxious
after
wealth,
our
fear
of
death.
anxious clutching
after
our
fear
of
death.
life, our
wealth,
clutching
charity! No man in
in the
of the
the MosAnd then
then their
their charity
cities of
the cities
hunger or
at his
his neighlem Empire
died of
of hunger
or exposure
ever died
Empire ever
exposure at
neighgate l'
bour's
bour's gate!'
!

[[140]
14o ]

CHAPTER VI

Arts
Arab Civ'iiizatio1Z:
Civilization: The Arts
the Middle .dges
art was first
/irst and foremost
foremost aa religious
In the
Ages art
religious
expression. If'
identify the
the great
great orders
of
Wee instinctively
orders of
instinctively identify
expression.
art with the
the creeds
creeds that
medieval
that shaped
shaped them,
them, for
for however
medieval art
however
in their
clearly certain
certain elements in
their composition
technical
clearly
composition and technical
in
unite
common
procedure
may
unite
them
in
ancestry, they
they were
were
ancestry,
procedure may
12*
distinct entities
into distinct
moulded into
entities by
by religious
religious in/luences.
influences?**
A. H. CHRISTIE

T
LE

HE INSPIRATION of Moslem arts

to
arts owed much then
then to
odd thought
when
that
the
we
remember
the
that
thought
people. For the
the desert
hosts that
that
Arabs were an artless
artless people.
desert hosts
vanquished
originated, as
as we saw,
saw,
vanquished Greeks and Persians originated,
in
culture conspicuously
devoid of
of any
any artistic
in a
a culture
artistic tradition.
tradition.
conspicuously devoid
Indeed,
as
they
swept
across
the
civilized
of their
their
as
across
civilized
world
of
the
Indeed,
they swept
time they
carried with them aa suspicious
attitude towards
suspicious attitude
they carried
art
if not
not an aversion
to it,
not the
the graven
graven image
art if
for was not
aversion to
it, for
image
likeness of man or bird
anathema and aa decoration
bird
decoration in
in the
the likeness
silken
not
or beast
beast an affront
to the
the true
true faith,
did
not
silken
apparel
or
did
affront to
faith,
apparel
and vessels
vessels of gold,
enough for the
the mansions of
gold, proper
proper enough
bethe hereafter,
hereafter, come under religious
religious interdiction
interdiction here bethe
low?
arts
N ow in
the lands
overran they
they came upon
in the
Now
lands the
the Arabs overran
upon arts
local
highly
flourishing,
arts
with
a
long
local
history
going
a
arts
history going
long
highly flourishing,
back to
to the
the civilizations
Nile and the
the Euphrates.
Euphrates.
the Nile
of the
back
civilizations of
JL

the
an
the Arabs
Arabs-an

[ 141

THE ARABS
In the
former, Christianity
arisen aa few centuries
In
the former,
centuries
Christianity had arisen
beautiful
earlier
and
remoulded
a
new
and
beautiful
Byzantine
earlier
a
Byzantine
art;
in the
the latter
the Eastern
survived among
art in
still survived
latter the
Eastern genius
genius still
among
the
the Persians.
unbelieving Greeks
Greeks and
Persians. But the
the arts
arts of
of unbelieving
Persians, however
however superb,
better than
than heathen
heathen
little better
Persians,
superb, were little
abominations to
puritan invaders
invaders in
in the
the seventh
to the
the rude puritan
seventh
it
century.
it
was
Islam,
borne
by
these
unlettered
desert
Yet
borne
unlettered
these
desert
Islam,
by
century.
was
set
world
fuse
men,
that
destined
to
set
the
aflame,
fuse
the
that
to
the
the
destined
aflame,
men,
great artistic
bring in
artistic inheritances
the ages
in a
inheritances of
of the
a new
great
ages and bring
tradition.
tradition.
and splendid
splendid
The Prophet's
the portrayal
portrayal of
of human and
Prophet's ban on the
animal
forms
was
of
course
scarcely
propitious.
of
animal
course scarcely propitious. Indeed,
Indeed,
it
atrophied the
the fine
it atrophied
arts from the
the first.
first. Under a
a newborn
fine arts
a Greek
vigorous
there could
be no great
in a
could be
statuary in
vigorous Islam there
great statuary
or
no
more
sculptures
like
those
of
ancient
like
those
of
ancient
or Roman sense,
sense,
sculptures
of
Susa and Persepolis,
Persepolis, no great
painting such
such as
as that
that of
great painting
the later
later Italian,
or Spanish
schools.
Islam
not
schools.
the
Italian, Dutch or
Spanish
only discouraged
discouraged the
the fine
forbade them in
it forbade
in God's
fine arts,
arts, it
only
first
name,
its first rude votaries
votaries were active
active iconoclasts,
so
name, and its
iconoclasts, so
that our later
of both
both painting
painting and
later Western schools
schools of
that
able to
sculpture
not able
profit from any
any Moslem ininto profit
sculpture were not
heritance but
but grew
straight
out
of
the
classical
tradition.
out
the
heritance
of
classical
tradition.
grew straight
the period
period of
One shining
of Arab
'brightens the
shining exception
exception "brightens
civilization, and that
is architecture.
there was no
that is
architecture. Here there
civilization,
ban.
ban. Indeed,
the ritualistic
of the
the new faith
ritualistic requirements
faith
Indeed, the
requirements of
called into
called
into existence
while glorious
glorious examples
existence new needs,
needs, while
examples
cathedrals and temples
of cathedrals
temples enshrining
enshrining Christianity
Christianity and
other
other rival
rival religions
stood
before
rising
generations of
before
stood
of
rising generations
religions
Arabs,
provocatively
challenging.
it
was
that
Thus
it
that
Arabs, provocatively challenging.
Saracenic
architecture came to
have its
its birth
birth and developSaracenic architecture
to have
developin the
ment in
the Moslem congregational
place of
worship, the
of worship,
the
congregational place
Friday
mosque.
Friday mosque.
The first
first callow
the deserts
could scarcely
callow invaders
invaders from the
deserts could
scarcely
;

[142 ]

ARAB CIVILIZATION:
CIVILIZATIO~: THE ARTS
the face
of the
the architectural
have remained unimpressed
in the
face of
architectural
unimpressed in
splendour
encountered. Beyond
Euphrates, Sasthe Euphrates,
Sasthey encountered.
splendour they
Beyond the
sanian palaces
palaces stood near the
the sites
sites of
of ancient
ancient Babylonian
Babylonian
some
but
recently
decayed,
some
still
inhabited; over
over
cities,
still
inhabited
cities,
recently decayed,
the
the
the Jordan,
Decapolis formed
formed aa group
group
Jordan, the Greco-Roman Decapolis
of cities
pavements, coloncities of arcaded streets
streets and marble
marble pavements,
colonamphitheatres
and
temples;
naded forums and splendid
and
splendid amphitheatres
temples;
Alexandria, aa great
famed for
for
Alexandria,
great Greek seaport
seaport already
already famed
close
thousand years,
years, possessed
possessed one
one of
the archiarchiclose on a
a thousand
of the
tectural wonders of the
the world,
world, the
the }\.!anara,
famous
tectural
Manara, aa famous
lighthouse
built
by
Ptolemy
Suter,
which
was
destined
built
which
was
destined
by Ptolemy Suter,
lighthouse
to give
the word 'minaret'
mosque tower.
But aa
to
'minaret' to
the mosque
to the
tower. But
give the
wealth
than
these
fallen
to
the
Arabs,
still
still greater
these
had
to
fallen
the
Arabs,
greater
namely, the
the inherited
inherited artistic
artistic traditions
at the
the back
back of
traditions at
of
namely,
such
monuments-the
accumulated
technical
skill
of
the
the
such monuments
technical skill of the
conquered peoples*
peoples.
conquered
The Arabs,
before their
their emergence
emergence from Arabia,
Arabia, had
Arabs, before
raised aa mosque
mosque at
their own rude
rude fashionfashionafter their
raised
at Medina after
ing,
building with
a roof
roof of
of palm
palm
with a
unpretentious building
ing, an unpretentious
branches covered
covered with
with mud and supported
palm
trunks.
on
trunks.
branches
palm
supported
the
immediately succeeding
succeeding caliphs
the immediately
Under the
caliphs of Medina the
first mosques
mosques outside
outside Arabia sprang
up at
at Jerusalem,
first
Jerusalem,
sprang up
Fustat and Kufa,
chaste, in
in
Fustat
still, doubtless,
Kufa, still,
doubtless, simple
simple and chaste,
the
but
keeping
with
the
puritanism
of
the
times,
but
necessarily
with
the
times,
necessarily
puritanism
keeping
more elegant
excellence of
ready-made columns
of ready-made
the excellence
elegant from the
and other
material taken from the
the ruins
ruins of
other building
building material
skill of competent
classical temple
temple or
palace and from the
the skill
competent
or palace
classical
local
raised them.
them.
local craftsmen
craftsmen who raised
By the
time this
this first
first spiritual
phase of the
the caliphate
the time
caliphate
spiritual phase
By
risen
had
run its
Arab
dynasty
risen
its course
had run
course and an imperial
dynasty
imperial
at Damascus aa generation
of
had
grown
up
amid
of
Arabs
at
grown up
generation
alien cultural
influences who had become conscious of
alien
cultural influences
great
conscious of
their own deficiency,
of their
architecture, conscious
deficiency, and
great architecture,
;

[143
[143]]

THE ARABS
were
persuaded that
Islam must have
have worthy
worthy shrines,
that Islam
were persuaded
shrines,
the
as
fitting,
too,
for
her
votaries
as
of
the dominant
men
of
votaries
fitting, too, for
race. Already
Already the
the Arab conquerors
race.
conquerors of Damascus had
annexed
for their
their own use
use one
one half
half of
of the
the magnificent
magnificent
annexed for
a Roman
the
in
Christian
church
of
St
John
the
Baptist,
in
origin
St
of
church
Christian
origin a
John
Baptist,
temple, and
and before
before very
long acquired
the whole of it,
it, aa
acquired the
very long
temple,
the
in
within
precedent
to
be
followed
at
Cordova
in
Spain
within
the
at
to
Spain
precedent
century;
for
where
the
subject
peoples
to
give
up
came
to
for
the
century;
subject peoples
give up
Christianity
Islam old
old churches
churches were autoautoin favor of
of Islam
Christianity in
matically
changed
into
mosques.
The
faithful
thus
became
faithful
thus
into
matically changed
mosques.
refamiliar
with architectural
familiar with
architectural splendour
associated with resplendour associated
ligion
and formed standards
which they
they came naturally
naturally
standards which
ligion and
to adopt
in
their
own
new
religious
buildings.
to
in
their
adopt
religious buildings.
as it
The main features
the mosque,
mosque, as
it is
is known today,
today,
features of
of the
had already
already appeared
the time
time of
the first
first Damascus
of the
appeared by
by the
caliph. The building
oriented towards
towards Mecca,
Mecca, the
the
caliph.
building was oriented
in the
direction
the appropriate
wall,
facing
indicated in
which
direction indicated
wall,
appropriate
facing
the worshippers
worshippers lined
up in
long row;
row; this
this wall
wall formed
the
lined up
in a
a long
axis of the
the
the sanctuary,
midway along
the long
it was
sanctuary, and midway
long axis
along it
the mihrab,
mihrab, aa praying
praying niche
niche corresponding
corresponding somewhat to
the
to
the
apse of
of aa Christian
mosque had its
pulpit;
the apse
Christian church.
church. The mosque
its pulpit;
its
or grill
caliph worshipped),
worshipped),
screen or
the caliph
its screen
grill (within
(within which the
recalling aa chancel
its minaret,
the parallel
parallel of
of aa
chancel screen;
screen; its
minaret, the
recalling
church tower,
tower, where the
muezzin-the
the Moslem precentor,
church
the muezzin
precentor,
as
ascended to
the call
a
as it
were-ascended
to chant
to prayer
prayer-this
call to
this a
it were
chant the
or the
clappers which
which prepredistinction from church
the clappers
distinction
church bells
bells or
in the
ceded them in
usage; and its
its font
font in
the courtcourtin Christian
Christian usage
for the
yard
the necessary
necessary Moslem ablutions
before prayer.
prayer.
ablutions before
yard for
ritualistic needs were gradual
gradual developments.
developments.
These ritualistic
first mosque
mosque in
Egypt had no mihrab,
mihrab, but
but aa stone
The first
in Egypt
stone was
set up
direction of
set
up in
in the
the direction
Mecca; indeed,
the first
of Mecca;
in the
first
indeed, in
of
all
at
Medina
the
worshippers,
led
by
the
mosque
of
all
at
the
led
mosque
worshippers,
by the
Prophet, at
at first
Jerusalem after
the manner of
the
first faced
faced Jerusalem
after the
of the
Prophet,
;

[[144]
144]

CIVILIZATIOX: THE ARTS

ARAB CIVILIZATION:

Jews. So,
So, too,
too, the
the mosques
mosques built
built in
in Mesopotamia
,Mesopotamia during
during
Jews.
the next
next century
century did
did not
not adopt
adopt the
the praying
praying niche
niche of
of rival
rival
the
their
but
their
device
of
three
arched
openings.
Syria
had
own
but
device
of
three
arched
Syria
openings.
Egyptian mosque
mosque was the
the first
first to
to have
have aa pulpit,
pulpit, an
an
The Egyptian
innovation
which,
by
elevating
the
preacher,
provoked
innovation which, by elevating the preacher, provoked
the democratic
democratic wrath of
of the
the Caliph
Caliph Omar,
Omar, so
so that
that its
its
the
after
his
day.
If
the
screen
is
rightly
adoption
only
came
after
his
If
the
screen
is
only
adoption
day.
rightly
ascribed to
to his
his successor,
successor, following
following the
the lesson
lesson of
of Omar's
Omar's
ascribed
assassination, it
it belongs
belongs to
to Medina,
Medina, while
while the
the first
first minaret
minaret
assassination,
to be
be built
built is
is believed
believed to
to have
have appeared
appeared only
only at
at the
the end
end
to
of
the century,
century, its
its function
having presumably
presumably first
first been
been
function having
of the
of the
the four
four Roman towers
towers
suggested
served by
by one
one of
suggested and served
of the
the temple-church-mosque
temple-church-mosque of
Damascus.
of Damascus.
of
first it
the conquered
conquered peoples
peoples who alone
alone could
it was the
At first
could
provide
the
architects,
masons,
paviors
and
all
the
subthe
and
all the subarchitects, masons, paviors
provide
fine building
yet it
sidiary
craftsmen which fine
it was
entailed, yet
sidiary craftsmen
building entailed,
the Arabs who,
who, by
by creating
the
needs
and
supplying
the
needs
the
the
creating
supplying the
will and commandment,
brought
about
a
great
archia
about
archiwill
commandment, brought
great
time, aa new
tectural renaissance
the course
course of
in the
of time,
renaissance and,
tectural
and, in
school.
their conquests
It was,
the very
vastness of
of their
school. It
indeed, the
was, indeed,
very vastness
conquests
that
brought together
the
two
great
classical
building traclassical
that brought
the
tragreat
together
building
new
ditions
of
the
time
and
so
led
to
the
synthesis.
time
so
led
to
the
ditions of the
synthesis.
These two traditions
tradition
the stone-building
traditions were the
stone-building tradition
of
tradition
of
tradition
of the
the
the brick-and-plaster
of the
the West and the
brick-and-plaster
East.
belonging
naturally
to
the
stony
counthe
counto
East. The former,
former, belonging naturally
stony
tries
Mediterranean and beyond-Egypt,
of the
tries of
the eastern
eastern Mediterranean
beyond Egypt,
Syria,
Armenia was exemplified
exemplified
Mesopotamia, Armenia-was
Syria, North Mesopotamia,
of
stately,
naked
masonry
of
Egyptian
in
in the
the solid,
solid, stately,
temple
Egyptian temple
masonry
tradition rooted
or
Byzantine
cathedral;
the
latter
was
a
tradition
latter
a
the
or Byzantine cathedral
in
of Mesopotamia,
in the
the mud plains
extending eastwards
Mesopotamia, extending
plains of
to Samarkand,
through
Persia
and
across
the
Oxus
to
the
across
Persia
Samarkand, the
through
the appeal
old
brick
tradition,
brick
old Babylonian-Sassanian
tradition, the
appeal of
Babylonian-Sassanian
of
a mantle
which
exquisite
in its
its lighter
which lay
exquisite
shapes under a
lighter shapes
lay in
;

[ 145]

THE ARABS
tiles and mosaics,
ornamentation of
mosaics, sumptuous
of glazed
ornamentation
sumptuous
glazed tiles
interiors
painted panelling,
panelling, coloured
of stucco,
interiors of
stucco, carved and painted
decorative oriental
oriental
glass
and similar
a richly
richly decorative
similar features
features of
of a
glass and

art.
The earliest
the Umaiyyad
Umaiyyad period
period
earliest Arab architecture
architecture of
of the
re-the
Great Mosque
which was the
the rethe Great
of Damascus which
Mosque of
the
the
in
Rock
modelled church
church of
the
of
the
in
St John,
Dome
of St
John,
beJerusalem
and
the
Mosque
of
Uqba
at
Qairawan-beof
at
the
Qairawan
Uqba
Jerusalem
Mosque
to their
longed
to the
the stonework tradition,
tradition, proper
proper both
both to
their
longed to
influence
of
the
geography
and
the
prevailing
political
influence
of
the
the
prevailing political
geography
under
to
day.
\Vith
the
change
of
government
to
Baghdad,
of
the
With
Baghdad,
government
change
day.
of the
Perthe
Abbasids, the
tradition of
the Perthe brick-and-plaster
the Abbasids,
brick-and-plaster tradition
to
sians
to be the
the dominating
influence and continued
continued to
sians came to
dominating influence
first
the first
be so
the next
only did
did the
next four
so for
for the
four centuries.
centuries. Not only
be
great mosques
mosques built
in eighth-century
Mesopotamia bebebuilt in
great
eighth-century Mesopotamia
to this
this tradition,
tradition, but
but also
also those
those built
built in
in the
the imlong
long to
Egypt
and
north
Africa.
mediately
succeeding
centuries
in
in
north
Africa.
centuries
mediately succeeding
Egypt
to
This wave of
tradition, sweeping
westwards
to
of oriental
oriental tradition,
westwards
sweeping
conseinvade
the stone-building
natural consea natural
invade the
countries, was a
stone-building countries,
quence of
of the
the diffusion
governments
diffusion of
of Islam.
Islam. Autocratic
Autocratic governments
quence
sent
bodies of
in the
the arts
arts of
of one traditradisent bodies
of craftsmen
craftsmen skilled
skilled in
tion
the lands
the other;
the common language
language and
to the
tion to
lands of
of the
other the
religion encouraged
encouraged enterprising
craftsmen on their
their own
religion
enterprising craftsmen
account to
account
to move to
to courts
courts and cities
cities whose star
the
star was in
in the
the
ascendant;
the
annual
pilgrimage
brought
of
wealth
of
wealth
men
ascendant;
pilgrimage brought
as well
well as
taste as
and taste
the remotest
remotest corners
as craftsmen
craftsmen from the
corners
of the
the Arab conquests
countries and
and cities
cities having
conquests through
having
through countries
different
to be
be
different building
building traditions,
and
they
saw
what
to
traditions,
they
novel
novel or attractive
attractive was carried
back and adopted
adopted in
their
carried back
in their
own lands;
great Asiatic
the great
inroads of
of Turks
Asiatic inroads
lands; and finally,
finally, the
and Mongols
westwards from lands
later drove craftsmen
lands
craftsmen westwards
Mongols later
that
source of so
that were the
the source
inspiration. Thus
so much artistic
artistic inspiration.
across the
across
the world from Merv to
a continuous
continuous
to Marakkesh a
art.

ARAB CIVILIZATION:
CIVILIZATIOX: THE ARTS
permeation of
of common ideas
ideas brought
brought about
about an
an archiarchipermeation
of
that
that distinctive
distinctive shape
shape and
and quality
quality by
by which
which we
we
tecture
tecture

recognize it.
it.
now recognize
The foreign
foreign visitor
visitor cannot
cannot but
but be
be impressed
impressed by
by some
some
and
beautiful
the
of
of the beautiful
arresting features
features of
of Moslem
~loslem archiarchiarresting
tecture, notably,
notably, perhaps,
perhaps, massive
massive domes
domes and
and lofty
lofty minmintecture,
arets
arets that
that raise
raise themselves
themselves above
above flat-roofed
Hat-roofed cities.
cities. If
he
If he
has
has travelled
travelled as
as far
far afield
afield as
as Egypt
Egypt or
or the
the Holy
Holy Land,
Land,
Persia
Persia or
or India,
India, he will
will have experienced
experienced the
the effect
effect of
of dome
an entrancing
minaret in
in combination
combination-an
entrancing outline
outline against
against
and minaret
If north
night. If
north Africa
Africa and
and Spain
are
a brilliant
brilliant Eastern night.
a
Spain are
the
the limit
limit of
of his
his wanderings
wanderings he
he will
will have
have missed
missed the
the great
great
the circular
circular minarets,
minarets, though
though horseshoe
horseshoe arches
arches
domes and the
with aa characteristically
characteristically exaggerated
exaggerated pinch
pinch forming
forming the
the
with
and
of
wall
will
portal
of
mosque
city
wall
will
have
struck
a
novel
and
have struck a novel and
mosque
city
portal
If he has been privileged
privileged to
to enter
walled
pleasing note.
note. If
enter the
the walled
pleasing
of aa great
great mosque
mosque (intolerance
will
have
seclusion
seclusion of
will
have
(intolerance
thwarted him in
in Morocco and Persia)
and
passed
by
thwarted
Persia)
passed by way
way
of arcaded
arcaded cloisters
across the
the spacious
cloisters across
of
scene of
of
spacious courtyard,
courtyard, scene
ritualistic
he
will
there
to the
the roofed
roofed sanctuary,
he
will
ritualistic ablutions,
there
ablutions, to
sanctuary,
with aa luxuriance
have met with
of interior
effect he
luxuriance of
interior effect
he may
not
have
may not
have expected
in
the
service
of
the
puritanical
religion
in
the
the
service
of
expected
puritanical religion of
the
the Arab Prophet.
Prophet.
But it
the exteriors
the famous mosques,
is the
of the
exteriors of
it is
mosques, particuparticuat
larly
the
domed
ones,
which
are
at
first
50
impressive.
first
so
are
the
ones,
impressive. The
larly
the
a favourite
dome became,
favourite device
of the
the first,
device of
first, a
became, from the
in
Arabs.
is met with in
form it is
a traditional
traditional tomb form-it
Arabs. As a
earlier
the
Church
of
the
Holy
Sepulchre
in
of
the
the
earlier buildings,
Holy Sepulchre in
buildings,
in
for
instance-it
was
well
known,
Jerusalem,
well
known, of course,
course, in
Jerusalem, for instance it
as Roman times.
times. The
the
as far
far back as
the lands
lands of
the conquests
of the
conquests as
in
Arabs at
it
in
the
mosque
over
and
just
the
at first
it
in
first placed
just in
mosque
placed
in
it became,
front
niche.
Later
on
it
in
Egypt,
front of
of the
the praying
niche*
became,
Egypt,
praying
the
smaller tomb mosques
of the
the smaller
the central
feature of
central feature
mosques of the

[[147]
I47 ]

THE ARABS
buildcaliphs,
being given
given twin domes. The buildcaliphs, some mosques
mosques being
substruca
ing
the transition
these domes,
transition from a square
of these
domes, the
square substrucing of
to the circle,
thence to
ture
an octagonal
ture through
circle,
octagonal phase
phase and thence
through an
to
led
effected
arches
across
the
corners,
led
to
the
developthe
arches
across
effected by
corners,
developby
ment
of corbelled
corbelled masonry
devices of
of brilliant
brilliant devices
ment of
penmasonry with penarchitecture
dentive
feature for
for which Moslem architecture
a feature
dentive carvings,
carvings, a
is
of Egypt
the tomb mosque
In the
is distinguished.
Egypt one minaret
mosque of
distinguished. In
in place
later
of
two or even four,
of
fashion in
be the
later came to
to be
the fashion
four,
place
the doorway,
and this
built over
over the
this was usually
doorway, as had been
usually built
the custom in
in Iraq.
the
Iraq.
Domes under
under Islamic
Islamic development
development became infinitely
infinitely
in .
various.
'In Cairo
Cairo the
the dome form was usually
various. 'In
stilted, in
usually stilted,
Persia
bulbous or
or ovoid domes were prePersia and Turkestan bulbous
preferred,
while
in
Constantinople
the
mosques
had
low
Bywhile
in
the
ferred,
Constantinople
mosques
Byzantine
the
stone
domes
of
Egypt
were
zantine domes. Externally
stone
the
Externally
Egypt
decorated
decorated with
with lace-like
patterning in
in the
the fifteenth
lace-like patterning
fifteenth cencenin
tury:
in
Persia
they
were
covered
with
dazzling
glazed
Persia
with
covered
tury:
they
dazzling glazed
tiles. Stalactite
Stalactite pendentives
tiles.
pendentives supported
supported them,
them, and indeed
indeed
stalactites
used everywhere,
everywhere, often
often in
in excess,
excess, and
stalactites were used
sometimes hanging
hanging from the
the ceilings
ceilings like
like the
the "pendants"
"pendants"
of
of our
our English
English fan vaults.
vaults. But
But whereas
whereas the
the Saracen
Saracen dome
had little
little influence
influence on our
Renaissance domes in
in the
the West,
\Vest,
our Renaissance
it
it seems
seems possible
possible that
that Muhammadan minarets
minarets of
of the
the gracegraceful
ful type,
type, found
found especially
especially in
in Cairene
buildings of
of the
the fourCairene buildings
fourteenth
teenth and fifteenth
fifteenth centuries,
centuries, may
may have
have influenced
influenced the
the dedelater
of
the
sign of the later Renaissance
Renaissance campanili
campanili of
of Italy,
Italy, and hence
hence
sign
13 *
some of
of Wren's
Wren's fine
fine city
city steeples.'
steeples.'18*
One of
of the
the notable
notable characteristics
characteristics of
of the
the Persian
Persian traditradition
tion was its
its roundnesses.
roundnesses. The minarets
minarets were
were round
round in
in concontrast
trast to
to the
the square
square type
type of
of north
north Africa
Africa and Spain;
Spain; the
the
corners
of walls
walls were rounded,
rounded, too,
too, this
this aa relic,
relic, of
of course,
course,
corners of
of
of aa mud-brick
mud-brick ancestry
ancestry when sharp
sharp corners,
corners, being
being most
most
to
susceptible
to
damage,
must
be
avoided.
But
with
the
be avoided. But with the
susceptible
damage,

[ 148 J

By permission of the artist.

THE TOMB MOSQUE OF SULTAN BARQUQ

from a drawing by Marlin S. Briggs.

(Fisher Unwin.)

THE ARABS
to the stone
stone
spread
of the
the round and chamfered forms to
spread of
stone
in
and
so
countries they
so persisted
persisted and
countries
copied in stone
they were copied
the later
stone buildings
characteristic of the
Islam.
became characteristic
later stone
buildings of Islam.
is credited
architecture is
credited by
This feature
by scholars
of Arab architecture
scholars
feature of
line of developments
a notable
with having
notable line
developments which
begotten a
having begotten
a long
is not a
to flourish,
Europe. 'It
were to
in Europe.
*It is
flourish, too,
too, in
long step,'
step,'
22 *
a
Ernest
Richmond,22*
'to
evolve
from
a
corner
says
rounded
Ernest
'to
evolve
corner
Richmond,
says
of an engaged
the
the conception
conception of
shaft, and from an engaged
engaged
engaged shaft,
shaft
to conceive
independent corner
corner colshaft to
conceive the
device of an independent
colthe device
features of Moslem architecture
of which
architecture
which are features
umn, both
both of
umn,
in brick
as in
the
from very
very early
early times,
times, first
brick as
in the
first appearing
appearing in
brick
of
the
then
the corners
corners of the brick piers
engaged shafts
piers; then In
in
at the
shafts at
engaged
in stone
shafts in
stone or in
the
independent shafts
in marble
the form of
of independent
recesses
at the
... or at
at any
the angles
placed
angles of entrance recesses
any
placed at
be
considered
corner
their appearance
might
considered
pleascorner where their
pleasappearance might
either side
side of a mihrab or on
for instance,
instance, on either
ing, as,
as, for
ing,
a window in
in a
minaret.'
a minaret.'
either
side of
either side
of a
this introduction
introduction of engaged
to this
the
And to
shafts at
at the
engaged shafts
of columns the
angles
piers and edges
vaultthe system
of vaultof piers
edges of
system of
angles of
later
in
our
later
Gothic
architecture
is
held
ing
so
important
in
so
architecture
is
held
important
ing
to
be under
under aa great
great debt.
based
on
intersecting
to be
based
debt. Vaulting,
Vaulting,
intersecting
in Armenia or Persia,
Persia,
arches,
arches, may
originally have evolved in
may originally
its way
into the
ecclesiastical
it seems to
to have found its
way into
the ecclesiastical
but it
but
Europe by
way
of
Spain,
examples
architecture
of Europe
where
architecture of
Spain,
by way
examples
of it
to immediately
of
belong to
preceding
centuries.
Gothic
it belong
centuries.
Gothic
Immediately preceding
is held
to have derived
its pointed
pointed
architecture
architecture Is
derived its
held by
by some to
battlements
arch,
multifoil windows and ornamental battlements
its multifoil
arch, its
from the
the East,
East, while
while its
its tracery
patterning on surfaces
is
surfaces is
tracery patterning
feature of the
the earlier
period. The horseshoe
horseshoe
also aa feature
earlier Arab period.
also
suited best
best perhaps
to low squat
buildings and suparch,
perhaps to
arch, suited
squat buildings
supthe
of
pillars,
both
features
so
char
..
ported
on
the
slenderest
slenderest
both
features
so
of
charported
pillars,
no
acteristic
of Arab buildings,
made
appeal
to
acteristic of
to
buildings,
appeal
for
European architects
their desire
contemporary
architects with
with their
desire for
contemporary European
;

[[150]
15 0 ]

LA::\IP OF THE MOSQUE

::\IOSQVE
SANCTUARY SCREEN AND LAMP
OF SULTAN BARQUQ: extra
extra muros.
muros.
(From
L'Art Arabe,
Arabe, Presse
PresSf d'Avennfs]
d'drennrs)
(From L'Art

ARAB CIVILIZATIOX:
CIVILIZATION: THE ARTS
perpendicular forms. The l\foslem
architects paid
paid the
the
Moslem architects
perpendicular
penalty for their
their too-slender
by having
having to
to fortify
fortify
too-slender supports
penalty
supports by
them with straight
timber rods
rods extending
from
column
to
from
column
to
straight timber
extending
column to us an eyesore
column-to
even
in
some
of
their
most
in
even
of
their
most
eyesore
famous monuments.
Bright and garish
garish decoration,
decoration, aa characteristic
of Mos~fos
characteristic of
Bright
lem architecture
in Africa
Africa and Spain
as
well
as
in
Asia,
architecture in
as
well
as
in
Spain
Asia,
is
Perso-Mesopotamian ancestry.
It sprang
from the
the
is of Perso-Mesopotamian
ancestry. It
sprang from
of naked
naked brick
brick and
a mantle for
need of a
for inferior
inferior surfaces
surfaces of
and
timber. Mosques
Mosques everywhere,
the
mosque
of
the
timber.
the
of
the
Dome
everywhere,
mosque
of the
the Rock in
in Jerusalem,
as well
well as
as the
the :Mosques
of Ali
All
Jerusalem, as
Mosques of
at
Najaf and Husain in
Kerbela, are
in Kerbela,
at Najaf
are thus
clothed in
thus clothed
in a
a
Persian dress.
dress. In
In Jerusalem,
Jerusalem, for
for instance,
instance, the
luxurious Persian
luxurious
the
covered with glazed
glazed tiles,
tiles, the
the substructure
of glass
is covered
dome is
substructure of
glass
mosaics, edged
with dados of
of marble
marble with
with windows of
of
mosaics,
edged with
coloured
with intricate
traceries;; elsewhere
elsewhere
filled with
Intricate traceries
coloured glass
glass or filled
completely covered
covered with
gold. For devices
devices
often completely
are often
with gold.
domes are
the crafts
crafts of wood carver
metalworker, of
so splendid
splendid the
carver and metalworker,
of
so
workers in
plaster, mosaics
mosaics and marble,
marble, makers of
of glazed
in plaster,
workers
glazed
earthenware and tilers
tilers must have been at
at aa high
high degree
degree
earthenware
of
perfection, indeed
indeed one that
that has
perhaps never
never been
has perhaps
of perfection,
surpassed.
surpassed.
In the
the matter
matter of
craftsmen, forthe craftsmen,
fordecorative design
In
of decorative
design the
driven
by religion
religion to
copy naturalistic
naturalistic forms,
bidden by
to copy
bidden
forms, were driven
to seek
seek expression
in other
other channels.
a prolific
prolific
channels. Thus came a
to
expression in
invention
patterns, at
geometrical, later
later in
first geometrical,
in
at first
of new patterns,
invention of
floral
patterns of
of great
intricacy,
delicacy
and
floral traceries,
traceries, patterns
Intricacy,
delicacy
great
in mosaics,
charm which
were used
used in
stucco, in
in glazed
glazed tiles
tiles in
mosaics,
in stucco,
which were
ornaThis
other
wood
and
metal
and
every
other
medium.
ornain
in
and metal
every
mentation gave
characteristic imprint
to the
Its most characteristic
mentation
imprint to
gave its
most
it
Is
Moslem minor
minor arts.
arts. By
its
name,
'arabesque',
it
is
its
name, 'arabesque',
By
an
familiar
to
us.
Arabic
character,
exquisite
ornaThe
Arabic
familiar to us.
character,
exquisite
ment in
angular Kufic
Kufic and other
other variavariaof angular
in itself,
ment
itself, susceptible
susceptible of

[ lSI]

THE ARABS
tion,
design. The craftsmen of
another favourite
favourite design.
tion, was another
imitated it
so came unmedieval
Europe flatteringly
it and so
unmedieval Europe
flatteringly imitated
the coin
of aa Christian
Christian king
king and the
wittingly
to adorn the
coin of
the
wittingly to
cross
of aa Christian
with aa characteristic
Christian country
characteristic Islamic
Islamic
cross of
country with
text
from
the
Qur'an.
the
text
Qur'an.
arPersian influences
to survive
in Egyptian
Egyptian arinfluences continued
survive in
Persian
continued to
after the
the Abbasid yoke
chitecture
under the
the Fatimids
Fatimids even after
chitecture under
yoke
the great
the
been thrown off.
of the
off. One of
had been
of the
great monuments of
period, the
the Al
AI Azhar Mosque,
famous today
today as
as the
the TheoMosque, famous
period,
logical
University
of
Cairo,
shows
this
with
its
tiled
bands
this
with
its
tiled
of
Cairo,
logical University
of
Kufic inscriptions
round
the
minaret,
gilded
bands
of
of Kufic
bands
round
the
of
minaret, gilded
inscriptions
stucco
inscriptions in
the interior
pierced arabesques
in
stucco inscriptions
in the
interior and pierced
arabesques in
the
of
the
openings.
aa
window
But
the stone
stone grills
the
when
of
openings.
grills
of
and
the
Seljuq
invasion
of
Asia
Kurdish dynasty
succeeded
succeeded
invasion
Kurdish
the
dynasty
Seljuq
Christians
Minor drove
drove stone-building
craftsmen, both
both Christians
stone-building craftsmen,
to take
in Egypt,
Egypt, there
there was aa gradual
and Moslems,
take refuge
and
Moslems, to
refuge in
gradual
tradition.
creeping
back
to
the
ancient
stone
tradition.
back
the
to
ancient
stone
creeping
to appear,
the
Two new mosque
thence to
mosque forms were thence
appear, the
theological school
the tomb mosque.
mosque. In the
the
school mosque
theological
mosque and the
mosques the
came to
undergo architectural
the fac;ade
to undergo
architectural
tomb mosques
fagade came
in the
treatment; stone
the form of
of giant
stone entrances
entrances in
treatment
giant archways
archways
the roof
of these
these being
being beautiwere recessed
recessed in
in the
roof of
the walls,
beautiwalls, the
fully
the school
in corbelled
in the
corbelled stonework.
stonework. While in
school
fully shaped
shaped in
old
the
rafters
roof
on
rafters
gave
place
to
the
mosque
the
old
flat
flat
to
the
gave place
mosque
vaulted roof
roof of
This
school-mosque
innovaThis
of stone
stone ancestry.
innovavaulted
ancestry.
school-mosque
tion,
associated with
with the
short-lived dynasty
founded by
the short-lived
tion, associated
dynasty founded
by
to teach
the famous
famous Saladin,
intended to
teach Sunni
rites and
Sunni rites
the
Saladin, was intended
Shi'a tenets
tenets of its
to
purge Egypt
the Shi'a
its late
Fatimid
late Fatimid
to purge
Egypt of the
The
visitor
to
Morocco
will
doubtless
also
rulers.
visitor to
will doubtless also recall
rulers.
recall
madarsas of
the
the famous madarsas
of Fez and Marakkesh. The long
long
axis
the building
building was now aligned
aligned differently,
the
shrine
axis of
of the
the
shrine
differently,
to the
courtyard, around
around which
which stubeing subordinated
subordinated to
the courtyard,
stubeing
cells were placed,
dents'
placed, and another
feature, the
the barrel
barrel
dents' cells
another feature,
;

[[152]
15 2 ]

ARAB CIVILIZATION:
CIVILIZATIO~: THE ARTS
vault of the
the school mosque,
mosque, came henceforth
be assohenceforth to
to be
assoin
with
education.
ciated in Islam with education.
ciated
Under the
the next dynasty
Egypt came to
build entirely
to build
in
dynasty Egypt
entirely in
the
ornamental
stone,
the
designs
of
the
brick-andof
the
stone, turning
brick-andturning
designs
traditions of the
plaster traditions
the Persians
Persians into
the new medium.
medium.
into the
plaster
this age-when
It
It was this
hundred and
years
and fifty
age when for two hundred
fifty years
was
ruled
the
slave
Egypt
ruled
by
the
slave
dynasty
of
l\1amlukes
of
of
of
Mamlukes
by
Egypt
dynasty
Turkish and Circassian blood
blood-that
enough
conthat oddly
oddly enough constitutes her age
stitutes
architectural splendour.
age of greatest
greatest architectural
splendour. The
final
final expulsion
expulsion of the
the crusaders,
for centuries
centuries had
crusaders, who for
driven a wedge
wedge between Egypt
Egypt and Asia
brought
driven
Asia lVIinor,
Minor, brought
Mamlukes
into
the
into touch
touch both
both with
with the
the Christian
the
Christian archiarchiof Palestine
Palestine and Syria
architecture
tecture of
tecture
with Seljuq
architecture
Syria and with
Seljuq
the splendid
beyond, where the
of
traditions of
splendid stone-building
beyond,
stone-building traditions
Byzantines survived.
this, together
together
Armenians and Byzantines
survived. And this,
with the
the great
wealth which the
the Mamlukes derived
derived from
great wealth
the
control of
of all
trade between
between Europe
and
the Eastall trade
the control
the
East
Europe
of
route
for
the Cape
of
Good
Hope
route
had
not
yet
been
disfor the
not
disHope
Cape
yet
covered-provided
the means of
of raising
in Cairo
Cairo (A.D.
covered provided the
raising in
(A.IX
1250-1500)
a
series
of
which,
according
to
a
series
of
monuments
which,
12501500)
according to
22 *
the brilliant
brilliant analysis
analysis of
great authority,22*
is
unsura great
is
of a
unsurthe
authority,
passed in
architecture. The glory
of Cairo came
in Moslem architecture.
glory of
passed
to
with its
by the
the Turks,
hence an
its conquest
to an end with
Turks, and hence
conquest by
for
army
of
medieval
craftsmen
turned
for
a
livelihood,
as
as
turned
medieval
of
livelihood,
army
arisen
by
Islamic
precedent,
to
the
court
that
had
arisennew
court
that
the
to
by Islamic precedent,
Constantinople.
Constantinople.
In Palestine
Palestine and Syria
the crusades
buildthe buildcrusades brought
In
brought the
Syria the
end
the
ing
of
fine
mosques
to
a
complete
standstill.
From
the
standstill.
to
a
of
fine
complete
mosques
ing
the
twelfth
of
the ninth
ninth to
to the
the end
end of
of the twelfth century
of the
military
century military
exarchitecture
monopolized the
the scene,
the only
notable exarchitecture monopolized
scene, the
only notable
the
the
ception
being
the
reconstruction
of
the
mosque
of
the
of
reconstruction
the
mosque
ception being
the tenth
Dome of
in Jerusalem,
Jerusalem, aa work of the
of the
the Rock in
the
defensive walls
walls and solid
century.
solid fortresses
fortresses kept
But defensive
kept the
century. But

[[153]
153]

THE ARABS
masons fully
occupied, especially
those next
next two
masons
during those
fully occupied,
especially during
being overrun by
centuries
the Holy
Chriscenturies when the
by ChrisHoly Land was being
the West.
\Vest.
tian invaders
invaders from the
tian
If
Frankish builders,
builders, brought
brought by
by the
the crusaders,
If the
the Prankish
crusaders, made
of churches
churches and military
contributions in
the form of
in the
contributions
works,
military works,
a
monuments
of the
of
the
they
also
learned
a
good
deal
from
the
deal
the
also
learned
good
they
novel
ideas
carried~
back
novel
ideas
and
practices
Saracen.s,
they
and
Saracens,
practices
they carried^back
feature was machieolation.
to
Eur~e. One such
such _feature
to Eurbpe.
machicolation. The
in
machicoulis consisted
of aa platform
platform projecting
proj eeting out
out high
consisted of
machicoulis
high in
in
the
fortress or
or city
rampart
in
whieh
a
trapof a
which
was
a
a fortress
the wall
wall of
city rampart
trapor arrows could
could be
door through
through which
which boiling
boiling oil
oil or
be dropped
dropped
an enemy.
This somewhat inhospitable
on an
device seems
seems
inhospitable device
enemy. This
in a
have appeared
appeared in
gateway tower
tower of
first
a gateway
of the
the city
walls
first to
to have
city walls
of
Cairo, when constructed
constructed anew of
by
the
famous
of stone,
the
of Cairo,
stone, by
al J
umali (eleventh
Armenian general,
general, Badr al
Jumali
(eleventh century),
century),
but it
effective aa feature
to be
be missed
neat and effective
feature to
it was too
missed by
too neat
but
by
the
to make its
its appearance
the
crusaders and soon was to
the crusaders
in the
appearance in
medieval
architecture of
of Winchester
Winchester and Norwich,
Norwich, where
medieval architecture
it survives
to this
this day.
day. Another borrowing
it
our
survives to
found in
in our
borrowing found
is the
medieval castles
castles is
the crooked
crooked entrance
entrance inside
Inside the
medieval
the gategateto curb
curb the
the attackers'
they
way,
attackers' onslaught
way, designed
designed to
onslaught when they
a feature
the gate,
had gained
feature the
to the
the visitor
of
visitor to
the citadel
citadel of
gate, a
gained the
Aleppo (ascribed
(ascribed largely
to Saladin)
will have
have seen
the
seen the
largely to
Aleppo
Saladin) will
of and the
the visitor
visitor to
to the
the Alhambra at
prototype of
at Granada
prototype
may
recall.
recall.
may
period, judged
judged
Domestic architecture
the Arab period,
architecture during
Domestic
during the
its
does
not
not
seem
to
have
been
particularly
by
its
relics,
does
to
been
noterelics,
by
particularly noteThe
first
first
camps
of
Kufa
and
Basrah
worthy.
Arab
of
Basrah
had
worthy*
camps
been made of
of reeds,
reeds, probably
probably aa collection
of
local
madhifs,
been
collection of local madhifs,
a thatched
tunnel of hayrick-like
hayrick-like proportions
proportions such
thatched tunnel
are
such as
as are
met with
with nowadays
nowadays as
as guesthouses
guesthouses among
the
marsh
Arabs
the
Arabs
marsh
among
of
of the
the lower Euphrates.
Euphrates. But
But later
peacetime generations
later peacetime
generations
of Arabs soon took
took to
to the
the manner of
of their
betterof living
their betterliving of

[[154]
154 ]

ARAB CIVILIZATION:
CIVILIZATIO~: THE ARTS
housed
housed urban
urban subjects.
subjects. The
The second
second Abbasid
Abbasid caliph,
caliph, in
in AJX
A.D.
7 62 , founded the
the capital
capital city
city of
of Baghdad,
Baghdad, aa city
city of
of yellow
yellow
762,
brick, which
which grew
grew to
to be
be one
one of
of the
the most
most splendid
splendid metropmetrop~
brick,
olises
olises of
of the
the world and remained
remained so
so for
for nearly
nearly five
five hunhuntill
dred years
the
years till the Mongols
Mongols came and
and utterly
utterly destroyed
destroyed it.
it.
Mesopotamian domestic
domestic architecture
architecture was
was naturally
naturally Asiatic
Asiatic
Mesopotamian
the houses
houses of
of Syrian
Syrian and
and Egyptian
Egyptian
in feeling,
feeling, whereas
whereas the
in
of east
east Mediterranean
Mediterranean type.
type. But
But rich
rich men in
in
Arabs were of
the spacious
spacious days
days of
of the
the Abbasids
Abbasids in
in Mesopotomia,
l\iesopotomia, the
the
the
Fatimids and Mamlukes in
in Egypt
Egypt and
and the
the Umaiyyads
Umaiyyads in
in
Fatimids
built
for
Spain
built
palaces
for
themselves
which
developed
comthemselves
which
palaces
Spain
developed common features.
features.
typical Moslem house
house of
the more pretentious
pretentious sort
sort
The typical
of the
built round
round double
double courtyards,
courtyards, the
the outer
outer aa public
public one
one
was built
where only
only men foregathered
during
the
day,
the
inner
foregathered during the day, the inner
reserved for
aa private
private one reserved
for domestic
domestic life.
In origin
this arlife. In
arorigin this
to
rangement
is
thought
to
have
been
Persian
and
to
have
is
have
Persian
and
to
have
thought
rangement
times when
when
been
into Egypt
introduced into
been introduced
Abbasid times
Egypt during
during Abbasid
Persian
paramount and Cairo
in for
Cairo went
influence was paramount
Persian influence
went in
for
the prototype
if the
Persian
of
this
house
is
fashions. But if
of
this
Persian fashions.
house
is
prototype
it
a
found
it
was
a
design
eminently
Sassanian palaces
in old
old Sassanian
found in
palaces
design eminently
suited
social organization
of the
the times
its
the social
times with
with its
suited to
to the
organization of
segregation
of the
the house
house was
of women. The women's part
part of
segregation of
in the
the exterior
thus screening
devoid
exterior walls,
of windows in
devoid of
walls, thus
screening
to
them from outside
attention. Their windows opened
outside attention.
opened on to
filled with
with
the
then must be filled
even then
the interior
interior courtyard
courtyard and even
to
ensure
lattice
or
metal
grills
to
ensure
a
metal
or plaster
or
lattice woodwork or
grills
plaster
of
the
maximum of
In
the
decoration
of
the
house
glazed
In
the
decoration
of privacy.
glazed
privacy.
a favourite
favourite feature,
coloured
in bright
tiles in
coloured tiles
feature,
designs were a
bright designs
fronts
the fronts
as
for facing
Persia and Spain,
in Persia
are in
as they
still are
facing the
Spain, for
they still
courtfor
of
garden
seats
and
fountains
and
for
paving
fountains
seats
of houses,
houses, garden
paving courtyards.
The
Moorish
palace
of
Alhambra,
one
of
the
few
of
Alhambra,
palace
yards.
in
era in Spain,
remaining
of the
the Moslem era
Spain,
remaining worthy
worthy monuments of

[ ISS]

THE ARABS
In grandiose
but
precious one,
preserves in
a very
but a
one, preserves
grandiose form some
very precious
domestic
the Arabs:
of
the
architecture
of the
Arabs
of
elements of the domestic architecture of
the elements
of the
inthe lavishly
the
unimpressive exterior,
the severe,
exterior, the
severe, unimpressive
lavishly ornate inenclosed
cartiled
teriors,
open
tiled
courtyards
enclosed
by
arcading
carteriors, open
courtyards
by arcading
in exquisite
walls in
stucco panelling,
ried
panelling,
slender columns,
ried on
on slender
columns, walls
exquisite stucco
timbered ceilings,
coloured and gilded,
timbered
carved, coloured
gilded, window
ceilings, carved,
slabs
stone
of
pierced
traceries.
openings
filled
with
stone
slabs
filled
pierced traceries.
openings
architecture
are
in
Moslem
of
architecture
are
found today
Offshoots
of
Offshoots
today in
as that
that of the
the National Spanish
such
differing idiom as
such differing
Spanish School
and that
the palaces
palaces of many
ruling
princes
in India*
India.
that of
of the
many ruling princes in
about
variation
Regional
influences
have
naturally
brought
about
variation
influences
naturally brought
Regional
in a
school of
of architecture
architecture that
that has
has persisted
persisted for aa thouthouin
a school
encircled the
the globe.
sand years
years and well-nigh
well-nigh half
half encircled
globe. In
closer affinities
affinities with
the glorious
India the
with PerPerIndia
Taj Mahal has closer
glorious Taj
is
different
sia
than
with
Egypt
and
yet
is
different
from
both;
in
with
sia than
both; in
yet
Egypt
the influences
influences are
are largely
Turkey
largely Armenian and ByzanByzanTurkey the
in Morocco and Spain
the
the
two
glorious
square
minatine; in
tine;
Spain
glorious square minaSeville
the
Tower
the
of
Seville
and
the
Qasbah
of
rets,
the
Giraldo
of
rets,
close kindred,
as are
Rabat,
are obviously
kindred, as
are cusped
Rabat, are
obviously close
cusped and
horseshoe arches.
the fivefold
arches. Thus comes about
about the
horseshoe
fivefold Saracenic
Saracenic
forms
Perbuilding
forms-Syro-Egyptian,
Hispano-Moresque,
building
Syro-Egyptian, Hispano-Moresque, Persian,
Ottoman
and
Indo-Saracenic.
Lido-Saracenic.
sian,
arts of
As regards
minor arts
the Arab period,
period, these,
the minor
of the
these,
regards the
a large
in
measure,
linked
up
with
fine
architecture,
in a
were
linked
fine
with
measure,
architecture,
large
up
indifference of
so that
of the
that the
the early
phase
so
the first
first Arabs was a
a phase
early indifference
that
that quickly
passed. Within
\Vithin aa generation
generation of the
the conquests
quickly passed.
conquests
court of Damascus,
have seen,
risen
a kingly
kingly court
as we have
Damascus, as
seen, had risen
to
to take
take the place
place of
the simple
dwellings
of
the
Medina
of the
of
the
simple dwellings
a century
caliphs
more, and the
the palaces
palaces of
Baghdad had
of Baghdad
caliphs;j a
century more,
as greatly
excelled the
courts of
of Damascus.
as
greatly excelled
the courts
Damascus. Thence an
an
affluent leisured
class of
of Arabs grew
afHuent
leisured class
up
with
a
taste
for
a
with
taste
for
grew up
the
the ancient
ancient refinements
refinements of their
their un-Arabian
un-Arabian surroundings.
surroundings.
A 'court
'court art'
in being
art' was already
before the
the Dasmascus
already in
being before
:

[ IS6 ]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE ARTS

banqueting vessels
and
caliphate
luxurious banqueting
vessels and
decayed, and luxurious
caliphate decayed,
rich
textile furnishings
furnishings had come to
to be
be regarded
regarded with
with aa
rich textile
tolerant eye.
eye.
friendly
friendly and tolerant
But it
the removal of
government from
it was the
of the
the seat
seat of
of government
from
to Persian Baghdad,
Arab Damascus to
Baghdad, in
the
second
century
in the second century
after
the Prophet,
that marked the
the establishment
of aa real
real
after the
establishment of
Prophet, that
tradition.
the
luxury
of
the
henceforth adopted
tradition. Moslems henceforth
the
of
the
adopted
luxury
Sassanian
delighted in
in exquisitely
wrought
inheritance and delighted
Sassanian inheritance
exquisitely wrought
gold
vessels of
bronze and
brass and
silver plates,
of bronze
and brass
and
plates, vessels
gold and silver
with
copper
inlaid
with
precious
metals,
painted
pottery,
sumpinlaid
metals,
precious
copper
painted pottery, sumpcarved and
and painted
painted ivories,
ivories, intuous silks
silks and brocades,
tuous
inbrocades, carved
scribed
with water-colour
water-colour miniatures
miniatures and
and the
the
scribed manuscripts
manuscripts with
like.
a
and
great
like. The Arabs had embarked upon
new
a
adupon
great adventure,
which
the
puritans
among
them
must
have
rethe
have
remust
venture,
puritans among
garded
a
little
dubiously,
for
they
were
shaping
a
course
a
little
a
course
dubiously, for they
garded
shaping
close
to the
winds of
of early
early orthodoxy.
the winds
close hauled to
orthodoxy. The inspirainspiraadventure came from the
Persians, for
for the
the
tion for
that adventure
tion
for that
the Persians,
Persians
nation of
had been
been aa
of artists
Persians were a nation
as the
artists as
the Arabs had
nation
warriors.
of warriors*
nation of
Carpet
weaving, aa cottage
cottage handicraft
handicraft among
among the
the PerPerCarpet weaving,
to
attain
eminence.
Beautiful
examples
sians,
was
world
Beautiful
to
eminence.
attain
sians,
examples
of
be made for
the great
to be
for the
of the
art came in
in time
time to
the art
great mosques.
mosques.
There,
colours mellowed with
with age,
their smooth
their colours
There, their
age, and their
sensuous
the naked
naked feet
multifeet of
of multisensuous quality
by the
quality was enhanced by
tudinous
worshippers. In
the diwans
of the
the well-to-do
the
well-to-do the
In the
diwans of
tudinous worshippers.
walls were hung
hung with
of shimmering
with carpets
walls
silk, infinitely
infinitely
shimmering silk,
carpets of
of wool
various in
in colour
colour and design,
design, though
carpets of
various
though carpets
served
the commonest
commonest ends
ends as
coverings; there
there were
floor coverings;
as floor
served the
tiny prayer
rugs, too,
were drawn out
out of
of their
their closets
closets
that were
too, that
tiny
prayer rugs,
chaste and sober,
and unrolled
unrolled five
five times
times aa day,
these more chaste
sober,
day, these
as suited
sacred purpose.
as
purpose.
their sacred
suited their
earliest to
Among
the minor arts
that Europe
Europe came earliest
to adadarts that
Among the
the
Moslems.
Lurof
mire,
perhaps, was the
metalwork of the
Lurthe metalwork
mire, perhaps,

[[157]
157 ]

THE ARABS
istan,
bronzes, must have
have enjoyed
its mysterious
with its
istan, with
mysterious bronzes,
enjoyed
ancient
the Mosul school,
too, shaped
by Armenian
ancient fame,
school, too,
fame, the
shaped by
and
Persian influences,
flourished from very
and Persian
influences, had flourished
very early
early
times.
It
continued
to
prosper
under
the
until the
the
Arabs
until
times. It continued to prosper under the
Mongolian
invasion scattered
craftsmen westwards
westwards
its craftsmen
scattered its
Mongolian invasion
at Damascus and
and
to the
the promotion
promotion of
a school
and an
an
of a
school at
and led
led to
most characteristic
product
Egyptian
revival at
characteristic product
Cairo. The most
at Cairo.
Egyptian revival
of
these schools
an inlay
inlay work of
of gold
gold and silver
in
schools was an
silver in
of these
brass
bronze, aa process
which
Europe
learned
late
from
late
which
learned
or bronze,
from
brass or
Europe
process
Damascus and
and chose
as 'damascening.'
chose to
to remember as
'damascening.' Domestic utensils
utensils of
the house
the Arab period,
period, such
as
of the
house of
of the
such as
mestic
vases,
candlesticks,
writing
boxes,
were
commonly
in
were
in
made
vases, candlesticks, writing boxes,
commonly
metal had first
first to
to be
to the
the
this work.
work. The common metal
cast to
this
be cast
it
was
then
incised
with
delicate
traceries
of
floral
shape;
traceries
then
incised
with
delicate
of
it
floral
was
shape
designs,
geometrical arabesques,
possibly aa familiar
coupfamiliar coupdesigns, geometrical
arabesques, possibly
let
Arabic lettering,
were :filled
in with
with
filled in
these were
let in
in ornate
ornate Arabic
lettering, and these
precious metal.
metal. Metal
black mastic
thread of
a thread
of the
black
mastic and a
the precious
enamelling
with colours,
however, such
the cloisonne
such as
as the
cloisonne
colours, however,
enamelling with
work of
Chinese, was
was not
not aa Moslem handicraft.
handicraft. Schools
Schools
of the
the Chinese,
in
India
and
Spain,
but
too
late in
in
did
up
later
both
later
in
but
too
did spring
both
India
late
Spain,
spring up
the day
to be
be regarded
regarded as
as traditional
traditional Moslem art.
the
art. Spain,
Spain,
day to
arts:
however, like
Egypt, shared
the other
other Moslem arts
like Egypt,
shared in
in all
all the
however,
the
were famous,
and
goldsmiths
the swordmakers of
of Toledo were
famous,
goldsmiths
and silversmiths
European renown in
the Middle
in the
silversmiths enjoyed
enjoyed European
Ages; even
today the
the designs
designs of
of earrings
even today
suchlike
Ages;
earrings and suchlike
seen
in
gold
filigree
seen
in
the
Spanish
shopwindows
jewelry
in
in
the
gold filigree
jewelry
Spanish shopwindows
oriental affinities.
are
are strongly
of oriental
affinities.
suggestive of
strongly suggestive
If
found no
no favour
favour in
the Arab
Arab
If enamelling
in the
enamelling on metal found
period,
enamelling
on
glass
been
an
old
industry
both
had
an
been
old
glass
period, enamelling
industry both
in Syria
in
and
Mesopotamia,
and
beautiful
specimens
and
beautiful specimens conconMesopotamia,
Syria
tinued to
be made throughout
times. 1 A notable
notable
tinued
to be
Islamic times.
throughout Islamic
;

1
1Glass
thought to
to have
their way
way into
into Europe
Europe
Glass mirrors,
found their
are thought
have found
mirrors, too,
too, are
from the
East.
the Arab East

r -__^ 0 '
r

MOSLEM MINOR ARTS:

ARTS: GLASS LAMP OF FOURTEENTH CENTURY,
IN THE MAUSOLEUM OF
CENTURY, IN
TAKI-UD-DIN.
TAKI-UD-DIN.
(By
British Museum)
the Bntllk
Museum)
of the
courtesy of
(By COl/rtesy

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE ARTS

use
use was

in the
the giant
in
hanging lamps
the mosques.
mosques. These
of the
These
giant hanging
lamps of
chains from the
hung on massive chains
the ceiling,
candelabralike,
hung
ceiling, candelabralike,
circle of coloured
coloured bowls,
a circle
bowls, faintly
illumined from
within,
from within,
faintly illumined
to
to
the
sanctuary
its
dim
religious
light.
Bottles
which gave
its
dim
Bottles
gave
sanctuary
religious light.
other popular
and beakers
beakers were other
popular forms
enamelled glassglassforms of
of enamelled
ware. The Moslem nobility
were accustomed
to emblazon
accustomed to
emblazon
nobility were
their heraldic
In coloured
their
heraldic arms in
coloured enamels
'Their
enamels on
on these.
these. 'Their
such figures
use of such
figures influenced
the development
of
Western
influenced the
development of Western
heraldry which,
which, during
evolved into
into aa syssysthe crusades,
crusades, evolved
heraldry
during the
tematic science
with aa peculiar
peculiar nomenclature
nomenclature of
science with
tematic
its own.
of its
own. In
In
this the
the technical
for blue,
blue, azure,
azure, is
is derived
the
technical term for
this
derived from
from the
the blue
blue stone
lazuli.
Persian
Persian word denoting
stone called
called lapis
denoting the
lapis lazuli.
other interesting
There are
between European
European and
are other
links between
and
interesting links
oriental
such
as
that
curious
figure
the
doublesuch
as
oriental heraldry,
that
curious
the
doubleheraldry,
figure
headed eagle,
eagle, which
which makes its
its first
remote
first appearance
in remote
appearance in
Hittite monuments. It
It became
became'the
badge of
of
antiquity
the badge
antiquity on Hittite
in
the Seljuq
Sultans
early
in
the
twelfth
century,
and
in
the
Sultans
the
twelfth
the
and
in
the
early
century,
Seljuq
of the
the Holy
Holy Roman
fourteenth
the blazon
as the
fourteenth was adopted
blazon of
adopted as
12 *
Emperors.
'12*
Emperors.'
Painted earthenware and pottery
were other
Painted
other crafts,
crafts,
pottery were
long
famous
in
Egypt
Persia,
that
underwent
their
and
in
that
underwent
their
Persia,
Egypt
long
own Islamic
Islamic development.
Centres
sprang
up
from
end
end
development. Centres sprang up
to
of the
conquests, devoted
especially to
to tiletiledevoted especially
the Arab conquests,
to end
end of
making
to
satisfy
the
demands
of
religious
and
domestic
of
domestic
to
the
religious
satisfy
making
architecture.
Beautiful faience
faience appeared,
too, an elegant
architecture. Beautiful
elegant
appeared, too,
floral
design making
making Damascus work celebrated,
celebrated, though
though
floral design
Persian
work, in
draughtsmanship and colouring
colouring
in which draughtsmanship
Persian work,
reached
their highest
excellence, was still
still more famous.
famous.
reached their
highest excellence,
lilac
other
The realistic
representations
of
tulips,
lilac
and
other
of
realistic representations
tulips,
is said
flowers
on Persian
Persian pottery
pottery is
to have
have been
been the
the means
said to
flowers on
the
famous
was
of
their introduction
into Europe.
Europe. Rayy
the
introduction into
of their
Rayy
that exexceramics
Persia, the
the home perhaps
perhaps of that
in Persia,
centre in
ceramics centre
faquisite
handle, in
in the
the form of
gold-winged ibex,
ibex, faof gold-winged
vase handle,
quisite vase

[ 159 ]

THE ARABS
in
miliar
to European
students. Rayy
miliar to
Rayy made famous wares in
European students.
until
the
blue, green,
purple, until the Mongols
Mongols
red, brown and purple,
blue,
green, red,
came in
the thirteenth
it.
in the
thirteenth century
destroyed it.
century and destroyed
of the
the most widespread
widespread forms of
pottery
of Moslem pottery
One of
of
was lustreware
quality
of
gold
its shimmering
lustre
lustreware with
with its
gold lustre
shimmering quality
that
painting aa metal
metal salt
of painting
salt on a
a
a process
that came from a
process of
in
made
southern
It
is
still
in
southern
Spain
glaze
and
firing
in
smoke.
still
in
is
smoke.
It
Spain
glaze
firing
times of
and,
although not
to everybody's
in these
these times
not to
and, although
everybody's liking
liking in
severer
taste, enjoys
local favour.
favour, Blue-and-white
Blue-and-white pottery
severer taste,
pottery
enjoys local
and porcelain,
porcelain, such
Europe later
later drew from China,
as Europe
and
such as
China, was
source by
being imported
by the
the Abbasid Arabs
the same source
being
imported from the
the characteristic
in
ninth century;
indeed, the
characteristic cobalt
cobalt
in the
the ninth
century; indeed,
thought to
to have
colour,
blue, is
is thought
as muhammadan blue,
colour, known as
of Persian
been copied
by the
the
been of
been
Persian origin
to have been
origin and to
copied by
in
Chinese
orginally
for
the
market.
Faience
in
perfect
for
Arab
market.
Faience
Chinese orginally
the
perfect
jars beautifully
beautifully intaste,
lazuli jars
d'art such
such as
as lapis
intaste, objets
objets d'art
lapis lazuli
scribed,
bronze
vessels
and
the
silver- and gold-encrusted
vessels
bronze
the
scribed, silvergold-encrusted
in museums today,
like,
today, give
give some indication
the
indication of
of the
like, found in
taste in
in domestic
taste
the wealthy
wealthy under
domestic furnishings
of the
the
under the
furnishings of
Arabs.
The divine
the wearing
wearing of
divine disapproval
of the
of silk-a
silk
a taboo
disapproval of
still
still faithfully
the Wahhabis of
Arabia-was
of Arabia
was
faithfully observed by
by the
of the
beyond the
the endurance of
Arabs cradled
the non-Arabian
non-Arabian Arabs
cradled in
in
beyond
of the
lands of
the
the lands
the conquests.
Indeed
they
the
great
became
the
conquests.
they
great
silk mercers
silk
mercers of
Beautifully woven silk
the Middle Ages.
of the
silk
Ages. Beautifully
such as
as had been
been sought
by Roman emperors,
fabrics,
after by
fabrics, such
sought after
emperors,
and rich
rich brocades
brocades-for
the textile
textile arts
arts of
of Byzantines
Byzantines and
for the
and
a high
at a
pitch
of
excellence
at
the
time
of
Persians
Persians were at
of
excellence
at
the
time
of
high pitch
the
invasion
the Arab invasion-continued
to
be
made
in
new
Islamic
continued to be
in
Islamic
designs.
designs.
times, when oriental
trade came
Europe, in
in later
later times,
oriental trade
came to
to
Europe,
flourish,
an
enthusiastic
purchaser
of
these
fabrics,
became
enthusiastic
of
these
flourish,
fabrics,
purchaser
at once technically
at
technically and artistically
perfect. Even chasubles
chasubles
artistically perfect.

[[160]
r60 ]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE ARTS

and other church vestments and canopies
for Christian
Christian alalcanopies for
were commonly
made
of
them.
tombs
in
the
of
them.
the
The
tombs
in
commonly
larger
mosques were draped,
with these
these exquisitely
too, with
larger mosques
draped, too,
exquisitely
woven coverings
coverings of coloured
silk.
and
gold.
coloured silk
silk
gold. Spanish
Spanish silk.
shawls with designs
of Chinese
Chinese influence
eninfluence endesigns suggestive
suggestive of
joyed a vogue
vogue which has
has not disappeared
disappeared to
to this
this day,
and
joyed
day,
Persian designs
affected. Not
earlier affected.
designs were similarly
similarly much earlier
in the first
only
silk in
place come from China
China-and
the
first place
and the
only did silk
caravan route
route between China and Persia
existed
from
Persia existed
but the
early times
times-but
the Mongolian
conquests of
of China
China and
early
Mongolian conquests
in the twelfth
of Persia
Persia in
to thirteenth
centuries (towards
twelfth to
thirteenth centuries
(towards
close of
the
of the
the Arab period)
established
kindred
hegemthe close
established
kindred
period)
hegemonies across
across Asia and so
onies
facilitated
trade
and
so greatly
facilitated
and
trade
greatly
cultural influences
influences from end to
to end of
of the
the Continent.
Continent.
cultural
Chinese motifs
silk fabrics
fabrics by
by the
the
into silk
Chinese
motifs were woven into
weavers, side
by side
with their
their own,
own, so
that exotic
so that
Moslem weavers,
side by
side with
exotic
birds and beasts
beasts and figures
enjoyed popularity
popularity at
times
at times
birds
figures enjoyed
orthodoxies were relaxed
relaxed and perhaps
perhaps at
at all
all times
times
when orthodoxies
for
with the
the non-Moslem elements of
of the
the population;
population; for
too
tradition
too deeply
rooted, human inclinations
inclinations too
tradition was too
deeply rooted,
strong
to prevent
prevent it,
religious discouragement
discouragement
it, and despite
despite religious
strong to
the human and animal
never utterly
utterly disappeared
disappeared
the
animal figure
figure never
from Persian
of the
the gold
gold
art. When we read of
Persian works of art.
set
of
trees
throne of
of an
an Egyptian
Fatimid
caliph,
of
carved
trees
set
throne
caliph,
Egyptian
art
other
with
precious
stones
and
hoards
of
other
art
treasures,
it
hoards
of
stones
with precious
treasures, it
as
Shi'a
elect as
taste of the
clearly testifies
testifies to
to the
the mundane taste
the Shi'a elect
clearly
well
to their
their wealth.
wealth.
as to
well as
At aa time
time when the
of Baghdad,
courts of
the courts
Baghdad, Cairo and Cordova were
were resplendent
with
unparalleled
collections of art
unparalleled collections
resplendent
deficient in
was
treasures,
Europe,
in
her
Dark
Ages,
deficient
in such
in
treasures, Europe,
Ages,
arts
as
these.
Specimens
which
formed
presents
from
Mosarts as these. Specimens
presents
Harun
lem caliph
Christian monarch (tradition
to Christian
lem
(tradition makes
caliph to
al
presents to
Charlemagne), objets
to Charlemagne),
send presents
al Rashid
Rashid send
objets d'art
tars
tars

[[161]
I6I ]

THE ARABS
to the Orient
brought back
back by
by travellers
travellers to
Orient and novelties
novelties that
that
brought
appeared
following the
the crusades
crusades were
contacts following
trade contacts
appeared from trade
minister to
inspiration. Oriental
soon
Oriental
to Europe's
soon to
to minister
Europe's growing
growing inspiration.
oriental
canons came
came to
to be
oriental
technique
to
be
adopted.
be studied,
to
be
canons
studied,
technique
adopted.
lived side
by
Spain
Latins and Moslems lived
side by
Sicily, where Latins
Spain and Sicily,
side,
were natural
natural contact
points by
by which
which Moslem arts
contact points
arts
side, were

the port
became known,
known, but
but it
port of
of Venice,
Venice, as
the
it was the
became
as the
times
port
of
crusade
times
and
after
the
home
flourishing
of
after
and
crusade
the
flourishing port
of rich
rich and enterprising
enterprising merchant princes,
princes, that
that became the
the
of
gateway
by
which
they
introduced.
were
introduced.
they
gateway by
The Italian
Italian aristocracy
acquired aa taste
taste
aristocracy had already
already acquired
for
and oriental
oriental craftsmen
craftsmen and
for Moslem arts,
oriental
arts, and oriental
in
were
Italian
guilds
soon
installed
in
Venice.
Italian
were
installed
Venice.
workmen
guilds
the
first in
to
to
learn
from
Persian
carpetmakers
the first
in Europe
learn
Persian
Europe
carpetmakers
how to
to make pile
learn inlaid
inlaid metalwork and Mospile carpets,
carpets, learn
lem ceramics
ceramics from Persian and Egyptian
craftsmen and
Egyptian craftsmen
art of
to
master the
the art
precious
silks
of weaving
silks
on a
a 100m
of
loom of
to master
weaving precious
Moslem origin
introduced
from
Sicily.
From
Venice
these
these
Sicily.
origin introduced
into pre-Renaissance
arts
crafts passed
pre-Renaissance Europe.
Europe.
arts and crafts
passed into
As with
with architecture
the lesser
lesser arts,
so with
with music,
music,
architecture and the
arts, so
the
original Arabs could only
only have been
been familiar
familiar with
with
the original
of aa very
forms of
kind. Swarming
forms
out of
of
rudimentary kind.
very rudimentary
Swarming out
Arabia,
they immediately
into
contact
with
the
came
into
contact
the
with
more
Arabia, they
immediately
Byzantines and Persians.
Persians. A century
developed
music of
of Byzantines
developed music
century
a
half
later
translation of
musical theorists,
and a half later the
the translation
of Greek musical
theorists,
the leisured
leisured and
and artistic
artistic class
adapted to
to the
taste of
the taste
of the
that
class that
adapted
in Abbasid
was growing
growing up
up in
Abbasid times,
created
an
musical
created
an
Arab
musical
times,

tradition.
tradition.
In
In the
the deserts
the Arabs,
Arabs, like
the
deserts we may
like the
suppose the
may suppose
Beduin of
of today,
today, to
possessed aa full
full repertory
repertory of
to have possessed
of
camel chants
chants and not
not much else.
These they
they sang
sang lustily
else. These
lustily
as
as they
as our sailors
sailors
occasions, much as
they went about special
special occasions,
of
used their
their sea
the loading
loading up
up
of another day
sea chanteys;
day used
chanteys; the

[[162]
162]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE ARTS

the march,
of camels,
camels, the
the trot,
trot, the
the halt
halt over
a water
water hole
hole
over a
march, the
each
had
its
-each
its appropriate
chant shouted
shouted in
in unison
unison to
to
appropriate chant
familiar words endlessly
familiar
iterated. 22 Of instrumental
instrumental music
music
endlessly iterated.
they
none, unless
pipe made
unless it
a crude
it was a
crude shepherd's
they had none,
shepherd's pipe
horn
from the
of
an
of
antelope,
near the
the settlements
settlements aa
the
antelope, and near
drum and perhaps
instrument of
perhaps an instrument
of aa rudimentary
rudimentary fiddlefiddlewith
banjo
kind,
strung
chiefly
with
animal
gut.
But
simple
But
vocal
kind,
banjo
strung chiefly
gut.
simple vocal
their stand-by,
music was their
and
poetry,
which
they
loved,
which
stand-by,
poetry,
they loved,
to some simple
was doubtless
chant.
doubtless often
often intoned
intoned to
simple chant.
of Islam
To the
the original
militant zealots
zealots of
was
Islam music
music was
original militant
associated with
was
associated
with impiety
and
levity
and
therefore
to
be
and
therefore
to
be
impiety
levity
it is
as it
is to
frowned on,
on, as
to this
this day
by the
the very
very orthodox
orthodox among
day by
among
peninsular Arabian
Arabian communities,
are
drums are
communities, among
peninsular
among whom drums
as
of
Satan,
and
no
decent
girl
with
suspect
as
instruments
of
instruments
no
decent
with
Satan,
girl
suspect
a thought
her good
to sing
sing aloud.
a
for her
dare to
aloud. As
thought for
good name would dare
so with
with other
with music,
music, aa sharp
other arts,
line divided
the
divided the
arts, so
sharp line
Arabs of
of Arabia
Arabia from the
the conquests.
conquests. Arab
of the
the Arabs of
music belongs
belongs to
to the
both in
time and place.
place.
the latter,
music
in time
latter, both
in the
Umaiyyad Arabs in
the early
part of
the eighth
of the
The Umaiyyad
eighth
early part
on
the
century
favoured
a
musical
mode
based
the
Pythaga
based
musical
favoured
Pythagcentury
use in
in Europe,
orean scale,
in use
that time
time in
the scale
at that
orean
scale at
scale, the
Europe, where
it was,
was, of
of the
the Greeks but
but was
it
of course,
inheritance of
course, an inheritance
influences
here coloured
coloured by
by both
both Persian
Persian and
and Byzantine
Byzantine influences;
here
cenfive cenIslam for
for five
and this
continued in
use in
in common use
and
this continued
in Islam
the
turies
to come,
till
it
was
superseded
by
the
quarter-tone
it
turies to
till
come,
quarter-tone
superseded by
this
to this
scale
which is
the one
throughout the
the East
East to
found throughout
is the
one found
scale which
day.
day.
music was essentially
different from the music
Arab music
essentially different
accustomed.
to
which
our
modern
ears
are
accustomed.
Melody, not
are
ears
to which our
Melody,
harmony, was its
rudimentary-aa
It was rudimentary
feature. It
its chief
chief feature.
harmony,
struchorizontal one-dimensional
music incapable
of the
the strucone-dimensional music
horizontal
incapable of
;

"I have
have set
set down in
in European
musical notation,
notation, not
not a very
very satisfactory
*I
satisfactory
European musical
96 *
medium.
those 1I heard
heard in
Arabia Felix.
Felix.
all those
in Arabia. See Arabia
medium, all

163]
[[163]

THE ARABS
from
this seed
our strolling
minstrelsy of
of the
the
seed sprang
from this
strolling minstrelsy
sprang our
Middle
Ages; indeed
our word 'troubadour'
may well
de'troubadour' may
well deindeed our
Middle Ages
rive
Arabic word for
minstrel. This class
of artist
artist
class of
for minstrel.
the Arabic
rive from the
affecting
painted faces,
and long
long hair
under
hair under
costume and
faces, gaudy
gaudy costume
affecting painted
aa cap
with
jingling
bells,
a
tabor
in
one
hand,
a
pipe
the
in
a
one hand, pipe in
in the
cap with jingling bells, tabor
other,
the practice
practice of
through medieval
of music through
medieval
disseminated the
other, disseminated
They
gave
us,
too,
our
Morris
dancers,
a verbal
verbal
Europe.
our
dancers,
too,
Europe. They gave us,
corruption
of
dancers.
Moorish
dancers.
of
corruption
Europe
intellectual contacts
with Arab
contacts with
its intellectual
also its
Europe had also
the
music
wandering scholars
in
the twelfth
twelfth
to Spain
in
scholars went to
music when wandering
Spain
in
new
this
there
century
to
acquire
the
learning,
but
in
this
there
but
the
to
was
learning,
acquire
century
small
profit, for
for very
little of
the Arabic literature
on
of the
literature on
small profit,
very little
music,
in contrast
contrast to
to that
that on philosophy
philosophy and science,
science, seems
music, in
to
been translated
translated into
troubainto Latin or
or Hebrew. The troubato have
have been
dour
was
a
better
advertising
than
the
theorist,
a
medium
than
better
the
dour
theorist,
advertising
and he
he brought
brought into
Europe the
the lute,
onethe guitar
into Europe
a onelute, the
guitar and a
to
been
a
stringed
fiddle
said
to
have
been
a
favourite
of
the
poet
said
of
fiddle
have
favourite
the
poet
stringed
Chaucer.
the manufacture
manufacture of
the centre
centre of
of the
Chaucer. Seville
Seville was the
of such
such
favoured by
by the
the Arabs were
were of
of
instruments.
instruments. Those most favoured
the
or percussion
percussion sort,
as lutes
lutes (of
the
such as
the string
sort, such
(of which the
string or
psalteries and dulcidulcimandolin was one),
one), guitars,
guitars, harps,
harps, psalteries
mers;
cymbals,
castanets,
and
tambourines,
the
drums
mers; cymbals, castanets,
tambourines, the
last
shape.
last named sometimes square
in shape.
'unsalvationist' in
square and 'unsalvationist'
Reed and metal
metal wind instruments
were also
also made and,
instruments were
and,
first harmoniums.
not improbably,
the first
harmoniums. The earlier
Euroearlier Euroimprobably, the
pean
instruments, such
such as
zithers and harps,
harps, had
had
as zithers
stringed instruments,
pean stringed
been tuned by
by ear,
boards of
of the
the Arab ininbeen
but the
the finger
ear, but
finger boards
struments
mathematically marked by
by frets
(Arabic
struments were mathematically
frets (Arabic
is supposed
lard)
it is
to the
fretting of
of the
the
that to
the fretting
supposed that
fard) and it
lute European
European music
music may
have owed the
major
Arabian lute
the major
may have
mode. Mensural or measured music
music seems,
however, to
to
seems, however,
the greatest
have been
been the
contribution
that
the
Arabs
contribution
that
the
made
greatest
to the
to
the art.
art.
;

[[166]
166]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE ARTS

The musical
of the
the Arabs records
musical literature
literature of
records some
some
and
theorists,
but
famous names of
of both composers
in
composers and theorists, but in
in Baghdad,
jurists
Spain,
as in
of it
it is
is work of
of religious
Baghdad, much of
Spain, as
religious jurists
to the
the issue
and devoted to
issue whether music
music is
is permissible
acpermissible acto
religion
or
not.
The
argument
had
already
been
cording
not.
to
religion
cording
argument
already been
won by
'antis' in
the 'antis'
in the
East in
the East
in the
the thirteenth
thirteenth century,
by the
century,
after
composer
appeared.
In
Spain,
after which time no great
In
great composer appeared.
Spain,
Arab
music
flourished
for
a
century
longer,
however,
music
a
for
flourished
however,
century longer,
though
its greatest
to the
the
greatest exponent,
exponent, Avempace,
though its
Avempace, belonged
belonged to
tenth
tenth century.
century.
But in
in Islam
Islam music
music was,
under suspicion.
was, clearly,
clearly, always
always under
suspicion*
And thus,
whereas
in
the
West,
Christianity
the
in
later to
to
thus,
West, Christianity was later
inspire
the immortal masterpieces
of the
of Handel,
Handel,
masterpieces of
inspire some of
Bach,
the religious
the rest,
the
of the
rest, the
Bach, Brahms and the
religious system
system of
Arabs so
the
musical
art
that
their
music
musical
art
the
that
so discouraged
their
music
discouraged
remains, by
European standards,
a crude
crude thing
thing indeed.
indeed.
remains,
standards, a
by European
it enjoyed
brought no
no
Certainly
such encouragement
as it
encouragement as
enjoyed brought
Certainly such
and
this
may
well
have
been
becomparable
development,
bethis
well
been
have
may
comparable development,
cause
music was never
never permitted
the mosques
mosques to
to become
become
in the
cause music
permitted in
divine worship.
worship.
aa medium of
of divine

[167]

CHAPTER VII

Sciences
Civilization: The Sciences
Arab Civilization:
Civilizations,
spring from
from two parents,
parents,
like individuals,
individuals, spring
Civilizations, like
and in
all civilizations
civilizations we can
from the
the heritage
the
can trace,
in all
trace, the
heritage from
Civilized
from
that from
been more important
has been
Civilized Mother has
important than that
the
barbarian who violated
violated her.
her. 226**
* ARNOLD TOYNBEE.
the barbarian

OUR
a

the fame of the

the. Arab
"UR MIDDLE AGES rang
rang with the
sciences,
an
interesting
thought
when
remember
that
we
that
sciences,
interesting thought
but aa century
the Arabs had not
not yet
emerged
but
earlier the
yet emerged
century or two earlier
from an agelong
obscurantism. The Arab sciences
sciences
desert obscurantism.
agelong desert
were, of
the Arab world outside
outside Arabia.
flower of
of the
of course,
a flower
course, a
were,
They
neither seed
nor soil
soil to
to the
peninsula.
seed nor
the Arabian peninsula.
They owed neither
Religion,
language,
social
system-all
these
elements
of
of
social
all
these
elements
system
Religion, language,
Moslem civilization
peninsular origin
origin; not,
not, howcivilization were of peninsular
ever,
arts and sciences.
in the
the Arabic tongue
tongue
the arts
it was in
sciences. Still,
ever, the
Still, it
that
the scientists
philosophers of
of the
the age
wrote,
that the
scientists and the
the philosophers
age wrote,
irrespective
of their
nationality. Arabic was,
was, as
it were,
were, aa
their nationality.
as it
irrespective of
torch,
in aa corner
corner of
of the
caliphate
eastern caliphate
the eastern
torch, no sooner lighted
lighted in
tha.n beacons
beacons flared
flared across
the new Islamic
world, whose
across the
Islamic world,
than
radiance
Europe called
Arab.
radiance Christian
Christian Europe
called Arab.
The evolution
raider to
to
evolution from the
the conquering
conquering Arab raider
imperial
ruler,
the
change
penury
to
affiuence,
from
from
to
affluence,
imperial ruler,
change
penury
tents
hair to
tents of hair
to palaces
palaces of
of marble,
marble, was the
the miracle
miracle of
little
of little
more than aa hundred years.
years. The revolution
revolution that
that the
the Arabs
stirred the
stood for
to its
Racial and relirelifor stirred
the world to
its depths.
depths. Racial
;

[[168]
168 ]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE SCIENCES

gious loyalties
in the
melting pot.
pot. The world
the melting
world
gious
loyalties were soon in
became convulsed
with
convulsed with intellectual
intellectual unrest,
unrest, ancient
ancient philosophilososciences were haled
haled forth
forth and rejuvenated,
rejuvenated, and
phies and sciences
and
phies
all grew
it all
out
out of it
the
civilization
which
the
Middle
Ages
civilization
which
the
Middle
grew
Ages
knew and bequeathed
bequeathed as
as Arab civilization.
civilization.
The seed
seed of the
the new learning
the legacy
of
learning was the
legacy of
soil was first
first and foremost
Hellenism,
the soil
foremost ancient
Persia,
ancient Persia,
Hellenism, the
but
but the stimulus that quickened
life and induced
induced the
the first
first
quickened life
growth came from the
the religion
religion of
of the
the Arabs.
Arabs.
vigorous growth
vigorous
in upon
societies intellectually
They
burst in
upon societies
advanced
more
advanced
They burst
intellectually
than themselves
themselves and possessing
religious sysdeveloped religious
possessing developed
systems that
that had come under
under the
of
the influence
influence of Greek philophilosophic
thought i they
to look
look to
to their
their laurels.
In
laurels. In
they soon had to
sophic thought
the
the
the early
days
of
the
conquests
the
could
listen
to
the
Arabs
listen
could
to
early days
conquests
that
that
inner
voice
that
assured
them
possession
of
a
that strong
voice
assured
strong
possession of a
utterly true
true religion,
based on aa book
God-revealed and utterly
religion, based
that was not
that
not man made but
but aa revelation
the eternal
eternal verirevelation of the
verities. Erelong
Erelong they
heard
many
voices,
the
insistent,
the
most
ties.
insistent,
they
many voices,
that of foreign
perhaps, that
foreign learning.
learning. They
perhaps,
They had come armed
with a religion
religion at
at once authoritative
authoritative and satisfying,
with
satisfying, one
bore
all
the
recent
of
divine blessblesswhich,
moreover,
all
marks
divine
the
recent
of
which, moreover,
ing.
Worldly
wisdom
must
have
seemed
to
the
religious
to
the
have
religious
ing. Worldly
;

zealot either
either heretical
heretical or unnecessary.
unnecessary. When philosophical
philosophical
zealot
the
their
to
dawn
on
their
intelligences
speculation
first
came
first
to
intelligences the
speculation
as
it
for
narrowly
orthodox
doubtless
felt
antagonism
for
it
as
so
felt
orthodox
doubtless
antagonism
narrowly
dubious foreign
wisdom. For them,
them, as
as yet,
yet, Allah's
Allah's
much dubious
foreign wisdom.
was
revelations,
Muhammad,
enough.
Time
were
revelations, through
Muhammad,
enough.
through
wore
the
first
to
their sufficiency.
As
the
first
century
on
and
to shatter
shatter their
century
sufficiency.
as
the
they
acquired
a
wider
knowledge
of
the
universe,
as
they
universe,
they
knowledge
they acquired a
with other
religious and pagan,
into contact
contact with
other systems,
came into
pagan,
systems, religious
with men who continued
to live
live under them,
them, men who
continued to
and with
at
intellectually
were
their
superiors
or,
at
least,
their
least, admittedly
admittedly
superiors or,
intellectually
not accept
not less
rational than
yet could
could not
not
less rational
than themselves,
themselves, and yet
accept

169]
[[169]

THE ARABS
faith despite
Islamic faith
the Islamic
the inducements of escape
the
escape from
despite the
the conviction
conviction that
social disabilities,
taxation
that Islam
taxation and social
disabilities, the
all knowledge
serious
with aa serious
embraced all
knowledge worth knowing
knowing met with
challenge.
challenge.
outside Arab
of the
these rapidly
rapidly changing
the outside
Now these
changing Arabs of
for their
world were,
times, not religious
religious bigots;
bigots; there
there
their times,
world
were, for
circle of narrow orthodoxy,
outside the
the circle
was room outside
orthodoxy, espeespea
as
for
cially
in
a
as
yet
predominantly
non-Moslem,
in
world
cially
yet predominantly non-Moslem, for
resolved to
to pursue
pursue knowledge
men resolved
knowledge wherever found. Was
in
the Qur'an
there
indeed,
in abundance in
in the
not warranty,
there not
Qur'an
indeed,
warranty,
to search
search
itself and in
the Traditions,
Traditions, which besought
besought men to
in the
itself
should
there
for
be apprehension
lest
for knowledge?
apprehension lest
knowledge? Why should there be
truth
how could
science should upset
it?
could it?
'foreign
upset divine
divine truth-how
'foreign science'
creation would be
Rather the
the tokens
be all
tokens and wonders of creation
all
the Omnipotent
the
faith
the
manifest, the
proclaimed,
the more manifest,
the
faith
Omnipotent proclaimed,
is due to
the enlightenment
It is
vindicated. It
to the
the
of the
vindicated.
enlightenment of some of
of
of
Baghdad,
notably
Mansur
and
early
Abbasid
caliphs
caliphs
Baghdad, notably
early
off from the
official Islam,
cast off
Ma'mun, that
that official
the moorings
moorings of
of
Islam, cast
Ma'mun,
narrow and intolerant
intolerant orthodoxies,
into the
the
orthodoxies, was swung
swung into
classical learning.
wide stream
stream of classical
wide
learning.
the rival
Religious
rival imams of
of Islam
Islam
Religious arguments
arguments between the
the leaders
leaders of
of other
other faiths
faiths doubtless
and the
doubtless early
took
place
early took place
of the
nature of
around the
issues, of
the familiar
familiar issues,
the nature
of
of God and of
the universe
the
universe..
7

and reason'd
high
reasoned high
Of
providence, foreknowledge,
foreknowledge, will,
fate,
will, and fate*
Of providence,
Fix'd
Fix'd fate,
fate, free-will,
free-will, foreknowledge
foreknowledge absolute;
absolute;
1
And
in wand'ring
wand"ring mazes lost.
dnd found
found no end,
end, in
lost?.

classicists must
Intellectually
must have
have been
been at
at an adadIntellectually the classicists
the
the
Moslem
doctors
could
only
hope
to
convantage,
and
doctors
could
to
convantage,
only hope
found or win them by
by demonstrating
demonstrating the
the rational
basis of
rational basis
of
Islam in
in the terms
terms of the
the ancient
wisdom. This,
This, it
it is
ancient wisdom.
is supii.
'Milton,
Paradise Lost,
Lost, ii.
^ilton, Paradise

[ 170 ]
[170]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE SCIENCES

at the
posed,
the root
root of
of the
the new and eager
of Greek
Greek
posed, was at
eager study
study of
philosophy.
philosophy.
The intermediary
the ancient
masters and
the
ancient masters
and the
intermediary between the
at the
Moslem pupils
pupils was at
the Nestorian
N estorian Church.
Church.
the outset
outset the
It
this Christian sect,
in Persia,
that first
transIt was this
exiled in
first transsect, exiled
Persia, that
lated
Aristotle into
Arabic, and once
translations had
beinto Arabic,
lated Aristotle
once translations
had bedid
not
cease
for
gun
they
did
not
cease
for
a
century
and
a
half,
during
a
a
and
half, during
gun they
century
all the
the Greek literature
which time
time nearly
nearly all
literature in
in the
the natural
natural
sciences
passed into
the thought
thought of
of scholars
professing
into the
sciences passed
scholars professing
Islam.
traditions had naturally
Hellenistic traditions
Islam. Hellenistic
survived in
in
naturally survived
parts
of
the
lands
from
the
Byzantines,
notably
wrenched
the
lands
the
parts
Byzantines, notably
but the
the Greek spirit,
enough, had
had best
best
in
in Egypt,
spirit, curiously
Egypt, but
curiously enough,
alive in
in Persia.
been kept
kept alive
Persia. There,
tolerant Sassanian
in tolerant
Sassanian
There, in
times,
the
'heretical'
N
estorian
Church
for
some
centhe
'heretical*
Nestorian
had
for
centimes,
turies
refuge. Old Hira,
on
the
Euphrates,
the
the
turies found refuge.
was
the
Hira,
Euphrates,
seat
a Nestorian
N estorian bishop.
bishop.
seat of
of a
centre of Greek learning
But the
the real
real centre
undeshapur,
learning was J
Jundeshapur,
Persia.
It
had
been
so
for
aa century
century
aa city
in
southwest
Persia.
It
been
southwest
in
so
for
city
before
the
Arab
conquest
and
remained
so
during
the
censo during the cenbefore the
conquest
tury
a famous academy
followed. There a
that followed.
attracted
academy attracted
tury that
wandering
scholars
of
the
East-a
meeting
ground
the
East
the
a
scholars
of
for the
meeting ground for
wandering
less
learning
of
Greece,
Persia
and
India.
Scarcely
less
famous
Persia
India. Scarcely
learning of Greece,
was its
to the
the
sent doctors
doctors successively
its hospital
successively to
hospital which sent
encourts
Baghdad. Christian
Christian medicine
medicine enof Damascus and Baghdad.
courts of
joyed
pre-eminent
prestige
in
these
centuries,
that
in
and
that
these
centuries,
joyed pre-eminent prestige
medicine
largely on Greek medical
medical science,
medicine was founded largely
science,
that is
the
of
Galen.
Greek
physicians,
often
Galen.
works
that
the
of
is to
to say,
physicians,
say,
in
the
old
Monophysite
priests,
when
taken
prisoner
in
the
old
prisoner
Monophysite priests,
in
Greco-Byzantine
wars,
had
been
well
received
in
Persian
well
received
Persian
been
Greco-Byzantine wars,
court
their skill
knowledge put
put to
to use,
use, so
so
skill and knowledge
court circles
circles and their
translation
the Baghdad
caliphs
the
translation
of
Galen
now,
the
under the
now, under
Baghdad caliphs
into
early came to
to be
be desired
desired and accomplished.
into Arabic early
accomplished.
Hellenistic
of Hellenistic
But it
it was not
not in
the centre
centre of
in Jundeshapur,
Jundeshapur, the

[[171]
171 ]

THE ARABS
in Baghdad,
thought, not
not even
Baghdad, the
the new city
the caliphs,
even in
caliphs,
city of the
thought,
The great
forth.
first
blazed
that Moslem scholarship
first
blazed
forth.
great
that
scholarship
in northeast
figures
the new learning
up in
northeast Persia
of the
learning sprang
sprang up
figures of

in an
that embraced the
the provinces
provinces of
of
and beyond,
an area
area that
beyond, in
as Bactria
Bactria and
familiar to
us as
Khorasan and Trans-Oxiana,
Trans-Oxiana, familiar
to us
Khorasan
Turkestan-territory
which today
is in
in a very
Turkestan territory which
very backward
today is
of India,
a land
the borderlands
land
state.
not far
state. Here,
far from the
borderlands of
India, a
Here, not
scholastic
tradialready
at
this
time
with
a
considerable
scholastic
tradia
considerable
at
this
time
with
already
on. But the
old Persian
tion,
Persian spirit
the new learning
the old
lived on.
tion, the
learning
spirit lived
Arabic
to
there.
The
common
Arabic
not long
to
be
confined
there.
was not
confined
be
long
it
of
of
Islam
rapidly
diffused
it
tongue
and
the
brotherhood
diffused
and
the
brotherhood
rapidly
tongue
Political
across
the
Islamic
world.
Political
disintegration-Spain
across the Islamic world.
disintegration
Spain
was no
and Egypt
soon achieved
independence-was
no impediachieved independence
impediEgypt soon
east to
to its
to west,
west, and from Spain
the
ment to
its spread
Spain the
spread from east
is this
of interinterIt is
passed into
into Europe.
Europe. It
this role
role of
Arab sciences
sciences passed
contribution 100m
loom
mediary
played by
by Spain
that makes her contribution
mediary played
Spain that
her
in
large
in
European
eyes,
but
her
greatest
figures,
but
greatest figures, most
large
European eyes,
the
in medicine
medicine and philosophy,
philosophy, did
till the
notable in
notable
did not
not appear
appear till
third century
third
that in
in some ways
ways
of Moslem occupation,
so that
occupation, so
century of
the Spanish
earlier glory
the
period was but
but aa reflection
reflection of
of the
the earlier
Spanish period
glory
of the
of
the Moslem East.
East.
To resume.
resume. The first
period was
first century
of the
the Arab period
century of
It was a
not aa time
time of great
period of
a period
of racioraciogreat learning.
learning. It
too
political
supremacy.
The
Arabs
were
too
busy
with
their
with
their
political supremacy.
busy
world conquest
and
their
internal
dynastic
upheavals
their
internal
to
conquest
dynastic upheavals to
concern themselves
concern
themselves deeply
books. Doubtless
Doubtless the
with books.
the dawn
deeply with
of aa coming
glory was looming;
indeed some Umaiyyad
Umaiyyad
coming glory
looming; indeed
are thought
for philosophical
caliphs
to have had aa taste
taste for
philosophical
caliphs are
thought to
the
but
fact
remains
that
that
we
have
no books
books in
in
subjects,
but
the
fact
remains
have
subjects,
at all,
Arabic at
poetical diwans,
these Umaiyyad
all, except
diwans, from these
except poetical
Umaiyyad
times.
Such secular
learning as
the caliphate
times. Such
secular learning
as existed
in the
existed in
caliphate
would appear
to have
appear to
have been
been an
the lettered
lettered
an inheritance
inheritance of
of the
classes
classes among
Jewish and Persian
Persian comcomChristian, Sabian,
Sabian, Jewish
among Christian,

[[172]
172 ]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE SCIENCES

munities
the Persianized-Arab
Persianized-Arab aristocracy
munities and the
of Iraq.
aristocracy of
Iraq.
The rise
rise of
of the
the Abbasids,
the change
seat of
of
of the
the seat
Abbasids, the
change of
government
from
Damascus
to
Baghdad
and
the
accession
to
and
the
accession
government
Baghdad
to
of those
influence of
those who cherished
office and influence
to office
cherished learning
learning
brought
the new era
about the
era of
of scholastic
scholastic splendour
in the
the
brought about
splendour in
East.
East. Philosophers,
medical
mathematicians, astronomers,
astronomers, medical
Philosophers, mathematicians,
scientists,
scholars of
of world reputation
in the
the science
science of
the
of the
scientists, scholars
reputation in
Greeks,
passed
in
a
continuous
procession
during
the
in
a continuous procession during the
Greeks, passed
ninth,
tenth and eleventh
eleventh centuries
centuries across
across the
the stage
of the
the
ninth, tenth
stage of
eastern
lending
it
a
glamour
which
is
the
pride
a
eastern caliphate,
it
which
is
the
caliphate, lending
glamour
pride
of
to this
if few of
of the
this day,
the Arabs to
its principal
of its
day, and if
principal figures
figures
remember
were men of
of wholly
blood22 it
is fair
fair to
to remember
it is
wholly Arab blood
that
minority in
their huge
but a
a small
that the
the Arabs formed but
small minority
In their
huge
empIre.
empire.
the Arabs scholars
Before the
the coming
of the
scholars of
of Jundeshapur
coming of
Jundeshapur
Aristotle and their
their Galen
as well
their Aristotle
had known their
Galen as
as
well as
'A
of the
the great
names in
in Arab
*A list-by
list
no means exhaustive-of
exhaustive of some
some of
by no
great names
civilization
origins is
is given
by
de
their respective
civilization with their
by Baron Carra de
respective origins
givn
15*
as
follows
Vaux'''
as followsVaux
al
al

native of
of Khiva.
Khiva.
Khwarizmi was aa native
al Farghani
Farghani of
of Trans-Oxiana.
Abu'l
Abu'l Wafa)
wafa}
were of
al Battani
Battani
of Persian
Persian origin.
origin.
al
al
al Biruni
Biruni )
al Kindi
Kindi was of
of pure
pure Arab stock.
stock.
al
Farabi was aa Turk by
by origin.
origin.
Farabi
(Ibn Sina)
Sina) hailed
hailed from near
near Balkh.
Balkh.
Avicenna (Ibn
Avicenna
al
?
al Ghazah
~hazlaDli.
came
from
Tus
in
the
east
of p
Persia.
j
n
Tug
ers j a
the
east
from
of
came
N aS1r al
Nasir
a Dm)
1n f
Khayyam was aa Persian.
Persian.
Omar Khayyam
Averroes (Ibn
(Ibn Rushd) \}
Alpetragius (Al
(AI Bitruji)
Bitruji) were Arabs of
of Spain.
Spain.
Alpetragius
Arzachel (Al
(AI Zarkali)
Zarkali) )
Arzachel
Hunain bin
bin Ishaq\
ISha Q }
Ishaq bin
bin Hunain the
the translators
translators were Christians.
Christians.
Ishaq
Qusta bin
bin Luqa
Luqa )
.
Qusta
1
M
N
Non-Moslems
on- as ems Thabit
Thabit bin
b~n Qurra?
Qurra ~ were Sabians.
al
Battanl
al Battani
Masha'allah was aa Jew.
Jew.
Masha'allah
al

>

[ I73 ]
[173]

THE ARABS
miscellaneous
masters, these
these having
having been long
miscellaneous Indian masters,
long ago
ago
the
of
translated
into
Syriac,
the
language
of
the
Nestorian
the
Nestorian
translated into Syriac,
language
Church,
to some extent
into Pahlevi,
the contemporary
extent into
Church, and to
Pahlevi, the
contemporary
translations
language
of
Persia.
The
earliest
translations
of the
the Greek
earliest
of
Persia.
language
learning
under
the
encouragement
of
the
caliph-founder
of
the
under
the
learning
caliph-founder
encouragement
of Baghdad
into Arabic
Arabic from Syriac.
of
thus made into
Baghdad were thus
Syriac. With
the extension
knowledge under
under succeeding
the
extension of
of the
the fields
fields of
of knowledge
succeeding
caliphs
translations at
Jundeshapur came to
to be
be made,
made, howat Jundeshapur
caliphs translations
ever,
the Greek,
reaching its
its
the movement reaching
direct from the
ever, direct
Greek, the
or
later.
greatest
activity
half
a
century
or
so
later.
half
so
a
century
greatest activity
Ma'mun, under
under whom this
this took place,
place, held
held
The Caliph
Caliph Ma'mun,
so
aa view
view-the
first
caliph
ever
to
have
done
so-that
to
have
the first caliph ever
that the
the
Qur'an
had been
been created
in time,
the
in opposition
created in
to the
Qur'an had
time, in
opposition to
orthodox tenet
tenet that
that it
before all
all worlds,
worlds, coit was eternal
eternal before
coexistent with
with God,
so
that
he
took
a
long
step
forward
so
took
a
existent
that
he
God,
long step
towards giving
blessing, as
as it
it were,
were, to
to the
the
a caliphial
giving a
caliphial blessing,
validity
of
reason
in
matters
of
faith.
school
of
liberal
reason
in
of
faith.
school
of
A
of
liberal
matters
validity
up in
in Iraq,
antagonistic to
theologians
to
theologians had already
Iraq, antagonistic
sprung up
already sprung
the new learning
as being
those bigots
bigots who condemned the
learning as
those
inbeing inconsistent with
with the
the Qur'an
and the
consistent
the Traditions,
Qur'an and
Traditions, and who
preferred to
to occupy
with such
issues as
as whether
such issues
themselves with
occupy themselves
preferred
horseflesh did
under the
the religious
religious taboo.
taboo.
horseflesh
did or did
did not come under
Two movements were thus
the one
one hand the
active. On the
thus active.
the
intellectuals were devoting
themselves
to
the
Greek
intellectuals
themselves
to
the
devoting
sciences,
which indeed
becoming their
their overmastering
indeed were becoming
sciences, which
overmastering
truth must be
be pursued
pursued for
for its
its own sake
passion; truth
trasake and trapassion
ditional beliefs
beliefs modified
modified where they
not reconcilable
reconcilable
ditional
they were not
scientific fact;
fact on the
with scientific
the other
other hand the
the religious
religious leaders
leaders
of the
the many
many bemoaned the
the heresy
or
even
atheism
to
which
or
atheism
to
even
which
heresy
of pagan
pagan wisdom must lead.
lead. It
It thus
thus came about
the love
love of
the
about
that under
under the
regis
of
the
early
Baghdad
that
the enlightened
of
the
enlightened aegis
early Baghdad
caliphs
unfettered spirit
inquiry existed
existed side
side by
side
caliphs an unfettered
spirit of inquiry
by side
with
with narrow dogmatism.
dogmatism.
;

[[174]
174]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE SCIENCES

in Baghdad
A great
Baghdad called
called the
the House of
Wisof Wislibrary in
great library
founded
the
dom was
by the Caliph
Ma'mun, an example
to
by
Caliph Ma'mun,
example to
a half
half later
later by
by aa Fatimid
Fatimid caliph
be followed aa century
be
century and a
caliph
Cairo. The grandees
the court
of Cairo.
court vied
vied with
with each
each other
other
grandees of the
in
books,
and
every
mosque
of
the
times
was
enin collecting
of
the
times
encollecting books,
every mosque
couraged
to do the same. A school
translation was
was esschool of
of translation
escouraged to
at
the
in Baghdad
tablished
at
the
same
time,
Hunain
ibn
Ishaq,
tablished in
ibn
time,
Baghdad
Ishaq,
Christian physician
a great
at
physician and the
the most
most brilliant
brilliant
at once a
great Christian
and prolific
prolific of
the translators,
being appointed
to direct
it.
of the
direct it.
translators, being
appointed to
scholars and physicians
remaining scholars
physicians of
of Jundeshapur
Jundeshapur
The remaining
to the
courts at
transferred to
the courts
at Baghdad
were transferred
Baghdad and Samarra
under the
the Caliph
Caliph Mutawakkil,
Mutawakkil, and hence
hence its
its own famous
fell into
academy
into decay.
academy and hospital
hospital fell
decay.
of
The new library
of
Baghdad
even more
library
Baghdad now enjoyed
enjoyed even
staffs
patronage;
staffs
of
translators,
of
munificent
of
munificent royal
translators, most of
royal patronage
them Christians
Christians and Sabians,
who, as
as yet,
yet, alone
had the
alone had
the
Sabians, who,
to
sent
to
Alexandria
and
other
ancient
scholarship,
were
sent
Alexandria
other
ancient
scholarship,
of the
East to
to hunt
hunt out
libraries of
the Near and Middle East
out old
old
libraries
Greek manuscripts
manuscripts and bring
back
to
Baghdad
for
them
back
to
bring
Baghdad for
the ninth
translation.
ninth century
its
run its
translation. Thus before the
century had run
not only
Galen
and
Aristotle,
but
Plato's
political
course not
but
Plato's
course
Aristotle,
political
only
works, and
and the
the geographical,
astronomiworks,
geographical, mathematical and astronomi.
all
Ptolemy, Euclid
cal works of
Euclid and Archimedes had all
cal
of Ptolemy,
classical poetry,
is curious
that classical
poetry,
been turned
turned into
Arabic. It
It is
curious that
into Arabic.
been
should have
have been
been passed
classical drama and Greek history
classical
history should
passed
the
so the
But no
no translation
translation of
made, and so
by. But
of them was made,
by.
intimate touch
Arabs missed
missed the
the more intimate
touch with
with the
the inner
inner spirit
Arabs
spirit
to
is to
of the
this neglect
neglect is
to be
be put
put down to
of
Greeks. Whether this
the Greeks.
doubtless
utilitarianism
or
not,
the
Arabs
were
doubtless
by
nature
the
or
utilitarianism
not,
by
realists
chiefly to
to knowledge
knowledge that
realists and attached
attached importance
importance chiefly
served
practical ends-medicine,
mechanics, geography,
geography,
ends medicine, mechanics,
served practical
arithmetic.
arithmetic.
of the
the greatest
tools of
of civilization
civilization which
which we owe
One of
greatest tools
;

[[175]
175 ]

THE ARABS

to the
the
to

stone on
the foundation
Arab period
is the
the zero
period is
zero-the
foundation stone
rest
and
mathematics
rest-and
which
all
our
arithmetic
and our
our
mathematics
all
arithmetic
which
everyday numeral
numeral system.
are almost
almost certainly
certainly an
system. These are
everyday
the
in fact,
fact, called
Indian invention
invention and are,
Indian by
called Indian
Indian
are, in
by the
includArabs themselves.
themselves. The other
peoples of
antiquity, includof antiquity,
other peoples
Arabs
letters
no numbers;
they used
used the letters
ing
even the
the Greeks,
numbers they
Greeks, had no
ing even
earliest
of
the alphabet
alphabet in
as numerals.
numerals. Our earliest
of the
in their
their order as
numbers is
in the
Arabic works of the
the tenth
tenth
trace of
the Arabic
trace
of numbers
is found in
century. Numbers II to
by aa correspondare represented
to 5
correspondcentury.
represented by
5 are
to
of
strokes
ligatured;
6
to
9
by
simple
convening
number
of
6
strokes
simple
9 by
ligatured
ing
a
thus
or
a
circle,
thus:
tional signs;
the
nought
by
a
dot
or
tional
the
a
dot
circle,
nought by
signs
;

1234567890

1 284 5 6 7 8 9 0
,1 rr r\" tI ,1 VV "A S, *

nought or
or zero-the
Arabic
introduction of
zero the Arabic
of the
The introduction
the nought
is sifr,
sifr, from
from which
which our
may ultimately
ultimately
word is
our word 'cipher'
'cipher' may
derive-simplified
and
revolutionized
arithmetic.
It
derive
revolutionized
arithmetic.
It had
simplified
previously been
been necessary
keep separate
to keep
for
separate columns for
previously
necessary to
units, tens,
tens, hundreds,
hundreds, etc.-the
etc.
the abacus
abacus system
still met
units,
system still
in China.
in shops
with
the introduction
introduction of
with in
of the
the nought
nought
China. But the
shops in
in
a
row,
in
the
series
of
units,
allowed
figures to
to be
in
a
allowed figures
be kept
in
the
series
of
row,
units,
kept
tens, hundreds,
hundreds, etc.,
to us
us and
and so
away with
with
familiar to
so did
did away
etc., familiar
tens,
for
each.
This
discovery,
the need
need for
for aa separate
column
the
for
This
column
each.
separate
discovery,
Europe in
under the
the name 'algorism',
its way
way into
into Europe
under
found its
in
'algorism', found

the
having been
been current
the
the twelfth
twelfth century,
after having
current among
century, after
among the
for two hundred
Arabs for
hundred and fifty
years.
Such
terms
as
Such
terms
as
years.
fifty
and
'algebra'
bear
witness
to
the
part
'algorism',
'cipher'
witness
the
bear
to
'algorism', 'cipher'
'algebra'
part
15 *
played by
by the
the Arabs in
calculation.:L5*
in our systems
of calculation.
systems of
played
The algebraists
the Arabs made advances
advances on
algebraists under the
the knowledge
the
knowledge of the
the Greeks.
works on the
the solution
Greeks. The works
solution
of
cubic equations
of cubic
equations by
Omar
Khayyam
is
held
in
high
is
held
in
estiby
Khayyam
high estitoo, though
mation, and Omar was no mean astronomer,
mation,
astronomer, too,
though

. [17
6]
[176]
-

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE SCIENCES

SCIENCES
prefer to
to think.
his minor
minor role
role of
poet. Measthink of
in his
of him in
we prefer
of poet.
Measurements
plane and spherical
urements on plane
surfaces were
were developed
spherical surfaces
developed
in
the
quite
early
in
the
period,
the
greatest
geometer
Arab
the
of
early
period,
quite
greatest geometer of
all
being aa Sabian
Thabit bin
who
improved
Sabian named Thabit
bin Qurra,
all being
Qurra,
improved
Elements, who translated
translated into
into Arabic
of
on
Euclid's Elements,
on Euclid's
Arabic seven
seven of
the
books on conic
conic sections
Apollonius and
sections of
of Apollonius
the eight
and wrote
wrote
eight books
on the
the earliest
earliest known work on
the sundiaL
the
sundial. Trigonometry
Trigonometry
of the
owes the
the discovery
the secant
Abu'l Wafa,
Wafa, though
though it
secant to
to Abu'l
it
discovery of
is
attributed to
to Copernicus;
sometimes attributed
is sometimes
Copernicus; trigonometrical
trigonometrical
today, were
were the
the remarkable
remarkable disratios, as
use them today,
as we use
disratios,
of
the
unbeliever,
al
Battani,
while
logarithms
covery
al
of
the
while
unbeliever,
Battani,
covery
logarithms
ace of
by al
al Farabi
Farabi in
in his
his work
came within
within an ace
of discovery
work
discovery by
by
on
were
dealt
with
musical intervals.
intervals. Infinite
Infinite quantities
on musical
were
dealt
with
quantities
by
the
great Avicenna
A vicenna among
others;
measurements
were
the great
measurements
were
among others;
made of
of equilibrium
Kindi already
al Kindi
specific gravity,
equilibrium and specific
gravity, al
already
experimenting
in the
the ninth
ninth century
century with
with the
the object
disof disobject of
experimenting in
the
laws
governing
a
falling
body.
covering
a
the
laws
covering
governing
falling body.
In
mechanics astronomical
astronomical instruments
were of
In mechanics
instruments were
of major
major
importance.
of astrolabes,
astrolabes, improvements
improvements on
importance. New forms of
East and the
the West.
Ptolemy's,
both in
in the
invented both
the East
West.
Ptolemy's, were invented
F or land
purposes they
generally
designed
for
aa parparwere
for
For
land purposes
they
generally designed
and
served
to
find
the
position
of
Mecca
ticular
latitude
to
the
find
of
ticular latitude and served
position
and so
the direction
prayer; while
while at
at sea
their use
sea their
for
so the
direction of
of prayer
use for
navigational
purposes
continued
to
the
seventeenth
to
the
seventeenth
continued
down
navigational purposes
century.
attention to
the
astronomers devoted
devoted attention
to the
Spanish astronomers
century. Spanish
armillary or
celestial spheres,
construction
or celestial
of armillary
construction of
making them
spheres, making
as
possible
to
minimize
error.
In
major
engineering
as
error.
In
as
to
minimize
as big
major
engineering
possible
big
the Abbasid
extensive
canalization
of
canalization
of
times produced
extensive
Abbasid times
the
produced
a
Tigris
and
Euphrates
for
irrigation
purposes;
a
tradition
tradition
for
irrigation purposes
Tigris and Euphrates
the caliphs
is
by the
the Arabs
Arabs that
that one
one of the
is also
also cherished
cherished by
caliphs
was
the
Suez
Canal
and
only
prevented
planned
to
make
Canal
to
the
Suez
only
prevented
planned
at the
the time
to the
the holy
holy places
places at
time of
of
by
the danger
danger it
it entailed
entailed to
by the
crusades.
the
the crusades.
;

[I77
[177]]

THE ARABS
conwell placed
Arabs were particularly
placed to
to make conThe Arabs
particularly well
Mecca
to
tributions
to
geography.
The
pilgrimage
to
early
to
tributions
early
pilgrimage
geography.
led
the compilation
compilation of
books that
forth the
the journeys
journeys
set forth
of books
that set
led to
to the
to
holy cities
the uttermost
the Islamic
Islamic
cities from the
to the
the holy
uttermost ends of the
names
cities
world and gave
detailed
descriptions
and
of
cities
world
detailed
descriptions
gave
and villages
villages en route
route and the
the distances
distances of the
the various
various
stages.
stages.
early Arabs conceived
the world as
as disc
disc shaped,
of the
The early
conceived of
shaped,
centre
its
which Arabia was the
the centre;
a land
of which
its interior
interior a
land mass of
intrudwithout
encircling ocean having
having two deep
without was an encircling
deep intrudthe
arms-presumably
the
Indian
and
the
Meditering
Ocean
Indian
arms
the
ing
presumably
ranean.
They do not
to have
have had any
geography
ranean. They
not appear
any geography
appear to
in
a scientific
this
the translation
translation of Ptolemy,
in a
sense till
scientific sense
till the
Ptolemy, and this
to
led,
among
the
scholars
at
any
rate,
to
an
acceptance
at
the
of
scholars
rate,
led, among
acceptance of
any
Greek conceptions.
By
the
end
of
the
tenth
century
their
the
of
tenth
their
the
conceptions. By
century
geographical
outgrown that
that of confar outgrown
conknowledge had far
geographical knowledge
their
temporary
Europe,
and
if
their
maps
of
the
Mediterof
the
if
temporary Europe,
maps
ranean represent
represent it
or elliptical
shape, this
this
as a circular
it as
circular or
elliptical shape,
the times,
times, for
doubtless
convention of
of the
a cartographical
for
doubtless was a
cartographical convention
16 *
they
better
from
Ptolemy's
maps.16*
Ptolemy's
methmethknew
better
maps.
Ptolemy's
Ptolemy's
they
ods, which
which they
they used as
their model,
scientific.
as their
ods,
model, had been scientific.
He used
used parallels
parallels of
latitude
and
parallels
of
longitude,
of latitude
parallels of longitude,
the
as in
in aa Mercator's projection,
based on the
as
the former based
projection, the
latter
the
westernmost
equator,
the
latter
measured
from
the
methe
equator,
ridian then
Island of
of Ferrol.
Ferro!' He plotted
plotted his
his
ridian
then known,
the Island
known, the
point of
of latitude
latitude and longitude
obtained by
data obtained
the
point
longitude from data
by the
rough
of
his
day-the
logs
of
sea
captains,
the
methods
of
his
sea
the
of
the
rough
day
logs
captains,
diaries of
officers home from campaigns,
diaries
of army
army officers
distances
campaigns, distances
obtained
other
da
ta
such
the
obtained by
by dead reckoning
and
other data such as
as the
reckoning
duration
duration of
of the
the, hours
hours of daylight
daylight and the
the times
times of
the
of the
of
heavenly
bodies.
rising
and
setting
of
bodies.
rising
setting
heavenly
The Arab astronomers,
Battani and al
al Battani
al Farghani,
al
astronomers, al
Farghani, al
tables of
Biruni, were soon producing
producing their
their own tables
of latitudes
latitudes
Biruni,
;

[[178]
178 ]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE SCIENCES

SCIENCES

and longitudes.
at first
and geographers
first
longitudes. But astronomers and
geographers at
mass of
of the
world had
worked independently.
land mass
the world
had
independently. The land
as divided
been conceived
divided by
by the
the equator
into
a
habitable
conceived of as
been
into
a
habitable
equator
northern part
part and an uninhabited
uninhabited southern
southern part.
part. The
northern
The
habitable part
further divided
habitable
divided into
into seven
seven climes,
a
part was further
climes, a
running east
to west
one
series
series of parallel
east to
west and
and lying
one
parallel zones running
lying
northwards, diminishing
beyond the
the other northwards,
in extent
extent as
as
beyond
diminishing in
they
went.
literary
geographical
school
sprang
up
A
went.
in
literary geographical school sprang up in
they
the tenth
tenth century.
of its
Mas'udi (he
its luminaries,
the
al Mas'udi
century. One of
luminaries, al
(he
travelled author
had visited
was aa widely
author who had
visited China
China but
but
widely travelled
possessed little
knowledge), held
held the
the opinion
little astronomical
astronomical knowledge)
possessed
opinion
that all
in one clime
clime must
must necessarily
necessarily be
be in
in the
the same
same
all cities
cities in
that
co~ordinated the
latitude.
Idrisi, who followed
followed him,
latitude. But Idrisi,
the
him, co-ordinated
of
the
science.
The
scientific
descriptive aspects
the descriptive
with the
scientific with
of
the
science.
aspects
N orman king
king of
brilliant geogrageogra
of Sicily
Norman
this brilliant
Sicily commissioned this
a geographical
pher to
to write
geographical description
of the
the world
worldwrite a
description of
pher
on
an interesting
light
Europe
regarded
how
an
interesting light
Europe regarded Moslem
travellers (one
the
scholarship.
writings
Voluminous
of travellers
of the
writings of
scholarship.
(one of
Ibn Batuta,
Batuta, aa Moor who had visited
visited
most important
most
important was Ibn
and
Africa
as
well
as
every
part
of
the
Islamic
Ceylon
as
well
of
Africa
as
the
Islamic
every part
Ceylon
world) were inspired
inspired perhaps
perhaps by
by the
the earlier
earlier encyclopaedic
encyclopaedic
world)
Abu'l Fida
Fida and Yaqut,
Yaqut, the
a particularly
particularly
works of
the latter
latter a
of Abu'l
works
knowledge.
notable contribution
to knowledge.
notable
contribution to
The Arabs
Arabs had aa great
great sea
tradition, too,
particularly in
in
sea tradition,
too, particularly
literaEast,
which
is
reflected
in
the
popularity
of
sea
literathe
in
the
of
sea
is
reflected
the East,
popularity
the
ture at
of which
which we get
get aa glimmering
in the
the time,
at the
ture
time, and of
glimmering in
It
of
Sindbad
the
Sailor
in
the
Arabian
Nights.
voyages
the
in
Arabian
Sailor
the
Sindbad
of
Nights. It
voyages
indeed an Arab mariner
mariner named Ibn
Ibn Majid
Majid who is
is bebewas indeed
have piloted
piloted the
the Portuguese
Portuguese explorer,
lieved to
to have
lieved
explorer, Vasco da
Gama,
voyage of
of disco,:"ery
historical voyage
his historical
discovery around the
Gama, on his
thus
of
Good
Hope
(A.D.
I492),
thus
opening
the ocean
Cape
of
opening the
Hope (A.D. 1492),
Cape
the
actual
to
India,
and
a
legend
Ibn
Majid
the
actual
way
makes
a
Majid
legend
way to India,
the compass
compass. That the
inventor of
the mariner's
of the
mariner's compass.
inventor
compass was
,

[[179]
179 ]

THE ARABS
is logically
in
wayan
within the
an Arab contribution
contribution is
in some way
logically within
in France
known
tradition,
but
the
compass
was
already
in
but
the
tradition,
already
compass
it to
and Italy,
Italy, and
and Majid's
Majid's own ascription
of it
to King
King David,
David,
ascription of
role
the great
great ironmaster
ironmaster of
role
II have
in
which
of antiquity-in
the
antiquity
Beduin
heard
of
him
from
Beduin-suggests
a
many
times
Arab
times
heard
of
suggests a
many
much earlier
the compass.
compass. The Chinese ininearlier knowledge
knowledge of the
deed claim
claim to
to have
have used it
it continuously
continuously from the second
deed
century, and
and this
mariners introintrothat Arab mariners
this may
century,
suggest that
may suggest
Far
Eastern
duced it
it to
to the
voyages.
their
the West from their
duced
voyages.
It
Arabian astronomy,
however, rather
rather than AraIt was Arabian
astronomy, however,
bian geography,
Influence on
bian
that exercised
exercised an enduring
enduring influence
geography, that
of
our earliest
much
earliest
European
thought.
Although
owed
of
we
European thought. Although
countries to
to the
the geograspecialized
of Eastern countries
geograspecialized knowledge
knowledge of
phers
their
half
knowledge
rudimentary
map
making
half
and
their
rudimentary map making
phers
knowledge
debt
due
to
their
and
the
debt
to
their
in time
time to
to be superseded
the
came in
superseded
pioneer contributions
or underestimated.
underestimated. To the
the
contributions forgotten
pioneer
forgotten or
the
astronomer is
is due
of accepting
the
credit of
Moslem astronomer
due the
the credit
accepting
a
roundness of the
unenthusiastically, at
the earth,
roundness
at a
earth, however unenthusiastically,
it was as
yet too
big aa pill
pill for
Europe to
to swaltime
swaltime when it
as yet
for Europe
too big
low.
of the
the earth
as aa sphere
low. Accompanying
Accompanying the
the conception
earth as
conception of
sphere
curious theory
the centre
centre of
was aa curious
that somewhere in
in the
of one
theory that
'the
cupola
of
Arin,'
and
Chrishemisphere
a
summit,
was
a
the
of
ChrisArin,'
summit,
hemisphere
cupola
topher Columbus three
three hundred years
years later
held the
the questlater held
topher
questbelief
that
in
the
opposite
hemisphere,
the
Anprovoking
belief
that
in
the
the
provoking
opposite hemisphere,
be
of
Arin,
be
another
and
still
elevated
tipodes
must
and
still
more
elevated
Arin,
tipodes
summit,
to the
the earth
pear-shaped form.
form. 'It
is
earth a
a pear-shaped
'It is
summit, giving
giving to
16 *
'that it
it induced
Dante,
highly
probable,' says
induced Dante,
Kramers, 6 * 'that
highly probable,'
says Kramers/
whose indebtedness
indebtedness to
to Muhammadan traditions
traditions has
has been
been
in many
established
to localize
localize his
his Purgatorio,
Purgatorio,
established in
many respects,
respects, to
in
a mountain,
in the shape
western hemisphere,
hemisphere, by
by
in the
the western
mountain, in
shape of a
with
in
combining
with
it,
in
an
ingenious
way,
the
ancient
Chrisancient
Christhe
it,
combining
ingenious way,
tian
tian belief
belief that
that the
the terrestrial
Paradise was situated
situated in
the
terrestrial Paradise
in the
extreme
extreme east
the world,
behind the
the sea.'
east of
of the
sea.'
world, behind
c

[[180]
180 ]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE SCIENCES

As did
the Hebrew scriptures,
the original
Arabs had
had
did the
scriptures, the
original Arabs
doubtless
being the
the hub of
the
conceived of our earth
earth being
doubtless conceived
of the
universe. Within
Within two centuries
centuries of
the conquests
of the
universe.
Moslem
conquests
scholars
Ptolemaic conception.
In the
the
scholars had accepted
accepted the Ptolemaic
conception. In
tenth
century
they
speak
of
the
planets-of
which
they
the planets
tenth century they speak
of which they
as two-each
regarded the
the sun and the
the moon as
its holholtwo each with
with its
regarded
the
low concentric
the
outer
sky
of
all
contained
the
fixed
outer
of
concentric sky;
all
contained
the
fixed
sky;
sky
stars
like aa water
water wheel
wheel on
on
turned round and round like
stars and turned
or celestial
poles, thus
thus keeping
celestial poles,
two pivots,
the inner
inner skies
skies
pivots, or
keeping the
of
the planets
planets revolving
revolving in
in their
their several
of the
several motions.
motions. Two
centuries
earlier aa Hindu astronomer
astronomer brought
brought to
the new
centuries earlier
to the
court
astronomy which
was
at Baghdad
court at
which was
Baghdad an Indian work on astronomy
the astronomical
astronomical tables
the Caliph
soon
tables of
soon translated,
of the
translated, and the
Caliph
set up
Ma'mun,
Baghdad fifty
years
at Baghdad
Ma'mun, who set
up an observatory
observatory at
fifty years
later,
were
prepared
according
to
the
Indian
method.
to
the
Indian
method. At
later,
prepared according
this
took altitudes
altitudes of
the
the great
this observatory
of the
great Thabit took
observatory the
of
sun
to discover
the length
of
the
solar
year,
and
his
fellow
solar
the
his
sun to
discover the
fellow
length
year,
Sabian,
most admired during
our
the astronomer most
Battani
Sabian, Battani-the
during our
Renaissance
period-calculated
first appearance
appearance of
of the
the
the first
Renaissance period
calculated the
the ecliptic,
the length
of the
the
moon,
the inclination
inclination of
of the
moon, the
ecliptic, the
length of
tropic and sidereal
year, and parallaxes.
parallaxes.
sidereal year,
tropic
The passion
passion for
astronomy
to Spain,
where, in
in
for astronomy spread
spread to
Spain, where,
the eleventh
centuries, it
it flourished
flourished exceedexceedtwelfth centuries,
the
eleventh and twelfth
in
the
Spanish
school
calculating
its
longitudes
relaingly,
its
school
the
calculating
longitudes in relaSpanish
ingly,
to the
the meridian
meridian of
Toledo. Al Bitruji
(Alpetragius)
tion
in
of Toledo.
tion to
Bitruji ( Alpetragius) in
his own original
the twelfth
twelfth century
century was developing
views
the
original views
developing his
the
on planetary
movements.
He
boldly
criticized
the
comcriticized
movements.
boldly
planetary
exfor
plexity
of
Ptolemy's
theories
and
looked
for
a
simpler
looked
theories
of
simpler exPtolemy's
plexity
Al
had
planation
of
the
entire
stellar
system.
Biruni
stellar
the
entire
of
system.
planation
already
the eleventh
of what
in the
eleventh century
glimmerings of
century had glimmerings
already in
of Babylon
Aristarchus of
and Seleucus
Babylon had ininSeleucus of
Aristarchus
of Samos and
belief
tuitively
felt
than
a
thousand
years
before,
a
belief
than
thousand
a
felt
more
years before,
tuitively
that the
namely that
the
sometimes
ascribed to
to Indian
Indian savants,
sometimes ascribed
savants, namely
[ 181 ]
[181]

THE ARABS
of the
skies may
phenomena of
be explained
by the
the rotation
rotation
the skies
may be
explained by
phenomena
of
the
earth
on
its
own
axis
and
its
progress
on
an
orbital
its
its
orbital
axis
of the earth
progress

15
its mathematics
path around
around the
the sun.
that thesis
thesis and its
sun. 15 * But that
path
await the
the Renaissance
the Pole,
Pole, Copernicus.
Copernicus.
to await
Renaissance and the
had to

in the
civilization is
distinguished in
the dois scarcely
less distinguished
doArab civilization
scarcely less
of medicine
medicine than
than in
medicine was
in mathematics. Arab medicine
main of

rooted
in Greek medicine,
medicine, and the
centre of
mediof medithe original
rooted in
original centre
in
cal learning
learning was,
was, as
Jundeshapur
in
southwest
cal
as we saw,
saw, Jundeshapur
there produced
produced seven
seven generaPersia. The famous hospital
Persia.
generahospital there
to
a celebrated
of
physicians
to dre
tions
known
of
the
of a
tions of
celebrated family
physicians
family
its decay
East as
as Bakhtishu,
Bakhtishu, i.e.
i.e. Fortuna JJesu,
esu. With its
mediEast
decay
be aa Christian
preserve, Moslem
cine ceased
ceased to
Sabian preserve,
to be
Christian and Sabian
cine
doctors were trained
the new hospital
hospital at
at Baghdad,
Baghdad, and
in the
trained in
doctors
similar
in the
or
so
thirty
similar
hospitals
of a
a century
so
in
the course
course of
hospitals
thirty
century
throughout
the
Moslem
sprang
up
in
the
principal
cities
in
the
cities
the
throughout
sprang up
principal
world.
world.
Hunain, the
the physician
physician and translator,
written
Hunain,
translator, had written
in Arabic,
several
original medical
medical works in
Arabic, including
including ten
ten
several original
treatises on the
Thabit, also
physician-translator,
the eyes,
also physician-translator,
treatises
eyes, and Thabit,
is credited
credited with aa big
before this
is
this
big work on hygiene.
hygiene. But before
first
first century
century of Arab science
passed aa Persian
Persian Moslem
science had passed
was born near
near Teheran who became
became one
the greatest
one of
of the
greatest
figures of
the era.
a pupil
pupil of
Hunain, who
of the
era. This was Rhazes,
of Hunain,
Rhazes, a
figures
surpassed
his master in
prolixity of
his works.
works. One on
on
in the
of his
the prolixity
surpassed his
measles
and
measles
gave
the
first
clear
account
of
these
smallpox
the
first
clear
these
account
of
smallpox
gave
its way
diseases;
it found its
into many
diseases; it
way into
many languages,
including
languages, including
still being
East and West
English,
published in
in East
English, and was still
being published
a thousand
thousand years
years later.
masterpiece, called
called The
later. Rhazes's
Rhazes's masterpiece,
Comprehensive
Book,
brought
together
the
knowledge
the
Comprehensive Book, brought together
knowledge and
treatment of Greeks,
Arabs, Persians
Persians and Indians,
Indians, rereGreeks, Arabs,
spectively,
for
every
known
disease,
together
with
the
for
the
with
disease, together
spectively,
every
author's summing
author's
up, aa stupendous
piece of
of scholarship
summing up,
stupendous piece
scholarship
later to
to influence
European practice.
practice.
which was later
influence European

[[182]
182]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE SCIENCES

There were many
most
medical scientists,
the most
many other medical
scientists, the
notable of them Avicenna,
Avicenna, whose Canon of
Medicine was
was
notable
of Medicine
at
pharmacopoeia. It
was
at once an encyclopaedia
It was
encyclopaedia and pharmacopoeia.
into Latin,
translated
it is
used in
the East.
is still
translated into
still used
in the
East. At
Latin, and it
about this
this time
time a medical school
was
springing
up in
school
in
springing up
Spain
to achieve
achieve eminence
in surgery.
eminence in
The
Spain which was to
surgery.
Materia Medica of Dioscorides
Dioscorides had,
had, at
at the
the outset,
been
Materia
outset, been
translated
the Cordova court
court by
by aa Jewish
doctor,
and
translated for the
Jewish doctor, and
Abulcasis,
physician, soon
court physician,
soon afterafterAbulcasis, another famous court
produced his
treatise on surgery,
illustrated
with
his treatise
wards produced
illustrated
with
surgery,
of
instruments.
drawings
of
instruments.
This
work
a
wide
vogue;
had
a
wide
it
drawings
vogue it
into Spanish,
was translated
Latin
and
Hebrew,
and
some
translated into
Latin
some
Spanish,
Hebrew,
it laid
that it
laid the
the foundations
European
experts
claim that
foundations of
of European
experts claim
surgery.
surgery.
Optics
reached their
their highest
highest development
under AlAIdevelopment under
Optics reached
hazen, who,
at the
the beginning
in
of the
the tenth
tenth century,
who, at
hazen,
beginning of
century, was In
the service
of the
the Fatimid caliph
of
north
Africa.
Alhazen
the
service of
of
north
Africa.
caliph
rejected
theory of
Euclid that
the eye
eye
of Ptolemy
the theory
that the
Ptolemy and Euclid
rejected the
sends
out
rays
to
the
object
beheld
and
asserted
the
reverse
the
sends out rays to
asserted the reverse
object beheld
that is
process, aa discovery
discovery that
is at
at the
the bottom of
of photography.
process,
photography.
He examined the
the refraction
refraction of
through
light and
of rays
rays through light
water,
estimated
that
the
atmosphere
around
the
earth
the
that
around
the
estimated
earth
water,
atmosphere
was ten
miles high
high and came very
near to
to discovering
discovering the
the
ten miles
very near
magnifying
glass
i
his
researches
carried
Arab
optical
researches
carried
his
optical
magnifying glass;
science
beyond the
limits of
knowledge. All
All this
this
of Greek knowledge.
the limits
science far
far beyond
in
the
time
highly proficient
proficient in the pracpractime the
the Arabs were becoming
becoming highly
of A.D.
treatment of
their methods of
tical treatment
tical
of eye
diseases, and their
eye diseases,
to the
the begin1000 were being
being followed
Europe down to
beginin Europe
followed in
ning
of
the
eighteenth
century.
of
the
ning
eighteenth century.
The decline
of the
the Eastern
coincides with
with the
the
Eastern sciences
sciences coincides
decline of
in Islam,
revival of
narrow religiousreligious- orthodoxies
orthodoxies in
revival
of narrow
Islam, which
the twelfth
twelfth century,
dated
the early
part of
of the
dated from the
century, and
early part
al
If a
the
work
of
the
great
religious
teacher,
al
Ghazali.
If
the
of the great religious teacher,
;

183 ]
[[183]

THE ARABS
of Baghdad
Baghdad was to
burn the
the works of
of
pious
caliph of
to burn
pious caliph
Avicenna,
Spain
was
free
to
advance
for
a
century
longer.
free to advance for a century longer.
Avicenna, Spain
Indeed
very time
time she
her great
this very
she produced
at this
Indeed at
great
produced two of her
figures,
Avenzoar
and
Averroes.
But
by
the
fourteenth
the
fourteenth
Averroes.
by
figures,
century
writings had so
that magic
far declined
declined that
so far
Arabic writings
magic
century Arabic
and
practices
were
appearing.
that
these
Not
that
these
were
and superstitious
appearing.
practices
superstitious
of
the
were
absent,
even
in
the
halcyon
days
in
of
the
the
even
were ever
ever entirely
halcyon days
entirely absent,
tenth
to
twelfth
centuries,
for
both
astrology
alchemy
and
for
both
tenth to twelfth centuries,
astrology
alchemy
were
believed in.
in. Quite
Quite competent
acwere widely
competent astronomers acwidely believed
the
influence
of
the
heavenly
bodies
upon
terrestrial
cepted
bodies
the
of
terrestrial
the
influence
upon
heavenly
cepted
affairs,
the Traditions
Traditions which
which forbade
belief in
forbade belief
in
and despite
affairs, and
despite the
omens Mas'udi,
Mas'udi, among
a believer
believer in
in them.
them. The
others, was a
among others,
popular
associated
astronomy
with
astrology,
with
associated
mind
so
astronomy
astrology, so
popular
that
to be
be suspected
by
the
vulgar
as
paras
the
that astrolabes
astrolabes came to
vulgar
suspected by
partaking of
magical, whence at
of the
the tenth
tenth
the magical,
at the
the end of
of the
taking
century,
pope, who was an
one pope,
an enthusiastic
enthusiastic astronomer,
astronomer,
century, one
was held
held to
to have
with
the
devil
at
Cordova.'
at
the
devil
have 'dealings
with
Cordova.'
'dealings
The case
alchemy was stronger.
founded on
for alchemy
case for
It was founded
stronger. It
the
theory that
all metals
the same-a
same a
that all
metals are
are fundamentally
the theory
fundamentally the
basis
not incompatible
the Aristotelian
theory that
Aristotelian theory
with the
basis not
that
incompatible with
everything
ultimately
is
composed
of
four
elements:
moisof
is
four
elements
moiscomposed
everything ultimately
ture, dryness,
cold. Transmutation from one
heat and cold.
one
ture,
dryness, heat
metal to
to another was therefore
held to
to be
impossible.
metal
therefore held
be not
not impossible.
Gold was the
purest, silver
the next
next purest,
purest, and the
the desire
the purest,
silver the
desire
of
for
of
course,
in
order
of
their
preciousness.
for them was,
in
order
their
of
was,
course,
preciousness.
a substance
that was capable
of turnturnAlchemy postulated
substance that
Alchemy
postulated a
capable of
ing
a base
base metal into
precious one,
one, and it
it was the
the hunt
hunt
into a
a precious
ing a
after this
after
some
of
the
best
thought
of
elixir that
this elixir
that occupied
of
the
best
occupied
thought of
the age.
age. Even such
the
such eminent scientists
scientists as
as Rhazes and
and al
al
Farabi were enthusiastic
experimenters, though
enthusiastic experimenters,
others,
though others,
al Biruni
Biruni and Avicenna,
notably
in a
a nonbelievers'
nonbelievers'
Avicenna, were in
notably al
a
theory
that
metals
fundamentally
camp,
holding
by
a
that
metals
were
camp, holding by theory
fundamentally
different (elements?).
different
feature of
Rhazes'
of Rhazes'
(elements?). An interesting
interesting feature
:

[ r84]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE SCIENCES

is his
book on alchemy
division of
his division
vegeof substances
substances into
into vegealchemy is

animal and mineral,

a verbal
that has
table,
verbal usage
usage that
has passed
table, animal
mineral, a
passed
into our modern speech,
into
while the
father of
the so-called
so-called father
of Arab
speech, while
is supposed
alchemy,
nowadays to
to have
have been
been aa
Jabir, is
alchemy, Jabir,
supposed nowadays
that
at
secret company
secret
that
was
at
work
not
earlier
than
not earlier than the
the
company
tenth
century.
tenth century.
'The legacy
legacy of the
the Islamic
Islamic world in
in medicine
medicine and
and natural
natural
17
7*
Dr
science,'
says
Max
Meyerhof/
*
'is
the
legacy
'is
the
of
science,' says
Meyerhof,
legacy of
increased by
Greece, increased
many additions,
additions, mostly
mostly practical.
practical.
Greece,
by many
additions of the
... But the
the additions
the Islamic
Islamic physicians
physicians refer
refer almost
almost
clinical
to
solely
to
clinical
and
therapeutic
experience.
theory
The
therapeutic experience.
solely
theory
of
Greeks
the
were left
thought
the
left untouched
untouched and treastreasand thought
careful systematization
ured up
up after
after careful
and classification.
classification. It
ured
It
systematization and
be remembered that
that the
were strictly
strictly propromust be
the Moslems were
either human bodies
hibited
bodies or
or living
hibited from dissecting
anidissecting either
living animals. Thus experiment
practically impossible
impossible in
in
mals.
experiment was practically
that none of
medicine,
physioso that
of Galen's
Galen's anatomical
anatomical and physiomedicine, so
logical
errors could
be corrected.
the other
other hand,
hand, they
they
could be
corrected. On the
logical errors
the experience
received some impetus
received
of Persian,
Persian,
experience of
impetus from the
Indian,
particular
Central Asian scholars
scholars concerning
Indian, and Central
concerning particular
the knowledge
lines of
of treatment,
treatment, operations,
knowledge of
of drugs
lines
drugs
operations, and the
and minerals.
minerals ..
In
other
sciences
some
of
the
best
Greek
sciences
other
of
the
best
... In
to the
for example,
the
works were
were unknown to
Moslems, as,
as, for
example, the
the Moslems,
in
share
this
botany
of
Theophrastus.
Their
share
in
this
branch
Their
own
of
Theophrastus.
botany
is
a considerable
but, again,
of purely
purely practical
practical imimis a
considerable one,
one, but,
again, of
acute observers,
portance. The Moslem scholars,
observers,
scholars, although
although acute
portance.
in
sense.
It
were thinkers
in
a
restricted
sense.
It
is
the
same in
is the
restricted
in
a
thinkers only
were
only
zoology,
mineralogy,
and
mechanics.
The
glory
of
Moslem
mechanics.
glory
zoology, mineralogy,
science
is in
in the
the mathematical
mathematical
the field
field of optics.
science is
optics. Here the
al Din outshone
ability of
Alhazen and Kamal al
outshone that
that of
of Alhazen
ability
to
advances
Euclid
and Ptolemy.
Real
and
lasting
advances
stand
to
Euclid and
lasting
Ptolemy.
science.'
of
their credit
this department
of
science.'
in this
credit in
their
department
field of
of philosophic
philosophic
Original Arab contributions
In the
the field
contributions in
Original
.

[ I8S ]

THE ARABS
belittled by
are often
often belittled
thought are
authorities, who
by Western authorities,
thought
in
in
opposition
to some
indeed
indeed have dubbed them negligible,
negligible,
opposition to
authorities who think
think that
that during
modern Arab authorities
golden
during the golden
the
of
flourished
of
the
caliphate
a
system
of
philosophy
flourished
age
a
caliphate
system
philosophy
age
Islamic and which proprowhich was peculiarly
peculiarly Arab or
or Islamic
which
affected European
thought and achievement. ProProfoundly
European thought
foundly affected
in his
on
Philosophy
fessor
his brilliant
brilliant essay
fessor Guillaume,
Guillaume, in
essay
Philosophy and
a
Theology18*
to
which
the
present
writer
acknowledges
to
writer
the
acknowledges a
present
Theology*
addition
holds that
that while
while the
the Arab addition to
deep
to
obligation, holds
deep obligation,
unfair to
Greek philosophy
philosophy was not
not substantial,
it seems unfair
to
substantial, it
to the
the Arabs a 'peculiar
deny
philosophic
synthesis of philosophic
'peculiar synthesis
deny to
a
Arab
definite
philosophy a definite meaning.
thought' which gives
meaning.
thought'
gives
philosophy
the world under Arab
During our Middle Ages
Ages it
it was the
During
that rediscovered
domination
rediscovered Greek philosophy,
philosophy, devoted
devoted
domination that
of God,
man
itself
the
and
the
itself to
rational interpretation
interpretation of
to a
a rational
God,
at intellectual
intellectual standpoints
universe,
that
arrived at
universe, and arrived
standpoints that
influenced
the
greatly
influenced
the
teachings,
not
only
of
Islam,
but
not
but
Islam,
teachings,
only
greatly
that
also
medieval Christianity.
We
have
seen
that
the
first
seen
the
first
also of medieval
have
Christianity.
in the
Arabs accepted
the Qur'an
the same way
way that
that
Qur'an much in
accepted the
literal acceptance
Bible
a literal
fundamentalists
the Bible-a
fundamentalists accept
accept the
acceptance
faith. The impact
impact of
philosophical ideas
ideas on
through faith.
of Greek philosophical
through
the increasingly
enlightened
generations
following
the
the conconincreasingly enlightened generations following the
quests
brought intellectual
questionings. Soon aa school
intellectual questionings.
school of
of
quests brought
Moslem thinkers
thinkers arose,
the Mu'tazilite
Mu'tazilite or Secessionists,
arose, the
Secessionists,
'that God could
predestinate man's actions
held 'that
who held
could not
not predestinate
actions
because
to do what
because He was aa moral being
being who was bound to
was righteous'
that 'theology
should
righteous' and who demanded that
'theology should
be
to
this
society
be subjected
to
investigation
by
the
mind.'
the
mind/
To
this
investigation by
subjected
society
the
himself belonged,
its activities
in
the Caliph
activities in
Caliph Ma'mun himself
belonged, and its
translation and study
the ancient
pressing the
the translation
thinkers
of the
ancient thinkers
pressing
study of
that its
its influences
influences are
to
have
spread
were such
such that
are thought
to
have
thought
spread
across the
the Islamic
across
Islamic world into
to
survive
there
after
into Spain,
to
survive
there
after
Spain,
its
in the
its own suppression
the East as
body.
as a
a heretical
heretical body.
suppression in

[[186]
186]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE SCIENCES

SCIENCES
While the
the orthodox were suspicious
innovations of
of innovations
of
suspicious of
foreign
philosophy 'wisdom
and was not
not philosophy
'wisdom mixed
mixed
origin
foreign origin-and
?
with
unbelief' ?-the
the path
path of
the Arab philosophers
with unbelief
took the
of
philosophers took
intellectual
The
earliest
distinguished
name
intellectual approach.
earliest
approach.
distinguished name
that of
is that
among
Kindi, whose
whose theories
the soul
of al
al Kindi,
theories of
of the
soul
among them is
of later
Arab
formed,
with some modifications,
modifications, the
the basis
basis of
later Arab
formed, with
philosophical thought.
universe was
of the
the universe
was
thought. His conception
conception of
philosophical
akin
that of
divine intelligence
intelligence is
is the
the
to that
of Aristotle:
Aristotle: 'The
akin to
'The divine
cause
the world's
its activity
of the
world's existence:
cause of
existence: its
is mediated
mediated
activity is
through
the
heavenly
spheres
to
the
terrestrial
world.
The
the
to
the
terrestrial
world.
through
heavenly spheres
is intermediate
world-soul
the world
world of
intermediate between God and
world-soul is
and the
of
bodies. This world-soul
world-soul created
heavenly spheres.
the heavenly
bodies.
created the
spheres. The
human soul
soul is
is an emanation from the
the world-soul.
world-soul. There
There
is
in
man:
inasmuch
as
the
soul
is
tied
to
a duality
in
man
as
is thus
thus a
the
soul
is
tied
to the
the
duality
body
it
is
influenced
by
the
heavenly
spheres,
but
in
so
far
body it is influenced by the heavenly spheres, but in so far
as
to its
its spiritual
it is
is free
it is
true to
free and
and independent.
as it
is true
origin it
spiritual origin
independent.
Both freedom and immortality
immortality are
the
are only
in the
attainable in
only attainable
world
of
intelligence,
so
that
if
would
attain
thereto
that
of
so
if
man
would
attain
thereto
world
intelligence,
he must set
his intellectual
powers by
by
intellectual powers
himself to
to develop
set himself
he
develop his
18 *
acquiring
a
right
knowledge
of
and
the
universe
1'18*
a
the
of
God
universe!'
acquiring right knowledge
The philosopher,
philosopher, al
al Farabi,
Farabi, who followed
al Kindi
Kindi and
followed al
Aristotle, argued
a commentator of
of Aristotle,
'the imposwas also
also a
argued 'the
impossibility
of
an
infinite
chain
of
causes
and
the
postulate
the
causes
infinite
of
chain
of
an
postulate
sibility
of
necessarily existent
for itself.'
itself.'
in and for
existent in
cause necessarily
a first
first cause
of a
AI
Farabi
was
an
enthusiastic
exponent
of
the
theory
of
the
that
enthusiastic
an
Al Farabi
theory that
exponent
the
beginning, aa doctrine
doctrine which was an
the world
world had no beginning,
offence
to Islam
Islam and Christianity.
offence to
Christianity.
The philosopher
philosopher whom the
the West regarded
as the
the greatgreatregarded as
arose in
till Averroes arose
est
philosophy-till
in
of Arab philosophy
est exponent
exponent of
interHis
lucid
Spain
two
centuries
later-was
Avicenna.
lucid
interwas
Avicenna.
later
centuries
Spain
pretations of
his predecessor's
predecessor's philosophy
philosophy were indeed
of his
pretations
translated
later
by
the
Christian
archbishop of Toledo.
Christian
translated later by the
archbishop
Avicenna,
the principle
laid down the
principle
Plotinus, laid
Avicenna, following
following Plotinus,
:

[[187]
r87 ]

THE ARABS
'that from the
the one and indivisible
one being
being can origiindivisible only
*that
only one
originate
.
.
.
.
Therefore
it
is
not
permissible
to assert
assert that
that
is
not
it
nate.
permissible to
for that
form and
and matter
matter spring
that would
form
directly from God for
spring directly
different
two
that
there
are
different
modes
involve
the assumption
that
there
are
involve the
assumption
to
not
be
is
in
the
divine
essence.
Matter,
indeed,
is
not
to
be
thought
essence.
divine
in the
Matter, indeed,
thought
it is
is the
of
as coming
coming from God,
because it
the very
very principle
principle of
of
of as
God, because
we
multiplicity
and
diversity.
Again,
argued
Avicenna,
may
Avicenna,
argued
may
multiplicity
diversity. Again,
final cause
cause
not suggest
being which has
has no final
that a
not
a necessary
necessary being
suggest that
sense that
is
influenced by
by aa purpose
in the
the sense
that he
he acts
acts for the
the
is influenced
purpose in
For
if he did
himself.
sake
of something
other
than
himself.
if
he
did
than
other
sake of
something
inin his
actions by
would be
be dominated in
his actions
by regard
regard for
for aa being
inbeing
ferior
to himself.
himself. It
be necessary
necessary to
to distinguish
distinguish
ferior to
It would then
then be
within the
the divine
nature: (a)
the good
of the
the thing
thing which
within
divine nature
(a) the
good of
it desirable;
desirable; (b)
the
divine
knowledge
of
that good;
the
of
made it
divine
that
good;
knowledge
(b)
or
and (c)
the
divine
intention
of
acquiring
or
producing
that
the
intention
of
divine
acquiring
(c)
producing that
good.
intermediary between God
good. Therefore something
something intermediary
the "necessary
the
being"
and
the
world of
multiplicity must
the
of multiplicity
"necessary being"
be postulated.
postulated. The problem,
problem, therefore,
therefore, was how to
to acbe
account for
for the
the fact
complex universe
universe and aa simple
fact of
a complex
of a
simple
18 *
creator.'18*
creator.'
The philosophical
philosophical thought
of the
passed naturally
naturally
the East passed
thought of
across the
the Arabic
Arabic speaking
world
to
Spain,
where,
across
to Spain, where, howspeaking
first three
ever, for
for the
the first
religious orthodoxy
three centuries
centuries religious
reever,
orthodoxy resisted Mu'tazalite
Mu'tazalite doctrines.
sisted
thinkers
of
Spain
doctrines. The great
thinkers
of
great
Spain
centuries of
of the
the Arab rulers
do not
not belong
belong to
to the
the centuries
rulers at
at Corlater ones of political
dova but
but to
to the
the later
political upheaval
upheaval under
Berber rulers.
rulers. These,
to fanaticism
inclined to
fanaticism and
These, though
though inclined
narrow orthodoxies,
orthodoxies, seem to
connived at
to have connived
at the
the specuspeculation
of the
the philosophers
philosophers so
long as
as it
it was kept
kept out
lation of
so long
of
out of
of the
the reach
reach of
the
the common herd.
herd.
The Christian
in Spain,
Christian Church in
unlike the
the Nestorian
N estorian
Spain, unlike
Church in
in Persia,
Persia, was not in
in contact
contact with
with Greek philphilthat whereas in
in the
the East Greek
osophic
thought, so
so that
osophic thought,
.

[[188]
I88 ]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE SCIENCES

philosophy had come to
through aa Christian
Christian link,
link,
to Islam
Islam through
philosophy
in
it was to
in the
the West it
to Christianity
through aa MosMosto come to
Christianity through
link. Three great
lem link.
thinkers arose,
Ibn Muarose, Ibn
great Spanish
Spanish thinkers
al Arabi,
sarra,
Ibn al
(Averroes), whose
whose
Ibn Rushd (Averroes),
sarra, Ibn
Arabi, and Ibn
ideas were to
to exercise
exercise great
the
in Europe
influence in
great influence
Europe during
during the
succeeding
centuries, as
as did
did those
those of
a Jewish
Jewish school
whose
of a
school whose
succeeding centuries,
principal
figure
was
Avicebron
(Ibn
Gabirol).
Many
Avicebron
of
principal figure
(Ibn Gabirol). Many of
the Moslems had been
been mystics.
mystics. The greatest
greatest Moslem mysmystic, aa man of
of wonderful
wonderful erudition
erudition and
and deep
was al
al
tic,
piety, was
deep piety,
Ghazali,
called the
of
Islam.
His
the St
St Thomas Aquinas
of
Islam.
His
Ghazali, called
Aquinas
arguments
favour of
of the
nihilo', proofs
proofs that
that
in favour
the 'creatio
'creatio ex
ex nihilo',
arguments in
God's knowledge
knowledge comprises
particulars and
and the
dogma
the dogma
comprises particulars
of the
the dead
dead commended themselves
to
the resurrection
resurrection of
of the
themselves to
Christian
Ghazali had passed
passed through
through aa stage
Christian scholars.
scholars. Al Ghazali
stage
of scepticism
to set
the task
task of
of exploring
e~loring the
four
himself the
set himself
the four
scepticism to
to the
namely Scholasways which claimed
to lead
lead to
Scholasclaimed to
the truth,
truth, namely
ways
tic
theology, belief
belief in
an infallible
infallible teacher,
in an
tic theology,
Aristotelian
teacher, Aristotelian
philosophy and Sufism,
the way
way of
of Persian
mystics who
Persian mystics
i.e. the
Sufism, i.e.
philosophy
held
that God could
be mystically
mystically apprehended
in ecstasy.
ecstasy.
held that
could be
apprehended in
He emerged
a
mystic.
a
emerged mystic.
The philosopher
philosopher who had the
pronounced ininthe most pronounced
West
was
Averroes
of
Cordova,
though
he
fluence
on
the
fluence
the
of Cordova, though he
does
appear to
occupied aa corresponding
corresponding posiposidoes not
to have occupied
not appear
of
accused
for
at
one
stage
he
accused
of
apostasy
tion in
was
for
at
tion
in Islam,
Islam,
apostasy
stage
to
banished to
to Africa.
By the
the orthodox,
Africa. By
to Judaism
orthodox,
Judaism and banished
Averroism was indeed
with rationalism.
rationalism.
indeed generally
equated with
generally equated
Averroes,
did not
not argue
argue that
philosophy and rerethat philosophy
however, did
Averroes, however,
St
like
vealed
irreconcilable
but
held
like
St
Thomas
held
irreconcilable
but
were
vealed religion
religion
the error lay
Aquinas
they appeared
conflict the
lay
to conflict
that when they
appeared to
Aquinas that
the interpretation
interpretation. For Averroes
Averroes the
interpretation of
in
the interpretation.
in the
the Qur'an
by the
not
possible.
they
not
was
the
the ignorant
Qur'an by
possible. Better they
ignorant
in'the philosopher
their crude
while 'the
philosopher inbe
ideas while
crude ideas
be left
with their
left with
reason.'
Such
of
terpreted
text in
in the
the light
light of reasfbn.'
the sacred
sacred text
terpreted the
[ r89 ]
[189]

THE ARABS
ideas
ideas and others
others came from the
the East by
way of Moslem
by way
resemblances
to
colour
outlook.
be'The
beSpain
to
colour
Christian
outlook.
Spain
so
St Thomas Aquinas
tween Averroes and St
tween
Aquinas indeed are so
Averroes
that
has
numerous it
to
conclude
is only
natural
to
conclude
that
has
it is
natural
only
Arisbequeathed something
commentary on Arisbequeathed
something more than a commentary
18 *
Christian scholarship.'18*
totle to
totle
to Christian
scholarship.'
the
that 'however small the
Thus European
scholars hold that
European scholars
Arab contribution
to pure
pure philosophic
philosophic thought
may
have
contribution to
thought may
extent.'
to theology
of considerable
considerable extent.'
their service
theology was of
been their
service to
'that those
'We may
be sure,'
Professor Guillaume,
those
Guillaume, 'that
sure,' says
may be
says Professor
scholars of
of lack
lack of originality
and
of
who accuse
accuse Moslem scholars
of
originality
intellectual
decadence
have
never
read
Averroes
or
looked
decadence
have
never
looked
intellectual
al Ghazali,
into al
but have accepted
into
judgments.
Ghazali, but
accepted second-hand judgments.
in the
doctrines of Islamic
The presence
presence of doctrines
Islamic origin
origin in
the very
very
the
the
Summa
of
Aquinas,
citadel
citadel of
of Western Christianity,
Aquinas,
Christianity,
is a
the charge
lack of originalsufficient refutation'
refutation of the
is
a sufficient
charge of lack
original18 *
'18*
ity
and
sterility.
sterility.'
ity
of the
The influence
the Arabs on medieval civilization
influence of
civilization was
'Arab' being
clearly
being used
in
the term 'Arab'
used in
considerable, the
clearly very
very considerable,
its broad
broad cultural
civilization, as
its
cultural connotation;
for Arab civilization,
as
connotation; for
civilization of
the Arabs as
we have
have seen,
of the
a
as a
seen, was not the civilization
as
less
it
of
Arabia
as
a
country;
it
the
civilization
race,
still
less
of
a
was
the
still
civilization
race,
country
that sprang
that
up among
the heterogeneous
peoples of
of the
the
sprang up
heterogeneous peoples
among the
in
the
Arab-conquered
world
in
the
early
centuries
of
Islam.
Its
centuries
of
Islam.
Its
Arab-conquered
early
great
figures,
indeed,
seem
to
have
been
mostly
of
Persian
to
of
Persian
great figures, indeed,
mostly
a few were outside
outside the
the allegiance
blood,
the
of the
blood, and not a
allegiance of
all that,
faith. Still,
for all
Arab faith.
that, without
without the
it probably
probably
the Arabs it
Still, for
would never
never have taken place.
place.
One very
very striking
thing
these scholars
scholars was their
their
striking thing about these
a philosopher
philosopher of
distinction like
amazing
of distinction
like
amazing versatility.
versatility. Thus a
al Farabi could
be eminent in
in music
mathematics.
al
could be
music and in
in mathematics.
at home in
in theology,
theology, in
Rhazes seemed equally
in astronomy
equally at
astronomy
the
and in
in the natural
the time
natural sciences,
al Biruni
Biruni had the
time and
sciences, and al
;

[[190]
190 ]

ARAB CIVILIZATION: THE SCIENCES

talents to
talents
to be
be physician
physician and physicist,
physicist, geographer
geographer and
and as
astronomer,
write learnedly
learnedly about
still write
about arithmetic.
arithmetic. The
tronomer, and still
Arabs may
may 'not
have had the
the same gift
gift of
'not have
of scientific
scientific imagi.
imagi15 *
nation,
the
same
powerful
genius
as
had
the Greeks',
Greeks' ,15*
the
as
the
had
nation,
powerful genius
but they
themselves masters
masters of
of the
the Greek
heritage
but
Greek heritage
they made themselves
and kept
intellectual life.
life.
the higher
alive the
higher intellectual
kept alive
as
Europe,
as
yet
backward,
profited
intercourse
Europe,
yet backward, profited from intercourse
with this
through
Moslem
Spain.
with
civilization particularly
this civilization
particularly through
Spain.
In
tenth century
century Cordova was the
most civilized
city
In the
the tenth
the most
civilized city
19 *
in
;l.9*
Seville,
a
hundred
years
later,
was
to
rival,
a
in Europe
was
to
Seville,
later,
rival,
Europe
years
but
only Toledo was to
the eleventh
eleventh
to excel
excel her
but only
her and
and in
in the
century
the first
first seat
seat of
of learning
in Moslem Spain.
century become the
learning in
Spain.
Wandering scholars
Europe now came to
to acquire,
scholars from Europe
Wandering
acquire,
through
the medium of
Jewish interpreters,
a taste
taste for
of Jewish
for
interpreters, a
through the
Aristotle.
Others,
following
in
succeeding
centuries,
came
in
Aristotle. Others, following
succeeding centuries,
to study
Arabic, the
the eminent among
them, like
Robertus
like Robertus
to
among them,
study Arabic,
Augustus
and
Adelard
of
Bath,
making
translations
of
of
translations
of
Bath,
making
Augustus
their own.
own. As the
the conflict
between the
and Berber
Berber
the Latin
conflict between
Latin and
their
power
kingdoms
of Moslem power
led to
to the
the gradual
gradual withdrawal of
kingdoms led
taste, and more
Spain
to European
congenial to
European taste,
Spain became more congenial
and more of
with aa bent
bent towards
towards scholarship
turned
those with
of those
scholarship turned
to her.
her.
to
transJust as
as the
profited from the
the Greek trans
the Arabs had profited
Just
lations
in the
and
ninth
centuries,
so
in
the
twelfth
in
the
twelfth
so
ninth
the eighth
lations in
centuries,
eighth
and succeeding
Europe profited
profited by
by these
these Latin
Latin
centuries Europe
succeeding centuries
learnso Greco-Arabic learntranslations
the Arabic.
Arabic. And so
translations from the
ing
spread
across
Europe,
the
first
universities sprang
sprang
universities
and
the
first
across
Europe,
ing spread
up
in
response
to
the
demand
for
it-Bologna,
Padua,
it
for
the
to
in
Padua,
Bologna,
response
up
alParis. The Christian
awakening. She had alChristian West was awakening.
Paris.
ready inherited
part of
the Moslem legacy
of the
a large
inherited a
legacy when
large part
ready
contact with the
the
the crusades
crusades brought
brought her into
into closer
closer contact
the
Greek
Church of
of Eastern
Christendom. She had become
Eastern Christendom.
Greek Church
the legacy
the Greeks bequeathed
bequeathed
fully
of the
of the
aware of
legacy of
fully aware
;

[ I9 I ]

THE ARABS
as time
time passed
through
the Arabs,
Arabs, and as
passed she
she abandoned
through the
to the
the Greek
Arabic
to go
Greek originals.
Arabic to
originals.
straight to
go straight
The Arabs
Arabs had meanwhile forsaken
their Greek idols,
forsaken their
idols,
back
had in
become conquered
conquered peoples
peoples and so
so sank
sank back
in turn
turn become
had
held aloft
into
done. They
aloft
into obscurity.
obscurity. Their work was done.
They had held
the
torch of
Greek civilization
civilization and after
after four
of Greek
four hundred
the torch
years passed
passed it,
it, still
brightly burning,
burning, to
to the
still more brightly
Christhe Chrisyears
tian
West.
That
heritage
contained
the
seed
of
the
Renaistian West.
heritage contained the seed of the RenaisRenaissance grew
European civilizacivilizasance,
out of
the Renaissance
of the
sance, and out
grew European
tion and European
ascendancy.
tion
European ascendancy.

[[192]
192 ]

Part
Part Three
Three

THE DECLINE

CHAPTER VIII

Disintegration and Decline

Decline
Disintegration

Rw

their impress
the world
world as
the
left their
EW PEOPLES have left
as the
impress on the
left theirs.
theirs. At this
in
a
vast
sweep
of
this day
in
vast
Arabs have left
day
sweep of
territory across
across north Africa eastwards
into the
eastwards into
the heart
heart of
territory
Asia the
religion, the
the dress,
dress, the
the habits,
the very
very outlook
of
outlook of
Asia
the religion,
habits, the
the
peoples, the
the Arabic tongue,
tongue, the
written character
the written
character where
the peoples,
the tongue
not Arabic,
Arabic, are
living monuments to
to the
the
is not
are all
all living
the
tongue is
of
great
medieval
empire
of
the
Arabs.
the
medieval
empire
great
Yet, strange
though it
may seem,
the Arabs were aa peopeoit may
seem, the
Yet,
strange though
without
taste
for
discipline,
without
capacity
for
orple
taste
for
without
orwithout
for
discipline,
ple
capacity
ganization,
lacking
stability.
The
marvellous
expansion
marvellous
expansion
ganization, lacking stability.
of
eighth centuries
that carried
their
the seventh
carried their
centuries that
of the
seventh and eighth
sway
as the
the Roman Empire
Empire was folfolas vast
vast as
sway over an area as
lowed immediately
immediately by
by aa period
period of
disintegration almost
almost as
as
of disintegration
time
of
rapid.
There
scarcely
any
marking
time
at
the
top
of
the
was
at
scarcely any marking
top
rapid.
the hill,
hill, scarcely
Political
the
sustained imperial
dominion. Political
scarcely any
any sustained
imperial dominion.
unity crumbled from the
the moment the
the soldiers
soldiers stopped
stopped
unity
marching;
the
conquered
territories
split
up,
regional
marching; the conquered territories split up, regional
three
dynasties
followed one after
after another;
another; and within three
dynasties followed
centuries
political ascendancy
almost
centuries political
ascendancy had virtually
virtually passed
passed almost

[[195]
I95]

THE ARABS
~verywhere
to men of
non-Arab blood.
blood. Within
Within another
another
of non-Arab
everywhere to
century
or
foreign
invaders
were
thundering
the
at the
invaders
or
two
foreign
thundering at
century
inner
gates, the
the crusaders
western Europe,
heathen
heathen
crusaders from western
inner gates,
Europe,
Hither Asia.
peace.
Mongols
Asia. The Arabs knew no peace.
Mongols from Hither
by the
they perish
perish by
by it.
As they
they had lived
so must they
it.
lived by
the sword,
sword, so
And thus
five centuries
the sword was seldom sheathed.
centuries the
for five
thus for
sheathed.
Yet despite
the clashings,
three races
races of
of manof three
clashings, latterly
latterly of
despite the
kind,
the political
political submergence
the Arabs themthemof the
kind, despite
submergence of
despite the
their
faith
emerged
from
the
contest
a
selves,
contest
a
the
world
faith
their
selves,
emerged
faith;
their social
inextricably bound up
up with
with that
that
social culture,
culture, inextricably
faith; their
the ultimate
If the
the Arabs
faith,
ultimate victors.
victors. If
of the
laid hold of
faith, had laid
in the
suffered
political eclipse,
eclip~e, yet
yet they
they triumphed
triumphed in
the
suffered political
Arabization
of their
their masters.
masters.
Arabization of
The new Arab world
world that
that had come to
to exist
exist at
the end
at the
of
not predominantly
predominantly Arab in
of the
in
the expansionist
expansionist wars was not
blood.
colonization and
and conquest
are
ultimately
two
are
blood. For colonization
two
conquest
ultimately
very
processes, and while
while the
were alalthe conquests
different processes,
conquests were
very different
the
most world wide
wide in
extent,
as
the
world
was
then
conceived,
in extent, as
then conceived,
not. It
It well-nigh
well-nigh exhausted
exhausted itself
in
colonization was not.
Arab colonization
itself in
the
Fertile Crescent,
the lands
half encircling
encircling Arabia's
Arabia's
lands half
the Fertile
Crescent, the
northern confines-Palestine,
northern
confines
Palestine, Syria,
Syria, Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. Here
else the
more than
the proportion
of Arab invadthan anywhere
invadanywhere else
proportion of
ers to
to indigenes
indigenes stood high
high and grew
grew to
to be
be dominant.
dominant.
ers
Egypt
Persia, on the
the other
conquered
other hand,
hand, were conquered
Egypt and Persia,
rather
than colonized,
colonized, the
minority element ultiultirather than
the Arab minority
mately
dominating the
the one,
being submerged
by the
other.
the other.
one, being
submerged by
mately dominating
In the
north Africa
and Spain
to
the
the outward extensions,
Africa and
to
the
extensions, north
Spain
westwards,
Trans-Oxiana
to
the
eastwards,
the
Arabs
were
to
Trans-Oxiana
the
the
were
westwards,
eastwards,
still more thin
still
these outermost conquests
conquests having
thin spread,
spread, these
having
been achieved
with the
the aid
aid of
of allies.
allies. Most
achieved indeed
indeed only
only with
notably
this the
the case
in Spain
where Tariq's
case in
notably was this
Spain where
Tariq's original
original
conquering
army
of
seven
thousand
contained
aa mere handhandseven
thousand
contained
conquering army
19 *
ful
three hundred Arabs,19*
and the
backing-up force
force
ful of
of three
the backing-up
Arabs,
4

[ I9 6 ]

DISINTEGRATION AND DECLINE

of
by an
an Arab the
the following
of eighteen
eighteen thousand commanded by
following
a
one
of Berbers,
year
of
Berbers, Arabs,
Arabs, Egyptians
Egyptians
composite
year was a composite
doubtless again
north African
and Syrians,
preponderantly north
and
African
again preponderantly
Syrians, doubtless
Marriage with
with Spanish
rapidly
in personnel.
personnel. Marriage
women
in
multiSpanish
rapidly multibut
newcomers'
it
plied
the
newcomers'
stock,
but
it
still
must
have
reprethe
still
must
have represtock,
plied
fraction of the
but aa tiny
tiny fraction
the entire
entire population
population of
sented
sented but
of Spain,
Spain,
in the second generation
generation was for
while its
its blood
blood in
while
for the
the most
part half
half Spanish
diluted with
with succeeding
Spanish and grew
grew more diluted
part
succeeding
generations;
the more local
local generations
a Spanish
generations; indeed the
generations a
Spanish
blood he
he was likely
could boast
boast of,
the less
less Arab blood
Moslem could
of, the
likely
to
have in
in his
his veins.
veins.
to have
not unnaturally
unnaturally started
in these
these remote
Disintegration not
started in
remote
Disintegration
in 711;
it threw
threw off
fringes.
7 I I; it
off the
the
conquered in
Spain was conquered
fringes. Spain
asserted its
yoke and asserted
its own independence
in
746,
in
Damascus yoke
independence
746,
after aa brief
brief thirty-five
thirty-five years
allegiance. Tunis
reafter
Tunis had reyears allegiance.
before. Parts
of Morocco folpudiated the
the contact
contact a year
folParts of
year before.
pudiated
not
from
lowed rapidly.
rapidly. It
a state
state of
affairs arising
It was a
of affairs
not
arising
rulers, however,
however, for
native discontent
discontent with local
local Arab rulers,
native
for
themselves for
these continued
to maintain
maintain themselves
hundreds of
for hundreds
continued to
these
of
years,
such
was
Moslem
military
prestige.
The
root
cause
such
cause
root
military
prestige.
years,
was the
the overmastering
overmastering ambition
ambition
the strong
individualism, the
strong individualism,
of
the
local
themselves
to
carve
out
independent
to
carve
themselves
out
Arabs
the
local
of
independent
fortunes. Indeed
kingdoms and found personal
Indeed those
those very
very
personal fortunes.
kingdoms
been
the
of
the
been
the
strength
of
the
expansion
qualities
which
had
which
strength
expansion
qualities
greater and
headquarters daily
daily grew
distances from headquarters
when distances
grew greater
a slow-moving
communications across
world made dedeacross a
communications
slow-moving world
of
pendence
upon
central
authority
impossible-qualities
of
central
impossible
qualities
authority
pendence upon
independence,
of
opportunism,
of
courageous
initiativeof
initiative
of
courageous
opportunism,
independence,
of imperial
were, when peace
peace came,
be the
the undoing
undoing of
to be
came, to
were,
imperial
world dominion had been
been brought
brought about by
unity. Arab world
by
unity.
leaders
independent
local
action
of
brilliant
individual
leaders
individual
action
brilliant
local
independent
coa clearly
rather
than as
result of
clearly thought-out
thought-out and coof a
as the
the result
rather than
ordinated
policy vigorously
prosecuted by
by aa general
general staff.
staff.
ordinated policy
vigorously prosecuted

[[197]
197]

THE ARABS
Do not
not the
traditions tell
tell us
us that
that the
the invasion
invasion of Egypt
the traditions
Egypt was
despite the
a caliph
of Medina,
the opposition
opposition of
Medina, Spain
of a
made despite
caliph of
Spain
Damascus??
invaded
despite aa caliph
caliph of
of Damascus
invaded despite
the expansionist
phase ceased
in
ceased the
the Arab leaders
leaders in
When the
expansionist phase
farther
the
field did
did not
not change
change their
their spots.
The
farther
removed
the field
spots.
the less
less dependent
the central
government the
they
central government
dependent
they were from the
they
were
upon
caliphs
often
jealous
them.
often
were
who
jealous of them.
upon caliphs
they
They
were
impatient
of
interference;
they
were
opporwere
of
interference; they
opporThey
impatient
the first
tunists
coins minted at
at Damascus
tunists still.
still. If
first Arab coins
If the
a year
omitted the
name, those
those issued
year later
issued a
the caliph's
later in
in
omitted
caliph's name,
Iraq
bore
the
of
his
provincial
governor
who
struck
bore
of
struck
the
name
his
Iraq
provincial governor
so prone
individualists
of individualists-so
prone to
to
them. Among
Among aa people
people of
them.
the
effect
self-assertion-peace
the
effect
of
diverting
energies
had
self-assertion
diverting energies
peace
into
channels.
into disruptive
disruptive channels.
their
Disagreement
of Damascus and their
Disagreement between caliphs
caliphs of
in eastern
provincial governors
governors in
eastern Persia,
Persia, Khorasan and
provincial
Trans-Oxiana soon led
to rifts,
rifts, and although
the native
native
led to
although the
populations
steadily
the
Islamic
faith
the
auembraced
the
Islamic
faith
the
aupopulations steadily
thority of
dwindled so
to be almost
nonso as
as to
of Damascus dwindled
almost nonthority
before the
the Umaiyyad
Umaiyyad dynasty
came
to
existent
years before
ten years
existent ten
to
dynasty
an end.
Representing the
the Arab caliphs
as
loose-living,
as
an
end. Representing
caliphs
loose-living,
wicked and dissolute
tyrants, the
the Persians
Persians were already
dissolute tyrants,
wicked
already
the banner of
espousing another
another cause
cause under the
of a
a rival
rival
espousing
claimant
caliphate, a Persian-born
Persian-born descendant
to the
claimant to
the caliphate,
descendant of
of
the
Prophet's uncle,
uncle, Abbas.
Abbas. Rebellion
head, the
the
the Prophet's
Rebellion came to
a head,
to a
Umaiyyad garrisons
expelled first
Persia then
first from Persia
then
Umaiyyad
garrisons were expelled
from Iraq,
the
last
caliph
of
was
defeated
in
the
the
last
of
Damascus
defeated
in
the
Iraq,
caliph
Battle of
Battle
of the
Greater Zab,
Zab, pursued
pursued to
to Egypt
and
there
the Greater
there
Egypt
with most of
of his
his family
exterminated.
with
family exterminated.
Abbasid caliphs
thus owed their
their throne
Persian
The Abbasid
throne to
to Persian
caliphs thus
and Khorasan levies
levies and must shape
their
rule
accordingly.
their
rule
shape
accordingly.
As time went on Eastern influences
influences continued
continued increasingly
increasingly
to
the affairs
of the
the new caliphate.
But later
to dominate the
affairs of
later
caliphate. But

[ 198 ]

DISINTEGRATION AND DECLINE

Turkish
mercenaries-recruited
beyond the
the Oxus
recruited from
Turkish mercenaries
from beyond
Oxus
bodyguard-climbed
to supreme
as
the caliph's
as the
climbed to
caliph's bodyguard
supreme power
power
at
of Persians
Persians and
established aa military
the expense
at the
and established
expense of
military
the
ascendancy
within
the
state,
the
most
powerful Turkish
Turkish
within
the
most
state,
ascendancy
powerful
amir
of the
the day
becoming the
the de
ruler.
de facto
facto ruler.
amir of
day becoming
Africa had
had never
properly
Away
Egypt, north
north Africa
never properly
beyond Egypt,
Away beyond
indeed
already
started
crumbling
been subjugated,
had
indeed
been
started
subjugated,
already
crumbling
that at
at the
the time
time
when the
the Spanish
buttress fell
fell away,
so that
Spanish buttress
away, so
of
the removal
removal eastwards of
of the
the caliphate
caliphate capital
of the
from
capital from
was
Damascus to
Baghdad, Qairawan
to Baghdad,
alone of
Damascus
of Barbary
Qairawan alone
Barbary was
in
To
assert
ADbasid
authority,
Aghlab,
an
assert
Abbasid
in allegiance.
allegiance.
authority, Aghlab, an
Arab general,
and
native
of
eastern
Persia,
was
sent
and
of
native
eastern Persia, was sent to
to
general,
north Africa.
Africa. Aghlab
Aghlab found Qairawan
cry from
a far
north
far cry
Qairawan a
from
too well,
well, identified
himself
Baghdad. He succeeded
succeeded only
identified himself
only too
Baghdad.
profited from it,
it, so
that
with
local disaffection
or at
least profited
disaffection or
at least
with local
so that
as an independent
in
he ruled
ruled as
prince and founded
in A.D. 800 he
founded
independent prince
aa north
north African
African dynasty.
dynasty.
later Egypt
travel the
the same path.
Seventy
to travel
Seventy years
years later
Egypt was to
path.
Ibn
Tulun,
a
Turkish
viceroy
of
the
Baghdad
a
of
the Baghdad caliph
Ibn Tulun,
sent
viceroy
caliph sent
to
became virtually
virtually independent
while carrying
out
to Fustat,
Fustat, became
independent while
carrying out
for
independence,
now
his mission,
mission, and
and Egypt,
ripe
for
his
Egypt, ripe
independence,
within aa century
century and aa half
half
achieved
him. Thus within
it under him.
achieved it
after
practically the
the whole
whole of
of
the Arab conquest
after the
Spain practically
conquest of Spain
north Africa
Africa as
well as
had
become
independent
of
as well
as Spain
become
north
independent
Spain
the great
caliphate of
of the
the East
and had broken
broken up
up
East and
the
great Arab caliphate
into
many
independent
states.
into many independent states.
that
But Qairawan
the scene
scene of
a new movement that
of a
But
Qairawan was the
was destined
to unite
unite north
north Africa
again under a single
Africa again
destined to
was
single
its
ruler of
of Cairo
to give
give rise
rise to
to aa caliphate
that in
in its
Cairo and to
ruler
caliphate that
rival the
the prestige
prestige of
of the
the contemporary
contemporary
heyday
to rival
heyday was to
rulers
of
Baghdad.
The
Fatimids,
as
the rulers
Abbasid caliphate
as the
of
Abbasid
Fatimids,
caliphate
Baghdad.
their
of
this African
African caliphate
caliphate came to
be called,
called, owed their
to be
of this
the
name to
a
blood
claim
of
descent
from
Fatima,
the
daughto a blood claim of descent
Fatima,
daugh-

[[199]
199]

THE ARABS
the Prophet,
ter
wife of
of the
the martyr
martyr AH,
Ali, and
and mother
mother of
of
ter of the
Prophet, wife
the
saints,
Husain
and
Hassa~':
They
were
of
Shi'a
sect;
the saints,
Hassan* They were of Shi'a sect
indeed
first Fatimid
Fatimid caliph
caliPh claimed
to be
be the
the Madhi
the first
indeed the
claimed to
himself, though
though his
his Abbasid
Abbasid traducers
traducers represented
represented him
himself,
impostor of
origin and with
with Jewish
Jewish blood
blood
as
as an impostor
of Persian
Persian origin
in
the female
genesis of
the movement which
which
female line.
line. The genesis
of the
in the
brought
to
power
is
thought
to
have
been
a
secret
him
secret
to
is
to
a
been
have
thought
brought
power
started
by
his
grandfather
some
half-century
besociety
started
his
society
grandfather
by
half-century before.
man, Abdullah
Abdullah ibn
is said
have
This man,
ibn Ma-imun,
fore. This
said to
to have
Maimun, is
a
been
a rationalist
rationalist who had conceived
a Persian
conceived a
been a
Persian oculist,
oculist, a
violent hatred
hatred for
Arabian Islamism.
Islamism. In
In origin
origin
for orthodox
orthodox Arabian
violent
rational belief,
belief, requiring
requiring none
none
the
for rational
stood for
the movement stood
too
high aa code
personal behaviour
behaviour judged
judged by
by orthodox
orthodox
of personal
code of
too high
veneer in
a cult
standards,
though it
cult
in a
it had a
a religious
standards, though
religious veneer
of
Mahdism.
The
imminent
expectation
of
a
great
teacher
a
teacher
of
of
great
expectation
the occluded
occluded member of
was proclaimed;
however, the
not, however,
proclaimed; not,
in the
the twelfth
twelfth generation
generation of
the Prophet
the Shi'a
as in
Shi'a
of the
the
Prophet as
the East,
though
like
him
a
Mahdi
who
cult
a
would
like
of the
cult of
East, though
sweep
and usher
usher in
an age
peace
of peace
in an
false caliphs
age of
caliphs and
sweep away
away false
at its
ibn
and
justice. The movement had at
its head Sa'id
Sa'id ibn
and justice.
of
the
founder,
it
attracted
Husain,
the
grandson
when
it
attracted
the
of
the
founder,
Husain,
grandson
a native
to its
one Abu Abdullah,
the Shi'ite,
of
native of
ranks one
its ranks
to
Shi'ite, a
Abdullah, the
in decay
Basrah.
Aghlabid rule
at this
this time,
rule was in
Basrah. Aghlabid
time, and
decay at
put himself
at the
the head
head <of
'Of the
the rebellion
Abdullah put
rebellion
himself at
Abu Abdullah
to
the last
the line.
thereupon proproSa'id was thereupon
dethrone the
last of
of the
line. Sa'id
to dethrone
the name of
of
claimed
at Qairawan
claimed caliph
Qairawan and assumed the
caliph at
leader
Ubaidallah the
the Mahdi. But caliph
popular leader
Ubaidallah
caliph and popular
proved, in
the event,
to
were soon
in the
soon quarrelling.
were
event, to
quarrelling. The former proved,
the
the
be
a
pious
and
orthodox
Shi'a
Moslem,
and,
whatever
a
and
Shi'a
be pious
Moslem, and,
indulgences
asssociated with
the movement of
his grandgrandof his
with the
indulgences asssociated
it
clear
that
he
not
going
to
stand
that
he
was
stand
father,
it
not
to
made
clear
father, early
early
going
for
love, pig's
pig's flesh,
and
wine-bibbing.'
The
ladder
by
'free love,
ladder
for 'free
flesh,
by
wine-bibbing.'
climbed to
power could
be kicked
kicked aside,
aside,
which he had climbed
could now be
to power
;

[200
[200]]

DISINTEGRATION AND DECLINE

accused of
Abu Abdullah
Abdullah was accused
of casting
casting doubts
the
doubts on
on the
so
and
was
credentials
so
put to
to death.
death.
Mahdi's
Mahdi's credentials
put
this Fatimid line
in this
line came a
a great
Fourth in
caliph, Mu'izz,
Mu'izz,
great caliph,
scholar
and statesman,
to whom is
knowledge
is ascribed
scholar and
ascribed a
a knowledge
statesman, to
of the
Greek, Slav and Berber tongues.
tongues. Mu'izz
Mu'izz rose
rose
the Greek,
of
of the
tenth century
at Qairawan
Qairawan to
about
the middle
middle of
the tenth
century at
about the
to
the Islamic
himself master
master of
of the
Islamic world
world about
make himself
about him.
him. His
His
to subject
iron hand extended westwards to
the whole
whole of
iron
of
subject the
his ambitious eye
north Africa
Africa; his
eye looked
looked still
more eagerly
eagerly
north
still more
eastwards
to Egypt,
her appanages
of
Palestine
and
eastwards to
of
Palestine
and
Egypt, with her
appanages
thither
the
And
Syria.
thither
J
auhar
the
Sicilian,
his
great
slave
his
slave
Sicilian,
Jauhar
Syria.
great
the head of
of an
an army.
army. Fustat,
Fustat, the
general, was dispatched
at the
the
general,
dispatched at
capital, fell,
fell, and where
where the
the victors
victors encamped
encamped on
on its
its outoutcapital,
of Cairo.
Cairo. (Arabic
(Arabic =
skirts
rose the
skirts rose
the new Fatimid capital
capital of
Qahira.)
Qahira. )
'it is
the origin
origin of
the
'And,' says
Maqrizi, 'it
is said
said that
that the
of the
'And,
says Maqrizi,
as
city's
as
follows:
When
the
Commander-infollows:
the
name
was
Cornmander-incity's
the city,
auhar desired
to build
build the
city, he
he summoned the
Chief
Chief J
desired to
the
Jauhar
that he
a
he wished
wished to
to construct
astrologers,
told them that
construct a
astrologers, and told
town outside
the city
of
Misr
(i.e.
Fustat)
in
order
that
of
in
outside the
that
town
order
(i.e.
city
Fustat)
the army
he ordered
ordered them to
to choose
in it,
the
abide in
should abide
choose
it, and he
army should
(a
happy
rising)
for
laying
the
an
auspicious
moment
an auspicious
(a happy rising) for laying the
foundations,
with the
of insuring
that the
the place
place
the object
foundations, with
insuring that
object of
would never
never be
be lost
and their
successors: and the
to them and
their successors
lost to
the
a
astrologers
chose
a
moment
for
laying,
and
a
moment
a
for
chose
laying,
astrologers
for
excavating the
they placed
placed timber
timber
for excavating
the foundations;
foundations; and they
the
poles
round
the
circuit
of
the
site,
and
between
the
poles
of
the
and
between
round
circuit
the
site,
poles
poles
aa rope
strung,
and
on
it
bells
were
fastened:
and
they
it
bells
fastened
was
they
strung,
rope
bells
to
the
workers,
"when
the
bells
ring,
throw
down
said
the
said to the workers,
ring,
in your
(into
trenches) what is
is in
your
the already
(into the
already completed
completed trenches)
stood
mortar).
they
stood
hands
Then
hands of
stones and mud" (i.e.
of stones
they
(i.e. mortar)
it happened
watching for
Whereupon it
happened
for the
the happy
happy moment. Whereupon
watching
that aa crow
crow alighted
one of
ropes whereon the
the
of the
the ropes
that
alighted upon
upon one
;

[20I
[ 201

THE ARABS
all the
bells rang
so that
the bells
bells were hung,
hung, so
that all
rang: and the workers
that
the
thought
that
the
astrologers
had
rung
therefore
them; therefore
rung them;
astrologers
thought
in their
the trenches)
their
they
trenches) what was in
(into the
they threw down (into
to
and
began
to
build;
and
hands
stone and mud (mortar)
hands of
of stone
build;
began
(mortar)
"Al
Qahir
(the
victorious)
the astrologers
shouted
shouted
is
the
Qahir
(the victorious) is
astrologers
that they
rising."
it happened
happened that
they had
they missed what they
rising." Thus it
it was the
said that
intended,
is said
that it
the planet
planet Mars,
it is
vicMars, vicintended, and it
the
in
the
that
founwas
torious at
that
in
the
ascendant
when
the
fountorious
at dawn,
dawn,
the city
they named the
dations
were begun:
so they
dations were
Qahira
city Al Qahira
begun and so
their insight
is justified,
((Cairo)
Cairo) (the
insight is
justified,
victorious) : and their
(the victorious)
has remained under
till
for
under (subject
the city
for the
(subject to)
to) conquest
conquest till
city has
22 *
this
this ~ay.'22*
day.'
to come to
later the
the crusaders
crusaders were to
to find
Two centuries
centuries later
find
the
the 'insight'
still
working.
Meanwhile
the
fortunes
of
still
the
fortunes
of
working.
'insight
the
ties
the
of Egypt
the Fatimids
Fatimids of
waxed
and
waned,
the
ties
with
with
waned,
Egypt
Syria
north Africa were not
not always
always and everywhere
everywhere
Syria and north
the spiritual
sciences flourished,
arts and sciences
maintained,
the arts
flourished, the
maintained, the
spiritual
the noorthodoxies
cruel caliph,
caliph, the
orthodoxies flagged.
noflagged. One mad and cruel
himself
be
torious
Hakim,
believed
himself
to
be
the
incarnation
torious Hakim, believed
to
the incarnation of
of
the
till aa religious
religious zealot
zealot assassinated
the divine
divine wisdom till
assassinated him
of his
his lonely
on one of
lonely night
while the
the capital,
Cairo,
rides, while
capital, Cairo,
night rides,
that
of a
secret society
was the
the home of
a secret
at
the
that
aimed
at
the
underundersociety
religious orthodoxies.
to learn
mining of
of religious
orthodoxies. Initiates
Initiates came to
learn
mining
the end of the
towards the
the nine
initiation
-towards
nine degrees
of
initiation-that
of
that
degrees
a
religious
beliefs
fundamentally
a
means
to
secular
beliefs
were
to
secular
religious
fundamentally
to wit,
the preservation
of public
public order in
ends, to
wit, the
preservation of
in a
a regiends,
regia soporific
mented state;
state they
the comfor keeping
comthey were a
soporific for
keeping the
in subjection.
mon herd in
European modernism was thus
thus
subjection. European
in
the
before
having
a
vogue
in
Islam
before
the
coming
of
the
cruof
the
cruhaving
vogue
coming
but whether
a result
their challenge
to
saders,
whether or not
not as
as a
result of
of their
saders, but
challenge to
Islam, dogmatic
religion
was
soon
to
be
enthroned
again,
to
be
enthroned
Islam,
dogmatic religion
again,
reaction which not only
a reaction
the
the ardour
ardour of
of the
only damped
damped the
of scientific
libertine
but dried
the sources
libertine but
dried up
sources of
scientific inspiration.
up the
inspiration.

bells

[202
[202]]

DISINTEGRATION AND DECLINE

Before
this set
however, the
the Arabs
to suffer
suffer
set in,
Before this
Arabs were
were to
in, however,
politically
the general
general subjugation
of western
western Asia
by
in the
Asia by
subjugation of
politically in
risen in
in the
aa new power
power which had risen
the East-the
East the Seljuq
Seljuq
eastern caliphate
Turks.
long been
been virtually
virtually
Turks. The eastern
for long
caliphate had for
ruled by
by aa Perso-Dailamite
Perso-Dailamite family,
the Buwayhids,
Buwayhids, the
ruled
the
family, the
Arab caliph
being little
than aa
of Baghdad
himself being
little more
more than
Baghdad himself
caliph of
religious figurehead.
Its influence
influence waning,
had
figurehead. Its
religious
waning, Baghdad
Baghdad had
of
its
lost
hold
of
its
eastern
borderlands;
Trans-Oxiana
threw
eastern
hold
borderlands
lost
Trans-Oxiana threw
in the
the tenth
off
the Arab yoke
une1.er the
the Persian
tenth centuI'f
off the
Persian
yoke in
century under
turn by
by the
the rising
Seljuqs.
Samanids
seized in
in turn
Samanids and was seized
rising Seljuqs.
These were
were aa tribe
just before
this time
tribe of
of Turks who just
before this
time
(circa
in the
the Khorasan-Trans-Oxiana
settled in
Khorasan-Trans-Oxiana
960) had settled
(circa 960)
empire
and embraced the
the Sunni
branch of
Islam. A cencenSunni branch
of Islam.
empire and
tury
more,
and
they
were
not
only
masters
of
the
local
not
masters
of
the
local
more,
they
only
tury
situation
but had moved west
west to
Baghdad, superseded
to Baghdad,
situation but
superseded
the Buwayhids
Buwayhids and secured,
the caliph's
the
power of
of the
the power
at the
secured, at
caliph's
hands, the
the title
of sultans.
years
later
these
title of
sultans. Twenty
later
these
hands,
Twenty years
Seljuqs
were
streaming
on
westwards
in
two
main
lines,
were
westwards
in
main
lines,
streaming
Seljuqs
one
north to
to invade
the Byzantine
invade the
one in
in the
the north
annex
Byzantine Empire,
Empire, annex
Armenia and Georgia
the foundations
the Asia
Asia
foundations of
of the
Georgia and lay
lay the
kingdom of
Rum, the
the other
to sweep
southwards
of Rum,
other to
Minor kingdom
southwards
sweep
through
the Arab lands
lands of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian Fatimids,
Fatimids, capture
through the
capture
annex Syria
Palestine, sending
Damascus and annex
Shi'a
Damascus
Syria and Palestine,
sending Shi'a
Bying
before
them
to
the
more
congenial
atmosrefugees
before
to
atmosthe
more
congenial
refugees flying
times had
had aa way
way of
of being
phere
for medieval
medieval times
of Egypt;
being
Egypt; for
phere of
unkind to
to those
those who persisted
persisted in
heresies,
in officially
unkind
officially branded heresies,
and
and dynastic
loyalty were
were closely
sectarianism and
and religious
dynastic loyalty
closely
religious sectarianism
are
in
Arabia.
The
Fatimid
general,
connected,
as
they
still
Fatimid
as
still
in
are
Arabia,
connected,
general,
they
al Juyushi,
Jumali al
Juyushi, was
the famous
al Jumali
famous Armenian,
the
Armenian, Badr - a1
in turn,
forced
to fall
back on Egypt
where he
he became,
became, in
turn, the
the
fall back
forced to
Egypt where
grea
t
wazir.
wazir.
great
their
'Weakness
meanwhile grew
ranks, for
for their
in the
the Seljuq
'^Weakness meanwhile
grew in
Seljuq ranks,
ambitious
fell to
vast
up and fell
to ambitious generals,
generals,
soon split
vast conquests
conquests soon
split up
;

203 ]
[[203]

THE ARABS
solid empire,
in place
so that
so
that in
place of a solid
western Asia was dotted
dotted
empire, western
under
chiefs.
small
over
with
small
principalities
tributary
chiefs.
Fifty
with
over
tributary
principalities
Fifty
to advance again
years
later Egypt
Egypt was ready
ready to
under
again under
years later
Juyushi's equally
into
Afdal, who marched into
son, Afdal,
equally famous son,
Juyushi's
its
Palestine
Jerusalem
from
its
Seljuq
Palestine and reconquered
reconquered Jerusalem
Seljuq
ruler. In
the north
ruler.
north the Seljuq
In the
Seljuq invaders of Asia Minor who
Christian Byzantines
driven the
the Christian
Byzantines westwards
had originally
originally driven
the
coasts
had
similarly
grown weak by
by
against
the
Aegean
coasts
similarly grown
Aegean
against
for help
disunity,
help from Constantinople
but the
the cry
Constantinople had
disunity, but
cry for
been heard
heard in
in Western Christendom,
the end
been
Christendom, and towards the
were
crusaders
the
on
of the
the eleventh
the
crusaders
girding
their
eleventh century
their
girding
century
armour.
Palestine whose lands
The Arabs of Syria
lands had
Syria and Palestine
thrice
within
within half
been
thrice
overrun
by
Seljuqs
half a
a century
by Seljuqs and
century
these inter-Moslem wars dwarfed by
Fatimids now found these
by
far more terrifying.
incalculable
a menace far
terrifying. A strange
strange and incalculable
ot
the
West,
an
invader
imbued
invader
out
of
the
invader was coming
West,
coming
of the
faith and resolved
hatred of
to expel
with aa hatred
the Arab faith
resolved to
it
with
expel it
its own refrom Jerusalem
the Holy
reHoly Land and impose
impose its
Jerusalem and the
political dominion.
ligious
dominion.
ligious and political
centuries that
that followed,
During the
the two centuries
the lands
lands of
of
followed, the
During
that epoch-making
these Arabs were the main battlefield
battlefield of that
these
epoch-making
the West
struggle
Islam which the
struggle between Christianity
Christianity and Islam
as the
the crusades.
the bulk
bulk
crusades. The Arabs formed the
remembers as
for four and a
of
the inhabitants.
They had done so
of the
inhabitants. They
so for
a half
half
centuries,
wrested the
their armies had wrested
the
since, indeed,
centuries, since,
indeed, their
Christian Byzantines.
land by
by the
Byzantines. Christhe Christian
the sword from the
Chrislearned to
to live
by
tianity
since then learned
live side
side by
tianity and Islam had since
whatever
and
the
rivalries
between
the
two
faiths,
side,
rivalries
the
side,
faiths,
tolerance had normally
a spirit
considerable tolerance
existed.
spirit of considerable
normally existed.
that the
The traditional
traditional view
view that
the original
original Arab conquerors
conquerors
to trample
were religion-inspired
religion-inspired zealots
zealots who came
came to
trample on
other peoples'
peoples' religion
with aa fiery
mission analogous
to
religion with
fiery mission
analogous to

204 ]
[[204]

DISINTEGRATION AND DECLINE

the
exaggerated. For in
in PalesPales~
is doubtless
doubtless exaggerated.
crusaders' own is
the crusaders'
tine,
native Christians
dethe native
Christians offered
no deoffered no
tine, Syria
Egypt the
Syria and Egypt
to these
these first
rude Moslem Arabs
termined
resistance to
first rude
termined resistance
Arabs
but welcomed them as
deliverers from
their Greek
as deliverers
from their
Greek imperial
but
imperial
It
seems
probable
that
the coming
Christian
rulers.
rulers.
It
seems
more
Christian
probable that the
coming
of
the simple
bring religious
religious toleration
toleration
to bring
of the
simple Arabs promised
promised to
for
native Christian
which had
been the
Christian sectarianism
sectarianism which
for native
had been
obthe obof
persecution
by
an
orthodox
state
church,
promised
ject
of
orthodox
state
church, promised
persecution by an
ject
taxation-however
might
aa less
burdensome taxation
however invidious
less burdensome
invidious it
it might
be-than
old imperial
exactions,
while
the
simple
the old
while
be than the
the
exactions,
imperial
simple
'There is
one God'
no fundais one
Moslem slogan
God' involved
involved no
fundaslogan 'There
Christianity. It
It was only
later
mental
contradiction of
of Christianity.
in later
mental contradiction
only in
times when Islam
Islam became
became intellectual
times
Intellectual and
and contentious,
contentious,
eager
to
assert
her
supremacy,
when
proselytism
to
assert
her
eager
supremacy,
sapped
proselytism sapped
of the
the rival
rival religion
religion and carried
the walls
walls of
the
carried dissension
dissension into
into
the family
that religious
the
household, that
family household,
religious antagonism
antagonism sprang
sprang
occupation
up.
All through
through these
these early
centuries of
of Arab occupation
early centuries
up. All
not only
only permitted
the
practice
of
Christianity
the
the
of
the Arabs not
Christianity
permitted
practice
within the
the Holy
but had allowed
within
allowed Christians
Christians from
Holy Land but
pilgrimage to
the Holy
without to
to perform
the pilgrimage
without
to the
perform the
Holy Sepulchre
Sepulchre
of
Jerusalem. This pilgrimage,
pilgrimage, which
pious believed
believed
which the
the pious
of Jerusalem.
of
sins,
brought
Christians
carried
with
it
a
remission
it
a
remission
with
of
Christians
carried
sins, brought
not only
Iraq, but
Europe t
but from Europe,
not
Syria, Egypt
Egypt and Iraq,
only from Syria,
in
annual
invasion.
Such
special
European
annual
interinvasion.
Such
in a
a regular
regular
special European interup
as
induced
the
Caliph
al
ests
as
the
al
indeed grown
induced
Harun
ests had indeed
grown up
Caliph
to recRashid-according
to some Western authorities
authorities-to
recRashid according to
Protector
of
Jerusalem
and
of
the
ognize
the
title,
Owner
of
of
the
Protector
the
title,
Jerusalem
ognize
Holy
Sepulchre,
assumed
by
his
great
Christian
conhis
Christian
conby
great
Holy Sepulchre,
temporary,
Charlemagne.
temporary, Charlemagne.
It was an
the rulers
rulers of
of Islam
Islam were passing
an age
It
passing
age when the
interested
through
an
enlightened
phase,
were
more
interested
were
much
an
enlightened phase,
through
in
in
philosophy than
than in
in scientific
scientific speculation
speculation and Greek philosophy
of
the
book'
people of the book'
hindering
pious exercises
of 'The people
the pious
exercises of
hindering the

[205
[205]]

THE ARABS
coming from
from dark
dark western
western Europe.
Europe. In
In Europe,
Europe, on the
the
coming
other hand,
hand, the
the times
times were
were shaping
shaping for
for aa religious
religious revival.
revival.
other
public conscience
conscience had been
been deeply
deeply outraged
outraged by
by the
the
The public
act of
of the
the mad Caliph
Caliph Hakim,
Hakim, who,
who, in
in 1010,
IO 10, destroyed
destroyed the
the
act
Holy
Sepulchre;
the
violent
unrest
caused
by
Seljuqcaused
unrest
by SeljuqHoly Sepulchre; the violent
Fatimid wars
wars had greatly
greatly interfered
interfered with peaceful
peaceful pilpilFatimid
for
grimage
to
the
Holy
Land;
the
clarion
call
for
help
call
the
clarion
from
the
Land
to
help
grimage
Holy
;

Eastern Christendom,
Christendom, following
following its
its loss
loss of
of territory
territory to
to
Eastern
in Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, yet
yet another
another provocation
provocation to
to WestMoslems in
ern Christendom.
Christendom.
ern
Europe was emerging
her Dark Ages
Ages and,
and, if
if not
not
emerging from her
Europe
fully conscious
conscious of
of her
her destinies,
destinies, had reached
reached a stage
of
stage of
fully
concerted
Religion was all
all powerful.
powerful.
concerted self-assertiveness.
self-assertiveness. Religion
The authority
authority of
of aa single
voice
in
could
suspend
old
could
in
Rome
voice
suspend old
single
feudal
antagonisms, old
old private
private wars,
wars, and send
send warriors,
warriors,
feudal antagonisms,
recently hostile
hostile to
another, to
the
across the
to wage
to one another,
wage war across
recently
instincts sharpened
seas
a common cause.
Fighting instincts
by
seas in
in a
cause. Fighting
sharpened by
want,
by
famine,
by
overpopulation,
by
greed,
could
be
could
be
want, by famine, by overpopulation, by greed,
consecrated
to the
Christian rule
in the
the
rule in
establishment of
of Christian
consecrated to
the establishment
Holy
Land;
the
bellicose
spirit
of
the
younger
son
withbellicose
the
withLand
of
the
spirit
younger
Holy
out
be legitimately
to the
the ambia heritage
directed to
out a
could be
ambilegitimately directed
heritage could
tion
tion of
in the
the East at
at the expense
of an
estate or principality
an estate
expense
principality in
of
pains had
of the
the infidel.
infidel. This cure
cure for
for Europe's
Europe's growing
growing pains
the blessing
the
of religious
authority. Western Christendom
blessing of
religious authority.
was swept
by
a
fever
of
religion
a
'It was an age
of
war. 'It
fever
religion and war.
swept by
age
which was dominated by
the spirit
of other-worldliness,
other-worldliness,
by the
spirit of
and accordingly
the clerical
ruled by
clerical power
power which repreaccordingly ruled
by the
repre25 *
sented
says
Professor
Barker,25*
'a
sented the
'a new
the other
Professor
other world,'
Barker,
world, says
path
to Heaven,
"f or full
to tread
tread which counted
counted "for
full and comHeaven, to
path to
plete
the
satisfaction" and gave
sins . the
plete satisfaction"
gave forgiveness
forgiveness of sins
faithful
foreign
policy
of
the
Papacy,
directing
its
faithful
subjects
its
subjects
foreign policy
Papacy, directing
to the
the great
the Infidel.
to
Infidel. As a
a
Christianity against
great war of Christianity
against the
the Crusades connect
new way
of salvation,
connect themselves
themselves
salvation, the
way of
;

[206
[206]]

DISINTEGRATION AND DECLINE

the penitentiary
with
the history
penitentiary system;
the foreign
foreign
with the
as the
history of the
system as
policy
the Church,
they belong
belong to
that clerical
clerical purificapurificato that
Church, they
policy of the
tion and direction
of feudal society
society and
and its
which
direction of
its instincts,
tion
instincts, which
appears
in
the
institution
of
"God's
Truce"
and
in
chivalry
the
institution
in
Truce'*
and
in
appears
chivalry
itself.'
itself/
If
attained the
has in
If commerce had not attained
the significance
it has
in
significance it
the
modern statecraft,
the
growing
maritime
ambitions
maritime
ambitions
statecraft, yet
yet
growing
of
Venice and Genoa were,
were, even
even at
this early
not an
at this
of Venice
an
stage, not
early stage,
entirely
negligible factor.
had virtuvirtufactor. The Mediterranean
Mediterranean had
entirely negligible
all down the
ally
early Islamic
centuries.
the early
Islamic centuries.
ally been an Arab sea all
Its
three sides,
south,
west
for
a
large
part
west
Its shores
shores on three
and
a
for
sides, south,
large part
still
on
the
east,
the northern
northern shore
the Italian
Italian
shore the
east, were still Moslem;
Amalfi
as
ports
of
Bari
and
as
well
as
the
Mediterranean
well
as
the
Mediterranean
ports
centuries been
Islands
been Moslem footholds
footholds too.
too.
Islands had for centuries
At first
there had been no direct
maritime commerce
first there
direct maritime
the Christian
Christian and Islamic
Islamic worlds.
It had been
been opopbetween the
worlds. It
posed
on
both
sides,
wherefore
Tunis,
the
midway
point
both
the
sides,
Tunis,
midway point
posed
between Spain
risen and Alexandria
Alexandria dedeEgypt, had risen
Spain and Egypt,
clined.
the Mediterranean,
Mediterranean,
clined. Moslem shipping
shipping dominated the
Moslem ships
visitors
ships traded only
only between Moslem ports,
ports, visitors
to European
European shores
shores at
time being
being Berber
Berber pirates
pirates on
at this
this time
to
plunder bent.
bent.
plunder
But in
in the
the tenth
tenth and eleventh
eleventh centuries
the disintegracenturies the
disintegration of
the Islamic
the relative
weakness of
its
Islamic world and the
of its
relative weakness
of the
tion
western parts
parts was an encouragement
for
dismembered western
for
encouragement
Christian ships
to be up
southern
up and doing,
southern Europe
ships
doing, and Christian
Europe to
began
to
multiply
upon
the
seas.
and
Christian
the
Moslem
to
seas.
multiply upon
began
it be
sailors
by side
let it
in the
side in
the same ships,
side by
sailors served
served side
not, let
ships, not,
supposed,
because
they
had
animated
by
a
new
and
animated
become
by
supposed, because they
tolerant religious
for both were no better than
tolerant
spirit, for
religious spirit,
isolation had gone.
pirates
occasion
offered.
But isolation
But
offered.
occasion
when
gone,
pirates
to
Venetian
came
to
grow
and
share
Venetian and Genoese shipping
grow
shipping
Ibn
twelfth
the
trade, and by
by the
the twelfth century
century
JJubair,
ubair,
the eastern
eastern trade,
;

[[207]
27]

THE ARABS
the
the

tell us
Arab traveller,
us that
that he
he travelled
travelled from Ceuta
traveller, can tell

to
Christian ship.
to Alexandria
Alexandria in
in aa Christian
ship.
is true
true that
off her sloth.
sloth. It
It is
Europe was shaking
that in
in the
the
Europe
shaking off
heart
the
the
Asia
before
crusades
century
before
the
crusades
the
heart
of
Minor
century
Christian Constantinople.
had expelled
the rule
rule of Christian
at
Constantinople. But at
expelled the
the
Christian rulers
rulers had been driving
the same time Christian
the Mosdriving the
of
of Spain
out
out
of
their
capital
of
Toledo
and
farther
lems of
their
farther
capital
Spain
Moslems
the
towards the
driving
the
of
Italy
out of
towards
the south,
of
south, driving
Italy out
their rule
their Italian
Italian footholds
rule from Sicily.
footholds and expelling
their
expelling their
Sicily.
in
Moslems
in
Europe,
prosecuted
by
These wars against
Europe,
prosecuted
against
by
in
in Spain
Normans
and
in
Italy,
had
naturally
Iberians in
Iberians
Italy,
Spain
naturally
of religious
exacerbation of
religious feeling,
produced an exacerbation
this,
feeling, and this,
produced
in the
the events
events taking
taking place
place in
the East,
that
with the
East, nourished that
which
for
the
infidel
the
hatred
spirit
of
hatred
for
the
infidel
animated
the
early
of
spirit
early
in
the Saracens were on the run;
run; in
crusaders.
In Europe
crusaders* In
Europe the
the
the Holy
under
fighting one another under
they were fighting
Holy Land they
a
and
Fatimid;
it
propitious
for
Seljuq
it seemed a
for
moment
Fatimid;
propitious
Seljuq
the year
the
in the
I096
there
asadventure. Thus in
the eastern
eastern adventure.
there
asyear 1096
and
a hundred
sembled
fifty
thousand
at Constantinople
sembled at
Constantinople a
fifty thousand
the
first
ready
to
embark
upon
the
first
militant
armed pilgrims
to
militant
upon
ready
pilgrims
of
lands
the
the
lands
of
the
Arabs.
pilgrimage
into
into
the
pilgrimage
the banner of the
the Cross,
Marching
Cross,
Marching southwards under the
of the
they first
banner of
first encountered
the Crescent
encountered the
the banner
Crescent in
in Asia
they
of Seljuq
Minor. There the
the opposition
Minor.
opposition of
Seljuq Turks was brushed
a trail
left in
aside and a
Christian garrisons
trail of Christian
garrisons left
in many
many prinprinaside
Antioch, among
cipal
to form
cities, Edessa and Antioch,
others, to
cipal cities,
among others,
in the
Latin
principalities. Southwards,
the Arabs,
Arabs,
Latin principalities.
lands of
the lands
of the
Southwards, in
vested
in
Fatimid
governors
of
Egypt.
Before
authority
vested
in
of
Before
authority
governors
Egypt.
clash Afdal,
the clash
the Egyptian
Egyptian wazir,
been prepared
prepared
the
Afdal, the
wazir, had been
to
the crusaders
to come to
to terms
terms with
with the
crusaders as
as aa means of
of alliance
alliance
the
for
for
the
invaders,
however,
in
the
first
against
the
Seljuqs;
the
in
first
the
invaders,
however,
against
Seljuqs
of their
their religious
fervour
and
strength,
there
could
flush
flush of
fervour
there
c6uld
religious
strength,
be
infidel. By
be no trafficking
trafficking with the infidel.
By the
the year
year 1099
I099 the
the
;

[208 ]

DISINTEGRATION AND DECLINE

Fatimids had been
been expelled
the greater
greater part
part of
the
Fatimids
of the
expelled from the
Palestine j in
the following
00,
coasts
in the
of Syria
coasts of
Syria and Palestine;
following year,
year, 1II100,
into being
the
Latin Kingdom
being with
with Baldwin
Baldwin as
as
the Latin
Kingdom came into
so
the
king
of
Jerusalem,
and
so
the
passed
under
the
rule
Arabs
of
under
the
rule
Jerusalem,
passed
king
1
of
the 'Ferenghi.'l
of the
Terenghi.'
The initial
of the
the crusaders
turned ambitious
successes of
crusaders turned
initial successes
ambitious
to
eyes
eastwards
to
Baghdad
southwards
to
Cairo,
but
and
eastwards
southwards
to
Cairo, but
Baghdad
eyes
presumptuous
dreamings
soon
shattered
by
Seljuq
were
shattered by Seljuq
presumptuous dreamings
profited from the
the
successes
Asia Minor.
in Asia
Minor, The crusaders
crusaders profited
successes in
lack
co-ordination between
between the
the two Moslem fronts.
lack of co-ordination
fronts. The
Shi'a divisions
rival Sunni and Shi'a
Islam split
split Cairo
and
rival
divisions of
of Islam
Cairo and
Baghdad.
recently been
been at
at war,
war, one
one with
with ananBaghdad. Arabs had recently
the
other,
for
the
mastery
of
the
land
that
had
now
passed
of
for
the
land
that
had
other,
mastery
passed
to the
unbeliever. But
this did
not heal
heal
the stranger
to
the unbeliever.
But this
did not
stranger and the
their divisions,
Latin Kingdom
was thus
able to
to
the Latin
their
thus able
divisions, and the
Kingdom was
itself for
for eighty
maintain itself
years
to
come.
Before
a
third
of
to
of
a
come.
Before
third
eighty years
that time had passed
passed the
the kingdom
kingdom reached
reached its
its greatest
greatest
that
development,
exceeding
in
size
present-day
Palestine,
for
development, exceeding in size present-day Palestine, for
it
to Beyrout,
Beyrout, eastwards
over the
the
it extended northwards to
eastwards over
Jordan
and
southwards
to
the
head
of
the
Sea.
to
the
the
Red
Sea.
of
Jordan
Divisions
within the
ranks enabled
the Frankish
Divisions within
the Seljuq
enabled the
Prankish
Seljuq ranks
to maintain
maintain themselves
themselves the
the more easily,
principalities
easily, and
principalities to
leader
Christian
princes made alliances
alliances with
one Moslem leader
Christian princes
with one

is commonly
1The term
term 'Ferenghi'
'Ferenghi' is
is a corruption
corruption of
'Frank.' It
commonly
It is
of the
the word Trank.'
today for
European, and so
bears witness
to the
the supreme
supreme
used by
witness to
for any
so bears
by Arabs today
any European,
crusades.
part played
by'the
French, particularly
particularly the
the Norman French,
French, in
in the
the crusades.
the French,
part
played by
descent
The first
French soil
by aa pope
pope of French descent
first crusade
crusade was preached
soil by
preached on French
and was largely
personnel. All
All through
the Holy
Holy Wars for
for two
in personnel.
through the
largely French in
years to
to follow
the French played
played aa major
part. The Latin KingKingfollow the
hundred years
major part.
dom of
of Jerusalem
in body,
body, soul
mind. The language
language was
soul and mind.
Jerusalem was French in
of the
French, and when Latin
rule was finally
extinguished at
the end of
the
at the
Latin rule
French,
finally extinguished
thirteenth
century, French fleets
Beets stilI
harried the
the coasts
of Syria
censtill harried
coasts of
thirteenth century,
Syria for a century
French influence
influence in
in the
has continued
continued down
the Levant has
afterwards, and French
tury afterwards,
for Christendom,
through the
the centuries.
the result
result of
crusades for
Christendom,
the crusades
centuries. Whatever the
of the
through
the Holy
the part
part France played
played in
in the
wars, and her
colonization of the
Holy
her colonization
the
the wars,
25*
Land,
exalted her
her prestige
prestige in
Europe....
in contemporary
Land, exalted
contemporary Europe.

209 ]
[[209]

THE ARABS
another. Aleppo
against
Aleppo and Damascus were held by
by rivals,
rivals,
against another.
Latin
alliance
with
and the
of
Damascus
with Latin Jerusalem
Jerusalem was aa
the alliance of
source of great
source
great strength
to tliem
them both.
both. Seljuq
rulers,
strength to
Seljuq rulers,
in many
cases
atabegs or regents,
regents, were in
cases
emanciknown as
as atabegs
emancimany
slaves who had held
pated slaves
held high
high positions
positions under the
the milimilipated
tary founders
time had passed
passed from regency
to
founders and in
in time
tary
regency to
the famous Zangi,
Zangi, atabeg
of
Mosul,
rule. One of
rule.
of these,
these, the
Mosul,
atabeg
his power
to extend his
rose in
127 to
power westwards,
westwards, abrose
in the
the year
abyear I1127
sorb some of
of his
his weaker atabeg
carry war
sorb
neighbours and carry
atabeg neighbours
into the
Christian camps.
into
the Christian
Edessa, marched on
camps. He captured
captured Edessa,
the Latin
Latin Kingdom,
reaching the
the
Damascus and invaded the
Kingdom, reaching
Oscillations of political
Acre. Oscillations
Jerusalem and Acre.
political
walls
walls of
of Jerusalem
fortunes led
to a union of the Christian Antioch
Antioch and
fortunes
led to
influence
with
it
the
and
with
it
the
Greek
Church's
influence ininJerusalem,
Jerusalem,
Latin
the
West
the expense
of
the
Latin
West;
for
Christendom
creased
creased at
at the
expense
its two divisions
less than Islam,
Islam, and Constantihad its
Constantidivisions no less
a
its
historical
of
its
historical
rights
and
interests
nople
held
a
rigid
view
held
interests
rights
rigid
nople
to
to which the
the West must conform,
however
irksome
it
irksome
it
conform,
that conformity.
found that
conformity.
Dissensions within
Dissensions
the ranks
ranks of
within the
of both Christians
Christians and
toleration
as
Moslems brought
greater
toleration
as
between
reprebetween
brought greater
repreA
of the
the two religions.
generation
of
Franks
sentatives
sentatives of
of
religions.
generation
zeal to
had grown
to fight
grown up
up in
the East whose zeal
infidel
in the
the infidel
fight the
a desire
had given
to a
to live
given place
place to
live on terms
terms of
desire to
of amity
amity
preferred to
trade rather
to fight
with him,
to trade
rather than
than to
him, who preferred
fight and
not averse
was not
averse to
to adopting
dress and customs.
customs. On
adopting Arab dress
the other
other hand renewed zeal
zeal for
the
prosecuting the
for prosecuting
the Holy
Holy War
came with fresh
fresh blood
carne
blood from the
the
new
arrivals
the West,
the
arrivals
West,
welcomed
since
not being
always
since
they
antagonized
the
being always
they antagonized the
infidel.
Countries and from
infidel. A contingent
the Low Countries
contingent from the
that
in at
that
came
by
the
long
sea
route
and put
put in
LisEngland
the
at Lissea
route
England
by
long
the
city
from
the
bon to
to succour
coreligionists had captured
succour coreligionists
the
the
captured
city
Moslems and so
so laid
the foundations
the kingdom
laid the
foundations of
of the
of
kingdom of
;

[2IO]
[210]

DISINTEGRATION AND DECLINE

Portugal-a
between that
that country
close friendship
and
Portugal a close
friendship between
country and
England surviving
this day.
But the
the maintenance
maintenance of
of
to this
surviving to
England
day. But
Christian
the Holy
Holy Land remained
remained
in the
Christian political
domination in
political domination
the supreme
policy.
of crusading
the
object of
supreme object
crusading policy.
To the
north of
of the
Kingdom Zangi's
Zangi's mantle
mantle had
the north
the Latin Kingdom
fallen
upon his
powerful son,
al Din.
Din. To the
the south
his powerful
fallen upon
south
son, Nur al
Egypt
was
torn
the Fatimid
Fatimid caliphate
was
in
decline,
and
in
the
and
torn
was
decline,
caliphate
Egypt
between
rival ministers
for
power.
One
sought
ministers contending
between rival
for
contending
power.
sought
the aid
another of
Latins, till
till Nur al
al
the Seljuqs,
of the
aid of
the
of the
the Latins,
Seljuqs, another
Din, sending
into Egypt,
Egypt, carried
carried the
the day
day for
for his
his
Din,
sending an army
army into
this force
force was aa young
named
protege.
In this
Kurdish officer
officer named
young Kurdish
protege. In
man
of
destiny,
was
later
to
shake
Saladin,
a
a
who
later to shake the
the
Saladin,
destiny,
crusading
to its
its foundations
send the
foundations and
and send
the
crusading movement to
Latin
kings of
into
a
forty
years
exile.
Salaof Jerusalem
a
into
Latin kings
Salaexile.
Jerusalem
forty years
this force,
his arrival
din's
uncle, the
the general
general of
of this
soon after
din's uncle,
after his
arrival
force, soon
and when the
the
himself became
became the
wazir in
the caliph's
in Egypt,
himself
caliph's wazir
Egypt, and
succeeded
his
uncle,
seized
caliph
died,
Saladin,
had
who
his
succeeded
seized
died,
Saladin,
uncle,
caliph
the power
power and made himself
ruler. Thus the
the Shi'a
himself ruler.
Shi'a caliphate
the
caliphate
of
the
Egyptian
Fatimids
was
brought
to
an end
of the Egyptian Fatimids
after
end after
brought to an
two hundred
years, and prayers
prayers were
were once
in
hundred years,
once more said
two
said in
the Friday
mosques
for
the
Abbasid
caliph
of
Baghdad.
the
for
the
Abbasid
of
Baghdad.
Friday mosques
caliph
not aa permanent
permanent one,
But this
this allegiance
for Saladin
Saladin
But
one, for
allegiance was not
himself, become absolute
and found aa
was to
absolute and
to entrench
entrench himself,
dynasty.
dynasty.
He first
north to
to make himself
the
master of
of the
first turned
himself master
turned north
conSyrian
then Aleppo
Aleppo were conSyrian Moslems. Damascus and then
Din's
quered,
and,
by
bringing
about
the
fall
of
al
Din's
of
Nur
al
fall
about
the
and,
by
quered,
bringing
sea
sides but
but the
the sea
successor,
his object.
all sides
achieved his
successor, he achieved
object. On all
the
for
Latin Kingdom
of
Jerusalem
was
thus
faced
for
the
the
thus
the Latin
of
Jerusalem
Kingdom
first
time by
by aa united
united Moslem front.
Its days
front. Its
first time
days were numat the head of
of
bered. Saladin
Aleppo at
south from Aleppo
bered.
Saladin marched south
an army
that
animated
by
a
militant
religious
spirit
militant
that
a
was
religious spirit
by
army
that of
crusaders themselvesthemselves. He swept
akin
of the
the early
akin to
to that
swept
early crusaders
[21
I ]
[211]

THE ARABS
after a
everything before
before him.
him. Jerusalem
Jerusalem capitulated
capitulated after
a
everything
the
and
so,
in
I
I
87,
the
kingdom
fell,
all
fortnight's
siege,
in
all
so,
kingdom fell,
1187,
fortnight's siege,
that remained
that
remained of
of Tyre,
of it
it being
the seaports
seaports of
Tyre, Tripoli
Tripoli
being the
and Antioch.
Antioch.
again, and
and France,
The Christian
Christian West was roused
roused again,
France,
England
crusaders to
to restore
restore the
the
England and Germany
Germany mustered crusaders
shattered
position. The immediate
objective, Acre,
Acre, the
shattered position.
immediate objective,
the
sea gateway
to Jerusalem,
Jerusalem, was shortly
attained, but forty
sea
gateway to
shortly attained,
forty
years
passed in
struggle, as
crusade after
in continuous
as crusade
after crucrucontinuous struggle,
years passed
before Jerusalem
sade poured
poured forth
its zealots,
forth its
zealots, before
Jerusalem again
again
flush of religious
first fine
fine flush
under Christian
rule. The first
came under
Christian rule.
religious
of
the
papacy
frenzy
under
the
inspiration
the
of
the
papacy had meanwhile
frenzy
inspiration
faded,
adjustment had
a new spirit
of compromise
faded, and a
spirit of
compromise and adjustment
come to
to colour
the counsels
the movement. To us
of the
us the
the
colour the
counsels of
of
the
crusaders
not the
the greatest,
of
the
crusaders
who
most picturesque,
picturesque, if
if not
greatest,
measure his
strength against
against that
that of Saladin
was to
to measure
Saladin was
his strength
Coeur
England's
gallant
King
Richard,
Cceur
de
Lion. His
de
Lion.
Richard,
England's gallant King
the
out
journey
out
was
by
his
capture
of
the
island
his
island of
memorable
capture
by
journey
it
to
become
sold it to
Cyprus, and though
promptly sold
aa Latin
Cyprus,
though he promptly
future
kingdom,
he had nonetheless
a base
base of future
nonetheless founded a
kingdom, he
the
in
Land.
for
Holy
But
for
operations
against
the
enemy
in
the
the
Holy
operations against
enemy
all
the
great
prowess
of
Saladin
could
all Richard's
of
Saladin
could
Richard's exploits,
the
exploits,
great prowess
not
be humbled,
humbled, and aa truce
made, and the
the two great
not be
truce was made,
great
in
to
find
opposing protagonists
protagonists spent
a
year
in
trying
to
find
aa
and opposing
a
spent year
trying
The
clerical
domination
of
the
crusades
peaceful
solution.
of
the
domination
crusades
clerical
solution.
peaceful
been passing.
passing. The movement had been
been growing
growing secuhad been
secular. Richard
friendly negotiations
negotiations with
lar.
Richard could
could enter
enter into
into friendly
Saladin,
who, like
the chivalrous
soldier
chivalrous soldier
like himself,
himself, was the
Saladin, who,
rather than
than the
religious fanatic.
to find
rather
the religious
find the
the
fanatic. He arrived
arrived to
mere vestiges
vestiges of
representing aa Latin
Latin
of a
a coastal
coastal strip
strip representing
kingdom;
he
would
have
been
content
with
the
addition
of
he
addition
of
content
with
the
been
have
kingdom;
Jerusalem
linked
by
a
corridor
of
the
port
of
Acre.
linked
a
of
the
corridor
of
Acre.
Jerusalem
by
port
this he
For this
he strove
it went
went to
to the
the lengths
strove and to
of
to achieve
achieve it
lengths of

[212
[212]]

DISINTEGRATION AND DECLINE

sister in
in marriage
offering
brother of
to the
the brother
of
offering his own sister
marriage to
that
Saladin that they
jointly rule
rule the
the kingdom,
but
they might
might jointly
kingdom, but
Saladin
Saladin was unyielding.
unyielding.
Saladin's death threw Egypt
turmoil, and
Saladin's
into a
a turmoil,
this
and this
Egypt into
to
gave
a
stimulus
to
fresh
crusading
activity.
Cairo,
as
the
crusading activity. Cairo, as the
gave
the enemy's
power in
in the
the West,
capital
enemy's power
capital and centre of the
West,
the target.
Jerusalem was seen
to dewas now the
seen to
detarget. The fate of Jerusalem
the
local
Arab
pend
not
on
overcoming
the
local
opposition
but
on
on
but
overcoming
pend
opposition
the land,
land, and
vanquishing
the Egyptian
of the
Egyptian masters of
vanquishing the
throughout the remaining
remaining phase
phase of
the crusades,
of the
crusades, lasting
throughout
lasting
through
thirteenth century,
this remained the
crux
the crux
through the thirteenth
century, this
Prankish
became
the
of Frankish strategy.
the crusaders'
crusaders' battlebattlestrategy. Egypt
Egypt
front if
front
if Jerusalem
Jerusalem remained
remained their
their goal.
goal.
Thus the crusade,
the death
death of
of Saladin,
crusade, which followed the
Saladin,
fleet was got
sea crusade.
crusade. The fleet
became a sea
got ready
for sea,
sea,
ready for
the
the crusaders were ready
ready to
to embark when at
at the
the last
last
the plans
and
different
plans were changed
and
a
and
moment the
a
new
different
changed
launched. The deciding
campaign
factor might
have
campaign was launched.
deciding factor
might have
interests
maritime
interests
of
Italian
ports,
which
been the
of Italian ports, which are
the
are
said to
to have been enjoying
said
trade agreeadvantages under trade
enjoying advantages
agreeor not,
but whether or
not, the
ments with Cairo,
the fleet
fleet sailed
sailed for
for
ments
Cairo, but
its
ostensible
Christian
its
ostensible
object
being
to
Christian Constantinople,
Constantinople,
object being to
the throne
the hands
hands of aa usurper.
usurper. The upupwrest the
throne from the
wrest
was
that Constantinople,
not
Cairo,
stormed,
and
shot
shot was that
Cairo,
stormed,
Constantinople,
the original
so
the
so Constantinople,
begetter, became the
original begetter,
Constantinople, the
the crusades.
France and Venice shared the
the spoils
victim
crusades. France
of the
victim of
spoils
of
between them.
them. The new empire
between
emerged. Baldwin of
empire emerged.
ConstantiFlanders became the
of
Constantithe first
first Latin emperor
Flanders
emperor
islands of the archipelago
nople,
the coasts
coasts and islands
while the
archipelago
nople, while
the new empire
proved aa
passed to
to the
Venetians. But the
the Venetians.
empire proved
passed
to
the
but
of
weakness
to
the
crusades,
source,
of
but
not of
of strength
crusades,
source, not
strength
for
it drained
the Holy
Wars
for
years
resources of
drained the
the resources
of the
for it
years
Holy
to
to follow.
follow.

21 3 ]
[[213]

THE ARABS
fifteen more
projected crusade
The projected
crusade against
Egypt took fifteen
against Egypt
been an
to
In
the
to
gather
strength.
In
the
there
had
years
West
years
gather strength.
at reviving
the religious
attempt
reviving the
cardinal
stimulus, and a cardinal
religious stimulus,
attempt at
Prankish
fleet
the
expedition.
The
Frankish
fleet
appeared
accompanied
the
appeared
expedition.
accompanied
fell to
before the
the port
port of
which fell
to aa siege,
landof Damietta,
before
Damietta, which
siege, a landSaladin's
the march on Cairo begun.
ing
begun. Saladin's
ing was made and the
successor offered
the half
half of which would have
successor
offered terms the
cession
namely the
the cession
satisfied
Richard of
Lion's Heart,
satisfied Richard
of the
the Lion's
Heart, namely
the
Cross
of
Jerusalem, the
(Saladin
of Jerusalem,
surrender of the
the surrender
(Saladin had
captured it
in II87)
the liberation
liberation of prisoners.
prisoners. But
it in
captured
1187) and the
wanted
the
an indemnity,
the crusaders
crusaders wanted more. They
indemnity,
They
war
and when this
this was not
not forthcoming
was
resumed.
forthcoming
N emesis now flung
back to
to the
the coasts,
Nemesis
coasts, and they
they were
flung them back
the
Cross.
in exchange
for
the
Cross.
content
to evacuate
evacuate Damietta in
content to
exchange
did
under
When the
the crusaders
they
so
under
crusaders came again
again they
a great
great man if
if aa freethinking
Frederick
Frederick II
II of Sicily,
Sicily, a
freethinking
to the
the throne
oriental state
title to
throne
a lately
state whose title
monarch of
of a
lately oriental
wife's
inheritance.
based
a
of
based
on
a
wife's
inheritance.
Frederick
of Jerusalem
was
Jerusalem
to fight
the infidel
infidel but
but
was no religious
religious zealot.
zealot. He came not to
fight the
to
treat with
with him,
the papal
papal blessing
blessing had been
been withto treat
withhim, and the
Frederick's was a calculating
it
it
held.
peace
crusade,
and
held* Frederick's
crusade,
calculating peace
in
to
of
succeeded.
of
Cairo
in
1229
was
ready
to
yield
succeeded. The caliph
Cairo
1229
ready
caliph
yield
for in
in vain.
what Richard
Richard had pleaded
pleaded for
vain. The treaty
between
treaty between
Egypt and Sicily
holy city,
Nazareth, Bethleconceded the
the holy
BethleSicily conceded
Egypt
city, Nazareth,
to
sea
thus
to
the
sea
at
Acre,
and
thus
Frederick
enhem and aa way
the
at
Frederick
enAcre,
way
its
tered
as
its
king
without
having
to
strike
tered Jerusalem
as
to
a
strike a
Jerusalem
having
king
Political bargaining
blow. Political
b'argaining had succeeded
succeeded where arms had
for forty
failed for
the outcome was that
that Chrisfailed
Chrisforty years,
years, and the
tian authority
for
another
fifteen
years.
tian
was
enthroned
for
fifteen
authority
years.
This success,
the last
proved to
to be
be the
last gasp
gasp of
the
of the
however, proved
success, however,
Latin
Kingdom.
Latin Kingdom.
Egypt was stirring
stirring again.
Egypt
again. The caliph's
caliph's authority
authority had
been
been undermined by
by the
the rivalries
rivalries of
of Mamlukes. One of
of

[2I4 ]

DISINTEGRATION AND DECLINE

time to
to absolute
power and
founded
these rose
in course
course of time
rose in
absolute power
these
and founded
aa dynasty,
in the
the final
final Moslem conquest
conquest of
of Syria
figured in
dynasty, figured
Syria
and reduced
reduced Latin
Latin authority
point of
to the
the point
of extinction.
extinction.
authority to
Baibars'
step on the
the road to
to dominance
general
first step
Baibars' first
dominance was as
as general
of
the
force
marched
against
Frederick.
The
latter's
which
of the force
latter's
against Frederick,
authority
the internal
internal dissensions
dissensions
crumbling amid the
authority was crumbling
so to
of
the Latin
Latin nobles,
to Baibars
the Latin
Latin Kingdom
Baibars the
of the
nobles, so
Kingdom
looked
an
easy
and
tempting
prey,
and
at
in 1244
looked
at Gaza in
easy
tempting prey,
1244
the Christian
he
forces so
that JerusaJ erusaChristian forces
routed the
so completely
he routed
completely that
into Moslem hands.
lem passed
passed once
once more into
hands. Cairo
had
Cairo had
its master.
The
again
become
its
master.
cry
went
up
for
help,
went
for
cry
up
again
help, and
took
western Europe
Europe again
measures to
to respond.
respond. Under
measures
western
again
St
the crusaders
attacked Damietta as
they had
crusaders attacked
Louis the
as they
St Louis
done
repeated
itself
by
the
launching
itself
the
of
done before.
before. History
History repeated
by
launching of
Cairo.
another
march
on
Cairo.
this
time
there
was
no
But
this
time
another
there
no
Egyptian
to buy
buy off
the invader.
invader. A force
marched
off the
force marched
attempt to
Egyptian attempt
out
utterly routed
routed him.
him. St
to escape
escape
St Louis
Louis was able
able to
out and utterly
only
by
payment
of
a
large
ransom,
and
the
stricken
and
the
stricken
large ransom,
only by payment
as in
army
back to
to Acre. There,
in other
other coastal
coastal towns,
fell back
There, as
towns,
army fell
aa Christian
maintained aa precarious
precarious existence
Christian governor
existence
governor maintained
for
half-century,
aided at
by Moslem allies
allies
first by
at first
another half
for another
-century, aided
in
Syria
who
broken
away
after
Saladin's
death.
had
broken
after
Saladin's death.
in Syria
away
Egypt, aided
aided by
by Baibars'
prowess, would
would
Still
Baibars' military
Still Egypt,
military prowess,
doubtless
have swept
it
into
the
sea
but
for
the
appearance
into
the
but
it
sea
for
the
doubtless have
swept
appearance
of
of
East the arrival
of the
out of
the East-the
arrival of
a new menace looming
of a
looming out
another
Mongols were
invader. The Mongols
another great
great non-Moslem invader.
com
mg.
coming.
Just as
out of
of the
the Arabian
as the
the Arabs had swarmed out
Just
the
in
seventh to
to
peninsula
across
the
world
in
the
seventh
world
known
across
the
peninsula
eighth
in the
the thirteenth,
so now in
thirteenth, armed bands
centuries, so
eighth centuries,
east and west under
of
Central
Asia
swept
Asia
Central
from
of Mongols
swept east
Mongols
to
terror
Chingis
Khan
to
strike
terror
from
Pekin
to Persia.
Persia. Next
strike
to
Chingis
and
so it
it came
they
the plains
plains of Iraq,
so
into the
ascended into
Iraq,
they ascended
21 5 ]
[[215]

THE ARABS
the West were delivering
while the
about
the Arabs of
of the
that while
about that
delivering
Prankish yoke
themselves from the
the Frankish
yoke those of Iraq
themselves
Iraq were
of Mongols.
an avalanche
avalanche of
swept
1258 saw
Mongols. The year
year 1258
by an
swept by
the
Hulagu, Chingis
Khan's grandson,
the conqueror
grandson, swoop
Chingis Khan's
swoop
conqueror Hulagu,

the last
the destruction
Baghdad and put
put the
last
destruction of Baghdad
to the
down to
to death.
death. Two
caliph,
his family
Musta'sim, and his
family to
caliph, Musta'sim,
years
later
they
swarmed
westwards
through
later
through Syria
Syria and
they
years
the Arabs to
Palestine, subjecting
to devasting
destruction,
Palestine,
devasting destruction,
subjecting the
at Gaza again
of Baibars
Baibars at
prevented
and only
only the
the prowess
prowess of
again prevented
of Egypt.
their
their invasion
invasion of
Egypt.
Shathese pagan
If
pagan Mongols
If to
to the
the Arabs these
Mongols (they
(they were Shacrusaders
saw
in
the crusaders
manists) brought
brought pandemonium,
pandemonium, the
in their
their
manists)
these heathen
idea of converting
a new hope.
heathen
victories
victories a
converting these
hope. The idea
so it
would, so
it
to Christianity
their imagination.
imagination. This would,
fired their
to
Christianity fired
for
all
time
the
a
crusaders'
seemed,
be
a
of
achieving
for
all
time
the
crusaders'
be
means
seemed,
achieving
its Arabian home. The
back into
into its
Islam back
goal
of driving
driving Islam
goal and of
Christians within
of Christians
existence
within the
the Mongol
of a
a sprinkling
existence of
sprinkling of
Mongol
ranks-aa backwash
Asiatic Nestorianism
Nestorianism-the
of Asiatic
the fact
fact
ranks
backwash of
that Kilboga,
Kilboga, the
leader of
invasion
of
Syria,
the leader
the Mongol
of
of the
invasion
that
Mongol
Syria,
lent fair
fair ground
a Christian,
hope.
was himself
for hope.
himself a
Christian, lent
ground for
the Mongols
to the
off missions
missions to
Mongols of
of RusRusEagerly the
the pope
pope sent
sent off
Eagerly
Christian missionaries
those of
of Persia
sia
Persia; Christian
missionaries penepeneto those
sia and to
established themselves
as far
themselves as
far east
east as
trated Asia and established
as
trated
military contest
between Christianity
Pekin.
historic military
contest between
Pekin. The historic
Christianity
and Islam
to depend
not aa little
little on the
the conconIslam now seemed to
depend not
the Mongol
Mongol invaders.
invaders.
version
to Christianity
of the
version to
Christianity of
of the
rather than
the persuathe sword rather
than the
persuaBut the
the prestige
prestige of
decisive. Again
the
preachers was decisive.
the
fundamental
sions
sions of
of preachers
Again
distinction
was to
colonization was
distinction between conquest
to
conquest and colonization
influence the
the issue.
were too
too thin
to
influence
thin spread
issue. The Mongols
Mongols were
spread to
colonizers. They
were but
but aa whirlwind
whirlwind army
be
that swept
be colonizers.
They were
army that
swept
thin spread
they
down and as
as quickly
veered away.
away. How thin
quickly veered
spread they
is clear
to an observant
to the
the Middle
Middle East
East
were is
clear to
observant visitor
visitor to

Abbasid
Abbasid

[216 ]

DISINTEGRATION AND DECLINE

will look
vain for
the telltale
telltale
look in
in vain
for survivals
who today
survivals of
of the
today will
the round head and stubby
hair. If
slit
slit eye,
If the
the Mongol
eye, the
stubby hair.
Mongol
the Arab lands
invaders
were Mongols
Mongols in
a racial
racial sense,
lands were
invaders of the
in a
sense,
went.
they came and went.
they
The Latin hope
hope of
permanent kingdom
kingdom
of establishing
a permanent
establishing a
supported by
Mongol
in
the Holy
in the
Land, solidly
Holy Land,
solidly supported
allies,
by Mongol allies,
the vanishing
Mongols.
Egypt,
galvanised
vanished
with the
vanished with
vanishing Mongols. Egypt, galvanised
the energetic
Baibars, marched
to
into
activity under
under the
into activity
in to
marched in
energetic Baibars,
the vacated
vacated spaces.
Damascus fell
occupy
and Damascus
fell easily,
Jaffa and
spaces. Jaffa
occupy the
easily,
and the
retired
to
Asia
Minor,
where
they
to
the Mongols
retired
Asia
where
were
Minor,
Mongols
they were
for aa brief
time to
usurp the
power of
of the
the Seljuq
able
to usurp
brief time
the power
able for
Seljuq
Turks.
Turks.
Syria
Egypt were now again
again united
united as
they had
had been
been
as they
Syria and Egypt
but Baibars
Baibars was no
no tolerant
tolerant chivalrous
in
time, but
in Saladin's
Saladin's time,
chivalrous
Saladin;
he was as
as uncompromising
religious zealot
zealot as
as
a religious
Saladin; he
uncompromising a
the
he resolved
the fieriest
fieriest crusader,
to drive
drive Christian
resolved to
Christian
crusader, and he
the East,
propitiously
starting
by
taking
rule from the
rule
AnEast, propitiously starting by taking Antioch,
one
of
the
remaining
four
Christian
principalities.
the
of
four
Christian
tioch,
remaining
principalities.
throw to
to restore
restore shattered
crufinal and pathetic
pathetic throw
A final
shattered crusading
fortunes
by
the
English
Prince
Edward,
Prince
fortunes
was
made
the
Edward,
English
sading
by
landed at
Acre and strove
vain to
to court
at Acre
in vain
strove in
court
in 1272
who in
1272 landed
Mongol
in despair
despair was followed
succour* His departure
followed
departure in
Mongol succour.
by
ten
years
of
precarious
peace
between
Franks
and
and
between
Franks
of
ten
years
precarious
peace
by
Arabs,
Baibars'
successor
rose
to
expel
the
Chrisrose
Baibars'
successor
to
the
Chriswhen
Arabs,
expel
their final
Tripoli and Acre.
Acre. And
tians
final footholds
footholds of
of Tripoli
tians from their
thus,
in 129
I, after
after nearly
hundred years
of incessant
incessant
thus, in
years of
1291,
nearly two hundred
warfare the
the last
last vestige
vestige of
of Latin
Latin rule
rule was extinguished.
warfare
extinguished.
Military
prestige throughthroughincreased Moslem prestige
success had increased
Military success
out
the
East;
the
apathy
of
the
West-for
Europe
had, in
in
for
out the East; the apathy of the West
Europe had,
be secular,
those
two hundred
grown to
legal,
to be
hundred years,
those two
secular, legal,
years, grown
scholastic-was
reflected in
in the
the long-drawn-out,
losing,
was reflected
scholastic
long-drawn-out, losing,
rear-guard action.
of the
the century
the end of
action. By
century the western
By the
rear-guard
Mongols,
crusaders' last
last hope,
the crusaders'
hope, had themselves emMongols, the
17 ]
[2
[217]

THE ARABS

braced
Islam, the
religion of
of the
the dominant
power, and
and
the religion
braced Islam,
dominant power,
to
Christianity.
Asia
was
thereby
lost
Asia
thereby lost to Christianity.
The military
military offensive
passed from the
the Cross to
to the
the
offensive passed
were thereafter
to lie
lie aa full
Crescent.
thereafter to
Crescent. The battlefields
battlefields were
full
Holy Land. The Islamonth's march to
the Holy
month's
the north
north of
of the
to the
Islamic
no longer
but Ottoman
Ottoman
mic standard-bearers
standard-bearers were no
longer Arabs but
Turks-a
that had established
itself in
in
established itself
of Turks that
Turks a tribe
tribe of
Asia Minor during
during the
the Mongol
Mongol upheaval
upheaval and had since
Asia
since
of their
their Seljuq
kindred. Turkish
then inherited
then
the sceptre
inherited the
Turkish
Seljuq kindred,
sceptre of
aggression
against
imperial
Christian
neighbours
to the
the
to
Christian
neighbours
aggression against imperial
of
Cypriots
and
west
had already
provoked
a
landing
of
a
west had
and
landing
Cypriots
already provoked
to protect
protect their
Aegean interests,
interests,
Venetians
who, anxious
their Aegean
anxious to
Venetians who,
they were in
in the
the long
long run
run
came to
to occupy
Smyrna. But they
occupy Smyrna.
the
Ottoman
tide
which,
in
1363,
swept
powerless
to
stem
in
the
tide
stem
to
which,
1363, swept
powerless
across
the Hellespont
Europe, overrunning
overrunning the
the councouninto Europe,
across the
Hellespont into
Bulgaria, Macetries of
Balkans Thrace, Bulgaria,
tries
southern Balkans-Thrace,
of the
the southern
at
donia,
to the
the Ottomans,
Ottomans, but
but only
only at
check came to
Serbia. A check
donia, Serbia.
the hands
hands of
Asiatic invader
upon their
their
fell upon
invader who fell
the
another Asiatic
of another
rear. The Tartars,
Tartars, under
under Tamerlane,
Tamerlane, king
king of
Transof Transrear.
Oxiana,
of southern
India and conqueror
southern Rusinvader of
of India
RusOxiana, invader
conqueror of
at
the
beginning
of
the
fifteenth
century
sia,
reached
out
the
the
fifteenth
of
reached
out
at
sia,
beginning
century
the Turkish province
province of
Asia Minor at
at
to strike
to
of Asia
strike at
at the
Angora. This
another lightning
AsiThis was,
was, however,
however, only
Angora.
only another
lightning Asithat lacked
continuance. The Ottoman adadatic
atic stroke
stroke that
lacked continuance.
venture
only
momentarily
affected
by
in Europe
was
venture in
affected
it,
only momentarily
Europe
by it,
and under
under the
the next
pressure was resumed,
next ruler
ruler Ottoman pressure
resumed,
into the
hands of
and Constantinople
itself fell
fell into
the hands
of the
the Turks
Constantinople itself
in 1453.
in
1453European possessions,
possessions, the
the Osmanlis
Strong
their European
in their
Osmanlis 22
Strong in
turned
their faces
faces back on Asia.
Asia. There were forty
turned their
indeforty indeat
the
beginning
pendent
Turkish
principalities
in
Anatolia
in
Turkish
Anatolia
at
the
pendent
principalities
beginning
of
but by
by the
end of
of the
of the
fourteenth century,
the end
the fifteenth
the fourteenth
fifteenth
century, but
9
'Osman
the eponymous
ancestor.
Osman was the
eponymous ancestor.

[218
[218]]

DISINTEGRATION AND DECLINE

DECLI~E
all been united,
these had all
these
this great
and growing
united, and this
great and
growing
in
the
Moslem power
power in the north
north was
was now aa menace
menace to
the
to the
Arabs of the
the Holy
and, indeed,
indeed, to
to Egyptian
Egyptian indeindeHoly Land and,
pendence.
peoples of
Palestine, tributribuof Syria
and Palestine,
pendence. The Arab peoples
Syria and
taries
taries of the Mamlukes,
had
already
been
mustered
to
Mamlukes,
already been mustered to
defend themselves against
the attacks
had
attacks of
of Tamerlane,
against the
Tamerlane, had
occasions northwards
marched on two occasions
northwards against
Turcoman
Turcoman
against
to be
states.
there was to
be no rest
rest for
them under
the
states. But there
for them
under the
threat of Ottoman aggression.
In the
the early
threat
sixteenth cencenaggression. In
early sixteenth
tury
the
Sultan
Selim,
after
defeating
the
Persians,
turned
the
after
the
turned
Selim,
tury
Persians,
defeating
south to
to invade
invade the
the Arab states.
states. North of
of Aleppo
the
Aleppo the
forces
Egyptian
forces
gathered
to
fight
a
decisive
battle.
It
went
to
a
decisive battle. It went
gathered
Egyptian
fight
the Ottoman way
against
way was open
into Syria,
them, the
against them,
open into
Syria, and
the
early
in
the
following
year
(1517)
Selim
marched
triin
Selim
marched
triearly
following year (1517)
umphantly
into
Cairo.
rule
of
the
Cairo
Mamlukes
into
Cairo.
The
rule
of
the
Cairo
umphantly
thus
end; the
passed to
to European
to an end
the caliphate
thus came to
soil
caliphate passed
European soil
and to
of Turkish blood,
blood, the
the Ottoman sultans
of
to men of
sultans of
Constantinople.
Constantinople.
The Arabs had changed
masters once
once again.
they
changed masters
again. Yet they
remained, in
in aa sense,
victors, for
they belonged
to
the victors,
for they
sense, the
remained,
belonged to
that within
the Moslem empire
empire that
within aa quarter
quarter of aa century
century
the
that
European conquests
its European
eastwards
extended its
that followed
followed extended
conquests eastwards
through the
the Crimea,
Crimea, westwards through
Hungary. Thus
through Hungary.
through
the religion
religion of
the Arabs carried
to the
the gateway
of
of the
carried to
was the
gateway of
Vienna and maintained
maintained there
a hundred years.
years.
there for
for a
the end
The duel
duel between
between Cross and Crescent
reached the
Crescent reached
for four hundred
of
phase. It
It had been waged
waged for
a definite
of a
definite phase.
had waged
crusaders
years.
For
the
first
two
the
crusaders
waged
first
the
the
hundred
years.
hundred
an
offensive
war,
for
the
last
Christendom
the
last
two
for
an offensive war,
the defensive.
defensive. When the
opened, Europe
the crusades
crusades opened,
was on
on the
Europe
be
(if
Spain,
which
ultimately
came
to
be
wholly
Christian,
to
which
Christian,
wholly
ultimately
(if Spain,
is
under Christian
rule, and western Asia
Christian rule,
is excluded)
excluded) was under
centuries more
Minor too.
During the
the first
first two crusading
too. During
crusading centuries
;

21 9 ]
[[219]

THE ARABS
as well
as Palestine
of Asia Minor as
well as
Palestine and Syria
were in
in
Syria were
the
at
the
next
part
and
at
times
added.
By
the
end
of
the
next
two
cencenBy
part
rule had not only
turies
turies Christian rule
the
only been expelled
expelled from the
lands
of the
Asiatic continent,
the Arabs and from the
the Asiatic
but
lands of
but
continent,
eastern Europe
penetrated deep
into eastern
Islam had penetrated
and
deep into
Europe and
shores of the
established itself
the shores
established
itself on the
the Danube. The Arabs,
Arabs,
turn the
the subjects
during
in turn
of
centuries, were in
during those four centuries,
subjects of
Mamlukes
Seljuqs,
Fatimids,
Franks,
Mongols,
and
OttoOttoSeljuqs, Fatimids, Franks, Mongols,
in the Near East
if the
the period
the history
period in
East is
is
mans,
but if
mans, but
history of the
as a
civilization of East
a duel
of as
conceived of
duel between the civilization
conceived
East and
lived not
West, they
they had lived
not in
in vain,
vain,
exalted, they
West,
emerged exalted,
they emerged
in spirit
for in
for
they had made captives
their captors
captives of their
spirit they
captors and
extension and triumph
witnessed the
the extension
triumph of their
their Arab faith.
witnessed
faith.

[220
[220]]

CHAPTER IX

The Arabs 0/
Arabia
of Arabia
the oasis
leads the
The Najdian
N ajdian spirit
spirit leads
oasis dwellers
dwellers to
to reject
reject all
but
all but
to regard
or
the
simplest doctrine
doctrine of
Islam, and to
regard expansions
the simplest
of Islam,
expansions or
this by
coninterpretations
of this
by any
any society,
society, livzng
under other
other conliving under
interpretations of
the God they
ditions than theirs,
as offences,
offences, against
ditions
have
theirs, as
against the
they have
in their
their own image.
made in
a spirit
spirit (not,
course, un(not, of
image. Such a
of course,
in the histories
histories of
known elsewhere
elsewhere in
of other
other creeds),
remains
creeds), remains
in stern
passive in
stern self-righteousness
self-righteousness till
suftill reminded with sufpassive
that
man's
to
that
responsihility
to
the
One
God
of
the
ficient
force
the
of the
responsibility
ficient force
than,
less than
Universe cannot
cannot be
be acquitted
securing Him less
by securing
acquitted hy
honour! 2 ** DAVID
DAVTD HOGARTH
universal
universal honourJ24*

HJ
ARE two Arabs. There is
LIERE
the Arab within
within
.HERE
is the
Arabia
Arabia;; there
there is
is the
the Arab without;
speaking,
the
without broadly
broadly speaking, the
one representative
a
representative of a patriarchal
patriarchal culture,
the other
other
culture, the
off in
the product
product of a medieval civilization;
in
the one cut
cut off
civilization; the
borne
a little-known
little-known backwater of the
the world,
the other
other borne
world, the
restless tide
currents.
upon a restless
tide amid the
the interplay
interplay of world currents.
upon
It is
forIt
is the second Arab,
Arab, the
historical Arab,
whose
forthe historical
Arab,
sixteenth cencentunes
been following
to the sixteenth
tunes we have been
following down to
the
tury.
And
now,
at
the
risk
of
breaking
the
continuity
of
risk
at
the
now,
continuity
tury.
breaking
;

his
turn aside
a brief
brief chaphis story,
aside to
for a
to consider,
consider, for
chapstory, we must turn
his
ter,
how
it
has
fared
with
the
other
Arab,
his
stay-atit
other
fared
the
has
Arab,
ter,
stay-atArabia. It
It is,
is, moreover,
nechome brother,
the Arab of Arabia.
moreover, necbrother, the
in order
essary
distinguish between
between the two cultures
cultures in
to distinguish
essary to
[[221]
22I ]

THE ARABS
to understand
understand the
the respective
parts 'the
'the Arabs'
Arabs' played,
played, and
to
and
respective parts
in
did
not
play,
in
the
Great
War,
their
varying
outlook
and
the
their
did not play,
War,
varying outlook and
the several
they are
travelling. For the
the single
several roads they
are now travelling.
the
single
for
'Arab' on Western lips
is
responsible
for
much
misterm 'Arab'
is
mislips
responsible
understanding and confusion of
of thought.
thought. When,
When, for
infor inunderstanding
the political
stance,
our newspapers
of the
political aspirations
talk of
of
stance, our
aspirations of
newspapers talk
'the
Arabs' they
are
almost
invariably
referring
not
to
the
'the Arabs'
not
are
almost
to
the
invariably referring
they
of Arabia,
Arabia, but
but to
to those
those outside,
to wit,
wit, the
the Arabs of
Arabs of
of
outside, to
Syria,
of Iraq
Iraq or
danger of equating
Palestine. The danger
or of
of Palestine.
Syria, of
equating
is seen
in the
the journalistic
Arabs and Arabia is
journalistic tag
tag used
used in
in
seen in
E. Lawrence,
'The
connection with
with the
the late
late T. E.
Uncrowned
Lawrence,
King of
of Arabia,'
Arabia,' for,
the exception
exception of
of the
the western
western
for, with the
King
coastal fringe
northwards along
along the
the Pilgrim
coastal
fringe from Mecca northwards
Pilgrim
in
that
his
his
railway
that
saw
his
gallant
doings
in
I9I7,
his
brilliant
brilliant
1917,
gallant doings
railway
I 8 were
were performed
performed outside
outside the
the Arabian
Arabian
-exploits
1918
'exploits during
during 19
into which country
peninsula, into
indeed he
he never
never had occasion
occasion
peninsula,
country indeed
to
of
and
at
the
time
of
the
early
peninsular
deeply
to
penetrate,
the
at
the
early peninsular
deeply
penetrate,
adventures
adventures most of the
the Arabs of Arabia could scarcely
scarcely
his existence,
have known of
the suggestion
of his
existence, while the
suggestion implied
implied
of Arabian
Arabian unification
unification under
under aa foreigner
a non-Moslem
of
foreigner and a
in anyway
course, aa myth.
not in
anyway to
to be underunderis, of course,
is not
is,
myth. This is
for
stood as
detracting from Lawrence,
for
masterly
whose
as detracting
Lawrence,
masterly
and heroic
heroic achievements on the
the Arab front the
the writer
writer has
the terms
the greatest
terms
the
admiration. But we must get
get the
greatest admiration.
'Arabs' and 'Arabia'
clear.
'Arabia' clear.
'Arabs'
rise of
Before the
the rise
the Prophet
Prophet Arabs and Arabia may
of the
may
and
co-extensive
in
have been
been complementary
co-extensive
terms.
But
in
terms.
have
complementary
to eighth
the
the seventh
centuries
the
great
exodus
took
place.
seventh to
centuries
the
took
great
eighth
place.
Those who went forth
prosperous, secular;
forth gr.ew
secular
grew mighty,
mighty, prosperous,
remained poor,
poor, unlearned,
unlearned,
those
those who stayed
at home remained
stayed at
orthodox. The second generation
of
colonials
colonials
threw off
of
off
generation
to
allegiance
to
the
country.
They
a
world
the
mother
became
a
allegiance
country. They
power. The rule
patriarchs was no longer
longer
rule of
of Medina patriarchs
power.
;

[222
]
[ 222]

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

acceptable
them. At the
of the
the coming
of the
the
to them.
the time
time of
acceptable to
coming of
Turks these
these Arabs had had
had seven
centuries of
of seeding
seeding
seven centuries
the cultures
of ancient
peoples that
that had inherited
amid peoples
inherited the
ancient
cultures of
They
had
Mesopotamia,
ancient
Persia,
ancient
Egypt.
ancient
ancient
Persia,
Mesopotamia,
Egypt. They had
acquired
a
different
psychology
from
that
of
the
Arabs
acquired a different psychology from that of the Arabs
of
Arabia. Theirs
the Arab civilization,
the arts,
been the
Theirs had been
of Arabia.
civilization, the
arts,
science,
philosophy,
all
of
which
passed
Arabia
by;
theirs
all
of
which
Arabia
theirs
science, philosophy,
passed
by;
the experience
experience of
of crusader,
the
crusader, Mongol,
Tartar, impacts
Mongol, Tartar,
impacts
which
Arabia never
knew.
never knew.
which Arabia
The Arabs
Arabs of
of Arabia,
Arabia, the
the peninsular
peninsular Arabs,
the
on the
Arabs, on
other
hand, remained
remained inviolate
by their
their poverty,
poverty, their
inviolate by
other hand,
their
their unwillingness
unwillingness to
change, their
their hostility
hostility
remoteness, their
to change,
remoteness,
to
deserts and
and their
their dogmas
reintrusion. Their deserts
to foreign
foreign intrusion.
dogmas rewarp
and
of
life.
In
premained,
for
them,
the
the
for
and
woof
of
life.
In
them,
mained,
warp
preIslamic
been Jewish
and Christian
there had been
Islamic days
Christian colonies
colonies
Jewish and
days there
but aa fanatical
insular spirit
had within
within fifty
in
Arabia, but
fanatical insular
in Arabia,
spirit had
fifty
of
the
Prophet
largely
driven
them
forth.
years
of
the
driven
them
forth.
The
Prophet
largely
years
peninsula today
inherits the
the same spirit.
spirit. Throughout
today inherits
peninsula
Throughout
Islamic
times
Arabia
has
been
forbidden
the
has
been
forbidden country
Islamic times
for the
country for
this is
not purely
foreigner
infidel. The cause
the infidel.
cause of
of this
is not
foreigner and the
purely
for
one,
in
spite
of
official
connections,
political,
as
I
in
as
I
for
official
have
one,
connections, have
spite
political,
of
making
many
journeys
of
explorafound
of
of
found opportunities
making many journeys
exploraopportunities
rare. Intion.
for Europeans
such opportunities
are rare.
tion. But such
Inopportunities for
Europeans are
deed
no European
Lawrence excepted)
excepted) has
has ever
E. Lawrence
ever
deed no
(T. E.
European (T.
holy places
places of
been permitted
permitted to
to visit
visit the
the holy
of Mecca and
been
professed himself
follower of
a follower
has not
not professed
Medina who has
himself a
Islam,
nor may
except in
in peril
peril of
his life.
of his
life. An
one go
Islam, nor
may one
go except
in
intolerance
without parallel
parallel in
is almost
almost without
survives which is
intolerance survives
exthe world today
and
explains
why
so
few
European
exso
the
European
today
explains why
plorers have
have penetrated
penetrated deep
the peninsula
peninsula-scarcely
into the
scarcely
deep into
plorers
twenty throughout
throughout the
the ages.
twenty
ages.
The Arab of
the
the desert
of the
desert is
is instinctively
suspicious of the
instinctively suspicious
like
not look
himself, dress
dress and talk
talk like
look like
like himself,
does not
man who does

[223
[223]]

THE ARABS
his God. This dislike
dislike is
is not
him and worship
worship his
not born
born of
of fear,
fear,
for
he considers
to be
be aa superior
person.
behimself to
for he
considers himself
superior person. He believes
he is
but two.
two. For some
in most things
is superior
lieves he
things but
superior in
infidel a
inscrutable
reason Allah
Allah has given
given the
the infidel
a temporary
inscrutable reason
temporary
if
superiority
in
arms
and
money,
and
if
you
travel
in
in
travel
in his
his
money,
you
superiority
these things.
country it
well to
be wise
to these
things. You must
must
to be
wise to
it is
is well
country
his
make very
very solid
for
his
services,
a
generosity
for
a
solid payment
services,
payment
generosity on
little
to
your
part,
which,
be
assured,
has
little
to
with your
be
do with
assured,
your part, which,
your
the
to
own volition;
volition; it
is
ascribed
to
the
bountiful
and the
the
is
bountiful
ascribed
it
compassionate.
compassionate.
the age
the Prophet
to the
the age
age of Vasco da
From the
Prophet to
age of the
Arabia
remained
Gama the
the greater
part
of
Arabia
remained
veiled in
in its
its
veiled
greater part
old mystery.
Doubtless regional
regional groups
groups of Arabs folfolold
mystery. Doubtless
of
life
as
lowed their
their simple
and
primitive
ways
of
life
as
they
conlowed
conprimitive ways
simple
they
to do to
this day.
barren wastes
wastes supported
supported waywaytinue
to this
tinue to
day. The barren
oases and mountain valleys
nomads, oases
valleys aa sparse,
hunward nomads,
sparse, hunsailors
the
coasts
sailors
and
fishermen.
gry,
unlettered
people;
the
coasts
unlettered
fishermen.
people;
gry,
Only along
western fringe
the peninsula
peninsula had aa
the western
fringe of the
Only
along the
as
great change
change taken
Islam grew
grew to
to be
be a
a
taken place.
Here, as Islam
place. Here,
great
world
religion, came Persians,
Turks, Kurds and Afghans,
world religion,
Persians, Turks,
Afghans,
Iraqis,
Spanish Moors
Egyptians, Berbers and Spanish
Syrians, Egyptians,
Iraqis, Syrians,
in
an annual
annual pilgrimage.
pilgrimage. Mecca attained
attained world eminence.
in an
eminence.
the City
City of
the birthplace
of God,
The Mother of
Cities and the
of Cities
God, the
birthplace
of
of the
the Mountain of
of
of Muhammad under the
the shadow of
Light
came
the
first
astonishing
revelations
from
first
whence
the
revelations
astonishing
Light
the Infinite,
cosmopolitan city.
city. This old
place
a cosmopolitan
the
old place
Infinite, became a
of
pilgrimage of
the pagan
before Muhammad's
of pilgrimage
of the
pagan Arabs before
day
transformed into
place of
pilgrimage for
a place
of pilgrimage
into a
for a
a
day was transformed
world religion.
religion. Mecca's sister
Medina,
the
city
that
the
world
that
sister city,
city, Medina,
city
gave
refuge in
in the
years of
of persecution,
persecution, the
the
the years
gave Muhammad refuge
city
of
his
later-day
preachings,
his
burial
place
and
the
of
his
his
burial
the
city
later-day preachings,
place
first capital
capital of
first
of Arab world empire,
also become a
a
empire, had also
of world
world pilgrimage.
pilgrimage. Thus Mecca and Medina,
Medina, the
place of
the
place

[224
[224]]

S:
"iDamasctis

PERSIA

p......,.PERSIA
QoOUfidis

AMIRATE OF
1BN RASHID

S A'

Bushire

3" IF
AMIRATE

<

.Riyadh

W ARAB
Yr

I5IST

E J

SA12D

1\.us' .1I.L KJMll

IUIJI.[./

Mecca

DESEltT
DESE&T
*>* "r'"
~,\
:..t.o.u^*

~ ,,'"
'..lJ
'I'

.~

,,0"Sana

. r- Dhufa

Hadhramaut

INDIAN

OCEAN
Ct

PAST .llXb PRESENT POLITICAL

pozmCJI.L
PASTJWD
OF .JllULBIA
DIVISIONS OPJllULSDl

,..-

[225 ]
[225]

THE ARABS
holy
holy

of Islam,
cities of
the
Islam, acquired
significance under the
acquired world significance

cities

dispensation, and if
of old
old time
time valued
the
new dispensation,
if Meccans of
valued the
side of
commercial side
commercial
of their
their

as it
city's
it then
then
(limited as
city's sanctity
sanctity (limited

to Arabia),
Arabia), Mecca,
the surrounding
was to
Mecca, Medina and the
surrounding
a
tribes came to
sense
of
a
harvest
increased
to have a
sense
harvest
tribes
a deep
of
increased
deep
fortyfold now that
the Prophet
in the
vine~
that the
the vineProphet had worked in
fortyfold
yard.
profited by
by catering
pilgrims, the
for pilgrims,
townsfolk profited
the
catering for
yard. The townsfolk
rulers by
by taking
taking aa toll
toll of
their gifts,
gifts, the
the tribesmen
tribesmen by
by the
the
of their
rulers
wages
transporting visitors
visitors come in
in pursuit
pursuit of salva~
of transporting
salvawages of
tion,
by plundering
plundering them,
or by
them, whichever was more profit~
tion, or
profit1
of its
able.
other wealth
wealth of
its own the
the Hijaz
able. 1 Without much other
Hijaz
became assured
assured of
an
eternal
livelihood.
livelihood.
of an eternal
This blessedness
blessedness derived
the visiting
visiting subj
ects of
of
This
derived from the
subjects
as
outside
who
must
therefore
be
recognized
as
over~
therefore
be
must
overoutside caliphs,
recognized
caliphs,
lords. But caliphs,
with the
the prestige
prestige attaching
attaching to
lords.
content with
to
caliphs, content
local rulers
such
association, generally
allowed local
rulers aa large
such association,
generally allowed
large
measure of
of autonomy,
if
not
complete
freedom,
so
long
not
if
so
freedom,
complete
long
autonomy,
as pilgrims
pilgrims could
go without
being unduly
unduly fleeced.
as
could come and go
without being
fleeced.
The caliphs,
Baghdad and then
then of
of Cairo,
Cairo, were
were
of Baghdad
first of
caliphs, first
obliged
at times
times to
nominal suzerainty
assert more than nominal
to assert
obliged at
suzerainty
the holy
and send
a representative
holy places,
places, but they
they
to rule
rule the
send a
representative to
their
it
worth
while
to
extend
their
domination,
never
thought
it
to
extend
while
never thought
domination,
so that
so
Arabia was virtually
virtually detached
detached from the
the caliphates
that Arabia
caliphates
in the
great days
of
the
Arab
period.
aa lack
lack of
in
the great
There
was
of
of
the
days
period.
identity
of
interests,
political,
cultural,
economic,
between
of
between
interests, political, cultural, economic,
identity
the
the Arabs
Arabs without,
without, and even
the Arabs within
within and the
even senti~
sentiment waned as
the real
real power
power behind
behind the
the caliphs
passed
as the
caliphs passed
out
into the
hands of
of Persians
Persians or
out of Arab keeping
the hands
or of
of
keeping into
Turks.
The Arab rulers
rulers of
the holy
holy places
places were jealous
jealous of
of the
of their
their
natural
at the
natural priority
priority at
end of
things, were resentresentthe Arabian end
of things,
lUnder the
the enlightened
Ibn Sa'ud
this state
things exists
no
of Ibn
^Under
Sa'ud this
state of things
exists no
enlightened aegis
aegis of
longer.
longer.

[226
[226]]

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

ful
the mastery,
nominal, passed
passed to
to those
ful when the
those of
of
mastery, even nominal,
These
were
alien
blood.
grounds for
alien blood.
for friction.
friction.
grounds
Islamic world
Outside Arabia the
the Islamic
was divided
divided into
its
world was
into its
historic
historic
divisions,
Sunni
and
Shi'a,
but
the
secutwo great
Sunni
and
but
secuthe
divisions,
Shi'a,
great
civilization at
lar aspects
at its
lar
aspects of civilization
its height
overshadowed the
the
height overshadowed
of the
the peninsula,
peninsula, on
religious.
on
religious. With the primitive
primitive Arabs of
a
the other hand,
hand, religion
remained
a
dominant
interest,
and
the
dominant
and
religion
interest,
leisure for
for cultivating
there was space
cultivating all
there
all the
refinethe refinespace and leisure
of aa divided and subdivided
Islam. The southern
ments of
subdivided Islam.
southern
half
half of the
the peninsula
early
the
site
of
the
site
of two
peninsula was quite
quite early
the
Yemen
and
the
Oman,
each
with
principalities,
the
the
a
each
with a
Oman,
principalities,
form
of
theocratic
of government
such as
as had
had disappeared
disappeared in
in
theocratic
government such
all but
but name from the
the Islamic
without. They
all
Islamic world without.
They were
anti-Sunm peoples,
both anti-Sunni
peoples, the
practising aa brand
both
the Yemenis practising
as Zaidism,
of Shi'ism
Zaidism, the
practising IbadhIbadhShi'ism known as
the Omanis practising
Shi'a and Sunni
ism,
dissenting from Shi'a
Sunni alike.
alike.
Ism, dissenting
found
its main support
"Shi'ism,
its
found
course, originally
Shi'ism, of course,
originally
support
in Iraq
Iraq and Persia,
Persia, but with
the Seljuq
in
with the
the advent
of the
advent of
Seljuq
a Sunni
Sunni domination established
established itself
itself in
in Baghdad,
Turks a
Baghdad,
to
whence Sunni
representatives came from time
time to
to time
time to
Sunni representatives
those
control the
the holy
cities.
Thus
in
southern
Arabia
of
those
southern
Arabia
of
cities.
in
control
holy
to be associated
with 'alien.'
times
associated with
'alien.' It
It was
'Sunni' came to
times 'Sunni'
natural
that Mecca should
look for
alliance with
with the
for alliance
the Yeshould look
natural that
the
the historic
historic province
lying
to
the
south,
and
the
men, the
to
the
south,
men,
province lying
to
the
of
the
Yemen-that
is
to
say,
the
religious
legitimism
that
is
Yemen
of
the
religious
say,
legitimism
of
that true
true succession
only in
in the
the seed of
principle that
succession vested
vested only
principle
the Prophet
Prophet-was
counter to
to the
the claims
claims of the
the
was aa helpful
the
helpful counter
Yemeni
a
of
Baghdad
caliphs.
The
preachings
of
a
mystic
mystic
Baghdad caliphs.
preachings
to the
the ninth
ninth century,
named Hamdan Carmat,
in the
Carmat, in
century, led to
spread
of legitimism
through eastern
Arabia, too,
too, and
eastern Arabia,
legitimism through
spread of
called
as
during
the
tenth
century
the
Carmathians,
as
they
called
tenth
the
the
Carmathians,
they
during
century
the
removed
the
holy
cities,
the
themselves,
swept
into
the
themselves, swept into
holy cities,
eastern
in
remained in eastern
sacred
the Ka'ba (it
sacred Black
Black Stone
Stone of
of the
(it remained

[[227]
227J

THE ARABS
Arabia for
twenty years)
for twenty
eliminated Sunni
Sunni domination
domination
years) and eliminated
from Mecca for
for aa century.
century.
length grew
grew cold
cold and
and
ardour at
at length
When Carmathian ardour
Arabia split
up
again
into
its
normal
scattered
autonomies,
into
its
normal
scattered
autonomies,
split up again
legitimism
remained the
the religious
religious principle
principle of
of Mecca
still remained
legitimism still
and the
the Yemen,
Yemen, and the
the two together
together continued
to resist
resist
continued to
any
encroachments
by
the
caliphs.
Cairo
at
first
had
filched
first
encroachments
the
at
Cairo
filched
any
caliphs.
by
Mecca's allegiance
Baghdad, as
as Shi'ism
Shi'ism spread
Mecca's
spread
allegiance from Baghdad,
westwards from Iraq
take official
root in
Egypt under
under
in Egypt
official root
to take
Iraq to
the
Fatimids. The ruler
ruler of
not as
as yet
yet ruler
ruler of
the Fatimids.
of Mecca was not
of
the
province about
about it,
the
Hijaz,
and
his
authority
his
the province
the
was
it,
authority
Hijaz,
weakened by
by internal
internal divisions
divisions and by
by the
the old
old rivalry
berivalry between the
the holy
holy cities.
In the
the dynastic
power
for power
cities. In
tween
struggles for
dynastic struggles
the house
house that
to the
the Yemen for
for support
looked to
the
that looked
support was
often
opposed
by
a
party
with
contacts,
Medina
a
often opposed by
contacts, and
party
Medina,
toleaned toMedina, from geographical
considerations, leaned
geographical considerations,
wards Egypt;
Egypt; but
rulers steadfastly
cultivated
but Meccan rulers
cultivated
steadfastly
the
a counter
to the
the
as a
of the
the imam of
counter to
the friendship
of Yemen as
friendship of
influence
Baghdad or
Cairo, and this
this went on into
into
or of
of Cairo,
influence of
of Baghdad
Ottoman times.
When, in
in the
the twelfth
twelfth century,
century, the
crusades
the crusades
times. When,
drove Shi'as
in the
the north
north into
Shi'as and Sunnis
Sunnis in
into a common camp
camp
under Saladin,
legitimist
Mecca
felt
the
pressure and must
felt the pressure
Saladin, legitimist
offer prayers
again
prayers for
a Sunni
Indeed Sunnism was
for a
Sunni caliph.
again offer
caliph. Indeed
soon its
its established
established creed,
though subservience
Egypt
to Egypt
subservience to
creed, though
time by
by the
rise of
of Qatada,
Qatada, aa local
off for
a time
was thrown off
for a
the rise
local
to embrace
soldier
ruler, who extended
Mecca's dominion
dominion to
soldier ruler,
extended Mecca's
the whole Hijaz
province
bequeathed
the
enlarged
the
the
and
enlarged
Hijaz province
bequeathed
legacy
for
all
time.
When,
however,
the
arose
all
Mamlukes
the
arose
for
time.
When, however,
legacy
in Egypt,
in
Egypt, the
link was renewed.
renewed. Baibars,
the
founder
of
the
the link
of
Baibars,
the new dynasty,
pilgrimage to
to the
the holy
holy
the
dynasty, came on a pilgrimage
in time
places, left
left behind
behind an Egyptian
Egyptian garrison,
time
so in
places,
garrison, and so
the Hijaz
the
Hijaz became again
an
Egyptian
appanage.
it
it
Thus
again
Egyptian appanage.
came about that
the keys
of the
the
that when the
the Turks took Cairo
Cairo the
keys of
3.

[228
[228]]

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

Ka'ba,
Mecca's homage,
were carried
carried to
to Selim
the
Selim the
Ka'ba, with Mecca's
homage, were
Grim.
Ottoman overlordship
overlordship of
of Mecca (the
holy places
places had
had
(the holy
known Turkish governors
in
Abbasid
times)
in
no
way
in
Abbasid
in
no
governors
times)
way
of Arabia.
Arabia. Arabia
Arabia was
was not
not then
implied
overlordship of
a
then a
implied overlordship
than it
is today,
virtually
political entity
it is
and virtually
entity any
political
any more than
today, and
provinces of
of the
the Hijaz
Hijaz and
the
only
Sea littoral
the Red Sea
littoral provinces
and the
only the
the Yemen,
where
the
people
Yemen were
were affected.
affected. In
In the
where
the
Yemen,
people
regarded Sunnis
heretics, the
yoke was
was light
and for
Sunnis as
as heretics,
the yoke
for
regarded
light and
centuries
nominal; the
mountains, aa difficult
tercenturies nominal;
the Yemen mountains,
difficult terhardy fighting
fighting stock,
with an
rain, peopled
peopled by
by aa hardy
an Arabian
Arabian
rain,
stock, with
such as
is enjoyed
enjoyed by
by the
reputation
as is
In
frontier hillmen
the frontier
hillmen in
reputation such
secure foothold
India,
no secure
intermittent Turkish
Turkish
foothold for
for intermittent
India, allowed no
In the
the Hijaz,
however, conditions
garrisons.
the new
for the
conditions for
garrisons. In
Hijaz, however,
the ruling
Arab
sharifs
masters
masters were easier.
easier. Yet the
enjoyed
sharlfs enjoyed
ruling
particularly in
the
long
periods of
of freedom from control,
in the
control, particularly
long periods
at
a
time
Egypt
and
Syria
achieved
seventeenth
at
a
time
seventeenth century,
and
achieved
century,
Syria
Egypt
of autonomy,
though Shi'a
heresies were no
no
aa measure of
Shi'a heresies
autonomy, though
longer
and the
the sharifs
henceforth be
be Sunni
sharif s must henceforth
Sunni
tolerated, and
longer tolerated,
of the
the Ottoman Turk,
master.
coreligionists
their master.
Turk, their
coreligionists of
Arabia, outside
two provinces,
unoutside these
these two
remained unArabia,
provinces, remained
cultivate regional
regional secsecmolested, independent,
independent, able
able to
to cultivate
molested,
tarianism to
to its
its heart's
heart's content.
content. The sects
the
sects of
of Islam,
tarianism
Islam, the
of both
both Sunnism and Shi'ism,
besides
the
subdivisions
besides
the
subdivisions of
Shi'ism,
where not
not indigenous,
dissenting
of Ibadhism,
even where
sect of
Ibadhism, even
indigenous,
dissenting sect
have found the
the soil
of Arabia
Arabia congenial.
all
all seem to
to have
soil of
congenial.
There was,
as there
there still
between
sectariansectarianbetween
an identity
still is,
is, an
was, as
identity
2
For
Islamic
sectarianism
ism and
government.:!
sectarianism
Islamic
ism
and dynastic
dynastic government.
SZaidism,
state religion
religion of
the Yemen
Yemen-aa name derived
derived from Zaid,
Zaid,
of the
the state
^Zaidism, the
the
the martyr
theocratic form of government
Husain is a theocratic
the grandson
of the
government
martyr Husain-is
grandson of
field thus
cirin
which rule
vest in
the seed
seed of
the Prophet.
thus cirof the
in the
in which
rule can
can only
Prophet. The field
only vest
cumscribed,
theory allowed
allowed democratic
election; the
the practice
practice brought
brought a
the theory
democratic election;
cumscribed, the
of personal
hereditary
tradition of
personal sanctity.
office with a tradition
sanctity.
hereditary religious
religious office
of Oman,
Oman, has
has resemblances
to Wahhabism in
in
Ibadhism,
the state
religion of
resemblances to
state religion
Ibadhism, the

[229
[229]]

THE ARABS
is
vital thing
Christian sectarianism;
sectarianism it
is a more vital
thing than
than Christian
it is
is legal
legal
for
rather
rather than religious.
religious. Our nonconformists,
for
instance,
nonconformists,
instance,
all live
while divided
divided by
live under a comdifferences, all
by academic differences,
;

mon law,
so closely
are so
law, whereas religion
identified
religion and law are
closely identified
in Islam,
in its
the difference
in
Islam, where practised
practised in
its purity,
purity, that
that the
difference
difference between
between
between two sects
sects assumes an important
important difference
the civil
recivil and criminal
criminal sanctions
sanctions under
the
under which they
they reoutside
world
Islamic
In
the
Islamic
outside
Arabia,
spectively
live.
live.
In
the
as
Arabia, as
spectively
a liberal
we have seen,
liberal interpretation
interpretation of
of holy
holy law early
seen, a
early
at first
first pretook
took place,
place, an adaptation,
in communities at
preadaptation, in
secular
to
more
but
in
dominantly
non-Moslem,
to
secular
forms,
but
in
forms,
dominantly non-Moslem,
the primitive
primitive societies
the peninsula
peninsula holy
holy law,
varying
the
societies of
of the
law, varying
this day.
with
differ
with the
is followed to
to this
day. Zaidi
Zaidi canons differ
the sect,
sect, is
in some particulars
Sunni
in
particulars from Ibadhi
Ibadhi canons,
while Sunni
canons, while
are different
canons are
different again.
again.
a few differences
To take,
by way
way of example,
differences between
between
take, by
example, a
half
the
thought of
the orthodox
orthodox half
the four
of Sunnism,
four schools
schools of
of thought
Sunnism, the
of
Islam-sects
Maliki,
Shafi'i,
Hanbali
of Islam
sects known as
as Hanafi,
Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i,
as we saw arose
arose round about
about the
-which
the second century
which as
century
law. The
over
interpretations of
of Qur'anic
over conflicting
Qur'anic law.
conflicting interpretations
for the
stood notably
the validity
Hanafis stood
private judgment
judgment
validity of private
notably for
was
the
based
in
doubtful cases,
provided
the
judgment
based in
in
in doubtful
cases, provided
judgment
of analogy
inferences
the Qur'an-a
inferences from the
Qur'an a system
analogy or
system of
derived sanctions.
the Qur'an
Qur'an provided
provided for
for
derived
sanctions. For instance
instance the
theft but
that
the
theft
but not
not for
By
analogy
that
the
motive
for burglary.
burglary. By analogy
that the
the burglar
of
burglary is
theft, the
the Hanafis
Hanafis agreed
agreed that
burglar
of burglary
is theft,
the successors
its puritanism.
ancient sect,
are the
successors of
of the
its
the Ibadhis,
sect, the
Ibadhis, are
puritanism. A nry
very ancient
Secessionists who overthrew
Secessionists
overthrew Ali,
the fourth
fourth caliph,
AH, the
caliph, and between whom and
is therefore
the Shi'as
therefore the
greatest antipathy.
the
Shi'as there
the greatest
there is
antipathy. The Ibadhi imam need
the Prophet
of the
Prophet as
as with
with the
need he be
be accepted
not
be of
of the
the Zaidis,
not be
the seed
seed of
Zaidis, nor need
accepted
of political
the Sunnis.
Sunnis. The theory
theory is
is that
that
grounds of
political expediency
expediency as
as with
with the
on grounds
of piety
he should
be democratically
elected on grounds
grounds of
and learning,
learning,
he
should be
democratically elected
piety and
vesting in
in the
the same
though
practice led
led to
to temporal
temporal and spiritual
offices vesting
spiritual offices
though practice
individual.
the past
roles have been
past two centuries,
the roles
been
individual. For the
centuries, however,
however, the
so.
separated
and still
remain so.
still remain
separated and

0 ]
[23
[230]

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

suffer the same punishment
should suffer
as the
that is,
his
the thief,
thief, that
is, his
punishment as
should
be
off.
cut
hand
be cut off.
The Malikis reacted against
this ernphasis
the
against this
emphasis on the
principle
of
private
judgment
and
stood
for
a
greater
stood
a
for
private judgment
principle
greater
to the Traditions,
importance
to
that is
to say,
is to
Traditions, that
attaching to
importance attaching
say, to
to the Prophet.
ascribed to
precedents
no Tradition
If no
Tradition could
could
Prophet. If
precedents ascribed
to meet a
cited to
a case,
be cited
said Malik,
the consensus
of
consensus of
case, then,
then, said
Malik, 'the
opinion'
of
the
theological
doctors
of
Medina
must
be
doctors
theological
opinion'
followed.
Shafi'i sect
The founder of the Shafi'i
sect next
next arose
arose and,
and, having
having
in both earlier
earlier schools,
studied in
evolved
a
compromise
evolved
schools,
compromise
in the
their extremes.
avoiding
extremes. Thus in
conthe matter
matter of the
the conavoiding their
sensus of opinion
sensus
judges he held
that this
held that
this need not
not be
opinion of judges
the doctors
confined to
confined
to the
doctors of
of Medina alone;
attached
alone; he attached
great
importance,
moreover,
to
the
principle
that
local
to
the
local
that
great importance, moreover,
principle
canons
canons and long-established
usage could
not be
be overlooked
could not
overlooked
long-established usage
in doubtful cases.
cases. South Arabian tribes
in
tribes belong
belong preprethis sect.
dominantly
sect.
dominantly to this
The founder of
of the
a
the last
last school,
school, Hanbali,
Hanbali, was a
differed from his
pupil of
of Shafi'i
Shafi'i but
but differed
his master's
master's teachings,
teachings,
pupil
disliking the
the emphasis
'private judgment'
judgrnent' and 'theo'theoemphasis on 'private
disliking
declaring
for
'back
to
the
logical
benches'
alike,
benches'
and
for
the
'back
to
alike,
logical
declaring
Qur'an.' Hanbali
Hanbalism
the most reactionary
reactionary and rigidly
rigidly
sm was the
Qur'an.'
traditionalist
traditionalist of the
the four schools
of thought,
thought, and after
after the
the
schools of
sixth century,
century, Hijra,
Hijra, found aa lasting
lasting footing
footing only
only in
in the
the
sixth
peninsula itself,
itself, where in
in the
the Nejd,
Nejd, i.e.
i.e. north
north
Arabian peninsula
central Arabia,
Arabia, the
the Wahhabis are
are its
its principal
principal strength
strength
central
today.
today.
latitudinarian school
school has
has traditionally
traditionally been
The most latitudinarian
the Hanafi,
Hanafi, to
to which
which the
the most advanced
advanced Sunni
Sunni communicommuni.
the
in
of today
today belong
belong in
in Egypt,
Egypt, Turkey,
Turkey, Syria,
Syria, Iraq
Iraq-in
ties of
ties
for
the
short,
the
old
Empire.
Only
the
Hanafi,
for
the
Ottoman
old
Hanafi,
short,
Empire. Only
instance, held
held it
it permissible
permissible for
for prayers
prayers to
to be said
said in
in
instance,
e

[23 1

THE ARABS
all four
tongues other
other than
than Arabic.
Arabic. While all
schools agreed
four schools
tongues
agreed
that
that within
within Islamic
territory Jews
Jews and Christians
Christians might
Islamic territory
might

not
not erect
erect places
places of
and villages
villages at
will,
of worship
in towns
at will,
towns and
worship in
the
Hanafis qualified
the
restriction
under
licences
to
the Hanafis
under
the
restriction
licences
to a
a
qualified

one-mile
the city
while usury
usury was forone-mile limit
limit from the
forwalls; while
city walls;
all schools,
the first
bidden by
by all
bidden
allowed from the
the Hanafis
Hanafis allowed
first
schools, the
the practice
the
practice of
mortgage and also
also that
that of
of hiring
hiring labour
of mortgage
labour
against aa share
the produce
produce; they
provided that
that aa
also provided
share of
of the
against
they also
or blood
murderer should
should pay
penalty-death
blood
death or
the extreme penalty
pay the
the
even
if
of
kin
may
prefer-even
if
the
victim
money
as
the
next
kin
the
as
next
of
victim
prefer
money
may
was a
slave with
a Christian,
Christian, Jew
with them,
too, aa male may
may
or slave;
them, too,
Jew or
the
murder
for
the
of
a
female,
suffer
the
extreme
penalty
for
suffer the extreme penalty
female,
and an
an old
young one.
one. By
By Shafi'i
old woman for
a young
ShafTi and Maliki
for a
Maliki
could
not
other
hand,
a
could
not
be
slain
for
codes,
on
the
a
Moslem
slain
the
other
be
for
hand,
codes,
or a
the
murder of
unbeliever, or
a freeman for
for a slave.
slave.
the murder
of an unbeliever,
cases of
The Hanafis did
of the
the man murdering
murdering
the cases
did except
except the
in such
his own slave
the extreme
extreme penalty
penalty in
his
son or
his own son
or his
slave j the
such
9
*
9*
cases
cases was not
not imposed.
imposed.
Between Shi'a
differences in
in domestic
usage
domestic usage
Sunni differences
Shi'a and Sunni
Between
the
matter
of
In
the
matter
of
custody
were along
the
following
lines.
lines.
In
the
of
were
following
custody of
along
in Shi'a
Shi'a practice
children after
after divorce
the mother in
practice retained
retained
children
divorce the
i.e. until
the breast,
breast, i.e.
until two years
the
while it
the child
it was at
at the
child while
old;
years old;
after
weaning the
the right
right to
to it.
it. In
In the
the Shafi'i
after weaning
Shafi'i
the father
father had the
till it
of
the child
it reached
reached the
the age
sect
the mother kept
child till
sect the
age of
kept the
it
to.
seven,
it
could
choose
which
parent
it
go
to.
it
which
would
could
choose
when
seven,
go
parent
in the
In the
Maliki sect
the boy
boy remained
remained in
the mother's
mother's custody
In
the Maliki
sect the
custody
all a
a
till puberty
puberty and the
marriage. With them all
till
till marriage.
the girl
girl till
times excluded
excluded him
son's apostasy
apostasy from Islam
Islam in
in later
later times
son's
so also
also an unbeunbeinheritance, so
from aa right
right to
to his
his share
share of
of inheritance,
a slave
not inherit
inherit from a believer.
believer. BasBasliever or
or a
slave could
liever
could not
the
the
from
father
tardy
with
the
Sunnis
excluded
inheritance
the
father
Sunnis
inheritance
with
excluded
tardy
Shi'as from both.
but not
the mother;
the Shi'as
both.
not the
mother with the
but
alis alIslamic sects
sects is
Outside Arabia
Arabia the
distribution of
the distribution
Outside
of Islamic
;

2]
[23
[232]

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

most geographical;
Egypt the
the Maliki
lVIaliki sect
sect of
of
most
geographical; west of Egypt
in
as
times
Sunnism
runs,
as
in
times
past,
throughout
north
Africa
Sunnism runs,
past, throughout north Africa
and during
during the
the Moslem period
period (eighth
(eighth to
to fifteenth
fifteenth cencenand
into
turies)
extended
over
into
Spain;
eastwards
Shi'
as
preeastwards
Shi'as
Spain;
turies)
prea few are
are found
in Afghandominate in
in Iraq
found in
dominate
Persia, a
Iraq and Persia,
Afghanin India they
small minority.
istan,
while in
they form aa small
minority. But
istan, while
this
outside
of
world
the
among
of
this
outside
the
criminal
Moslems
criminal sancsancamong
tions of
of holy
holy law have disappeared,
and
even
domesand
even
some
domestions
disappeared,
tic aspects
aspects have been
been superseded
by alien-derived
practices.
alien-derived practices.
tic
superseded by
In
Arabia itself,
the legal
legal sanctions
sanctions of
of sectarian
sectarian
In Arabia
itself, however,
however, the
still in
in
practice
are
still
many
parts
de
rigueur.
State
law
is
the
de
are
State
is the
law
many parts
rigueur.
practice
of state
state religion
complement
religion and is
is administered
by state
administered by
state
complement of
the
most
liberal
states
qadhis.
In
the
liberal
states
there
are
qadhis
for
each
there
In
are
each
for
qadhis
qadhis.
in
codes
others
of
the Islamic
codes;
in
others
religious
intolerance
of the
Islamic legal
intolerance
legal
religious
forbids
but the
the particular
particular law
law of
the state
state sect;
of the
forbids any
while
sect; while
any but
areas the
in many
many tribal
tribal areas
the ancient
ancient usages,
usages, running
running counter
in
counter to
to
into
holy
law,
have
survived.
The
Arab
is
born
into
one
or
other
have
born
survived.
is
or
other
law,
holy
sects after
of
the many
many sects
of Gilbert's
Gilbert's England,
after the
the manner of
of the
England,
where
where
Every little
girl and
boy alive
little girl
and boy
alive
Every
Is born
born either
Liberal or
Conservative.
Is
or Conservative.
either Liberal
in peninsular
peninsular Arabia the
religious prejudices
prejudices of
the strong
For in
of
strong religious
his
environment make it
difficult or
unwise for
it extremely
or unwise
his environment
a
for a
extremely difficult
to change.
change. Sectarianism
not aa matter
matter of
of intellectual
Sectarianism is
is not
man to
intellectual
is a
a tribal
as for
persuasion; it
escutcheon. And as
it is
tribal or
or family
for
family escutcheon.
persuasion
our modern Western secular
sectionalisms
secular sectionalisms--Liberalism,
Liberalism,
Conservativism, Socialism,
Communism, Capitalism,
Communism,
Conservativism,
Socialism,
Capitalism,
so
Fascism-these
not even
dimly apprehended
apprehended and so
are not
Fascism these are
even dimly
no
Arab
create
problems
in
the
peninsular
mind.
The
of
in
the
mind.
create
peninsular
problems
Arabia is
is aa Wahhabi of
of Nejd,
Nejd, an
an Ibadhi
Ibadhi of
of Oman,
Arabia
Oman, aa
realities.
the like.
are the
the realities.
Shafi'i
or the
like. These are
Shafi'i of
of Hadhramaut or
of
in
its
Arabia is
entity
in
spite
of
its
common
a political
is not
not a
spite
political entity
criteria of
blood and tongue
tongue and social
culture-Western
Western criteria
blood
social culture
;

[233
[233]]

THE ARABS
nationalism.
culture and the
nationalism. Its
Its patriarchal
patriarchal tribal
tribal culture
the Arab's
Arab's
freedom
individual
waywardness
and
love
of
individual
are
agents
love
waywardness
agents
Its thin-spread
population,
perpetuating
perpetuating disintegration.
disintegration. Its
thin-spread population,
not
as large
as the
not as
large as
the city
of Greater London,
dotted
London, and dotted
city of
half
size
of
for
half
the
size
of
Europe,
makes
for
want
about aa country
the
country
Europe,
its
of livelihood
livelihood of its various
of cohesion;
the means of
various parts
parts is
is
cohesion; the
mutually exclusive,
that there
is no
no economic advantage
so that
there is
exclusive, so
mutually
advantage
in
politin unity;
historic tradition
tradition of opposing
and, finally,
unity; and,
finally, historic
opposing political and religious
is
is
divisions
is
strong.
Arabia
is
made
up
ical
strong*
religious divisions
up
of numerous governments,
each with
of
with its
its own dynastic
dynastic
governments, each
its
sect
to
(law),
and
each
jealous
ruler,
its
official
religious
sect
official
ruler,
(law),
jealous to
religious
in
maintain
its own traditional
the
maintain its
traditional independence.
Some
in
the
independence.
little bigger
Hadhramaut and the
the Persian
Persian Gulf are
are little
bigger than
than
city-states-such
as
Lahej,
Bahrain,
Qatar,
Abu
Dhabi,
such
as
Bahrain,
Qatar,
Dhabi,
city-states
Lahej,
tribal confederations
others are
Dibai, Kuwait;
Kuwait; others
loose tribal
are loose
Dibai,
such as
as
whose paramount
to none
none-such
paramount chiefs
chiefs owe allegiance
allegiance to
that lie
lie continuSa'ar that
the
anaba, Mahra,
continuthe J
Mahra, Manahil and Sa'ar
Janaba,
Arabia; the
the comparatively
big territerriously
across south
south Arabia;
comparatively big
ously across
the
the
are
torial
divisions
are
today
three:
the
Yemen,
the
Oman,
torial divisions
Yemen,
Oman, and
today three
Sa'udi Arabia,
greatest
if most recent,
Arabia,
recent, Sa'udi
dominant, if
greatest and most dominant,
the
to
north
of
them.
lying
to
the
north
them.
lying
In aa thinly
thinly populated,
populated, hungry
In
size
country geographical
geographical size
hungry country
is not
state
not aa necessary
necessary criterion
little state
is
criterion of
of importance.
importance. The little
3
of
instance, aa British-protected
group
of
of Bahrain,s
for instance,
Bahrain, for
British-protected group of
:

8
as in
8Shi'ism
is the
the chief
of Bahrain,
in Muscat,
Shi*ism is
chief sect
sect of
Muscat, other sects,
sects,
Bahrain, though,
though, as
Shafi'i and Ismaili
notably
Ismaili elements,
are present.
present. The last
last named
elements, are
Maliki, Shafi'i
notably Maliki,
are the
the followers
followers of
of the
the Aga
in European
circles. As
are
so well
well known in
European circles.
Khan, so
Aga Khan,
the present-day
the
of the
the sect
he is
is an almost sacred
figure with his
his
sect he
sacred figure
present-day imam of
followers not
the Persian Gulf but
but parts
parts of
of western India
India and East
followers
not only
in the
only in
like the
Zaidls of
the Yemen,
Africa too.
too. These Ismailis,
of the
are historically
historically
the Zaidis
Yemen, are
Ismailis, like
a branch of Shi'ism,
They are in
in
distinct. They
Shi'ism, though
though now nonconforming
nonconforming and distinct.
agreement on the
the fundamental principle
of succession
in the
the Prophet's
Prophet's line
succession in
line
agreement
principle of
at the
but
but stop
the seventh generation
generation (hence
(hence they
they are
as Sevenites,
too)
are known as
stop at
Sevenites, too)
instead
of the
as do
do the
believe in
a living
living coninstead of
the twelfth
twelfth as
the Shi'as.
Shi'as. They
in a
not believe
conThey do not
the Shi'a
is an alternation
alternation of
of
cealed
cealed imam like
Shi'a Mahdi. With them there
like the
there is
in due course.
imams in
in public
in concealment;
concealment; all,
dying in
course.
public and in
all, however,
however, dying

[[234]
234J

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

east coast
coast has
islands
the east
has aa world
world importance
importance: to
the
off the
to the
islands off
fair
pearls; to
for its
potential oilits pearls
to commerce for
for its
sex for
its potential
oil
fair sex
this
quite recently
recently by
by some American
concessionstruck quite
this struck
American concessiona shadowy
for a
Persia for
to suzerainty;
to
aires;
claim to
to Persia
and to
aires; to
shadowy claim
suzerainty; and
air
Britain
as
an
air
and
naval
station
near
the
source
of
its
naval
station near the source of its
Britain as
the air
to India,
India.
Persian
oil supply
air route
route to
Persian oil
supply and on the
The Yemen,
Yemen, lying
across
the
left-hand
bottom corner
across
the
left-hand
bottom
corner
lying
of
the
Arabian
map
facing
Abyssinia,
and
Oman,
and
the
of
map facing Abyssinia,
Oman, lying
lying
right-hand bottom corner
facing India,
India, each
across
the right-hand
corner facing
across the
each
of
traditions
traditions
of
prestige;
the
inherits
Arabian
the
inherits great
Yemen
great
prestige
being
of the
the ancient
ancient south
south Arabian civilization;
soil of
the soil
civilization;
being the
state famous before
maritime state
before and after
the
Oman a maritime
the Oman-a
after SindSindlittle more than a
bad the
the Sailor
century ago
Sailor I-little
a century
still exerexerago still
cised
hegemony over
held
soverthe Persian
a hegemony
over the
Persian littoral,
cised a
held
soverlittoral,
Zanzibar and the
the neighbouring
African coast
eignty
in Zanzibar
coast
neighbouring African
eignty in
and was the
the object
Napoleon's interest.
interest. Pre-eminent
of Napoleon's
Pre-eminent
object of
today is
lying to
to the
north of
them, an
is Sa'udi
Sa'udi Arabia,
of them,
the north
Arabia, lying
today
three
amalgam
of
three
separate
Arabian
principalities,
viz.
of
Arabian
separate
principalities, viz.
amalgam
the sharifate
the two central
Arabian amcentral Arabian
the
sharifate of Mecca and the
Ibn Rashid and Ibn Sa'ud-the
Hijaz, Nejd,
Nejd,
irates
Sa'ud the Hijaz,
of Ibn
irates of
Rasa
Asir constituting
constituting the
northern half
half of
of
the entire
entire northern
Hasa and Asir
the peninsula.
peninsula.
the
the time
the outbreak
the Great
Great War these
these
time of
of the
At the
outbreak of
of the
the
princes
enjoyed
separate
existences.
Indeed,
among
all
existences.
all
the
Indeed,
enjoyed separate
among
princes
of
Husain, the
the grand
grand sharif
Mecca, stood
foreof Arabia,
sharif of
of Mecca,
stood foreArabia, Husain,
this not
eyes of
outside Moslem world,
world, this
not in
in
in the
the eyes
of the
the outside
most in
personal prestige,
prestige, for
the nominee
nominee of the
the
virtue
of personal
for he was the
virtue of
Turks,
but by
by reason
controlling the
the holy
cities of
of
of controlling
reason of
Turks, but
holy cities
Mecca and Medina.
Medina. It
the custom
of Turkey
Turkey to
to recogrecog~
It was the
custom of
the famnize
the head
head of
of the
the Hashimite
Rashimite family
of Mecca,
Mecca, the
nize the
family of
the
officio
from
which
the
Prophet
sprang,
as
ex
officio
the
Keeper
ily
the
as
ex
Keeper
Prophet sprang,
ily
that
meant
of
the Holy
Places.
This
by
no
that
he was
Places.
means
of the
by
Holy
in
paramount
princes in
Arabia. These,
their
in Arabia.
the princes
These, in their
among the
paramount among
:

[235 ]

THE ARABS
rulers by
various states,
states, were rulers
right and would
by hereditary
hereditary right
not have regarded
their
regarded him as
as in
in any
way
their
superior,
for,
any way
superior, for,
as
a
client
who
might be removed by
principal to
to make
as a client
a principal
might
by a
way
his family
a
way for another member of his
family (his
(his own was a

fortuitous appointment),
in aa way
way less
less than
a
than a
appointment), he was in
ruler.
dynastic
ruler.
dynastic
The other two principalities
principalities of what is
is now Sa'udi
Sa'udi
Arabia,
Nejd (dynasty
of
Ibn
Rashid)
of
Arabia, northern Nejd
Rashid) and
(dynasty
were
southern Nejd
Nejd (Ibn
Sa'ud),
both
comparatively
re(Ibn Sa'ud),
comparatively reneither
more
but
neither
than
two
hundred
years
old,
but
they
cent,
cent,
years old,
they
to become hereditary
at various
time to
had had time
various
enemies, and at
hereditary enemies,
times
the other to
the
times each,
in turn,
turn, had dispossessed
to rule
rule the
each, in
dispossessed the
so. Thus at
at the
combined territories
territories for a generation
generation or so.
in possession.
beginning
the century
possession. At
beginning of the
century Ibn Rashid was in
the
the outbreak of the
the Great War the two amirates were of
side by
existed side
about equal
by side,
side, Ibn Rashid
strength and existed
equal strength
being
on
friendly
terms,
Ibn
Sa'ud
at
enmity,
with the
at
the
enmity, with
being
friendly terms,
sharif
sharif of
of Mecca.
Sa'udi house has mainly
the Sa'udi
Periodical ascendancy
Periodical
ascendancy of the
mainly
the
cause
a
resulted from their
the
cause
of
a
periodical
their championing
resulted
championing
periodical
to be known by
religious
revival which has
has come to
by the name
religious revival
of this
this movement,
Wahhabism. The founder of
movement, Muhammad
ibn Abdul Wahhab,
religious reformer and revivalrevivalibn
Wahhab, was a religious
ist who,
who, exactly
two
hundred
years
ago,
returned
from
ist
years ago,
exactly
countries
Islamic
to
set
his
studies
eastern
theological
studies
in
eastern
Islamic
countries
to
set
his
in
theological
his eloquence.
anwith his
native
aflame with
central Arabia aflame
native central
eloquence. An anso
Ibn Sa'ud
the preacher's
preacher's daughter
cestor
cestor of
of Ibn
Sa'ud married the
daughter and so
the
the
connection
between
rulstrengthened
still
further
the
connection
the
rulstill
further
strengthened
later
ing
the religious
religious movement. Thirty
Thirty years
years later
family and the
ing family
fanaticism had extended the
the purithe sword and religious
purithe
religious fanaticism
over aa greater
part
tanical
message and Sa'udi
Sa'udi dominion over
tanical message
greater part
the
fell
cities
of
peninsula ((the
the Yemen excepted)
;
the
holy
cities
fell
the peninsula
of the
excepted)
holy
the
hands, and the
ornamentation
of
the
into
into Wahhabi hands,
the gold
gold
;

6]
[23
[236]

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

off as an offense
Prophet's
torn off
offense to
to God. Bands of
of
Prophet's tomb was torn
as
far
north
as
the
invaded
Wahhabis
as far north as the grazing
of
Wahhabis
grazing grounds
grounds of
the
west
the
to
Iraq,
to
the
of
the
Euphrates,
spreading
terror
and
terror
Euphrates,
spreading
Iraq,
until one day
fell upon
intolerance, until
they fell
upon the
beautiful
the beautiful
intolerance,
day they
at
Husain
of
at
Kerbala,
sacred
to
the
whole
Shi'a
shrine
to
the
whole
of
Shi'a
shrine
Kerbala,
its artistic
artistic splendour.
world, and stripped
it of some of its
world,
stripped it
splendour.
at the sudden rise
rise of
Turkey was alarmed at
of power
power that
that
Turkey
constant menace to her borderlands and,
conscious
was aa constant
conscious
and,
in the
the whole Moslem
of
the eyes
of her responsibility
eyes of the
responsibility in
to keep
keep open
Pilgrim route,
have moved
world to
world
route, would have
open the Pilgrim
was
desert
to
against
the
desert
but
too
weak
to
do
so
and in
the
so
in any
against
any
to
allow
it
the initiative
case
politically prudent
prudent to allow the
initiative to
case found it politically
to
pass to
to the
the self-appointed,
viceroy of
of Egypt,
self-appointed, ambitious viceroy
pass
Egypt,
Ali. This
the
This strong
the Albanian,
sent an
Albanian, Muhammad Ali.
strong man sent
to
Red
invade
the
army
via
the
Sea
to
invade
Arabia
from
the
west.
via
the
west.
army
across the
the peninsula
peninsula to
The march was successfully
to
successfully made across
the
the headquarters
of
the
movement,
which
was
destroyed
which
the
movement,
headquarters
destroyed
thus of
(Riyadh,
the present
present capital,
capital, is
is thus
of more recent
orrecent or(Riyadh, the
the Wahhabi power
igin),
power was vanquished
vanquished for
for a
a
igin), and the
generation.
generation.
During periods
periods of revival
revival Wahhabis are
are intolerant
of
intolerant of
During
are
other
themselves they
are
the
only
Islam. To themselves
other sects
sects of Islam.
the
only
they
it were j the
rest are
are heretics
man in
in the
the regiment
regiment in
in step,
as it
the rest
heretics
step, as
philosophical speculations
every
one. The theological
theological and philosophical
speculations
every one.
civilization famous in
which made Arabian civilization
in the
the Middle
which
if
Ages
are
heresies
to
be
purged,
if
necessary
by
heresies
to
are
be
force, from
purged,
necessary by force,
Ages
silk garment
as delivered;
the wearing
of silk
the faith
wearing of
the
faith as
delivered; the
garment or gold
gold
is
the
delinquent
is
beaten;
smoking
ornament is
is aa sin,
and
is
the
beaten; smoking is
sin,
delinquent
to say
not tolerated,
whether the
the Prophet
Prophet
for who is
is to
not
tolerated, either,
either, for
say whether
the ilworse
would not
have
forbidden
it;
but
worse
than
this,
il.
not
forbidden it but
this, the
lumination of
the presentation
presentation of
of dead saints
saints or the
of shrines
shrines of
lumination
so that
offerings
is an abomination,
that some of
of the
to them is
abomination, so
offerings to
;

[[237]
237J

THE ARABS
beautiful architectural
architectural edifices
edifices of Islam are a
remost beautiful
a reto
the
faith.
proach
to
the
faith.
proach
their creed the
The Wahhabis consider their
the pure
pure and ununthe
delivered through
Arabian
defiled religion
the
Prophet.
defiled
religion delivered
through
Prophet.
as he
The Prophet
to them is,
is, as
he taught,
taught, just
just aa man,
man, and the
the
Prophet to
exalt him must be
temptation to
to exalt
be resisted.
resisted. The attributes
attributes
temptation
which Moslem sects
sects have invested
which
invested him with,
but which he
with, but
did not himself
himself claim,
repudiated.
claim, are repudiated.
is sinful,
With the true
true Wahhabi laxity
laxity is
attendance
sinful, and attendance
The
unbelief
at the
of
at
the mosque
is obligatory.
wages
of
unbelief
has, in
in
has,
wages
mosque is
obligatory.
offences
of crisis,
been
death,
and
chastisement
for
offences
times of
crisis,
death,
a commonplace;
the
odious to
is a
in the
odious
to their
their code is
wherefore, in
commonplace; wherefore,
later stages
the south Arabian desert
desert in
later
in
stages of my crossing
crossing of the
as
self-confessed
a
desert
I,
as
a
self-confessed
Christian,
and
my
desert
1931,
Christian,
I,
1931,
to avoid
Shafi'i tenets
companions
kept aa careful
careful watch to
tenets kept
companions of Shafi'i
folk.
collisions with
pious folk.
collisions
with any
any of these pious
It
is this
this movement which Arabia's
Arabia's outstanding
It is
outstanding figure,
figure,
a
religious
but by
by no means aa
Abdul 'Aziz
'Aziz ibn
ibn Sa'ud,
a
man
but
Sa'ud,
religious
forefathers did
his forefathers
fanatic
fanatic himself
himself had championed-as
did
championed as his
state his
before him
him-when
he regained
regained possession
possession of the
his
the state
when he
before
lost. The hand of
in
father
him
in
early
of fate
fate was against
father had lost.
against
early
at Riyadh,
at the
Riyadh, he
he had,
had, at
the age
of nine,
nine, to
to accomlife.
life. Born at
age of
after the
the latter's
pany his
his father
into exile
latter's defeat by
by his
his
father into
exile after
pany
at that
northern rival,
Ibn Rashid,
Rashid, whose star
that time was
star at
northern
rival, Ibn
in Arabia,
is often
the way
in
the ascendant.
often the
the case
in the
ascendant. As is
case in
Arabia, the
way
back to
to power
power lay
lay through
blood. His father,
father, having
through blood.
having from
in Kuwait made a
his
a final
final abortive
his exile
abortive attempt
against
exile in
attempt against
his
rival by
open
warfare,
handed
on
the
hereditary
to
his rival
the
feud to
hereditary feud
by open warfare,
the
boy.
the young
young boy.
in the
nineteen at
the time,
set out in
winIbn Sa'ud,
the winat the
Sa'ud, only
time, set
only nineteen
ter of
from
his
asylum
at
Kuwait,
with
forty
men,
on
ter
of I900
his
at
with
men,
Kuwait,
1900
forty
asylum
his
his reckless
to win back his
his patrimony.
patrimony. Arreckless desert
desert mission
mission to
riving overnight
he halted,
halted,
a short
distance from Riyadh,
short distance
riving
overnight a
Riyadh, he

[238
[238]]

KING IBN SA'UD (ABDUL AZIZ IBN SA'UD).

SA'UD).
(By courtesy
courtesy of
0/ the Royal
Royal Legation
LegatIon 0}
oj Sa'udi
Sa'ud: Arabia,
.drab:a, London)
London)
(By

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

picked out
out six
six men to
to be his
his companions
companions for
for the
the hazardous
hazardous
picked
enterprise; the
the rest
rest he enjoined
enjoined to
to wait
wait till
till the
the morning,
morning,
enterprise;
when, if
if there
there was no news of
of him,
him, they
they must
must fly
fly for
for their
their
when,
lives back to
to Kuwait. Under cover
cover of
of night
night he
he and
and his
his tiny
tiny
lives
walls
and
the
made stealthily
party scaled
scaled the walls
stealthily for
for the
the house
house
party
next door to
to that
that of the
the governor,
governor, the
the representative
representative of
of his
his
next
father's usurper.
usurper. They
They knocked upon
upon the
the door,
door, which
which was
father's
opened, forcibly
forcibly
opened,

made their
their entry,
entry, keeping
keeping the
the inmates
inmates
close arrest
arrest so
so as
as not to
to raise
raise the
the alarm,
alarm, then
then passed
passed
under close
to the
the governor's
governor's house and took
took the
the same precaution
precaution
on to
there, and so
so kept
kept vigil
vigil during
during the
the dark
dark hours
hours against
the
there,
against the
governor's return
return in
in the
the morning,
morning, for
for it
his habit
habit to
to
it was his
governor's
across
fort
the
At
in
the
dawn
the
sleep
in
the
fort
across
the
way.
the
fort
gates
fort
way.
sleep
gates
opened, and,
and, oblivious
oblivious of
of the
the presence
presence of
enemy,
of an
were opened,
an enemy,
the governor
governor and his
his bodyguard
bodyguard came walking
walking slowly
tothe
slowly tohouse. Ibn Sa'ud with his
his tiny
tiny party
party lying
secretly
the house.
wards the
secretly
lying
in wait
wait behind
behind the
the door chose
chose an opportune
in
moment,
opportune moment,
rushed forth
took his
his enemies by
forth and took
rushed
by surprise.
surprise. There was
a stiff
the attackers
to
for the
attackers were outnumbered four
four to
a
stiff fight,
fight, for
were
one
in
the
open,
exposed
to
fire
from
the
to
in
the
fire
the
one and,
and, being
open,
exposed
being
in the
first onset;
onset his
fort.
the first
threw
fell in
his death threw
fort. The governor
governor fell
his
the attackers
into confusion,
attackers quickly
his companions
confusion, and the
quickly
companions into
became masters
masters of
the situation,
the guards
of the
situation, the
surrendering
guards surrendering
at hand. Then,
in
belief that
reinforcements must be at
that reinforcements
in the
the belief
Then,
entering
the
fort
of
his
fathers,
the
intrepid
youth
his
the
the
fort
fathers,
prointrepid youth proentering
to the
claimed
the surprise
himself governor
claimed himself
Riyadh, to
surprise and
governor of Riyadh,
joy of
the population.
of the
population.
joy
a decade or two
A revival
of Wahhabism was due,
revival of
due, and a
zeal to
later
ejd was aflame
to purge
aflame with zeal
the southern
southern N
later the
purge
Nejd
to
the
of
its
heresies,
and
the
means
to
its
the Arabian peninsula
heresies,
peninsula
Sa'ud.
the
puritan
army
of
Ibn
Sa'ud.
this
the
the Ikhwan,
this end were the
Ikhwan,
puritan army
During
in receipt
the Great War Ibn
Ibn Sa'ud,
Sa'ud, in
receipt of a subsidy
subsidy
During the
neufrom the
the British
British government,
benevolently neugovernment, remained benevolently
;

[239
[239]]

THE ARABS

tral,
an embarrassing
arose from the
the
situation arose
tral, though
though an
embarrassing situation
that he
and our
actively engaged
engaged Arabian ally,
ally,
fact
fact that
he and
our more actively
of Mecca,
enemies.
Ibn
Sa'ud's
the
the sharif
sharif of
enemies.
Ibn
Sa'ud's
Mecca, were implacable
implacable
wartime attempt
attempt against
Ibn Rashid,
Rashid, traditionally
wartime
against Ibn
traditionally friendly
friendly
at
the
time
client of
the Turks,
Turks,
with
the
sharif,
though
with the sharif, though at the time client
of the
came to
to nought.
nought. But after
the war had ended
ended the
the Wahhabi
after the
leader
to
a
successful
attack
leader marched (1922-23)
a
successful
to
attack
more
(192223)
and wrested
territory from him,
so
that
so
Rashid's territory
wrested Ibn
Ibn Rashid's
that
him,
northern Nejd
N ejd became
became his,
his, and
a few
few years
years later-by
northern
later
and a
by
which time
time both
both he and the
the sharif
ceased to
to enjoy
enjoy
sharif had ceased
which
Britain, and
and the
the sharif
sharif had
their
subsidies from Britain,
their war subsidies
he marched
ceased
to enjoy
enjoy British
British protection
protection-he
marched against
against
ceased to
meanwhile assumed the
the
the Hijaz.
the
sharif, who had meanwhile
Hijaz. The sharif,
of
the
Arabs,
had
become
discredited
with
title
the
discredited
title of
of
had
of King
with
Arabs,
King
his ininhis own people
people and with
with Moslems overseas,
his
overseas, from his
ability
were plunplunor satisfy
tribesmen who were
to quell
quell or
satisfy Hijazi
Hijazi tribesmen
ability to
dering
pilgrims,
rendering
the
pilgrimage
unsafe.
the
unsafe.
pilgrimage
dering pilgrims, rendering
Taif fell,
and King
King Husain's
routed. Mecca
Husain's army
fell, and
army was routed.
a little
submitted
after aa short
short siege,
little later
submitted after
later Medina
siege, and a
that the
the
and Jidda,
Jidda, too,
too, passed
into
Ibn
Sa'ud's
hands,
so
into
Sa'ud's
so that
hands,
passed
Hijaz
province
added
to
his
central
Arabian
was
now
added
to
his
central
Arabian
Hijaz province
possessions,
afterwards he
he assumed
assumed the
the title
title
shortly afterwards
possessions, and shortly
of
King of
passing of
under Ibn
of King
of the
the Hijaz.
of the
the Hijaz
Ibn
Hijaz. The passing
Hijaz under
of
upheaval,
not
beSa'ud's
came
with
a
a
Sa'ud's sway
with
minimum
of
not
beupheaval,
sway
but because
because misrule
misrule was
cause Wahhabism was loved,
loved, but
cause
great personal
personal prespresended
because Ibn Sa'ud enjoyed
ended and because
enjoyed great
for just,
just, wise
wise and strong
tige and reputa
tion for
rule. It
It was
reputation
tige
strong rule.
personal leader;
the triumph
of the
the great
the
leader; Arabia had
triumph of
great personal
again
been
true
to
her
tradition
that
it
is
the man,
not the
the
to
tradition
is the
been
true
her
it
that
man, not
again
system
that counts.
counts.
system that
The possession
possession of
the holy
holy places
has been
been aa pillar
pillar of
of
of the
places has
to
a
strength
to
Ibn
Sa'ud,
but
a
source
of
weakness
to
the
Ibn
weakness
to
but
source
of
the
Sa'ud,
strength
fanatical
to power.
power. Pilgrim
fanatical movement by
rose to
Pilgrim
by which he rose
0 ]
[24
[240]

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

revenues are
are aa vital
vital means of
of keeping
keeping the
the hungry
hungry desert
desert
revenues
quiet, while
while the
the responsibility
responsibility to
to an
an outside
outside Moslem world
world
quiet,
of
a
toleration
compels
a
degree
of
toleration
which
is
the
very
negation
which
is
the
degree
compels
very negation
of aggressive
aggressive Wahhabism. For the
the Sa'udi
Sa'udi house,
house, revenue
revenue
of
and dynastic
dynastic considerations
considerations must curb
curb the
the desert
desert ardour.
ardour.
and
Meanwhile, for
for pilgrims
pilgrims who do not
not go
go out
out of
of their
their way
way to
to
Meanwhile,
offend
susceptibilities, there
there is
is greater
greater
end mellowed Wahhabi susceptibilities,
off
security for
for life
life and property
property under
under Ibn
Ibn Sa'ud
Sa 'ud than
than nornorsecurity
mally
mally

fell to the
the lot
lot of
of their
their predecessors
predecessors down the
the cencen-

fell to

turies.
turies.
The livelihood
livelihood of
of Arabia's
Arabia's natives
natives is
is pitched
pitched low,
low, by
by
any Western standard.
standard. Over aa greater
greater part
part of
the country
country
of the
any
it
is aa bare
bare subsistence
subsistence economy,
economy, where
where man counts
counts his
his
it is
wealth in
in his
his camels
camels or
or his
his oxen,
oxen, his
his asses
asses or
or goats-his
wealth
his
goats
menservants and maidservants
maidservants perhaps
perhaps-rather
than his
his
menservants
rather than
money.
money there
there is
is very
very little
indeed. Only
Only in
in certain
little indeed.
certain
money. Of money
where
are
favoured
coastal regions
towns
are
to
be
found-its
to
be
found
favoured coastal
its
regions
is a
populous parts
parts-is
a wage
wage system
other
resemother
and
most populous
resemsystem
blances
to aa Western commercial
commercial mechanism found,
blances to
found, and
the
wealthy personages
may
of
the
simpler
know
of
the
houses of
of wealthy
the houses
personages may
simpler
Western amenities.
amenities.
The pilgrimage
if artificial,
local
considerable, if
artificial, local
brings considerable,
pilgrimage brings
prosperity.
late years,
account of
of the
the world depresdepresyears, on account
prosperity. Of late
sion,
thouonce a
a city
of seventy
it has
has declined.
declined. Medina,
Medina, once
sion, it
seventy thoucity of
sand,
has
now
a
mere
fifteen
thousand
inhabitants,
though
a
fifteen
has
inhabitants, though
sand,
fall. For centuries
that
its own fall.
centuries
that is
is but
but the
the measure of its
the
Medina was the
of
the
pilgrim's
way,
and the
of
the
the main portal
way,
portal
pilgrim's
the
in
bePilgrim
Railway
from
Damascus,
built
in
the
decade
bebuilt
Damascus,
Pilgrim Railway
destrucfore
the
war,
had
its
terminus
there;
but
wartime
destrucits
there
but
terminus
the
fore
war,
tion
the competition
tion of
of the
the railway
postwar motor
competition of postwar
railway and the
transport
has
been
to
Medina's
hurt,
and
today
to
has
been
hurt,
today most pilpiltransport
grims
come
first
to
Mecca
by
way
of
the
seaport
of
the
first
to
Jidda.
seaport of Jidda.
by way
grims
to
the motorcar to
The twentieth-century
prefers the
twentieth-century Moslem prefers
;

[241 ]

THE ARABS
the
the camel that
that

was the
the vehicle
vehicle of the Prophet's
Prophet's pilgrimages
pilgrimages
his own ancestors for thirteen
and that of his
thirteen centuries
centuries past,
past,
though from a spirit
piety or as the
the penalty
penalty of poverty
poverty
spirit of piety
though
in
a few eschew the
the foreign
machine
in
favour
of
walking.
foreign
walking.
Many of the
the Negro
Negro pilgrims
pilgrims have thus
thus accomplished
the
accomplished the
Africa. They
central or even west
long
journey from central
west Africa.
They spend
long journey
spend
the
their
to
years
on
the
pilgrimage,
working
their
way
from
place
years
place to
pilgrimage, working
way
across
Dark
their
place
across
the
Continent,
some
of
their
brothers
the
brothers
Continent,
place
the wayside,
falling
by the
wayside, others
others being
route.
falling by
being born en route.
source of such wealth as
as Arabia can boast
Another source
boast is
is
in
her Persian Gulf pearl
pearl fisheries,
centred
in
Bahrain.
centred
Bahrain.
Two
fisheries,
millions
millions sterling
sterling was realized for the harvest of I926,
1926,
though a quarter
that income would be welcome today.
today.
though
quarter of that
Each year
the inland
inland
year during
during the summer months when the
sea is
red
natives
sea
is calm (and
red,
red
hot
I)
the
natives
of
Arabia's
the
(and red,
hot!)
their normal
eastern littoral,
littoral, freemen and slaves,
slaves, abandon their
avocations
to the
the coasts
to become
avocations and swarm down to
coasts to
for the
season. Dhows and other small
divers for
native craft,
craft,
the season.
small native
divers
packed with motley
favourcrews, go
packed
motley crews,
go out and anchor over favourin about ten
to fifteen
ten to
water,
ite banks,
usually in
ite
fifteen fathoms of
of water,
banks, usually
in
the
the
and carry
on
their
diving
in
the
selfsame
way
that
the
their
selfsame
that
diving
way
carry
Moorish visitor,
six cencenvisitor, Ibn Batuta,
Batuta, saw and described
described six
turies ago.
turies
Nowadays the
has one addition.
British
scene has
the scene
addition. A British
ago. Nowadays
naval sloop
playing the
the traditional
part
traditional part
naval
sloop comes and goes,
goes, playing
in these
friend.
in
these waters
waters of policeman
policeman and friend.
his deep
Thirty
times aa day
the diver
diver takes
breath and
takes his
Thirty times
day the
deep breath
is
to remain below for
for about a
is lowered into
into the sea,
a minsea, to
ute
half and then
a
ute and aa half
then be hauled
hauled up
up to
to the
the surface
surface for
for a
loin
a
blow. He dives
naked
except
for
his
loin
cloth
and
a
bag
dives
cloth
except for his
bag
his neck to
slung
to hold the oysters
slung round his
oysters which he wrenches
sea bed
like a
off
the sea
bed; aa leather
a clothes
clothes peg,
peg, closes
closes his
his
off the
leather clip,
clip, like
leather
nostrils;
his
finger
tips
and
toes
are
protected
by
leather
his
are
toes
nostrils;
finger tips
protected by
sheaths.
rest of
sheaths. The rest
the simple
consists of two
of the
simple equipment
equipment consists
;

[242
[242]]

~\Yf3
",~~,t t'

, ff .

II

'.

A Sl\IALL
BA~KS OFF
A
SMALL DHOW ON THE PEARLING BANKS
BAHRAIN.
(By
courtesy of
.llr K.
K. P.
P. Xarayan)
Sarayan)
of Mr
(By courtesy

'>

OVER A WATER-HOLE IN
IN THE THIRSTY DESERT.

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

ropes, one weighted
weighted by
he is
a stone
stone on
on which
which he
is lowered,
the
by a
lowered, the
ropes,
other
a communication rope
other a
to signal
to his
his companions
rope to
signal to
companions
has had enough,
a jinn
jinn somein
the boat above when he has
in the
for a
someenough, for
times enters
the poor
poor wretch's
wretch's head,
head, in
which case
his
enters the
times
in which
case his
ears
are
prone
to
bleed
I
Throughout
the
season
nose
ears
are
and
to
bleed
nose
prone
Throughout the season
!

divers
eat little
dive fasting
except for
a cup
little and must dive
divers eat
for a
of
fasting except
cup of
coffee
It is
is an unhealthy
occupation,
and
dates. It
coffee and a few dates.
and
unhealthy occupation,
divers
usually die
die young,
young, so
that the
the lady
who, on
so that
divers usually
on humanihumanilady who,
tarian grounds,
wearing fur
feathers, should,
should, to
shuns wearing
fur and
and feathers,
tarian
to
grounds, shuns
be consistent,
about
her
pearl
necklace
if
about
her
be
necklace
if
consistent, have misgivings
misgivings
pearl
it
of
rose
pearls
the
Gulf
banks-the
most
of
rose
from
the
it is
is strung
Gulf
banks
the
most
strung
pearls
precious
all their
their kind
kind-unless
takes
of all
of course
course she
unless of
she takes
precious of
up
the diver
wants to
to dive
be
attitude 'Would the
diver who wants
the attitude:
dive be
up the
grateful
for
the
unemployment?'
diving
industry
is
in
for
the
The
is
in
unemployment?'
grateful
diving industry
native
hands,
and
the
absence
of
methods
of
diving
the
absence
of
modern
native hands,
of diving
is
to native
goose be
be killed
killed that
that
native apprehension
lest the
the goose
due to
is due
apprehension lest
lays
the
golden
eggs.
pearls
go
via
Bombay
to
Arabian
the
via
golden eggs.
pearls go
lays
Bombay to
Paris,
the
world's
pearl
mart,
and
thence
the
most
precious
world's
the
thence
the
most
Paris,
pearl mart,
precious
find
way to
to London and New
N ew York.
In common with
with
their way
York. In
find their
all
luxury industries,
has suffered
by the
the world
world
all luxury
suffered by
industries, pearling
pearling has
slump,
but
a
more
insidious
future
enemy
may
be
the
cula
insidious
but
future
culbe
the
slump,
enemy may
tured
pearl
industry
of
Japan.
tured pearl industry
Japan.
If
world's most precious
precious pearls
If the
the world's
eastern
pearls come from eastern
Arabian waters,
the world's
world's best
best coffee
coffee comes from southsouthArabian
waters, the
western
Arabia, where it
it is
is native
native to
the mountains
mountains of
of the
the
to the
western Arabia,
port of Mocha
Mocha-whence
trade name
namethe port
its trade
whence its
Yemen. At the
Portuguese
mariners,
soon
after
their
discovery
of the
after
the
their
mariners,
discovery
Portuguese
it
into
Cape
of
Good
Hope,
with
it
and
introduced
it
into
it
introduced
met
and
of
with
Cape
Hope,
Europe, so
a novelty
novelty in
England in
in the
the same
so that
that it
it was a
in England
Europe,
century
the introduction
tobacco and the
the popointroduction of tobacco
that saw the
century that
tato, both
both from the
of course.
course. The Arabian
the New World,
World, of
tato,
crop today
today is
is small,
coffee a luxury
luxury mainly
mainly
small, and Arabian coffee
crop
coffee
For
bought
up by
by London and New York.
although
although coffee
bought up
:

[[243']
243~

THE ARABS
can
is the
national beverage
only the
the very
very rich
rich can
the national
of Arabia,
Arabia, only
beverage of
their
Arabs
poorer
buy
their
everyday
afford
the
afford Mocha,
and
the poorer
Mocha,
buy
everyday
first taught
coffee from the
the outside
to which
which they
they first
coffee
outside world to
taught
its
its use.
use.
of Arabia,
Arabia, fancied
fancied more by
Another epicurean
by
epicurean product
product of
than the
the West,
vVest, is
is the
the soup
China and
and Malaya
soup made from
Malaya than
Persian Gulf and Indian
fins and
and tails
tails of
the
Indian
the fins
of sharks.
sharks. The Persian
is too
Ocean swarm with
with sharks-the
pearl diver
too good
diver is
sharks the pearl
good aa
them-and
thousand
fatalist
to be
be afraid
and some hundred thousand
of them
fatalist to
afraid of
alone. Indeed,
coasts of
Indeed,
are
of Oman alone.
are caught
the coasts
off the
caught every
every year
year off
to
date
these
fisheries are
secondary
only
to
are an
these fisheries
date
an industry
industry secondary only
extend
for
for
culture,
and
Oman's
famous
date
groves
extend
date
more
culture,
groves
its sandy
than aa hundred
hundred miles
tropic shores
shores to
than
miles along
to a
a
sandy tropic
along its
where
the
of
a
mile
or
two,
from
the
fruit,
ripening
depth
of
a
or
mile
fruit,
two,
ripening
depth
to meet
earlier
than elsewhere,
rushed away
away to
is quickly
earlier than
elsewhere, is
quickly rushed
America's
voracious needs.
needs.
America's voracious
of
Arabia
source of
inThe spices
of
are aa more romantic
romantic source
are
of inspices
come. Frankincense
myrrh, both
both the
the resinous
resinous subFrankincense and myrrh,
subcome.
of wild
trees that
in
stances
south Arabia famous in
wild trees
stances of
that made south
ancient
times, come today
almost exclusively
ancient times,
exclusively from one
today almost
of antiquity,
antiquity, aa terprovince,
Dhufar,
possibly
the
Ophir
terthe
province, Dhufar, possibly
Ophir of
Muscat
ritory
of
the
central
south
under
the
flag.
central
the
under
the
of
south
flag. On
ritory
social
occasions the
the frankincense
brazier is
is passed
passed around
social occasions
frankincense brazier
the
with
the
ritualistic
coffee;
and
with
when evil
the assembly
ritualistic
coffee
evil is
is
the
assembly
for
exorcism,
but
of
abroad it
it has
has a magical
value
but
abroad
value
for
most
of
exorcism,
magical
the
of Buddhist
the crop
crop goes
goes overseas
overseas to
to be
be used in
in the
the service
Buddhist
service of
of India
Farther East.
temples
India and the
the Farther
East.
temples of
other industry
Arabia must be
be mentioned
mentioned
One other
coastal Arabia
of coastal
industry of
its boatbuilding.
-its
boatbuilding. The picturesque
picturesque Arab dhow with
with its
its
forward-raking
big single
single stretch
a big
stretch of
of
forward-raking mainmast carrying
carrying a
sail,
a tiny
tiny mizzenmast incongruously
raking
the
other
other
the
sail, a
incongruously raking
way, the
the high
high Elizabethan
poop and the
the graceElizabethan look
look of
of the
the poop
way,
graceful droop
the waist,
waist, are
that clearly
clearly belong
ful
are features
features that
to
droop of the
belong to
is

[[244]
244J

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

He who has aa sentiment

for our
sentiment for
our old
old sailsailmeets
as
he
voyages
across
ing
ship
meets
with
enchantment
enchantment as he voyages across the
the
ing ship
at any
Indian Ocean at
the southwest
southwest monmonIndian
any time except
except when the
soon
drives these
these quaint
the open
soon drives
fore-and-afters off
off the
sea
quaint fore-and-afters
open sea
into their
their summer anchorages.
is
a
craft
that
has
a
into
Here
is
craft
that
has
anchorages.
across the
the ages.
unchanging across
ages. Almost
Almost every
come unchanging
every Arab
its own traditional
seaport
has its
traditional build
build and rig,
rig, Kuwait
Kuwait and
seaport has
the most famous. Dhows up
Sur
perhaps the
up to
to two hundred
hundred
Sur perhaps
tons
burden carry
frankincense and shark's
dates and frankincense
tons burden
shark's
carry dates
meat to
to India
India and Africa,
Africa, and bring
bring back
back rice,
rice, the
the staple
staple
food of
the well-to-do,
well-to-do, sugar,
piece goods
of the
food
other
sugar, piece
goods and other
of
a
poor
oriental
people.
simple
requirements
of
a
oriental
poor
simple requirements
people.
The hardy
hardy Arab mariners,
possessed of
imperfect inof imperfect
inmariners, possessed
a nodding
struments
nodding acquaintance
with
the
rudiments
struments and a
with
the
rudiments
acquaintance
of navigation,
navigation, yet
have aa knowledge
the elements
elements which
which
of the
of
knowledge of
yet have
even our
our more scientific
may envy.
envy. In
the annual
sailors may
scientific sailors
In the
annual
even
run
voyage
to
East
Africa
they
run
before
the
northeast
to
Africa
down
before
the
northeast
they
voyage
nice a
monsoon without
longitude and,
on
without too
a sense
sense of
too nice
of longitude
and, on
a
reaching the
the desired
latitude, turn
turn west
west to
to make a landfall.
landfall.
desired latitude,
reaching
in
It is
is aa common experience
British ships
in
these
parts
of British
these
It
experience of
ships
parts
at sea
to
be hailed
hailed at
by one of
of these
that has
has made aa
these craft
craft that
sea by
to be
bad voyage
voyage with
the request
request for
for water
water and
and its
its bearings.
with the
bearings.
But the
the camaraderie
camaraderie of
the sea
thought to
be
sea is
of the
is sometimes
to be
But
sometimes thought
in
a trifle
triHe one sided
dhow, economizing
economizing in
the Arab dhow,
sided when the
a
head or
or other
other lights
up
to
the
fifty-ninth
minute,
suddenly
to
the
head
fifty-ninth minute, suddenly
lights up
of a
Hashes her
her presence
presence dead ahead out
out of
a black
black night.
night.
flashes
all that
these
thousand years
were all
that these
A thousand
such dhows were
years ago
ago such
oceans
knew. From the
the Persian
Persian Gulf
they sailed
sailed eastwards
eastwards
Gulf they
oceans knew.
to Malacca and Java
the tin
required by
by Abbasid metalmetal.
to
tin required
for the
Java for
workers, an
among them sometimes
an intrepid
adventurer among
workers,
intrepid adventurer
their
India upon
voyaging
on
into
the
China
Seas.
upon their
Seas.
into
China
With India
the
voyaging
deat
a
way,
an
ancient
trade
with
it
stood
at
a
high
pitch
of
de
it
stood
ancient
with
trade
an
high pitch
way,
and
in
up in Bombay
Bombay
velopment, and Arab colonies
colonies sprang
sprang up
velopment,
the distant
distant past.
past.
the

[245
[245]]

THE ARABS
Sind,
survive to
to this
this day.
the
which survive
Westwards, too,
too, the
Sind, which
day. Westwards,
to
the
islands
of
Wagwag,
i.e.
MadaArabs sailed
for
gold
sailed for gold to the islands of Wagwag, i.e.
gascar-their
the seed
seed
also for
for Japan-and
Japan and sowed the
gascar their name also
which
into
Arabian
colonization
and
the
annexathe
into
and
colonization
which ripened
annexaripened
Zanzibar little
than aa century
tion
tion of
of Zanzibar
little more than
century ago.
ago. From
these
tall yarns
to Arab sea
these voyages
the tall
ascribed to
sea
yarns ascribed
voyages came the
not
hampered
by
too
strong
an
addiction
to
the
captains,
too
an
addiction
not
to
the
captains,
strong
hampered by
religious
which found
the literature
literature
into the
found their
their way
truth, which
religious truth,
way into
of
though curiously
curiously enough
the doings
doings of
of Sindof the
the times,
Sindtimes, though
enough the
bad the
rest of
kind in
in The
of his
his romantic kind
the Sailor
all the
the rest
Sailor and all
Arabian Nights
Nights-to
as Greek or
Nordic
to us
us as
as entrancing
or Nordic
Arabian
entrancing as
tales-are
of literature
about which the
the
folk
folk tales
a form of
literature about
are a
serious-minded
little scornful.
often a
a little
scornful.
literate Arab is
is often
serious-minded literate
hauled up
along
the
Arab
beaches
have aa monthe
beaches
Dhows hauled
up along
at
alarming
strous,
whalelike
appearance
as
they
lean
over
at alarming
lean
as
over
whalelike
strous,
appearance
they
In process
process of
of building
building they
they
angles
bilges. In
on their
their bulging
bulging bilges.
angles on
are
joy to
to behold.
behold. The ribs
ribs take
take on aa beautiful
beautiful symmetry
a joy
are a
symmetry
at
the hands
hands of
to have
have no elaborate
at the
of craftsmen
craftsmen who appear
elaborate
appear to
rule
of
eye
and
rule
of
thumb.
drawings
to
guide
them
and
by
and
work
and
thumbdrawings to guide
by eye
In
the barren
by stealth
night to
to
barren woman comes by
at night
In Kuwait the
stealth at
jump
over
a
new-laid
keel,
an
old
fertility
cult,
while
the
an
a
while
new-laid
old
over
the
cult,
keel,
fertility
jump
her off
virtue out
the
off lest
out of
shoos her
lest she
she take
take virtue
of the
watchman shoos
ship.
shipEarly
Persian contacts
intercourse
contacts and long
seafaring intercourse
Early Persian
long seafaring
and
India
give
the
small
seaports
eastern
with Iraq
India
the
with
and
small
of eastern
give
seaports of
Iraq
Arabia
Arabia aa cosmopolitan
cosmopolitan air
air and a
a comparatively
advanced
comparatively advanced
merchant-shipowner
and tolerant
tolerant outlook.
outlook. The successful
successful merchant-shipowner
to his
his date
garden exotic
plants
delights
bringing back
in bringing
exotic plants
back to
date garden
delights in
the Hadhramaut,
which
he has
has met with
with on his
his travels.
travels. In
he
In the
Hadhramaut, which
province
with the
the Yemen the
the pride
pride of
shares with
of an
an ancient
ancient
province shares
for
incipient
civilization
and with
with New York aa fancy
civilization and
for
skyfancy
incipient skytradition
scrapers,
the
tradition
is
with
Java.
native
goes off
off
the
is
with
The
native
scrapers,
Java.
goes
to
when young
East
returns, in
the East Indies
Indies and returns,
in later
later life,
life,
young to the

6]
[24
[246]

.... ~-

, ~

[. ~.: ~_'S'"

(BJ' rO.lItcsy of Ala/o, J. C. Gllibl,)

TERRACE COUNTRY OF
THE YEl\lEN FOR COFFEE
CULTIVATION.

Ow

DESERT CAIV[EL POLICE

(TRANS-JORDAN).

(RJ'

rO'"/'-Sl'

SOClllj'

of

1'''010'

tilt' ROJ"l Grog,ap},ical

.lI. K. C 7''ZL'"tlulJ)

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

with
his fortune made;
made; he
he has
has not
not ceased
to be
be an
with his
ceased to
an Arab,
Arab,
though he has
has ceased
ceased to
to have
have an
an Arabian
Arabian outlook.
outlook.
though
are the
But these
these are
the coastal
Arabia's great
great heart
coastal fringes.
heart
fringes. Arabia's
remains untouched
untouched and her
her mood forbidding.
forbidding. The noremains
nowell-nigh sufficient
their
madic tribes
tribes find
find the
the camel well-nigh
sufficient for
for their
exclusively on
on its
simple
wants. They
subsist almost
almost exclusively
its milk.
milk
simple wants.
They subsist
its
and occasionally
its
flesh;
their
houses
are
tents
of
hair
their
houses
are
tents
of
hair
flesh;
occasionally
its wool,
made from its
their
clothing
in
some
measure
from
their
wool,
clothing in some measure from
the same source
too. In prewar
prewar days
days there
there was
a camelsource too.
the
was a
camelin
the
northwest
for
export
via
Damascus
raising
industry
in
the
northwest
for
via
Damascus
raising industry
export
to
Egypt. At that
time the
camel was the
means of
of
that time
the camel
to Egypt.
the ideal
ideal means
transport
countries that
in those
those neighbouring
lacked
that lacked
transport in
neighbouring countries
roads and much water,
water, but
but the
the introduction
the AmeriAmeriof the
roads
introduction of
great changes,
changes, and
what was
can
can motorcar has brought
and what
was
brought great
once
a
valuable
export
trade
has
decayed.
So,
too,
a
horsetrade
has decayed. So, too, a horseonce a valuable export
in the
the northeast,
northeast, horses
horses being
raising
industry flourished
flourished in
raising industry
being
exported
to
India
they
were
popular
for
polo, but
but
to
India
where
for
they
polo,
exported
popular
the
disappearance
of
the
rule
which
imposed
a
height
rethe
of
rule
which
a
the disappearance
imposed height reold days
striction
in the
the old
'the Arab'
striction and which in
Arab' ideal,
ideal,
days made 'the
has
put the
beautiful animal
of the
the game,
out of
small and beautiful
the small
animal out
has put
game,
and so
the horse
trade has
has greatly
declined.
horse trade
so the
greatly declined.
the Arabian
Arabian society,
Cultural
of the
Cultural divisions
divisions of
if most
society, if
coast and desert,
desert, run
run also
across
also laterally
marked between
between coast
laterally across
the
the old
division between
between the
the
states. It
is the
the various
It is
old division
various states_
Arab-cultivator,
merchant,
townsman--on
the
settled
on
townsman
the
settled Arab
cultivator, merchant,
the
the other;
the Beduin
other; the
one
friends the
Beduin on the
one hand,
our friends
hand, and our
a
to
the
former wedded to
to ways
of
and
order,
the
lat.ter
to
a
of
law
latter
order,
ways
or
other
or
wayward
life
which
involves
plundering
each
other
each
involves
life
which
plundering
wayward
offers.
settled
Arab, as
occasion demands or
or opportunity
as occasion
settled Arab,
opportunity offers.
are persuaded
These two elements
population are
persuaded by
by
the population
of the
elements of
are
long
experience
that
their
interests
clash.
They
are
mutuclash.
interests
their
that
They
long experience
as a
a way
force as
believes in
way of
ally
antipathetic. Each believes
in armed force
ally antipathetic.
cowing
the other.
you want peace
peace with
with your
neighbour
other. If
If you
your neighbour
cowing the

[[247]
247]

THE ARABS
tells you
the
proverb tells
you the Arab way:
way: 'In
'In one
one hand
hand
the Arab proverb
bread,
in
the
other
a
sword.'
other
sword.'
a
bread, in the
Islam, the
the religion
that had its
its cradle
cradle among
among the
Arabs
the Arabs
Islam,
religion that
their democratic spirit
in
of Arabia,
Arabia, reflects
reflects their
in
its
insistence
of
its
insistence
spirit
believers. For the
on the
the equality
equality of believers.
the non-Arab
non-Arab slave
slave no
no
so that
status is
equal social
that in
in this
this Arabia
Arabia goes
social status
is conceded,
conceded, so
equal
goes
is today
back on her
her democracy
today one
one of
very
back
of the
the very
democracy and indeed is
to practise
in the
the world to
few countries
countries left
practise and
and justify
justify
left in
of two kinds,
slavery.
is of
kinds, industrial
industrial
slavery is
slavery. Arabian male slavery
the needs
needs of
garand domestic.
domestic. The former supplies
of date
date garsupplies the
dens
pearl fisheries.
the more usual
usual form,
fisheries. The latter,
dens and pearl
latter, the
form,
is the
the slave
retainer, the
the bodyguard,
bodyguard, the
the house
where the
the retainer,
slave is
house
is not
a harsh
servant,
harsh and pitiless
pitiless exploitation
exploitation of
not a
of labour
labour
servant, is
our
industrial slavery
of
like the
the old
old industrial
of
our
West
Indian
colonies
like
Indian
colonies
slavery
-the
usual connotation of slavery
in Western minds.
minds.
the usual
slavery in
as members of
Slaves
are often treated
treated as
the family,
family, fed
of the
Slaves are
fed
as
bit
as
well
I
clothed every
bit
as
well
as
others.
I
have,
in
fact,
others.
and clothed
in
have,
every
fact,
known of
of aa slave
liberated and
and then
then voluntarily
voluntarily
slave who was liberated
the bondage
returned to
to the
his old master in
preference
returned
in preference
bondage of his
to
the insecurity
freedom. But slavery
is
to the
insecurity that came with freedom.
slavery is
slave is
all that.
is a
a property.
intolerable for all
property. Slave
intolerable
that. The slave
Slave
in their
dealers are
their human wares,
wares, those
are free
to traffic
free to
dealers
traffic in
those who
specialize
being always
in touch
touch with
with intending
in slaves
slaves being
always in
specialize in
intending
buyers
sellers,
and
they
conduct
would-be
purchasers
and
conduct
would-be
sellers,
they
buyers
purchasers
slaves may
to the
the houses
houses where the
the slaves
may be
be inspected.
to
inspected. The
majority of
however, certainly
certainly the
the more fortunate
of slaves,
fortunate
slaves, however,
majority
the same family
among
them, remain in
in the
for generation
generation afafamong them,
family for
ter generation.
generation.
ter
The answer to
the question
to the
the Arabs want
question Why do the
is in
slaves?
in part
part sociological,
in part
part economic.
economic. Slavery
slaves? is
sociological, in
Slavery
of
the
social
structure.
It
is
congenial.
is
traditional part
the
social
is a
a traditional
of
structure.
It
is
part
congenial.
are in
peninsular Arabs are
in the
mass far
too proud
far too
the mass
The peninsular
to
proud to
as servants,
independent in
too independent
to obey
a
far too
in spirit
work as
servants, far
spirit to
obey a

8]
[24
[248]

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

master, so that the well-to-do
well-to-do have either
either to
to do their
their work
master,
or
to
resort to
themselves or to resort
This is
is why,
why, among
to slavery.
slavery. This
among aa
poor people
people having
little more than
than aa subsistence
subsistence culture,
having little
culture,
poor
all attempts
all
attempts at the
the suppression
of
slavery
have
hitherto
of
have
hitherto
suppression
slavery
failed.
failed.
the practice
In the
the very
very early
practice was to
to treat
treat
early wars of Islam the
prisoners
as
slaves
and
allot
them
to
warriors
as
slaves
allot
to
Arab
warriors
as
prisoners
the
of
part
of
the
plunder
of
war.
The
end
of
these
wars
brought
war.
end
of
these
wars
plunder
part
brought
fruitful source
a fruitful
source of slave
to its
its close.
close. Slave
raiding
a
slave supply
Slave raiding
supply to
into
Africa was thereby
given
a
greater
stimulus,
and
for
into Africa
for
stimulus,
thereby given
greater
the
last few centuries
centuries Africa
the last
Africa has
has been
been the
the chief
chief source
source of
of
that
in
slaves that one
supply.
Among slaves
one sees
Arabia today
today
sees in Arabia
supply. Among
Negroes easily
predominate, though
Abyssinians and
easily predominate,
Negroes
though Abyssinians
Baluchis are
to be
are to
found.
Baluchis
be found.
My
experience
living for
for many
many years
years in
parts
own
after living
in parts
experience after
My
of Arabia
Arabia where slavery
an integral
integral part
part of
the
of the
slavery forms an
is that
slave transhipments
social
transhipments are
that few slave
social structure
structure is
are coming
in from overseas
today. In
In the
old days
days British
British naval
overseas today.
the old
naval
ing in
activities
to make external
slave dealing
deal to
external slave
did a great
activities did
great deal
dealing
internal slavery
hazardous;
today internal
perpetuates itself
itself by
by
hazardous; today
slavery perpetuates
are usually
at
They are
usually married at
slaves
begetting slaves.
slaves. They
slaves begetting
are
into
the
world
puberty,
and
so
fresh
slaves
are
brought
into
the
so
fresh slaves
brought
puberty,
ad
these, by
by religious
religious law as
as locally
interad infinitum,
infinitum, and these,
locally interdies
the
when
preted,
are
the
property
of
the
master
and
he
dies
are
the
master
are
property
preted,
inherited like
other
form
of
property.
like any
other
inherited
property.
any
British government,
The British
difficulty and much
government, with some difficulty
unpopularity,
made
slave
agreements
in times
times past
slave
past with
agreements in
unpopularity,
slaves
the coastal
Arabia, under which slaves
coastal states
states of
of Arabia,
most of
of the
while
are
to
a
British
consulate
are
manumitted,
while
on
escaping
manumitted,
escaping to a British consulate
the high
high seas
British na
val ships
the right
right to
to search
exercise the
naval
seas British
the
ships exercise
native craft
craft for slave
within Arabia itself
itself
runners. But within
slave runners.
native
of
with
the
full
support
public
opinion,
slavery
flourishes
the
full
with
flourishes
public opinion,
support
slavery
odious
and any
any extraneous
interfering becomes odious
extraneous authority
and
authority interfering

[249
[249]]

THE ARABS

in
the people.
It is
interest of
is a
in the
the eyes
of the
a vested
vested interest
of imimeyes of
people. It
memorial
respectability.
memorial respectability.
Arabian rulers,
though they
they doubtMost enlightened
doubtrulers, though
enlightened Arabian
it would be
be aa very
good
less
privately consider
consider that
that it
less privately
very good thing
thing
if
were
no
more,
dare
not
affront
influential
no
if slavery
were
not
affront
influential subsubmore, dare
slavery
rulers,
jects who favour
and possess
possess slaves.
slaves. These rulers,
favour slavery
jects
slavery and
than Western
must not
not go
of their
their way
no less
out of
less than
Western ones,
ones, must
go out
way
to
the governed
if
they
are
to
survive.
And,
to alienate
to
survive.
alienate the
if
are
short
And, short
governed
they
of
coercive measures
no one
of coercive
to take,
one is
which no
is likely
a
measures which
take, only
likely to
only a
of
public
opinion-a
general
attitude
of
mind
change
new
of
of
a
attitude
mind
change
public opinion
general
-will
ensure permanent
permanent abolition.
abolition. Today
Today King
King Ibn
Ibn Sa'ud
will ensure
Sa'ud
is
tackling
this
very
difficult
problem
sympathetically
is tackling this very difficult problem sympathetically and
wisely,
but up
up to
to recent
recent times
times the
the measure
which Arab
in which
measure in
wisely, but
rulers
co-operated with
a foreign
power
on
an issue
of
an
rulers co-operated
issue of
with a
foreign power
this kind
construed as
as the
the measure
measure of
their dependof their
kind was construed
this
dependthat foreign
ence
upon that
ence upon
independent Arab
really independent
foreign power.
power. No really
ruler
to overthrow
the age-hallowed
age-hallowed instituruler could
overthrow the
institucould attempt
attempt to
of slavery
he
that
such
measures
were
tion
he
knew
such
tion of
that
measures
when
were
slavery
of
his
people
with
a
foreign
equated
in
the
minds
and
equated in the minds of his people with a foreign and
subversive
Christian
policy, aa policy
policy obviously
to, and subversive
alien to,
Christian policy,
obviously alien
of,
social system
the social
in the
their own state
state of
of society.
of, their
society. Changes
Changes in
system
to
be
gradual
if
an
upheaval
is
to
be
avoided.
Certain
have
is
to
to
avoided.
be gradual if an upheaval
be
have
Certain
being encouraged
to buy
buy aa slave
pilgrims of
of affluence
affluence are
are being
slave
encouraged to
pilgrims
or
well-to-do Hijazis
Hijazis are
set them free,
or slaves
are said
said
slaves and set
free, and well-to-do
the
same
as
an
act
of
worship
or
to
celebrate
to be
or
the
of
to
act
be doing
to
celebrate
as
an
worship
doing
birth of
a child,
recovery of
of
some happy
happy occasion-the
the recovery
occasion
of a
the birth
child, the
aa near
near relative
relative from sickness
the like.
like.
sickness and the
In the
unabatement of
Arabia
has been
been false
the unabatement
of slavery
In
has
false
slavery
to
Muhammad,
as
we
have
seen,
no
upto her
as
have
her Prophet.
was
seen,
Prophet.
upof slavery-is
to have had
had no
no slaves
himself.
holder of
is held
held to
slaves himself.
holder
slavery
He exhorted
to manumit slaves
and apporhis followers
followers to
slaves and
exhorted his
apporpart of
the revenues
of the
tioned aa part
of the
state to
tioned
revenues of
the state
the same ends.
to the
ends.
His goal
goal may
well have
have been
been total
In his
his
total emancipation.
emancipation. In
may well

[250
[250]]

. ~

....

...

BEDUIN OF SOUTH ARABIAN DESERT BORDERLA!\DS.

BORDERLANDS.

TOWNSl\fEN: A
A FAMILY
FAl\HLY GROUP OF
OF ARAB (PERSIAN
(PERSIAN
TOWNSMEN:
GULF) PEARL MERCHANTS.
MERCHANTS.
GULF)

THE ARABS OF ARABIA

farewell
Arafat he
he did
did not
not forget
forget them:
them
farewell sermon on Mount Arafat
'And
your slaves!
you feed
them with
such food
that you
slaves See that
feed them
with such
food
'And your
as
you eat
and
clothe
them
with
the
stuff
you
clothe
eat yourselves
the
them
with
stuff
as you
yourselves
you
wear;
and
if
they
commit
a
fault
for
which
you
are
not
ina
fault
if
for
inwhich
are
not
wear;
they
you
clined
to
forgive
them,
part
with
them
for
they
are
the
with
for they are the
clined to forgive them, part
servants
not to
to be
of God and are
are not
be harshly
treated.
servants of
harshly treated.'
:

[25 I

CHAPTER X

Rise of
of the
Eastern Repercussions
Repercussions
the West: Eastern
Rise

the Arabs of
of Arabia to
reof the
to reMUST take
leave of
take leave
sume our outline
the greater
without,
world
outline of
Arab
of the
without,
greater
of the
the Arab caliphates
left it,
as the
the sunset
sunset glories
where we left
it, as
caliphates
glories of
finally
faded
under
the
shadow
of
Ottoman
conquest.
faded
the
conquest. Arab
finally
civilization
in decay.
decay. Great Moslem
far gone
civilization was already
already far
gone in
is true,
architecture,
true, continued
in Egypt
Egypt and in
in Persiait is
continued in
Persia
architecture, it
aa country
country that
that had long
ceased
to
be
rule;
the
under
be
Arab
rule the
ceased
to
long
arts
indeed,
Persian
art
to
grow
in
still flourished;
art
was
to
Persian
arts still
flourished; indeed,
grow in
the
to
its
zenith,
surpassing
the
splento
its
the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century
zenith, surpassing
century
splendour of
of its
period. But science
declined among
its Arab period.
science had declined
among
the
hundreds of
years before
before (about
the thirthirthe Arabs some hundreds
of years
(about the
intolerteenth century)
century) with
with the
hardening of
of dogmatic
intolerteenth
the hardening
dogmatic
it
ance,
revived and brought
brought with
with it
zeal revived
ance, when religious
religious zeal
their
disapproval
of
philosophers
because
their
works
might
disapproval
philosophers
might
lead to
unbelief.
lead
to unbelief.
From the
the Ottoman conquest
the subsequent
subsequent
conquest on through
through the
centuries to
to our own times
four centuries
period of
a period
further
times was a
of further
back
into
eclipse and decay.
Arabs
sank
into
obArab eclipse
obThe
sank
decay.
scurity-from
the
recent
Great
War
has
helped
from
which
the
recent
has
to
scurity
helped to
rescue
them-continuing
to be
be content
with their
their suborrescue them
suborcontent with
continuing to
;

[252 ]

RISE OF THE WEST

part in
in aa supernational
of Islamic
dinate
dinate part
state of
Islamic form-the
form the
super-national state
Ottoman Empire.
Empire.
This same period
period saw the
the rise
Europe to
to aa
rise of
of "'\Vestern
Western Europe
of
of
ascendancy.
The
\Vest
was
destined
to
position
world
West
was
to
destined
ascendancy.
position
exercise
far-reaching
influence
on
destinies,
\Vestern
influence
on
Arab
exercise far-reaching
destinies, Western
to weaken the
the Turkish
Turkish shackles,
political
philosophy was to
shackles,
political philosophy
sever them.
\Vestern
to sever
them. But the
process was
was long
the process
Western arms to
long
delayed.
forms of
of civilization,
earlier forms
Iscivilization, especially
delayed. The earlier
especially Isfirst been
been moulded
lamic
as we saw,
at first
lamic civilization,
civilization, had,
had, as
saw, at
rather
than
nationality.
It
was
religion
by
religion
rather
than
It
was
that had
by religion
nationality.
religion that
differentiated
political
alledifferentiated social
social cultures
cultures and shaped
shaped political allea
transcending race
giances.
race or
or
giances. Islam had evoked a loyalty
loyalty transcending
nation. With the
the remarkable
remarkable rise
\Vestern civilization,
nation.
rise of
of Western
civilization,
in its
later forms was inspired
inspired not
not so
so
aa civilization
civilization that
that in
its later
and
much by
by religion
as
by
political
ideals,
oriental
life
as
oriental
life
and
religion
by political ideals,
thought became more and more modified,
modified, and,
the
since the
and, since
thought
this
period
formed
part
of
the
Otthis
countries during
of
the
Arab countries
Otduring
period
part
their conversion
is part
part of
of the
the Ottoman
toman dominions,
conversion is
dominions, their
story.
story.
The East,
poor and backward,
first imimEast, grown
backward, was first
grown poor
pressed
by
the
material
prosperity
of
the
new
West,
a
material
the
of
the
West, a
pressed by
prosperity
to
lie
at
the
roots
of
Western
prosperity
which
seemed
to
at
of
which
lie
the
roots
prosperity
prestige
power. The growth
prosperity, theretherethis prosperity,
of this
growth of
prestige and power.
fore,
especially
where
it
Ottoman
conit
had
and
Arab
confore, especially
tacts,
is
of
than
passing
interest.
As
Islam
lost
lost
is
than
interest.
of
much
more
Islam
tacts,
passing
of the
Mediterranean the
the early
maritime
control
control of
the western
western Mediterranean
early maritime
later esexpansion
of Venetians
Venetians and Genoese
Genoese led
led to
to their
estheir later
expansion of
the Levant;
tablishment
by the
of the
Levant;
crusades on the
the shores
shores of
tablishment by
the crusades
the Mongols,
tolerant of
of Christianity,
Christianity, sweeping
sweeping westwestthe
Mongols, tolerant
wards, were next
next to
lure Marco Polo
Polo and other
merchant
other merchant
to lure
wards,
corner of the
lift aa corner
the
adventurers
into unknown Asia
Asia and lift
adventurers Into
that obscured
the growing
veil
veil that
remotest China.
China. So came the
obscured remotest
growing
of the
the wealth
of the
the Indies
that provoked
provoked
knowledge
Indies that
wealth of
knowledge of

[253
[253]]

THE ARABS
Western curiosity
curiosity and further
further adventuring,
at
hence, at
adventuring, and hence,
the very
the
very time
were rising
rising to
to imperial
imperial dodotime the
the Ottomans were
minion in
the Near East,
circumin the
mariners were circumEast, Western mariners
navigating Africa,
Africa, rediscovering
Arabia's seaboards,
forseaboards, fornavigating
rediscovering Arabia's
gotten
since
Byzantine
times,
and
opening
up
the
treasures
since
the
treasures
gotten
Byzantine times,
opening up
of India
of
and the
the even greater
the AmerIndia and
of the
greater opportunities
opportunities of
Icas.
icas.
But Western influence,
the material
prosin the
if founded in
material prosinfluence, if
perity which
which sprung
this pioneering,
pioneering, was not
connot conperity
sprung from this
fined
it. The flowering
of
Renaissance
learning
which
fined to
of
to it.
which
Renaissance
flowering
learning
continued
to flourish
flourish along
along the
the subsequent
continued increasingly
subsequent
increasingly to
centuries
the West and impressed
impressed its
its growing
sucenturies exalted
exalted the
growing superiority
the declining
East. Western enlightenment
as
declining East.
enlightenment as
periority on the
well as
prosperity gave
gave aa benediction
benediction to
to Western
well
as Western
Western prosperity
forms of
political organization,
In time
time came
these in
of political
organization, and these
to
nationalism, aa Westto find
find favour
favour and acceptance.
acceptance. Thus nationalism,
ern
of
state
organization
and
one running
running counter
ern concept
of
state
counter
organization
concept
in
to
made
headway
in
the
Ottothe
Ottoto Islamic
Islamic internationalism,
internationalism,
headway
Empire and played
part in
in Ottoman dissoluman Empire
a main part
dissoluplayed a
democratic institutions
institutions of Western
tion
tion and Arab revival;
revival democratic
origin,
that ran
to traditional
absolutism, also
also
traditional absolutism,
ran counter
counter to
too, that
origin, too,
found champions
in
academic
circles.
in
circles.
champions
The struggle
resolved itself
in crusading
crusading
itself in
struggle which had resolved
East,
times
three civilizations-Western,
civilizations
times around three
Western, Near East,
Middle East,
East, or
or in
words, broadly
speaking,
Latin
in other
other words,
Latin
broadly speaking,
Islam we left
Christendom,
left
Christendom, Eastern Christendom and Islam-we
at
the point
point where the
the West had withdrawn,
at the
withdrawn, unsuccessful,
unsuccessful,
from the
East had triumphed
triumphed over
over
the contest,
contest, and Middle East
Near East
as the
the Ottoman Turks established
themselves
established themselves
East as
in
brought
in the
centuries have brought
the Balkans.
Balkans. The subsequent
subsequent centuries
and
Middle Eastern
Eastern decay
world
ascendancy.
world
Western
ascendancy.
decay
in the
The religious
religious spirit
still active
the pioneer
pioneer days
active in
spirit was still
days
da
of
trade. The great
Gama,
of trade.
ChrisGama, Chrisexplorers, Vasco
great explorers,
;

[254
[254]]

RISE OF THE WEST

topher
bore the
Cross
all bore
the Cross
Albuquerque, all
topher Columbus and De !Albuquerque,
on
their
breasts
and
thought
of
themselves
as
inheritors
on their breasts
thought of themselves as inheritors
of
tradition. The first
in the
the
first naval
a sacred
sacred tradition.
naval campaigns
of a
campaigns in
Indian
the sixteenth
were
infused
with
in the
sixteenth century
were
Indian Ocean in
infused
with
century
this spirit,
records of
their operations
operations
the Portuguese
this
of their
Portuguese records
spirit, and the
in
the Red Sea thirty
years after
discovery of
after the
in the
the discovery
the Cape
of the
thirty years
Cape
of
show
bent
upon
the
seizure
of
:VIecca
them
bent
of Good Hope
the
seizure
of
Mecca
Hope
upon
'for
Catholic Majesty.'
l\1ajesty.'
'for the
the Glory
Glory of God and His most Catholic
sent them scurrying
Jidda sent
Aden,
A setback
before Jidda
setback before
back to
to Aden,
scurrying back
as their
base for
for voyages
of
exploration
into
which served
their base
served as
of
which
voyages
exploration into
the
penetrated
to
the
Isthmus
of
the Red Sea whence they
to
the
of
Isthmus
they penetrated
Suez
itself.
itself.
Suez
To these
belong the
the honours
honours of
pioneers.
these Portuguese
of pioneers.
Portuguese belong
In
Western
movement
for
world
trade
they
were
for
In the
the great
trade
great
they were
the
to
contacts,
in
Islamic
times,
with
to
make
first Europeans
in
the first
Islamic
contacts,
times, with
Europeans
the
of the
peninsula. These early
days saw their
their
the peninsula.
the Arabs of
early days
penetration
into
the
Persian
Gulf,
too,
Hormuz,
Persian
the
into
where
Gulf,
too,
Hormuz,
penetration
aa flourishing
medieval port
port on the
the Persian
their
Persian side,
side, was their
flourishing medieval
its
lure,
and
for
its
mastery
they
strove
during
a
century
for
lure,
mastery they strove during a century and
aa half.
half. De Albuquerque,
Albuquerque, their
their famous admiral,
admiral, descended
descended
upon
the
opposite
shores
of
eastern
Arabia,
built
forts and
and
shores
of
eastern
built
forts
the
Arabia,
opposite
upon
threw garrisons
into
as
the
splendid
remains
of
the
them
as
the
remains
of
the
threw
into
splendid
garrisons
period
the battered
battered fort
masonry and old
old
at Muscat,
fort masonry
Muscat, the
period at
hunmuzzle-loading
guns
that
litter
the
foreshore
for
two
hunthat
the
litter
foreshore
for
muzzle-loading guns
dred
to north
north and south,
south, still
bear eloquent
eloquent testitestimiles to
still bear
dred miles
But
the
West
as
yet
little
to
teach
the
Arabs.
teach
the
Arabs.
mony.
as
had
to
the
little
yet
mony.
not even
their purpurPortuguese
activities were not
even imperial;
imperial; their
Portuguese activities
where
pose
trade,
possible
by
peaceful
means,
where
was
means,
trade,
pose
possible by peaceful
not possible
under armed occupation.
enterprise
occupation. Their enterprise
possible under
is acquainted
must not
not on that
that account
be belittled.
belittled. He who is
account be
acquainted
difficultheir difficulwith
fearsome parts
parts and can
visualize their
these fearsome
with these
can visualize
with admiration
admiration for
their great
great qualities
qualities
ties
be awed with
ties must be
for their
as
as seamen and adventurers.
small sailing
adventurers. Their small
sailing ships
ships were

[[255]
255 ]

THE ARABS
scarcely
bigger than the
the biggest
biggest of the
the opposing
native
opposing native
scarcely bigger
times
by
these
many
times
outnumbered
i
they
naviones,
and
they naviones, and by these many
gated waters
waters about which they
they at
at first
first had no nautical
nautical
gated
thousands
knowledge;
they
engaged
an
enemy
thousands
of
miles
miles
enemy
knowledge; they engaged
no
had
bases
from their
their bases,
so
that
in
reality
they
bases;
and
in
so
that
bases,
reality they
to
water in
in times
times of war must
of food and water
to get
supplies of
get supplies
land
and fight
fight an incalculable
they were unequipped
unequipped
incalculable foe;
land and
foe; they
in the
the
for
one of
of the
the hottest
trying climates
climates in
hottest and most trying
for one
beworld, where
where indeed
Persian poet
poet would have us
us bethe Persian
indeed the
world,
his future
foretaste of his
lieve 'the
'the panting
panting sinner
a foretaste
sinner receives
receives a
future
lieve
drastic measures,
driven to
destiny.'
times they
to drastic
measures,
they were driven
destiny.* At times
an
of
and aa tradition
tradition lingers
in
Muscat
of
occasion
when
in
occasion
lingers
they
the noses
noses of
inhabitant they
they could
of every
could
cut off
off the
every male inhabitant
they cut
a
warlike
lay
their
hands
on.
Among
a
warlike
people
overmuch
on.
their
hands
people
Among
lay
given
to revenge,
revenge, and themselves
to the
the danger
themselves alive
alive to
of
danger of
given to
is clear
it is
coming back
back again-which
they must do
do-it
clear they
again which they
they
coming
men
possessed
of
indomitable
courage.
were strong
indomitable
were
courage.
possessed
strong
By
the seventeenth
seventeenth century
British and Dutch traders
traders
century British
By the
to
had appeared
the scene
with Portuguese
Portuguese and
scene to share
share with
upon the
appeared upon
trade was going,
the Turkish masters
masters of
Arabs what trade
of Iraq
going, the
Iraq
in
interest
Persian
taking
as
yet
active
interest
in
Persian
commerce.
as
no
Gulf
active
taking
yet
British
mariners came and went;
one of
of the
the most notable,
British mariners
went; one
notable,
Baffin Bay,
Bay, left
his bones
bones to
to whiten
whiten there.
there.
the
discoverer of
the discoverer
left his
of Baffin
As the
official report
the
has
the official
of
the
day
has
it,
'Master
Baffin
Baffin
'Master
it,
report
day
his geometrical
went on shore
geometrical instruments
instruments for
shore with his
for the
the
taking
the height
of the
the castle
castle wall
wall for
distance of
for the
the
taking the
height and distance
better
better levelling
of
his
piece
to
make
his
shot;
but
as
he
his
to
his
shot
but
as
he
was
piece
levelling
about the
the same he received
the castle
about
received a small
small shot
shot from the
castle
into his
into
his belly,
belly, wherewith he
he gave
three
leaps
by
report
three
gave
leaps by report and
33 *
died
immediately.'23*
died immediately.'
the East India Company
pushed forth
its agents
As the
forth its
the
Company pushed
agents the
fell
to
Portuguese
soon
fell
to
third
place
and
then
dropped
out
third
and
then
out
Portuguese
place
dropped
of the
the race;
race; while
penetrating to
to Iraq
itself
while the
the Dutch,
Dutch, penetrating
Iraq itself
;

6]
[25
[256]

RISE OF THE WEST

with
led the
the going.
with bigger
bigger ships
astute factors,
ships and more astute
factors, led
going.
Such trading
trading activities,
part
of
a
wider
merchant
a
wider merchant enterenteractivities, part of
in the
prise the
the world over,
resulted in
the West
\Vest laying
the
founfounthe
over, resulted
prise
laying
a
of greater
wealth
and
a
higher
standard
of
living
dations
dations of
standard
of
greater
higher
living
for itself,
trade rivalry
rivalry involved
political action
involved political
action and
itself, but trade
into the
brought the
the Ottoman Empire
the cockpit
\Vestern
of Western
Empire into
brought
cockpit of
diplomacy.
Trade
agreements
in
Constantinople,
in
made
agreements
diplomacy.
Constantinople,
been in
in their
their provision
provision
unexceptionable as
as they
unexceptionable
they may
may have been
for uniform customs duties
other equitable
equitable arrangeduties and other
arrangements, were of course not
not wholly
effective in
in the
the remoter
remoter
ments,
wholly effective
the
trader
provinces;
here
the
foreign
trader
prospered
most
who
foreign
provinces;
prospered
was he
he who bribed
the local
local authorities
handsomely.
bribed the
authorities most handsomely.
Thus, however regrettable
political pressure
pressure harnessed
harnessed
Thus,
regrettable political
to
appear
to
a
pious
interests may
a
to economic interests
to
armchair
may appear
pious armchair
affairs
student
affairs
today,
it
often
directed
student of foreign
it
was
often
directed
foreign
today,
against
in any
any case
the Western
\Vestern
case the
abuse, and in
against corruption
corruption or abuse,
nation
that sat
back in
those pioneering
pioneering days
privileges
sat back
in those
nation that
saw
days
privileges
and prosperity
prosperity pass
pass to
to others.
others.
In
the Indian Ocean the
the French next
next came to
to share
the
In the
share the
trade, but
but in
the eighteenth
century both
both were
were
in the
Dutch trade,
eighteenth century
the race
eclipsed by
by the
the British
race for
for the
the great
great market of
British in
in the
of
eclipsed
to
India. The East India
soon
to
the
govbecome
the
India Company,
India.
Company,
government of
began to
to dominate
dominate Arabian
Arabian waters;
waters;
of India,
India, now began
it set
putting down piracy
the coasts,
it
set about charting
coasts, putting
(in
piracy (in
charting the
later times
times slavery
and
gunrunning,
too)
and
planting
later
planting
gunrunning, too)
slavery
to proIndian
trading communities,
communities, with political
political agents
agents to
proIndian trading
tect them,
them, on the
the Persian
Gulf shores,
both make a
Persian Gulf
tect
shores, where both
to this
this day.
then prepreliving
British mechanical genius,
genius, then
day. British
living to
eminent
in
the
with
inventions
of
railways,
steamthe
with
of
inventions
in
world
eminent
railways,
exfurther extelegraphs, prepared
prepared the
the way
way for further
ships
ships and telegraphs,
came
steamer
British
On
the
high
seas
the
British
to
ploitation.
seas
the
the
high
ploitation.
take aa bigger
bigger share
carrying trade
trade at
at the
the expense
the carrying
share of the
take
expense
of
of the
native dhow,
the internal
internal waterways
waterways of
the native
of
dhow, and on the

[257
[257]]

THE ARABS
Iraq smaller
the personal
personal
British-owned vessels,
smaller British-owned
vessels, through
through the
Iraq
obtained
King "'\:Villiam
Parliament,
aa conconinterest of
William and Parliament,
of King
interest
as they
cession
to ply
for trade as
they have continued
continued to
to do down
cession to
ply for
such as this,
to
It was enterprise
going on the
this day.
to this
this, going
enterprise such
day. It
the foundations of our foreignworld over,
that laid
laid the
world
over, that
foreignin our present-day
is reflected
derived
income, which is
reflected in
present-day prosprosderived income,
and
diplomatic
prestige.
perity,
naval
power
naval
prestige.
diplomatic
power
perity,
the last
last century
the middle
middle of
century the Ottomans,
of the
From the
Ottomans, and
still
closer political
into still closer
with
the Arabs,
political
with them the
Arabs, were brought
brought into
entelegraph encontact
Britain through
with Britain
contact with
through new canal and telegraph
British
enline
terprises.
A
telegraph
line
was
constructed
by
British
enby
telegraph
terprises.
the
Turkish
Persian
gineers, under
under
auspices,
up the Persian
linking up
auspices, linking
gineers,
power of British
British
Gulf
Mediterranean, and the
the power
the Mediterranean,
with the
Gulf with
in
a
before
they
consular
grew
in
a
night.
\Vhereas
Whereas
consular agents
night.
they must
agents grew
authorities to
to the
the local
local authorities
to beg
beg trade
trade
come,
in hand,
hand, to
come, cap
cap in
their nationals,
direct and
favours
there was now direct
for their
favours for
nationals, there
instant
with India,
India, London and Constantinople,
touch with
instant touch
Constantinople, and
readier and firmer
they
found
themselves
armed
with
readier
with
firmer
themselves
found
they
to
local
obstacle-makers
concerning
the
'rights'
answers
answers to local obstacle-makers concerning the 'rights'
of
river navigators
navigators and even archaeologists.
of traders,
traders, river
archaeologists. A
a new kind of
arose from a
of local
local friction
friction arose
local
new kind
kind of
of local
balance of power.
official did
did not
balance
power. The native
not like
the fornative official
like the
forbetter on this
this account,
but he was
eign
representative any
account, but
eign representative
any better
the
the
amazing
efficiency
of
the
political
awed by
of
the
by
amazing efficiency
political organizaorganization behind
it was educa
ti ve.
tion
behind him
him; it
educative*
Of much wider political
political importance
the opening
of
importance was the
opening of
the Suez Canal in
in 1869,
the
by
the work of
of French engineers,
1869, the
engineers, by
which Egypt
to have aa new significance
Egypt and Turkey
Turkey came to
significance
Britain and India,
for Britain
for
India. Britain's
Britain's need
need to
to protect
protect the
the new
trade route to
to her
her greatest
India-the
most valvalthe most
market, India
greatest market,
uable
uable market in
in the
the world
world-led
her almost
to esled her
almost at
at once
esonce to
tablish a
a protectorate
tablish
protectorate along
a
strip
of
southwest
Arabian
a
of
southwest
Arabian
along strip
coast immediately
terricoast
a fringe
of Yemen terribehind Aden,
Aden, a
immediately behind
fringe of
;

8]
[25
[258]

RISE OF THE "VEST

WEST

tory where Turkey

suzerain. For Turkey,
Turkey was nominally
tory
nominally suzerain.
Turkey,
Arabian
coasts
too, the
the
coasts came to
to have an
an added
added importance,
importance,
too,
control where she
tightened her control
had aa footingand she tightened
she had
footing
Yemen
and
the
and
the
Yemen-and
extended
control
the Hijaz
extended
control where
where
Hijaz
not, thus
thus claiming
suzerainty
over
Kuwait
she
she had not,
and
claiming suzerainty over Kuwait and
into the mid-Persian
throwing
troops into
Gulf littoral
littoral at
mid-Persian Gulf
at Hasa
throwing troops
astride Bahrain. In deference
Qatar astride
deference to
to British
British susand Qatar
susnot
did
ceptibilities
she
did
not
press
her
cherished
pretensions
to
cherished
press
ceptibilities
pretensions to
Bahrain; indeed,
herself everywhere
everywhere
Bahrain;
indeed, Turkey
Turkey found herself
in the
thwarted in
the Persian Gulf by
by the
the older
older and wellwellBritish-Indian
parapetted
British-Indian
entrenchments.
Her
tiny
garrientrenchments.
parapetted
tiny garriher prestige
sons
did, however,
however, give
prestige with
with the
the two
two desert
sons did,
desert
give her
principalities
of
South
Nejd
(Ibn
Sa'ud)
Nejd
and
North
(Ibn
Nejd
Sa'ud)
principalities
Nejd
the
(Ibn
Rashid),
and
during
the
next
half-century,
down
to
next
to
during
(Ibn Rashid),
half-century,
the Great War, each of these
these from time
time to
to time
time turned
to
the
turned to
internal weakness or
or from fear
her
in moments of internal
fear of
her in
the
of the
as
other,
promising subjection
as
the
price
of
support.
But
the
of
But
other, promising
subjection
price
support.
these adventures
for
Turkey these
not pay,
pay, and
and her
her soldiers
did not
adventures did
for Turkey
soldiers
been driven
the Hasa province
province of
of the
the Persian
driven from the
Persian
had been
the Great "Var
Gulf by
by Ibn Sa'ud aa year
War descended
year before the
upon her.
her.
upon
Among
these new Western agencies
agencies it
it was railways,
railways,
Among these
however,
that were
were destined
to play
play greatest
greatest havoc
havoc with
destined to
with
however, that
Turkey's
future.
So
the
countries
backward
future.
were
the
countries
Arab
Turkey's
under the
the Turks that
to the
the end
end of
of the
the century
century they
under
that up
they
up to
forrailroad. This
This was not
not the
the fault
fault of forstill
possessed no railroad.
still possessed
in very
eign
railway magnates,
magnates, for
these in
very early
early days
for these
days had
eign railway
formed plans
plans of aa railroad
across Europe
Europe to
to India.
India. A
railroad across
in
the
middle
of the
the
similar
scheme
was
revived
in
London
in
the
middle
similar
revived in
nineteenth
to nought.
nought. In 1854
nineteenth century
but again
1854
again came to
century but
of
the
river
Lynch
and
Chesney,
British
pioneers
of
the
Iraq
river
British
Iraq
Chesney,
pioneers
Lynch
steamer
a more modest
modest and practicable
practicable
launched a
steamer enterprise
enterprise launched
to the
plan for
a short
short railway
railway from the
the
the Mediterranean to
for a
plan

[259 ]

THE ARABS

Euphrates, thence
thence to
up with the
the river
river boats
boats to
to the
the
link up
to link.
Euphrates,
a
million
of
Two
years
later
capital
of
a
million
sterling
Persian
Gulf.
Persian Gulf.
sterling
years later capital
was
for the
the Syrian
Trans-Desert
Railway
oversubscribed
oversubscribed
for
Railway
Syrian
in
government were quite
in the
of London. The Ottoman government
the city
quite
city of
the
to
to
the length
underfavourably
disposed
and
went
length of underfavourably disposed
writing six
six per
per cent
holding up
up the
the rival
rival
dividends and holding
cent dividends
writing
which
Canal
for
the
the
Suez
Canal
for
the
French
concession
the
Suez
for cutting
concession for
cutting
plans ready.
issue was decided
decided by
by extraneous
extraneous
had plans
ready. The issue
affairs. The Indian
Mutiny broke
broke out,
out, Britain
Britain required
required
Indian Mutiny
affairs.
in connection
the French in
Egypt in
certain concessions
in Egypt
certain
concessions from the
connection
with the
the movement of
British railway
British troops.
with
of British
troops. The British
railway
French
canal
project
was
dropped,
and
the
French
canal
project proprothe
project
project
dropped,
this railway
been built
built the
the recent
recent hisceeded with.
with. Had this
ceeded
hisrailway been
have
been
well
tory
of
the
Middle
East
might
well
different.
the
of
different.
might
tory
British
influence in
probably have
in Constantinople
British influence
have
Constantinople would probably
Russia and German influence
remained powerful
powerful despite
influence
remained
despite Russia
the chance
Turkey would then
then
been denied
denied the
chance of growing.
been
growing. Turkey
into
the
Great
War,
probably
have
escaped
being
drawn
into
have
the
Great
War,
escaped being
probably
in
which case
case the
in which
the Arab countries,
and
countries, Palestine,
Palestine, Syria
Syria and
dominion,
Iraq,
have
remained
under
under
would
remained
Ottoman
dominion,
Iraq,
not built,
built, and
possibly to
to this
this day.
the railway
and
possibly
railway was not
day. But the
in the
the eighties
British
influence
in
Turkey
began
to
decline
in
Influence
in
to
British
decline
eighties
Turkey began
way was opened
opened to
to Germany,
under Mr Gladstone.
under
Gladstone. The way
Germany,
building all
all Turkey's
Turkey's railways.
and she
she was soon at
at work building
railways.
the
In 1885
the
Balkan
Railway
was
completed
to ConstantiConstanti1885
completed to
Railway
last twelve
twelve years
years of
of the
the century
nople;
nople during
during the last
century German
into existence
engineers brought
brought into
railway system
the railway
of
existence the
engineers
system of
Asia Minor;
in
the
present
century
the
Pilgrim
in
the
the
Minor; and early
early
present century
Pilgrim
of Arabia to
to Medina. (See
Railway down the
the western
western side
side of
Railway
(See
277.)
map,
page 277.)
map, page
It was not
local internal
internal railways,
It
not local
however-these
in
these in
railways, however
enough-but
projects
for
political
eyes
were
harmless
harmless
but
a
political eyes
enough
projects for a
major interest
interest for
the
strategic
railway that
that came to
to have
have major
for the
strategic railway
;

[260
[260]]

RISE OF THE WEST

great Western Powers. Round about

about the
the opening
opening of
the
of the
great
these
various
the Russian
Russian
present century
projects, first
first the
century these various projects,
present
Minor
for
a
railway
from
Asia
l\linor
to
the
Persian
Gulf,
plan
to
the
Persian
railway
Gulf,
plan
for a
a railway
then the
the German scheme for
then
Constantirailway from ConstantiPersian
the
had
to
to
the
Gulf,
alarming
significance
nople
for
Gulf,
nople
alarming significance for
these powers
Britain. Both of these
powers were known to
to cherish
cherish EastBritain.
Eastas the
Britain as
the one
one great
great Middle
Middle East
East
ern ambitions,
ambitions, and Britain
ern
herself
imperial
Power
conceived
herself
challenged.
Russia
lay
Russia
imperial
challenged.
lay
to
Persia
the north,
north, so
that
contiguous to Persia and Afghanistan
in the
so that
Afghanistan in
contiguous
via the
the land
land threat
threat to
to India
India via
the northwest
northwest frontier,
frontier, totothe
this
with
sea
gether
with
this
foreshadowed
sea
threat
by
way
of
the
threat
the
of
gether
by way
Persian Gulf made a formidable
the
formidable combination.
Persian
Since the
combination. Since
Russia had,
however, been
been engaged
engaged in
in
Crimean War Russia
had, however,
other
tussles with Turkey,
and
the
rumours
of
the
Turkish
the
rumours
of
other tussles
the
Turkish
Turkey,
to the
the Russians proved,
proved, in
railway
concession to
in the
the event,
event,
railway concession
to lack
lack substance.
substance. The apprehension
that it
it gave
to,
rise to,
to
apprehension that
gave rise
India
seek
led the
the government
of
India
to
seek
a
closer
rehowever,
to
recloser
however, led
government
the
the Arab port
port at
at the
the head of
lationship
with Kuwait,
of the
Kuwait, the
lationship with
a
Persian
Gulf-the
natural
terminus
for
a
strategic
railGulf
the
natural
terminus
for
railPersian
strategic
way-where
not been
been recognized,
recognized,
where Turkish suzerainty
way
suzerainty had not
and under
under an agreement
then
made
the
ruler
undertook
to
the
undertook
to
then
ruler
agreement
give
no
such
concession
to
any
foreign
state.
such
concession
to
state.
any foreign
give no
the more alarming
Meanwhile Turkey
alarming
granted the
Turkey had granted
in the
the
to
Germany,
and
the
fat
in
railway
concession
and
the
fat
was
to
concession
Germany,
railway
activities
of
of
enemy
submarine
activities
fire.
fire. The future
future possibility
enemy
possibility
time of war was aa less
real menace
in the
less real
In
in time
the Indian
Indian Ocean in
as time
oil fields,
than the
the threat
threat to
to the
the Persian
fields, which,
which, as
than
Persian oil
and
eventually
formed
aa main
went on,
were
developing
were
went
and
on,
eventually
developing
internaBritain's oil
The
interplay
of
internasource
oil supply.
source of
of Britain's
interplay
supply.
activities
these activities
tional politics
politics in
countries which these
in the
tional
the Arab countries
the
Arabs.
They
saw
signs
and
involved
Arabs.
lost upon
the
involved was not
not lost
signs
They
upon
their
tokens
that presaged
presaged aa great
great war,
war, aa war with which their
tokens that
to be
be bound up.
up.
national destinies
own national
destinies were to

[261 ]

THE ARABS
These great
contending forces
the West were nations.
nations.
of the
forces of
These
great contending
in the
sustained in
Their
mighty activities
were inspired
the
activities were
Their mighty
inspired and sustained
name of
of nationalism.
Western nationalism
began to
to have
nationalism began
nationalism. Western
name
at the
aa curious
the Arabs.
the botbotArabs. What was at
for the
fascination for
curious fascination
tom of
of the
the political
political organization
which seemed to
to have
have all
all
tom
organization which
the solidarity
of
the
tribe?
It
a
small,
compact
unit,
aa
It
was
a
tribe?
of
the
the
small,
unit,
compact
solidarity
homogeneous
group
speaking
one
common
tongue.
Despite
one
tongue. Despite
homogeneous group speaking
their common religion
religion the
the Western nations
nations were seen
seen to
to
their
be
conscious
of
its
own
interests,
anxious
to
anxious
to
of
its
conscious
each acutely
be each
interests,
acutely
for its
maintain independent
zealous for
preits own premaintain
existence, zealous
independent existence,
Arabs'
This
not
at
all
like
the
Arabs'
own
Middle
eminence.
the
like
all
at
was
This
not
eminence.
East
tradition where
where Turks,
Arabs, Kurds,
Kurds, etc.,
etc., were
were
East tradition
Turks, Arabs,
a
loosely
grouped
within
an
Islamic
framework-a
heteroframework
heteroan
Islamic
within
loosely grouped
speaking many
many tongues.
tongues. True
geneous
of peoples
collection of
peoples speaking
geneous collection
their
own
Ottoman
Empire
no
longer
held together
together
was
their
longer held
Empire
by
religion but
by the
the sword,
though aa general
attitude of
but by
of
sword, though
general attitude
by religion
mind that
that encouraged
unity
a
legacy
of
its
was
a
Moslem
of
its
mind
unity
legacy
encouraged
tradition. The caliphate,
however, in
in its
its ideological
tradition.
form,
ideological form,
caliphate, however,
had perished
perished in
wherein Moslems fought
in the
the wars wherein
fought Moslems
for dynastic
power, when the
the empire
lems for
into fragempire split
split into
dynastic power,
fragthree caliphs
could
rule
in
different
parts
ments
and two or
or three
ments and
could
rule
different
in
caliphs
parts
of
the world
world at
phase of
temporal rule
at the
of the
the same time.
time. A phase
of temporal
rule
had come.
come. He was the
the ruler
ruler who could
could impose
his will.
will.
impose his
'The sovereign
has aa right
to
govern,'
declared
the
fourdeclared
to
fourthe
sovereign has
govern/
right
Damascus,
teenth-century
jurist, Ibn
of Damascus,
Ibn Jama'ah
teenth-century Moslem jurist,
Jama' ah of
'until another and stronger
'until
shall
oust
him
from
power,
shall
oust
and
stronger
power, and
rule
stead. The latter
rule in
in his
his stead.
will rule
rule by
by the
title and
latter will
the same title
and
20 *
will
will have
have to
to be
be acknowledged
on
the
grounds.'20*
the
same
acknowledged
grounds.'
did not
Tradition did
not require
require that
that the
blood of
the rulers
the blood
of the
rulers
should be
be that
that of the
the people.
It
was
a
state
of
things
where
a state of things where
people. It
It was politically
it
politically acceptable
to render
render unto
Cesar the
the
unto Caesar
acceptable to
that are Cresar's.
realism of
of the
the age
recognized
things that
Csesar's. The realism
things
age recognized
that authority
authority fundamentally
and of
right rests
of right
rests on force.
force.
fundamentally and

[262
[262]]

RISE OF THE WEST

The late
\Vestern conception
the rights
of nations
late Western
of the
nations
conception of
rights of
to independent
independent existence
as being
based on
the homohomo
existence as
to
on the
being based
geneous
cultural
group
speaking
one
tongue
was
thus
out.
cultural
one
was
thus
outgroup speaking
geneous
tongue
the Middle East tradition.
In the
the East
East the
traditional
side
tradition. In
side the
the traditional
the sceptre
penalties of
of challenging
held the
did not
not
challenging him who held
penalties
sceptre did
encourage
the growth
growth of
political self-consciousness
of political
self-consciousness among
encourage the
among
The
minority elements,
less of
of separatist
elements, much less
movements. The
minority
separatist movements.
tradition
imperial
Islamic
tradition
wider
than
nationalism,
Islamic
was
wider than nationalism,
imperial
of diverse
race and
and tongue
tongue into
com.
compelling
diverse race
into a
a comcompelling men of
mon hegemony;
thus
the
early
triumph
of
rvIiddle
East
the
thus
of
Middle
East
hegemony;
early triumph
civilization
under the
the Turks had placed
placed Arabs,
Arabs, Armenians,
Armenians,
civilization under
Assyrians, Kurds,
Kurds, Bulgars,
Bulgars, Greeks
Greeks and
rest under
under the
and the
the rest
the
Assyrians,
caliphs
of
Constantinople,
and
none
at
first
wished
or
of
none
at
first
or
wished
Constantinople,
caliphs
dared
to contest
their authority.
contest their
dared to
authority.
In the
individual nations
nations dethe other
other hand,
the West,
In
deWest, on the
hand, individual
their political
political institutions
institutions out
veloped their
out of
their inner
of their
coninner con
veloped
history, their
their literature,
their
sciousness,
by their
their history,
sciousness, shaped
literature, their
shaped by
temper,
their
economic
advantage.
Such
groups,
geo
their
Such
advantage.
temper,
groups, geoethnically compact,
compact, developed
developed and gained
graphically
graphically and ethnically
gained
Their
population
increased,
and
to
support
them
strength.
to
and
increased,
population
strength.
support themselves
they must expand
expand and
and in
times find
in later
later times
find ever
ever fresh
fresh
selves they
for their
their manufactures
manufactures and commerce.
commerce. The 'Vestoutlets
outlets for
Western
and mastered
mastered the
world-the
the
the world
out and
nations ranged
ern nations
ranged out
Americas,
India,
Australasia,
Africa-and
even
the
Otand
even
the
Africa
OtAmericas, India, Australasia,
toman Empire
Empire itself
not free
penetrating
their penetrating
itself was not
free from their
century the
were
enterprises.
the Turks were
the late
late eighteenth
eighteenth century
enterprises. By
By the
11
having
to
look
to
their
laurels
and
in
the
early
nineteenth
nineteenth
the
to
laurels
in
look
their
to
early
having
Prussian model;
were organizing
organizing their
their army
modeJ; they
they
the Prussian
army on the
the
methorder
to
survive,
to
adopt
the
methwere
being
driven,
in
to
to
were being driven, in order
survive,
adopt
ods
of aa modern world
world that
that was enveloping
them. And so
ods of
enveloping them*
the
the Near East
1Proiessor
Temperley in
in his
his work England
England and the
East-the
Professor Temperley
in the
Crimea
has some
references to
to the
the caliphate
the nineteenth
nineteenth cencensome new references
Crimea has
caliphate in
37*
tury.""
tury.

[263]

THE ARABS
with other
other aspects
aspects of
of the
the empire's
empire's political
political life.
life. 'The rerewith
never
a
Professor Gibb,
Gibb, 'were
'were
given a fair
fair
formers,' says
says Professor
given
formers/
chance .., the
the highest
highest Authorities
Authorities (i.e.
(i.e. Sultans
Sultans and relirelichance
gious leaders)
leaders) were unwilling
unwilling to
to do anything
anything which might
might
gious
of
the
mass
of
Moslem
the support
support of the
alienate from them the
alienate
opinion.
opinion.

the Sacred
they desire
desire to
to abolish
abolish slavery
slavery-the
Sacred
Did they

of Islam
Islam recognizes
recognizes it.
it. Did they
they desire
desire to
to give
give equality
equality
Law of
on
the
insists
of
status
to
all
citizens-the
insists
the
political
Law
of status to all citizens the
political
of non-Moslems.
non-Moslems. Did they
they desire
desire to
to reform
subordination of
subordination
the Law will
the administration
administration of
of justice
justice-the
will not tolerate
tolerate
the
to
desire
create
Did
any
code
other
than
itself.
they
desire
to
create
parliitself.
they
parliany code other than
such and
institutions-the
nothing of such
amentary institutions
the Law knows nothing
amentary
on
And
so
admits no
no right
right of
so
on;
every
point
of legislation.
admits
on;
every point
legislation.
a
with
in
the
name
the
reformers
with
a
negative
in
the
of
met
were
reformers
the
negative
31 *
the
Divine Ordinances
Islam.'31*
of Islam.'
Ordinances of
the Divine
As time
time went
went on,
however,
both the
the army
army and the
the adadon, however, both
into
line
to be brought
more
into
line
with
Westministration had to
ministration
with
brought
ern
practice. But the rigid
ern practice.
at
rigid self-discipline
self-discipline which was at
the
the Western technique
technique was largely
largely wanting
the bottom of
of the
wanting
in the
natural and appropriate
in
the East.
East. What was natural
in the
the
appropriate in
the East.
the wealth,
East. Still
Still the
West was alien
the power,
alien in
in the
the
wealth, the
power, the

prestige,
the achievements
the West continued
achievements of the
continued to
to apply
prestige, the
apply
in
the
results
argued
in
favour
of
the
West.
the spur.
Western
results
favour
of
the
spur.
argued
it seemed,
Western political
political principles,
be right;
seemed, must be
principles, it
right;
hence nationalism
nationalism became a contagion.
Greece, Roumania,
Roumania,
contagion. Greece,
countries in
Bulgaria,
in Europe
Bulgaria, Albania and other countries
Europe one by
by
able to
Ottoman
fetters.
one had been able
to throw off
off their
their
fetters.
into Asia.
Asia. As the
Nationalism spread
the empire
crumspread into
empire had crumIn Europe
its
so
in
under
its
inHuence,
so
in
Asia
it
could
only
bled in
it
could
influence,
Europe
only
to disintegration.
The
first
Asiatic
groups
to
be
lead to
first
Asiatic
afdisintegration.
groups to be afChristian minorities
fected were the Christian
minorities of
of Armenia and
and elseelsewhere who were conscious
conscious of Near East
East rather
rather than
than Middle East traditions.
traditions. In her treatment
dle
treatment of
of these
these minorities
minorities

r 26Ll. 1

RISE OF THE WEST

\VEST
little to fear from her
Turkey
her European
neighbours,
Turkey had little
European neighbours,
to
their
and her resistance
resistance to their aspirations,
their seditious
seditious
or their
aspirations, or
activities,
the form of massacres.
massacres. The conventional
conventional
activities, took the
view that
that the
the Turkish massacres
massacres were primarily
primarily religious
view
religious
in the
seems to
to have been too lightly
accepted
past. It
is
the past.
It is
lightly accepted in
more probable
probable that at root they
they were political
political (despite
(despite
close identity
the
the close
identity between religion
religion and politics
politics in
in the
the IsIsat least
least is
is suggested
lamic tradition).
tradition). This at
by
Turkey's
suggested by Turkey's

in the
the early
own conciliatory
policy in
Indeed for
the
for the
conciliatory policy
early days.
days. Indeed
first two and a half
centuries of Ottoman rule,
first
half centuries
before
rule, before
its head and made the
nationalism
the Turks feel
nationalism raised
raised its
insefeel insecure,
considerable tolerance
tolerance and allowed
allowed
cure, they
they had shown considerable
measure of
minorities
minorities to enjoy
of autonomy
enjoy a commendable measure
autonomy
loose medieval form of government.
under a loose
never
government. They
They never
forced Islam on their
their newly
newly acquired
subjects,
though
acquired subjects, though
in traditional
Christians as
in
traditional Moslem style
as
style they
regarded Christians
they regarded
caste. Most of their
an inferior
inferior caste.
possessionstheir Balkan possessions
Bosnia, Bulgaria,
Bulgaria, Albania
Albania (Hungary
emBosnia,
(Hungary excepted)
excepted) -emtheir own free
free will
faith of
braced of their
will the
the faith
the dominant
braced
of the
the Turks and reverted
if later
race, and if
later they
they expelled
reverted to
to
race,
expelled the
Christianity
they
did
so
under
influence
and
with
so
did
influence
with
Western
Christianity they
Western military
military support.
It was the
the later
later Turkey,
driven
Turkey, driven
support. It
to resist
resist weakness within
by force
hercircumstances to
within herforce of circumstances
by
tendencies
self,
tendencies
with
abominable
masthat met separatist
self, that
separatist
sacres.
sacres.
Christian 'religious
have seen,
times Christian
in the
earliest times
As we have
the earliest
seen, in
'religious
state so
within
the
Islamic
minorities'
'protection'
within
the
Islamic
state
minorities' enjoyed
enjoyed 'protection*
a
long
as
they
submissive
and
paid
a
small
supertax.
were
submissive
as
supertax.
paid
long
they
a different
different way
But the
the Middle East tradition
with
tradition had a
way with
for treason
'political
way for
treason against
a hard way
minorities*, a
against the
'political minorities',
to be
state.
political absolutism
absolutism minorities
minorities claiming
state. Under political
claiming to
as
were
not
as
respectable
as
they
different
as
not
were
different and opposed
they are
respectable
opposed
Public opinion
in
Western democratic
opinion expected
states. Public
democratic states.
in Western
expected

265 ]
[[265]

THE ARABS
strong
action and applauded
minority,
applauded resolute men. The minority,
strong action
Haunting
its racial
racial and religious
differences, was regarded
regarded
religious differences,
flaunting its
as
for
extirpation.
The
recent
Iraqi
massacre
of
for
as asking
Iraqi
extirpation.
asking
militant
to
Assyrians-to
the
Iraqis
the
Assyrians
were
a
militant
the
Assyrians
Iraqis
Assyrians
is in
in some respects
and extremely
minority
respects
extremely provocative
provocative minority-is
If England
tradition. If
in
in the
the same political
England and Ireland had
political tradition.
civilization instead
instead of
of
formed parts
a Middle East civilization
of a
parts of
to
\Vestern
civilization the
the world would have had reason to
Western civilization
in no sense said
is in
said as
as
expect
reactions. This is
similar reactions.
expect some similar
for
for
or
against
the
spread
of
Western
an argument
spread
against
argument
as inevitable
inevitable as the spread
well be as
nationalism,
nationalism, which may
spread
may well
its Western democratic
taste or
disease. But its
of taste
or culture
culture or
or disease.
untravelled Westfor granted
forms that
that are
are taken for
granted by
by untravelled
erners do not
consciousness in
in
not form part
of
the
common
consciousness
erners
part
to
the
the
Middle
nor
do
they
governing
the
East,
East,
they appeal
appeal to the governing
class where affection
affection for
for strong
strong and just
just and benevolent
benevolent
class
in the
historical tradition.
the historical
is more in
personal dictatorship
tradition.
personal
dictatorship is
If the
the 'ivVestern
seeks with keen devotion
the
If
devotion the
Western democrat seeks
universal
his political
universal acceptance
political deities,
if
deities, he should,
should, if
acceptance of his
he abjures
learn to
abjures the
the sword,
to be
be patient.
patient.
sword, learn
The spread
spread of
of Western nationalism
nationalism to
to the
the Arab councountries
the Turks properly
properly belongs
belongs to
to the
the present
present
tries under
under the
small literate
the small
literate class
class became genuinely
genuinely
century,
century, when the
not the
the agricultural
masses. The latter
latter
converted but
but not
agricultural masses.
in
in many
many provinces,
provinces, notably
notably those
those of
of Iraq,
Iraq, had reverted
reverted
to
to aa social
social culture
culture not
not much in
in advance
advance of
of the
the deserts
deserts and
and
were not
former-the
townsfolk
not nationally
nationally minded.
minded. The former
the townsfolk
of their
their historic
historic medieval
medieval traditions,
traditions,
retaining something
something of
retaining
and educated
educated in
in Turkish-speaking
Turkish-speaking schools
schools-had
the
had on the
other
other hand more in
in common with
with the
the Turks of
of the
the ruling
ruling
than with
with their
their own kith
kith
class, their
their Sunni
Sunni coreligionists,
coreligionists, than
class,
and kin
kin who followed
followed the
the plough
plough and
and the
the Persian
Persian sectaries.
sectaries.
to take
take as
as an
an example
example the
the Turkish-administered
Turkish-administered
Iraq, to
Iraq,

[266 ]
[266]

\VEST
RISE OF THE WEST

learned to
to know well,
had this
this cultural
cultural diArab country
dicountry II learned
well, had
the urban dwellers
vision between the
tribally minded
minded
vision
dwellers and
and tribally
fellahin.
fellahin.
To the
the Arab townsman the
the Turk was
no foreign
tyrant.
was no
foreign tyrant.
The Ottoman Empire
not narrowly
narrowly Turkish
Turkish in
in spirit
spirit;
Empire was not
it was a loosely
it
administered hegemony
hegemony of
of diverse
provdiverse provloosely administered
local governor
if the
the local
governor and
local general
and
inces,
and the
the local
inces, and if
general and
like were appointed
the
from
Constantinople,
they
were
the like
appointed
Constantinople, they were
Turkish blood.
Arabs-generally
by no means always
always of Turkish
blood* Arabs
by
generally
Kurds
from Syria-Kurds
and
even
Cretans
came,
indifferently
even
Cretans
came, indifferently
Syria
to administer
the provinces
provinces of
with Turks,
with
administer the
of Iraq.
Turks, to
Iraq.
till recent
The Turks,
recent times
times tribesmen
tribesmen themselves,
themselves,
Turks, till
means
were by
no
inexpert
handlers
of
the
Arab
tribeshandlers
of
the
tribesinexpert
by
They understood,
if
they
no
longer
sympaman either.
either. They
if
no
understood,
they
longer sympathized with,
the wayward
point of
view that
that resented
resented any
any
thized
of view
with, the
wayward point
their own careless
careless medieval
medieval
close
government control;
close government
control; their
methods were indeed well
well suited
to the
taste of
tribes.
suited to
the taste
of the
the tribes.
These enjoyed
much
freedom
from
authority,
and
in the
the
in
enjoyed
authority,
exercised through
through their
their own local
early days
local
days authority
authority was exercised
early
the
Kurdish
aghas
in
the
north
or
the
aristocracy,
such
as
as
or
such
the
Kurdish
the
north
In
the
aristocracy,
aghas
Sa'adun
amirs in
the south.
in the
south.
Sa'adun amirs
It
the Turks began
began to
to 'improve*
'improve' their
adtheir adIt was when the
ministrative machine
machine on
on Western lines
lines and
a"nd with
with Western
ministrative
lost and they
applause
the old
personal touch
they
touch was lost
that the
old personal
applause that
the
with
to
think
grew
less
popular.
They
come
to
think
with
the
had
grew less popular. They
an efficient
machine was an
administrative machine
efficient administrative
that an
West that
personal rule.
to rereeffective
rule. The fez was to
for personal
substitute for
effective substitute
be
the
turban,
the
literate
townsman
to
be
promoted
at
place
to
the
literate
the
turban,
promoted at
place
conditions
the
But
the
expense
of
the
local
aristocrat.
the
conditions
the expense of the local aristocrat.
Western regime
regime were wanting.
wanting. The bulk
bulk
necessary for
a Western
for a
necessary
of
population were tribesmen
not impressed
by
tribesmen and not
the population
of the
impressed by
sense
If
nor
attracted
by
bureaucrats.
If
they
had
a
sense
literacy
bureaucrats.
attracted
they
by
literacy nor
lacked a
area they
of
the well-being
their tribe
tribe or
their area
they lacked
a
or their
of their
of the
well-being of
;

267]
[[267]

THE ARABS
closer control
control only
sense
of national
national public
public weal.
weal. Threat of closer
sense of
only
influence
the
under
hardened
their
opposition,
and
under
the
influence
of
their
of their
hardened their opposition,
Shi'a
they found religious
religious justification
justification for
for disputing
Shi'a divines
divines they
disputing
on
them for
The
demand
the claims
claims of
inSunni caliphs.
for inthe
of Sunni
caliphs.
their
to
intensified
creased taxes
taxes only
intensified
their
opposition
to
paying
creased
opposition
only
paying
taxes
their rice
rice fields
fields why
If they
taxes at
at all.
all. If
they wanted water for their
why
if this
this did flood
Hood highshouldn't
they cut
canals? And what if
cut canals?
shouldn't they
highgreater consideration
consideration for
ways? Food was an older
older and greater
for
ways?
than wheeled
wheeled traffic,
indeed, they
they had no
for which,
them than
which, indeed,
traffic, for
need at
all.
at all.
need
The agents
the Arab townstownsof Ottoman authority
authority were the
agents of
men,
fit only,
only, so
to scribble
scribble at
at their
their
tribesmen thought,
so the
the tribesmen
men, fit
thought, to
taxes.
This local
official class
class had greatly
taxes. This
local official
deteriorated
greatly deteriorated
deficient in
since
the old
old days.
It, too,
in the
the sense
since the
sense of
of
too, was deficient
days. It,
public
service,
and
chiefly
preoccupied
with
the
need
of
with
the
of
chiefly preoccupied
public service,
making
a precarious
precarious living.
too, identified
identified the
the public
It, too,
living. It,
public
making a
good
with the
the good
its own class.
class. Flooding
Flooding public
public highgood with
good of its
highdid
not
not
to
be
tolerated.
And
did
not
evasion
of taxes
taxes
ways
was
not
to
tolerated.
be
ways
prove that
that the
the tribesmen
tribesmen were enemies
enemies of
of the
the state
state??
.
prove
In
the year
year 1869
In the
Turkish
Pasha, a famous Turkish
1869 came Midhat Pasha,
wali,
to Baghdad,
to break
break the
the tribes
tribes once
once for
for
wall, to
Baghdad, determined to
all. To this
this end he
he introduced
land
reform
all.
introduced an ingenious
ingenious land reform
which conferred
proprietary right
right on the
the indiindiconferred a
a form of
of proprietary
vidual
the tribe,
hereditary lease,
lease, on easy
vidual members of the
a hereditary
tribe, a
easy
calculated to
to wean tribesmen
tribesmen from local
local allegiances.
allegiances.
terms,
terms, calculated
Though
partly effective,
enduring to
to this
this day,
its sucsuceffective, and enduring
Though partly
day, its
cess was hindered
Midhat's less
less judicious
judicious measures
measures to
cess
hindered by
to
by Midhat's
the
tribes.
conscript
the
tribes.
Hence
those
might
have
been
those
who
have
been
conscript
might
coaxed into
into aa closer
by the
the seductive
closer allegiance
seductive appeal
of
allegiance by
appeal of
property in
in land must keep
keep their
their distance
distance to
to aavoid
void being
property
being
off to
to force
whipped
to governforce a neighbour's
submission to
whipped off
neighbour's submission
government's
ment's revenue
revenue demands or lured
lured away
to
fight
to
the RusRusaway
fight the
might
be!
sians,
whoever
they
sians,
they might be
!

[268 ]

RISE OF THE 'VEST

WEST

The methods by
the Turks made their
their higher
by which the
higher
were
no
appointments
more promising
of success
success than
than
appointments
promising of
the ethical
ethical standards of
were the
of local
local subordinate
subordinate employees.
employees.
Corruption
to bottom.
bottom. The very
Corruption ran from top
exalted,
top to
very exalted,
their appointments
such as goyernors,
in ConCongovernors, bought
bought their
appointments in
a short-term
stantinople,
short-term lease,
and came
to
came to
stantinople, usually
lease, and
usually on a
to
the
the Arab provinces
to
make
the
investment
profitable.
investment
provinces
profitable.
to tax
Taxation was locally
auctioned to
tax farmers,
also
farmers, who also
locally auctioned
local subordinate
must make good.
subordinate Arab official
official reregood. The local
and
restored
to
takceived inadequate
restored
to
takinadequate and irregular
irregular pay
pay
bribes. The police
local garrison,
ing
their uniform
uniform
ing bribes.
police and local
garrison, their
their pay
in arrears,
shabby,
must be nimble
nimble with
with
arrears, must
shabby, their
pay often in
their muskets--these
muskets these often
their
of various
often of
various pattern-to
pattern to bully
bully
extort a
a living.
and extort
in theory
-who in
took
officials, -who
living. Customs officials,
theory took
cent
an eight
per
cent
tax,
were
quite
ready
to
reduce
the
to
reduce
the burburtax,
eight per
quite ready
in accordance with
to the
den to
the importer
with the
the size
size of
the
of the
importer in
the
table.
In
short
there
was
consideration passed
consideration
under
the
In
short
there
table.
passed
service of the
wanting that
that public
public spirit
in the
the service
the state
which
state which
spirit in
wanting
a sense
sense of personal
springs
personal security
loyalty
springs from a
security and from loyalty
to clean
clean and proud
proud traditions,
traditions, features
features which
which made
to
safe in
bureaucratic government
government safe
in the
the West. Thus Westbureaucratic
in
Turco-Arab
ern
panaceas
compounded
in
a
dispensary
a
ern panaceas compounded
dispensary
brought little
little health
health to
to the
the extremities
extremities of
of the
the sick
sick man of
of
brought
that
Turkish
rule
Europe.
This
is
not
to
suggest
that
rule
gave
to
is
not
This
gave
suggest
Europe.
for strong
strong local
local dissatisfaction.
dissatisfaction. It
It was too
too light
light
grounds for
grounds
to be
be irksome.
irksome. If
government is
is aa necessary
necessary evil,
evil, aa feeble
feeble
to
If government
evil is
is better
better than
than aa virile
virile one
one; in
in the
the measure of
of its
its weakevil
it was tolerable
tolerable to
to the
the tribesmen;
tribesmen; the
the
ness and
and inefficiency
inefficiency it
ness
his
burden
had
the
means
of
lightening
his
by
his
taxpayer
of lightening
the
by his
taxpayer
ingenuity; the
the petty
petty Arab official
official was not
not unhappy
unhappy
own ingenuity;
under aa system
system which
which was the
the only
only one he understood.
understood.
under
authority varied
varied not
not only
only from decade
decade to
to dedeOttoman authority
the
within
but
cade with
with the
the personality
personality of
of the
the wali,
waIi, but within the
cade
;

[ 269 ]
[269]

ARABS
THE ARABS

country from
from town
town to
to town
town and
and from
from tribe
tribe to
to tribe.
tribe. There
There
country
was control
control in
in the
the towns,
towns, aa light
light hand
hand on
on the
the surroundsurroundwas
ing
tribes,
a
faint
supervision
often
vanishing
altogether
often
a
faint
vanishing
altogether
supervision
ing tribes,
among remote
remote marsh
marsh Arabs.
Arabs. Thus my
my own immediate
immediate
among
postwar district
district of
of the
the Middle
:Middle Gharraf
Gharraf (the
(the ancient
ancient
postwar
Lagash),
midway
between
Tigris
and
Euphrates,
and
had
between
Euphrates,
Tigris
Lagash), midway
ceased to
to be
be administered
administered by
by the
the Turks
Turks ten
ten years
years before
before
ceased
the war
war because
because of
of their
their inability
inability to
to collect
collect revenues,
revenues, and
the
three of
of my
my Turkish
Turkish predecessors,
predecessors, who were too
too intent
intent
three
on revenue
revenue collection,
collection, had
had been
been murdered.
murdered. Taxation
Taxation was
on
not uniform
uniform in
in Arab
Arab provinces
provinces of
of the
the Iraq,
Iraq, but
but then
then it
it
not
never had
had been,
been, and
and nobody
nobody expected
expected it
it to
to be.
be. The area
area
never
under control
control must
must pay
pay virtually
virtually aa dozen times
times the
the
under
amount
that could
could be
be wheedled
wheedled out
out of
of the
the inaccessible
inaccessible
amount that
tribes
tribes

who indeed
often refused
refused to
to pay
pay anything.
anything. Arrears
Arrears
indeed often
mounted
up, and
then would
would come aa time
time when the
the sum
and then
mounted up,
owing
must either
weakly be
be abandoned on grounds
either weakly
of
grounds of
owing must
at
political
expediency
or
an
attempt
be
at
collection
made
be
collection
an
or
attempt
political expediency
the Turks the
by
of a
a punitive
the dedecolumn. Under the
means of
by means
punitive column.
ciding
factor
was
a
simple
arithmetical
sum,
on
which
arithmetical
factor
a
which
sum,
ciding
simple
side
account was a
a balance
loss account
side of
of the
the profit
balance to
to be
be
profit and loss
expected.
The
effect
on
public
morality
was
scarcely
salueffect
expected.
public morality
scarcely salutary.
tary.
The administration
administration of
the law
law was various.
of the
various. The tribes
tribes
were left
their ancient
left to
to their
ancient canons
canons or
their Shi'a
Shi'a sanctions;
or their
sanctions
the
the Ottoman law of
the towns,
of the
based largely
on the
the
towns, based
largely on
or
qadhi.
Napoleonic
judge
administered by
or
code, was administered
Napoleonic code,
by judge
qadhi.
Justice
could usually
sold. Yet however
Justice could
bought and sold.
usually be bought
illicit influence
much illicit
influence and bribery
were brought
to bear,
bear,
bribery were
brought to
the tendency
the
towards getting
the
always towards
tendency was nearly
nearly always
getting the
off.
prisoner
off.
There
was
humanity
in
it.
Custom
allowed
in
it.
allowed
prisoner
humanity
the relatives
of the
the
relatives of
the prisoner
to bring
his meals,
prisoner to
meals,
bring him his
the underpaid
which the
to share,
a practice
underpaid jailer
share, a
jailer was pleased
pleased to
practice
;

[270
[270]]

RISE OF THE WEST

'VEST
that
that encouraged
encouraged friendly
friendly relations
relations and
and was
was suited
suited to
to the
the
free
free and easy
easy ways
ways of
of the
the people;
people; while
while quarantine
quarantine
officials, where these
these existed,
existed, were
were never
never so
so vexatiously
vexatiously
officials,

stand in
in the
the way
way of
of the
the truly
truly understanding.
understanding.
efficient as to stand
in
But in the
present century
century aa generation
generation of
of Arabs
Arabs was
was
the present
growing up
up dissatisfied
dissatisfied with
with the
the Turkish
Turkish connection.
connection.
growing
the influence
influence of
of Western thought,
thought, achievement,
achievement, exexUnder the
the
ample,
the
intelligentsia
was
becoming
growingly
Arab
intelligentsia
ample,
becoming growingly
of the
the poverty
poverty and backwardness
backwardness of
of their
their native
native
aware of
the Turks and saw before
before their
their eyes
eyes the
the growgrowlands under
under the
lands
of
under
ing
prosperity
of
Egypt,
under
'\Vestern
guidance.
Western
ing prosperity
Egypt,
guidance. The
official elements
elements among
among them had tried
tried loyally
loyally to
to cocoofficial
in
operate
in
the
policy
of
the
Committee
of
Union
the
reform
of
the
Committee
Union
of
operate
policy
Progress which
which promised
promised so
and from
from which
which
so much and
and Progress
they
at
first
had
hopes
of
greater
autonomy,
but
hopes of greater autonomy, but when
they at first
the young
young Turks,
in the
association
the strength
the
derived from association
Turks, in
strength derived
to
to
steer
an
opposite
course,
with Germany,
seemed
steer
with
the
Germany,
opposite course, the
Arabs of
fell
more
away.
They
their
fell
and
of Iraq
more
had
their
Arabs
Iraq
away. They
Umaiyyad and Abbasid
Abbasid traditions
traditions to
to inspire
own proud
inspire
proud Umaiyyad
them.
them.
a tiny
But these
politically minded Arabs were but
but a
fracthese politically
tiny fraction of
illiterate
f ellahin were illiterate
of the
the fellahin
of the
the people.
tion
people. The mass of
and
to
nationalist
sentiment.
They
had
drifted
drifted
sentiment.
to
nationalist
and apathetic
They
apathetic
all
at all
wanted
no
government
back to
tribal culture,
to a
a rude
rude tribal
back
culture,
government at
bigger
than
their
tribal
unit.
Most
of
them
would
have
of
tribal
unit.
bigger than their
wished
left alone,
free from any
all to
to be left
above all
wished above
alone, free
any bureautheir
class
that
of
the
official
class
of their
cratic
the
official
that
of
control including
cratic control
including
Shi'a tribesmen
own urban
the Shi'a
of the
the mass of
kinsmen. To the
urban kinsmen.
conthe conof
other Arab tribesmen,
as indeed
to any
of Iraq,
indeed to
tribesmen, the
any other
Iraq, as
constitutional
stitutional
other constitutional
or any
reforms of
of Turkey,
stitutional reforms
any other
Turkey, or
reforms
gave
them
nothing
for that
that matter,
reforms for
matter, gave
they
nothing that they
or
wanted.
needed
needed or wanted.
Westernization,
in effect
effect weakened Turkey
Turkey
therefore, in
Westernization, therefore,
efficient as to

1 ]
[27
[271]

THE ARABS
in
in

her Arab dominions. T

urkey Westernized ceased
her
ceased to
to
Turkey
be acceptable
to the
the Arab masses.
reeling under
masses. Turkey,
be
under
Turkey, reeling
acceptable to
Italian wars,
successive
blows of
wars, ceased
of the
the Balkan
successive blows
ceased
Balkan and Italian
to hold
hold its
prestige with
to
its prestige
the Arab urban communities.
communities.
with the
to talk
began to
to dream of
These began
talk of
of Arab nationalism,
of
nationalism, to
freedom from the
the Turkish yoke.
yoke.

[272
[272]]

Part Four

REVIVAL

CHAPTER XI

The Arabs and the

JPar
the World War

THE YEAR 1914

of Syria,
the Arabs of
Palestine and
1914 the
Syria, Palestine
Iraq
and
of
the
western
provinces
of
the
Arabian
peninthe
western
of
the
Iraq
provinces
peninsula,
the
Hijaz,
and,
in
a
lesser
degree,
the
Yemen,
the
in
a
lesser
the
sula,
Yemen, were
Hijaz, and,
degree,
under Turkish dominion.
dominion. To all
these
lands
Constantiall these lands Constantinople sent
viceroys and govergoversent garrisons,
of them viceroys
to most of
garrisons, to
nople
nors too.
the Ottoman army
army Arab soldiers
soldiers and
and officers
too. In
In the
nors
officers
served side
by side
with Turks,
Turks, Kurds and other
side by
side with
other reprerepresentatives
empire. The Arab officer
of the
the empire.
officer class,
educated
sentatives of
class, educated
in
military and civil
civil capacities
capacities
in military
in Turkish schools,
served in
schools, served
on the
the same terms
terms as
Turks. There was no derogating
derogating
as the
the Turks.
distinction,
under the
British raj
raj in
in conconas with
the British
Indians under
with Indians
distinction, as
from
temporary
India,
nothing
to
prevent
the
Arab
rising
the
to
rising
temporary India, nothing
prevent
to
highest rank in
the Ottoman services;
though up
up
to the
the highest
in the
services; though
to
the
the
resisted
the
Syrian
demand
that
the
war
Turks
had
the
resisted
to the
Syrian
Arabic should
should be admitted as
language along
official language
as an official
along
with Turkish.
wives-Sharif,
later
Turkish. Arabs married Turkish wives
with
Sharif, later
wife
King, Husain of Mecca himself
himself had aa Turkish wifeKing,
colwith Turks to
to German military
staff colsent with
Arabs were sent
military staff
an
leges.
Like
army
officers
in
any
other
army
they
took
in
other
officers
they
army
any
army
leges.
the
oath of
to
their
ruling
sovereign-the
Turkish
to
of allegiance
their
sovereign
ruling
allegiance

[275
[275]]

THE ARABS
sultan,
thus when war broke
broke out,
out, they
they found themthemand thus
sultan, and
Palestine
selves
Mesopotamia and Palestine
in Gallipoli,
selves fighting
Gallipoli, Mesopotamia
fighting in
of the
the Turks against
against the
the Allies.
on
the side
Allies.
side of
on the
in it.
their heart
not in
it. Their
Their
But for
many of
heart was not
of them their
for many
But
liberalism.
outlook
had
been
affected
by
\Vestern
liberalism.
They
outlook had been affected by Western
They
as Arab
would have
preferred to
think of
of themselves as
to think
have preferred
would
Their
patriots
rather
than
subjects.
kith
and
kith
Ottoman
rather
than
and
subjects.
patriots
at
home
in
Syria
and
Iraq
were
of
the
same
mind,
and
kin
the
were
of
in
at
kin
mind,
Iraq
Syria
the Arab inof the
though
these formed aa small
fraction of
small fraction
inthough these
habitants
they were the
intellectual and vocal
vocal element.
the intellectual
habitants they
element.
Here was
was aa powder
powder magazine
magazine within
within the
the Turkish
Turkish territerriin which
which these
these politically
politically
tories ready
ready to
to be
by the
the war in
be fired
fired by
tories
off the
the Turkish
Turkish
minded Arabs saw their
their chance
of flinging
chance of
minded
flinging off
yoke.
Secret
societies
formed
with
such
an
object
such
societies
with
Arab
Secret
object
yoke.
and
scientific
existed
in
the
cities,
as
well
as
literary
as
well as literary
existed in the cities,
scientific
societies,
while not
not secret,
brought men together
together
which, while
secret, brought
societies, which,
whose political
political aspirations
doubtless
trended
the
same
trended
the
whose
doubtless
aspirations
way-the
Committee,
the
Arts
Club
and
the
ComClub
the
the
Arab
the
Committee,
way
joined, these
these Arabs
Arabs
mittee
the Covenant.
of the
mittee of
Covenant. With war joined,
to
to
achieve
their
ends
if
Turkey
were
decould
expect
their
ends
if
achieve
could only
deTurkey
only expect
feated.
feated.
The Turks were
were no tyrannous
tyrannous masters,
however, to
to be
be
masters, however,
got
any price.
price. Apart
Apart from their
at any
of at
their own easygoing
rid of
got ri'd
easygoing
in the
the Arab countries
were
ineffectiveness,
the Turks in
countries were
ineffectiveness, the
in
a
and
political
sense.
Their
wars
crippled
both
in
a
financial
financial
both
sense.
wars
crippled
political
had led
led them to
to mortgage
certain items
items of revenue
revenue such
such
mortgage certain
as fisheries,
as
liquor, salt,
of tobacco.
In
the sale
sale of
tobacco. In
salt, stamps,
fisheries, liquor,
stamps, the
Palestine they
Palestine
had
conceded
a
form
of
foreign
protectora
of
they
foreign protectorate of
the holy
holy places
places from their
earliest occupation.
ate
of the
their earliest
occupation.
the legal
rights of
Capitulations,
providing for
for the
of ChrisChrisCapitulations, providing
legal rights
tian powers
to
to
try
their
nationals
in
their
own
courts,
tian
their
own
nationals
in
their
courts,
powers
try
other extraterritorial
and other
rights which
were in
extraterritorial rights
which were
in origin
origin
a
of the
to simplify
relaa lazy
the Turks to
their relaarrangement of
lazy arrangement
simplify their

[276
[276]]

"

Jdd

5" ,.

ARAB
STATES UNDER.
AlUlD SUTES
"1ll.RKISH
DOMIKIOK
TURKISH DOMUflW
BEFORE 7'M .gREAT WAR
WAlt
8EFORTJiEREAT
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[[277]
277]

THE ARABS

tions
with Genoese
the like,
like,
traders and the
Venetian traders
and Venetian
Genoese and
tions with
political weakness
weakness as
the
grew
to be
source of
of political
as the
another source
be another
grew to
\Vestern Powers
arose to
the rights
rights and
and exploit
inherit the
to inherit
Powers arose
Western
exploit
for aa century
them to
still
fulL And now for
the full.
to the
them
Turkey grew
grew still
century Turkey
of Western nationweaker from
the undermining
undermining effects
effects of
nationfrom the
weaker
alistic
doctrinairism.
alistic doctrinairism.
ardent desire
Jewry,
too, had already
conceived an ardent
desire
already conceived
Jewry, too,
to
possess
Palestine.
The
Jew
minorities
of
the
world,
the world,
to possess Palestine.
Jew minorities
scattered
nations
of
the
earth,
without
nations
of
the
without
scattered throughout
earth,
throughout fifty
fifty
or
a
flag
to
call
their
own,
aa country,
a
government
their
call
a
to
a
or
own, had,
had,
flag
government
country,
like
the
Arabs,
become
nationalists
started
and
started their
their
like the Arabs, become nationalists
movement of
Zionism. Indeed,
Indeed, at
the first
first Zionist
Congress
Zionist Congress
at the
of Zionism.
prophesied the
the World War and said,
said, 'It
'It
Herzl had prophesied
Dr Herzl
may
be
that
Turkey
will
refuse
or
be
unable
to
understand
or
refuse
be
unable
will
to
that
understand
be
Turkey
may
will not
not discourage
us. We shall
means
us.
seek other
shall seek
other means
This will
us. This
discourage us.
our
ends.'
to accomplish
ends.'
to
accomplish
The French
French enjoyed
enjoyed aa special
position in
in the
the Turkish
Turkish
special position
territories.
They
were
the
acknowledged
protectors
of
the
were
territories. They
acknowledged protectors of
Catholic
that Syria
with its
Christian communities,
so that
Catholic Christian
its
communities, so
Syria with
of
the
had
a
predominantly
Catholic
seaboard
Catholic
seaboard
Lebanon
of
the
a
predominantly
for
France.
From
crusading
times
on
special
interest
interest
France.
for
times
on
special
crusading
French footing
through
Napoleon's adventures
there aa French
adventures there
through Napoleon's
footing
in
was an
an axiom of
the eastern
eastern Mediterranean was
in the
of their
their
policy.
French
influence
always
been
stronger
influence
had
been
in
policy.
always
stronger in
that
of
any
other
European
power.
French
was
Syria
than
that
of
than
other
Syria
any
European power. French was
the most popular
taught in
in Syrian
the
popular foreign
foreign language
language taught
Syrian
had long
long
schools;
hospitals and
and French
French schools
schools had
schools; French hospitals
flourished.
flourished.
But Germany,
already strongest
of all
all powers
in ConConGermany, already
strongest of
powers in
stantinople
growing prestige
the
in the
circles, was attaining
stantinople circles,
attaining growing
prestige in
Arab countries,
countries, her
her great
engineering
skill
displaying
skill
great engineering
displaying
itself in
railways, her
her great
itself
in Turkey's
which
Turkey's railways,
great project,
project, which
Persian Gulf,
Gulf, rerethreatened
the British
position in
threatened the
British position
in the
the Persian

8]
[27
[278]

THE ARABS AND THE WORLD WAR

\VAR
inforcing the
the mighty
mighty
inforcing

she had
had as
as the
the first
first military
military
name she
power in
in Europe.
Europe. Moreover,
Moreover, Germany
Germany had
had given
given diplodiplopower
matic
matic support
support to
to Turkey
Turkey in
in all
all her
her recent
recent wars,
wars, had
had showed
showed
a
a steady
steady indifference
indifference to
to Turkey's
Turkey's treatment
treatment of
of her
her subject
subject
had
populations,
followed
that
close
friendship
with
the
that close friendship with the
populations,
alliance in
in time
time of
of war.
war.
Turks which foreshadowed alliance
British
British interests
interests in
in the
the Arab countries
countries were
were most
most conconsiderable
the Persian
Persian Gulf
Gulf and at
at one
one or
or two strategic
strategic
siderable in
in the
points on the
the Arabian coasts.
coasts. Aden,
Aden, the
the rocky
rocky furnace
furnace
points
to
entrance
commanding
the
entrance
to
the
Sea,
a
British
the
the
Red
a
was
British
Sea,
commanding
protectorate;
Bahrain,
looking
across
the
Gulf
to our
our
across
the
Gulf
to
protectorate; Bahrain, looking
Persian
oil fields,
fields, was 'protected
'protected territory'
territory'; and
and :Muscat,
Persian oil
Muscat,
facing
India,
a
cherished
ally,
though
in
the
eyes
of Arab
a
cherished
in
the
India,
ally,
though
facing
eyes of
pirates,
gunrunners,
and
slave
dealers
a
sort
of
maritime
dealers
a
sort
slave
of
maritime
pirates, gunrunners,
Scotland
Yard, and perhaps
perhaps no more popular
popular on that
that acac
Scotland Yard,
count.
count.
In Turkey
any kindly
kindly sentiment
towards Britain,
Britain, dating
sentiment towards
Turkey any
dating
a
from Crimean associations,
had
before
a later
before
waned
later
associations,
Gladstonian
which, during
the Balkan Wars,
'Vars,
Gladstonian attitude,
attitude, which,
during the
ranged
our
sympathies
on
the
side
of
Turkey's
Christian
the
side
of
Christian
Turkey's
sympathies
ranged
in
antagonists.
put her house in
did try
to put
try to
Turkey did
antagonists. When Turkey
order
Europe,
as
a
whole,
had
not
been
conspicuously
not
been
order Europe, as a whole,
conspicuously
her
helpful.
Austria
and
Bulgaria
repudiated
her
suzerainty
Austria
repudiated
suzerainty
Bulgaria
helpful.
north
of
Italy
invaded
Turkish
north
of Bosnia-Herzegovina;
Bosnia-Herzegovina; Italy
Britain
Africa
and
though
Britain
withheld
her
took Tripoli;
Africa and took
though
Tripoli
a
neuhand in
in Egypt
benign neuEgypt and France maintained a benign
cherished
trality,
Germany
was
the
only
power
who
openly
cherished
the
openly
only
power
trality, Germany
26
her.2G*
her. *
In
When the
the matter of moment in
the Great
Great War came the
fact that
the
the British-Arabo-Turkish
British-Arabo-Turkish relationship
relationship was the fact
the
was
the
nominal
head
of
orthodox
the
of Turkey
the sultan
sultan of
Turkey
cities of Mecca and Medina,
Islam
the holy
master of the
and master
Islam and
holy cities
In India
India
while
the greatest
Britain was the
while Britain
power. In
greatest Moslem power.
;

[279
[279]]

THE ARABS
all
alone,
Indian Moslem subjects
British Indian
subjects outnumbered all
alone, British
the
over. To the Sunnis among
the
the world over.
Turks and Arabs the
the Turks
among
as
these-a
majority-the
sultan
of
Turkey,
as
caliph,
sultan
the
a large
these
Turkey,
caliph,
large majority
1
the
could
jihad, or
war,l
upon
the
infidel,
and
even
even
or holy
declare jihad,
could declare
infidel,
holy war, upon
In
among
Shi'as
there
was
a
considerable
sentiment
in
favour
favour
a considerable
among Shi'as there
of the
Islamic power.
the
of
as
the
one
great
as
the
one
of Turkey
power. Much of
Turkey
great Islamic
into
recruited
Indian
best
material
in
India
was
recruited
into
the
Indian
in
India
material
best fighting
fighting
army
northwest. This explains
the Moslem northwest.
explains why
why
army from the
in the
the Indian school and faced
faced
British
raised in
British officials,
officials, raised
traditionwith
Indian upheaval,
of Indian
the possibilities
with the
upheaval, were traditionpossibilities of
ally
pro-Turk,
or,
at
least,
why
they
looked
askance
when
at
least, why they
ally pro-Turk, or,
inclined to
to sympathize
prewar governments
with
at home inclined
sympathize with
governments at
prewar
any
and
every
adversary
of
Turkey.
Turkey.
every adversary
any
of the
the British
the war the
sirdar
Just
before the
British sirdar
the outbreak
outbreak of
Just before
come
He
had
in Egypt
from India,
Kitchener.
in
India,
Egypt was Lord Kitchener.
he had
had served
under Curzon
where he
commander-in-chief under
served as
as commander-in-chief
where
influence among
and was
was therefore
therefore alive
caliphate influence
alive to
to caliphate
among
foreseen that
Indian Moslems.
Moslems. He had foreseen
that if
if Turkey
Turkey were
Indian
she must
as the
ranged
against Britain,
Britain, as
must be
be as
the ally
as she
of
ally of
ranged against
Germany,
there
would
be
unrest
and
probably
there
unrest
be
would
and
Moslem
Germany,
probably
upheaval in
in India.
India. He therefore
therefore saw political
political advantage
advantage
upheaval
In any
in the
the Arab movement towards
towards independence.
independence. In
in
any
case Arab co-operation
co-operation would
would be
be clearly
clearly useful
useful as
as aa means
case
of
of discouraging
discouraging jihad
jihad in
in India
India and
and of
of thwarting
thwarting German
ambitions
ambitions in
in the
the Middle East.
East. The holy
holy places
places of
of Islam,
Islam,
where
special
where Indians
Indians came on
on annual
annual pilgrimages,
pilgrimages, had aa special
significance in
in the
the former
former connection,
connection, and
and hence
hence Kitchener
Kitchener
significance
and their
their keeper,
keeper, the
the Sharif
Sharif Husain,
Husain, were
were in
in touch
touch before
before
J

The original
lThe
original meaning
meaning of
of the
the word seems
seems to
to have
have been
been 'striving*,
'striving', i.e.,
i.e.,
can mean fighting
fighting in
in defence
defence of
of freedom
freedom of
of thought
thought
and on behalf
behalf of
of the
the oppressed.
oppressed. As aa military
military weapon
weapon for
for political
political ends
ends it
it
is
is not
not today
today regarded
regarded by
by enlightened
enlightened Arabs as
as an Islamic
Islamic institution,
institution,
weapon it
it has
has been
been traditionally
traditionally met
met with,
with, even
even in
in the
the
though as
as such a weapon
though
recent
recent war.

'striving after
after good.'
good.' It
It
'striving

[280 ]
[280]

THE ARABS AND THE WORLD

'WORLD WAR
\VAR
Turkey had openly
openly joined
joined her
her fortunes
fortunes with
with those
those of
of
Turkey
2
Germany.2
Germany.
In the
the immediately
immediately preceding
preceding years
years Turkey,
Turkey, emboldened
emboldened
her
alliance
with
the
first
by
alliance
the
first
military
power
in
Europe,
had
in
by
military power
Europe, had
in
stiffened
her attitude
attitude towards
towards the
the Arabs.
Arabs. Arabian
Arabian
stiffened in her
in places
places been
been called
called upon
upon to
to acknowledge
acknowledge
princes had in
princes
Turkish suzerainty
suzerainty afresh,
afresh, Turkish
Turkish troops
troops had
had been
been sent
sent
to
to the
the Yemen,
Yemen, and the
the sharif
sharif of
of Mecca had
had for
for the
the first
first
time
time been told
told he must introduce
introduce conscription
conscription into
into the
the
Between
Hijaz.
the
sharif
and
the
Turks
there
was
little
the
sharif
and
the
Turks
there
was
little
Hijaz.
love lost.
lost. He had long
long desired
desired an
opportunity to
to shake
love
an opportunity
shake
off
off their
their mastery.
mastery. His sons
sons were
were educated
educated princes
princes who,
who,
some
their
having
spent
of
their
youth
in
Constantinople,
had
in
spent
youth
having
Constantinople, had
everyone who mattered
mattered among
among the
the Arabs
Arabs in
in Turkey,
Turkey,
met everyone
Egypt; they
they were in
sympathy with
with the
the Arab
Syria
in sympathy
Syria and Egypt
nationalist movement and personae
personae gratae
nationalist
with its
its leadleadgratae with
the spokesman
of
the
ers.
Sharif Husain became the
ers. Thus Sharif
of
the
spokesman
Arab nationalist
nationalist movement-the
of
a
movea
of
movement the spokesman
movespokesman
ment that
that now primarily
concerned not
not Arabia
Arabia itself
but
itself but
primarily concerned
the
under
'heart of
of Arabia'
Arabia' under
outside. The 'heart
the Arab countries
countries outside.
Ibn Sa'ud
its freedom from Turkish
Sa'ud had already
already won its
The
new Arab revolt
influence
by
its
own
efforts.
revolt was
efforts.
influence by its
of the
the revolt
thus
so much as
as the
revolt of
the
of Arabia so
the revolt
thus not
not the
revolt of
the
Arabs;
inspiration
from
the
its political
of its
it drew much of
Arabs it
political inspiration
if sackfuls
sackfuls of
Turcofied
countries without,
Turcofied Arab countries
without, and if
'golden
St George'
of St
needy Hijazi
Hijazi
George' brought
brought needy
'golden horsemen of
bulk
tribesmen
bulk
of
peninsular
the great
its banner,
to its
tribesmen to
banner, the
peninsular
great
;

2
the Amir Abdullah,
SAn
An interview
between Lord Kitchener and the
Abdullah, the
interview between
sharif's
that time
time aa Turkish deputy,
at that
son and
and at
sharif s second
second SOD
deputy, took place
place in
Cairo
Professor Harold Temperley
informed by
Cairo in
in February,
Temperley
by Professor
February, :19:141914. II am informed
the Origins
Documents on th~
and Dr G. P.
of British
British Docum~nts
editors of
P. Gooch,
Origins of
of the
Gooch, editors
lIT
ar, that
interview by
this interview
an account
of this
account of
that an
by Lord Kitchener himself and
War,
Vol. X,
other
in Vol.
material will
will appear
other relevant
relevant material
shortly to be pubpubII, shortly
X, Part II,
appear in
38
lished.-lished. *

[28r]
[281]

THE ARABS

Arabia
remained indifferent
to its
its activities,
while Arabia's
Arabia's
indifferent to
Arabia remained
activities, while
hostile
greatest
was at
the time
time hostile to
to its
its
at the
Ibn Sa'ud,
Sa'ud, was
figure, Ibn
greatest figure,
and personal
personal grounds.
grounds. Had
Hashimite
on old
old and
leaders on
Hashimite leaders
the Arab
been aa spontaneous
the
Revolt been
Arab Revolt
spontaneous Arabian movement
Sharif
Husain
would
scarcely
been the
the acceptable
have been
Sharif Husain would scarcely have
acceptable
with the
lure of
of gold
arms, poured
poured forth
forth
leader,
the lure
even with
leader, even
gold and arms,
like
tribesmen fulsomely
appreciative
of
them.
like water
to tribesmen
water to
fulsomely appreciative
British suptold he
he could
count on British
Sharif
could count
Sharif Husain
Husain was
was told
support only
Turkey joined
joined the
the Central Powers
if and
and when Turkey
port
only if
last moment,
up to
to the
the last
moment, was using
using
in
the field,
for Britain,
in the
Britain, up
field, for
the war by
her
to keep
keep Turkey
Turkey out
promising
of the
out of
her efforts
efforts to
by promising
of Turkey's
this, of
recognition
of
territorial integrity,
integrity, and this,
Turkey's territorial
recognition of
course,
possessions. When the
the Turks
her Arab possessions.
included her
course, included
had corne
Husain did
not at
move. He had many
many
at first
first move.
in Husain
did not
had
come in
of
known
nationalist
sympathies
things
to
consider.
Arabs
nationalist
of
sympathies
things to consider.
to
were fighting
Turkish side
were
the Turkish
side and would continue
continue to
fighting on the
do so
until they
they could
be taken
taken prisoner
prisoner and
and change
their
so until
their
could be
change
allegiance;
were living
living behind
Turkish lines
lines and
behind the
others were
the Turkish
allegiance others
openly
revolt would bring
bring suspicion
upon
declared Arab revolt
suspicion upon
openly declared
not worse.
worse. Also
no
clear
that
them if
if not
Also it
it was by
means
clear
that
by
the
the war and so
be able
the Allies
Allies would win the
able to
to fulfil
fulfil Arab
so be
aspirations,
the Arabs never
quite lost
lost belief
the
in the
never quite
belief in
aspirations, and the
invincible might
in
invincible
might of
of the
the German army.
Sharif Husain in
army. Sharif
Mecca was able
his face
face with
with the
making
able to
to save
save his
the Turks by
by making
of complying
with their
measure
aa pretence
their conscription
pretence of
complying with
conscription measure
the crew of
the
and by
by affording
affording protection
to some of
of the
of the
protection to
shipwrecked
raider Emden. The summer of
of 1915
shipwrecked German raider
1915
to the
the south
came and saw the
the Turks to
south make an
an abortive
abortive atat*
tack on Aden from the
tack
the Yemen.
the north
In the
north aa challenge
thrown down to
to
challenge was now thrown
the
the Arabs. The Turks ruthlessly
ruthlessly set
about attempting
attempting to
to
set about
exterminate Arab nationalism
its fountainhead.
nationalism in
in Syria,
fountainhead.
Syria, its
were taken
taken out
Suspected
out and hanged
as
Suspected Arab patriots
patriots were
hanged as
;

[282
[282]]

THE ARABS

A~D THE WORLD WAR

\VAR
AND

a regular
traitors,
regular reign
reign of
terror was
was instituted.
instituted.
of terror
traitors, and a
This inspired
the Turks
for the
Turks everywhere.
inspired Arab loathing
loathing for
everywhere.
Fear spread
thirst to
to be
be revenged
and
a thirst
spread and dismay
dismay and a
revenged j and
the
refugees from Syria
came
to
:Mecca
to
implore
the Arab refugees
to
to
Mecca
Syria
implore
in his
Sharif
to throw in
his lot
with the
the Allies
Allies and
raise
Sharif Husain to
lot with
and raise
independence.
revolt in
the name of
in the
of Arab independence.
revolt
Arab intervention
this stage
less value
to the
the
intervention at
at this
had less
value to
stage had
than it
it would have
have had aa year
year before,
before, and
the
Allies
Allies than
and the
sharif's
the future
Iraq and
and
sharif s terms
terms concerning
future of
of Syria,
concerning the
Syria, Iraq
He
demanded
that
these
Palestine were not
not acceptable.
Palestine
demanded
that
these
acceptable.
territories should
be recognized
recognized as
an Arab
Arab kingdom.
kingdom.
Arab territories
should be
as an
Britain,
already in
France and
other
in negotiation
with France
and other
Britain, already
negotiation with
prewar interests
interests in
Turkish territories,
territories, rereAllies who had prewar
in Turkish
Allies
forth
qualifications
both
in
the
scope
of
the
plied,
setting
forth
both
in
the
of
the
qualifications
plied, setting
scope
area
in the
of administrative
administrative freefreethe degree
area concerned
concerned and in
degree of
by
dom she
prudent. Negotiations
Negotiations continued,
she deemed prudent.
continued, and by
on
the early
part
of
I916
the
sharif,
behalf
of
the
the
behalf
of
the
of
Arab
the
sharif,
1916
early part
nationalist movement,
movement, felt
reached a sufficient
felt he had reached
sufficient
nationalist
3
3
he was not
not as
as yet
yet prepared
for
measure
of agreement.
measure of
prepared for
agreement. But he
months
or
intervention
and suggested
a
wait
of
six
or
so.
wait
of
six
so.
a
intervention and
suggested
a
The Arab Revolt
Revolt was,
however,
precipitated
a
few
months
was, however, precipitated
later,
Turkish troops
troops started
started arriving
by the
the Pilgrim
Pilgrim
arriving by
later, when Turkish
of Medina. To dally
reinforce the
the garrison
garrison of
Railway
to reinforce
dally
Railway to
befallen
as
might
have
invited
the
same
tragic
fate
as
had
befallen
fate
the
invited
have
tragic
might
the amirs
Arab patriots
patriots in
sons, the
sharif's two sons,
in Syria.
Syria. The sharif's
of delay,
Faisal
Abdullah, were already
delay,
Faisal and
and Abdullah,
impatient of
already impatient
to
start
of
Medina
and
now
cut
the
railway
north
of
to
start
north
the
cut
and they
railway
they
taken
the
Arab Revolt,
the
people
of
having
already
taken
Mecca
of
the
the Arab
having already
Revolt,
people
sharif joined
an
of allegiance.
the sharif
joined the
the Allies
Allies
an oath
oath of
allegiance. Thus the
in Syria;
without obtaining
without
Syria
guarantees about French claims in
obtaining guarantees
in
of later
Zionist commitments in
in
ignorance, necessarily,
necessarily, of
later Zionist
in ignorance,
Palestine.
Palestine.
;

aFor
Macmahon's letter
of October
24, 1915,
see Philby,
Philby, Arabia,
Arabia, p.
p. 242.
242
October 24,
letter of
'For Macmahon's
1915, see

[283]

THE ARABS
of the
the Arab Revolt
The military
value of
Revolt led
led so gallantly
gallantly
military value
by
the Amir Faisal
Faisal and T.
T. E.
E. Lawrence,
Lawrence, won the
his son,
son, the
by his

unstinted praise
unstinted
general, that most noble
praise of our famous general,
the
men,
the
late
Allenby.
of
the
late
Lord
of men,
Allenby. And however much the
postwar activities
the revolt
of the
activities of
revolt movement made for unpostwar
discomfort in
rest
in MesopoMesopoacute discomfort
to our
our acute
rest and
and agitation,
agitation, to
the
tamia,
the
immediate
political
influence
of
the
revolt,
influence
immediate
the
revolt, with
tamia,
political
in
is
not
doubt.
which we are
concerned, is not in doubt. When
here more concerned,
are here
which
Arabs fought
Turks
for
the patriotic
patriotic
for
Arab independence
Arabs
independence the
fought
effect on Arabs behind
behind
issue must
considerable effect
issue
must have had considerable
British
in
Syria,
through
which
British
troops
the
Turkish
lines
the Turkish lines in Syria, through
troops
the Turkish
must
while the
the repudiation
repudiation of
of the
later advance,
must later
advance, while
caliphate
by
the
sharif
of
Mecca,
descendant
of
the
sharif
of
of the
the
Mecca,
caliphate by
of
Prophet,
living
head
of
the
Prophet's
tribe,
and
keeper
the
of
keeper of
Prophet's tribe,
Prophet, living
effect on Indian
at the
the holy
holy places,
places, had,
the time,
the
time, an effect
had, at
opinion
which
could
not
be
overestimated.
not
be
could
overestimated.
which
opinion
Britain
conducted two
two separate
campaigns
Britain conducted
military campaigns
separate military
a
against
the
Turks
in
the
Arab
countries,
a
western
one in
in
in the
countries,
against the
Palestine and Syria
Egypt, an eastern
Palestine
eastern
Syria operated
operated from Egypt,
one
revolters
one in
India. The Arab revolters
in Iraq
operated from India.
Iraq operated
were aa guerilla
force
came
to
co-operate
on the
the
force
who
were
to
guerilla
co-operate on
desert flank
flank in
desert
in the
the western
western campaign
of A1lenby's
Allenby's which
campaign of
4
4 They took
and
Palestine.
drove
the Turks out
drove the
out of
of Syria
Palestine.
Syria
They took
*As
4As regards
regards military
military strength
cost of
which was
of the
the Arab Revolt,
the cost
strength and the
Revolt, which
British exchequer,
borne by
by the
the British
lowe
necessarily
owe the
the following
exchequer, I
following :figures,
figures, necessarily
of Captain
Liddell Hart.
the early
early part
part of
of
approximate,
to the
the kindness
kindness of
Hart In
In the
approximate, to
Captain Liddell
the Hijaz
the
Hijaz campaign
campaign the
the Arabs had aa nominal fifty
thousand men who
fifty thousand
might have been tapped,
tapped, and their
their three
three 'armies'
'armies' had aa nominal total
total of
of
might
about
sixteen thousand.
about sixteen
thousand. In
In the
the advance
advance to
Faisal's army
army numbered
to Wejh,
Wejh, Faisal's
this was a
just over ten
ten thousand,
thousand, but
but this
a very
very fluctuating
fluctuating quantity,
most
just
quantity, and most
of the
the British officers
officers who took part
part are
are convinced
given
that the
totals given
convinced that
the totals
them were actually
exaggerated. In
In the
the later
later stages
of the
the campaign
in
actually exaggerated.
stages of
campaign in
tribal forces
forces were similarly
the north
north the Arab tribal
ftuctuating
uncertain and fluctuating
similarly an uncertain
gathering for
for some particular
quantity,
in numbers
numbers that
that
quantity, simply
simply gathering
particular expedition
expedition in
sometimes reached aa few thousand,
thousand, but
often only
only aa few
but were more often
hundred. The only
only consistent
consistent part
part of
of the
the Arab strength
the Arab
strength was the
force which was raised
regular force
raised after
after the
the revolt
broke out.
bulk of
revolt broke
out. The bulk
this
of this
Tegular

[284]

THE ARABS AND

AXD THE WORLD WAR
no part
the 1fesopotamian
part in
in the
the eastern campaign
campaign of the
Mesopotamian ExForce
which
the Turks out
peditionary
drove the
Iraq.
out of
of Iraq.
peditionary
is reserved
Although less
less publicity
publicity is
reserved for
for this
this latter
latter Arab
Although
theatre
in
which
theatre of war,
a
campaign
in
the
Indian
army
took
the
Indian
war, campaign
army took
its
was
a large
and
loyal
part,
its
scope
actually
bigger
than
loyal part,
scope
large
actually bigger than

the
successful prosecution
the South African war. The successful
prosecution of
of these
these
Arab
two campaigns
freed
the
countries
from
the
Turkish
countries
the
campaigns
the war ended British
yoke, and when the
occupied the
British armies
armies occupied
the
yoke,
provisional military
military administraadministraenemy
territories, and provisional
enemy territories,
tions directed
local affairs.
affairs*
tions
directed local
of these
The problem
problem of the
the future government
these Arab
government of
now
faced.
There
territories
had
to
were
territories
to be
be faced.
many
intermany interests
to be
It was not
ests to
be considered.
not possible
possible to
to hand the
considered. It
the
conto the
the Arabs,
territories over to
if that
that had been conterritories
Arabs, even if
interests
sidered
sidered desirable.
desirable. There had been strong
foreign interests
strong foreign
in 19
under the
the Turks as we have seen,
these in
I 6 had
seen, and these
1916
the
secret
formed the
of
secret
agreement
between
the
powthe subject
agreement
powsubject
it then comprised
was shifted
to Aqaba
Aqaba in
in August,
August, 19I7,
eighteen
shifted up
1917, and it
comprised eighteen
up to
of
increased by
by 1918,
I9I8, when it
it consisted
consisted of
hundred men. This was somewhat increased
battalion of camel corps
a brigade
brigade of
of infantry,
infantry, a battalion
eight guns.
corps and about eight
By
guns. By
the
of I9I8
total Arab regular
forces, counting
those under
under
the total
the middle of
regular forces,
counting those
1918 the
AH and Abdullah in
in the
raised by
Faisal and also
also the
the further
further forces
forces raised
the Hijaz,
Faisal
Hijaz,
by Ali
amounted to
only aa small number of
of these
these was
to about ten thousand men. But only
distance from their
their base.
available
for offensive
offensive operations
operations at
at a distance
base.
at any
time for
available at
any time
Thus,
the decisive
decisive campaign
launched in
in September,
the
September, 1:9I8,
1918, the
Thus, when the
campaign was launched
this totalled
to Azraq
for this
totalled a
six
striking
up north
north to
Azraq for
a little
little under six
forces moved up
striking forces
hundred picked
It was reinforced
by about
about two thousand picked
picked
reinforced by
picked men. It

tribesmen.
tribesmen.
is thought
the imperial
exchequer of the
the Arab Revolt is
thought
The total
total cost
cost to
to the
imperial exchequer
in gold,
to
in the
neighbourhood of
gold, of
of which rather
rather
the neighbourhood
of 4.000,000
to have been in
4,000,000 in
food* and clothing.
half came back in
in purchases
of food'
clothing. Of this
this
more than half
purchases of
after the
Lawrence himself
himself was given
given aa fund of
by Allenby
latter's
of 200,000
the latter*s
200,000 by
Allenby after
the time
arrival in
in I917,
time Damascus was
increased to
to 500,000
arrival
by the
500,000 by
1917, which was increased
end. It
It is,
reached;
there was a balance
balance of
of ro,ooo
at the end.
is, of
10,000 remaining
reached; there
remaining at
lent to
course,
to estimate
estimate the
the cost
cost of
of weapons
weapons and personnel
personnel lent
to
course, impossible
impossible to
the
forces, but
any case
case it
represented only
only an inconsiderable
inconsiderable fracfracin any
but in
it represented
the Arab forces,
tion of
that of
the theatre
of die
the Egyptian
Egyptian Expeditionary
Expeditionary Force as
as aa
of the
of that
theatre of
of war of
tion
to have been
actual subsidy
to the
is thought
thought to
been about
about
whole. The actual
whole.
the Arabs is
subsidy to
I,ooo,ooo.
1,000,000.

28 5 ]
[[285]

THE ARABS
ers principally
principally concerned.
concerned.
ers
Britain,
Britain,

By this
this agreement
agreement (Sykes-Picot)
(Sykes-Picot)
By

mutually agreed
agreed upon
upon
France and Russia
Russia had mutually
France

of influence.
influence.
spheres of
spheres
Zionist aspirations
aspirations complicated
complicated the
the issue
issue as
as regards
regards
Zionist
the
war
of
the
Palestine.
During
the
course
of
the
the
Foreign
the
course
Palestine. During
Foreign
of the
the Allied
Allied
Offices of
Offices

Powers had been approached

approached by
by

Palestine,
Zionist organizations
organizations concerning
concerning the
the future
future of Palestine,
Zionist
Palestine
front
the
On
to
which
they
advanced
claims.
the
Palestine
front itit.
claims.
advanced
which
to
they
self, aa British-Hebrew
British-Hebrew battalion,
battalion, known euphemistically
euphemistically
had fought
fought loyally,
loyally, and Jews
Jews
a
while
considerable
played
their
parts
on
other
fronts;
while
a
considerable
other
on
their
fronts;
parts
played
military contribution
by a distinguished
distinguished Jewish
Jewish
contribution was made by
military
of a cheap
of an invention
invention of
cheap high
high exexscientist in
in the
the form of
scientist
keen
a
Dr
plosive.
This
scientist,
Weizmann,
a
Zionist,
too,
This
Weizmann,
Zionist,
too,
scientist,
plosive.
pleaded his
his nation's
cause to
to aa grateful
British prime
prime
nation's cause
grateful British
pleaded
British War Cabinet became persuaded
persuaded of
minister.
minister. The British
Lord
the deserving
nature
of
Zionism,
and
Balfour,
the
the
nature
of
Balfour, the
Zionism,
deserving
official
this
then
British foreign
secretary,
expressed
this
official
view
then British
foreign secretary, expressed
in November,
in a letter
letter to
to Lord Rothschild,
Rothschild, a letletin
November, 1917,
1917, in
in Arab circles
circles
ter
ter which
which has
has come to
to be known and hated in
read
It read:
Balfour Declaration.
as
as the
the Balfour
Declaration. It
self,

Jordan Highlanders,
Highlanders,
as the
the Jordan
as

in conveying
to you,
behalf of
of His
II have
pleasure in
have much pleasure
you, on behalf
conveying to
Majesty's
of sympathy
the following
Declaration of
Government, the
Majesty's Government,
following Declaration
sympathy with
Jewish
been submitted
submitted to
has been
to and approved
aspirations, which has
Jewish aspirations,
by
approved by
the Cabinet.
the
Cabinet.
His Majesty's
favour the
with favour
the establishment
establishment
Majesty's Government view with
in Palestine
Palestine of
for the
the Jewish
of a National Home for
in
will use
use
Jewish people.
people, and will
their best
best endeavours to
to facilitate
facilitate the
their
the achievement
achievement of
of this
this object,
object,
it being
that nothing
it
shall be
be done
done which may
being clearly
clearly understood that
may
nothing shall
the civil
civil and religious
prejudice
of existing
non-Jewish comcomprejudice the
religious rights
rights of
existing non-Jewish
munities in
in Palestine,
the rights
or of
of the
munities
and political
status enjoyed
Palestine, or
rights and
political status
by
enjoyed by
in
Jews
in
any
other
country.
other
Jews
any
country.
shall be glad
if you
will bring
II shall
this Declaration
Declaration to
the knowledge
to the
you will
glad if
bring this
knowledge
of the Zionist
Zionist Federation.
Federation.
of
A.
A. J.
J. BALFOUR

[286
[286]]

THE ARABS AND

AXD THE WORLD
'WORLD WAR
The United States,
States, French
French and
and Italian
Italian governments
governments
endorsed this
of Nations
X ations approved,
appro\'ed,
this action,
action, and the
the League
League of
four years
years later,
later, of
of the
the establishment
establishment of
of aa national
national home
home
four
for the
the Jews
Jews in
in Palestine
Palestine on
on these
these conditions.
conditions.
for
joined the
the Allies
...1\.1lies halfway
halfway through
through the
the
America had joined
war, and her
her powerful
powerful and decisive
decisive contributions
contributions entitled
entitled
war,
her spokesman,
spokesman, President
President Wilson,
'Vilson, to
to aa strong
strong voice
voice In
in
her
the matter
matter of
of peace
peace terms.
terms. America
America favoured
favoured the
the maximaxithe
of the
the small
small nations,
nations, favoured
favoured universal
universal selfselfliberty of
mum liberty
a
policy
of
multinationalism.
she
was
government
and
a
of
multinationalism.
As
she
was
government
policy
aa vast
vast country,
country, rich
rich to
to repletion
repletion from
from her
her own
own everevermarkets brought
brought about
about under
under liberal
expanding home markets
liberal
expanding
of
the
immigration
laws,
she
less
understanding
she
was
less
the
of
laws,
immigration
understanding
her allies
allies-small,
close-knit
intraditional jealousies
jealousies of
of her
traditional
close-knit
insmall,
dustrial
nations-for
overseas
spheres
of
influence,
in
for overseas spheres of influence, in
dustrial nations
much the
way, perhaps,
with aa
as Britons
Britons today,
the same way,
perhaps, as
today, with
great
empire
and
feeling
no
need
for
fresh
territory,
are
no
for
fresh
need
feeling
great empire
territory, are
impatient
of
the
claims
of
Italy
or
Germany
for
space
of
the
or
of
claims
for
in
Italy
Germany
space in
impatient
Africa. The rights
rights of
nations to
to independent
small nations
of small
existAfrica.
independent existof
nationalism,
based
on
selfence,
the promotion
of
based
selfon
nationalism,
ence, the
promotion
determination,
found
its
most
powerful
champions
its
most
in
determination,
powerful champions in
and
this
doubtless
had
its
influence
on
Allied
America,
its
Allied
influence
this doubtless
America,
November, 1918,
counsels.
the war,
of the
the conclusion
counsels. At the
conclusion of
war, November,
1918,
an
Declaration
was
issued
which
ran:
ran
issued
an Anglo-French
Declaration
Anglo-French
:

is the
The end
Britain is
the complete
France and Great
Great Britain
at by
end aimed
aimed at
complete
by France
the
and
of the
the people
so long
enfranchisement of
final enfranchisement
and final
oppressed by
people so
by the
long oppressed
National
Turks,
and
the
establishment
of
National
Governments
and
Adof
establishment
and
the
Turks,
free
the initiative
initiative and free
ministrations
their authority
ministrations drawing
authority from the
drawing their
choice
Far from wishing
to impose
.
the native
native populations
choice of
of the
impose
wishing to
populations..
the Allies
Allies have no
upon
institutions the
the populations
particular institutions
any particular
upon the
populations any
active
assistance
other
their
support
and
active
assistance
their
than to
assure by
desire than
to assure
other desire
support
by
Administrations
the
the Governments and Administrations
of the
the normal
normal functioning
functioning of
themselves.
which
the populations
which the
freely given
given themselves.
populations have freely
.

[[287]
287J

THE ARABS
'support and active
active assistance'
assistance' Britain
Britain and France
The 'support
the
and
envisaged was
was administrative
administrative advice
advice
the garrisoning
garrisoning
envisaged
of the
the regions
regions covered
covered by
by the
the Sykes-Picot
Sykes-Picot Agreement,
Agreement, but
but
of
it had come
the Arab
Arab leaders
leaders considered
considered this
this agreement
agreement-it
the
as incomin Russia
Russia following
following the
the revolution
revolution-as
incomto light
light in
to
patible in
in spirit
spirit with
with war promises
promises to
to the
the Arabs,
Arabs, while
while the
the
patible
Balfour Declaration
Declaration was even
even more irreconcilable
irreconcilable with
with
Balfour
the new declaration
declaration of
of Allied
Allied aims.
aims. The position,
position, all
all very
very
the
confused, was regularized
regularized by
by aa new political
political principle,
principle, aa
confused,
of President
President Wilson,
Wilson, known as
as the
the mandacontribution of
contribution
tory system.
By this
this device
device the
the Powers were to
to have their
their
tory
system. By
as to
spheres
of influence,
but so
so devoid
devoid of
of advantage
advantage as
to
influence, but
spheres of
ensure the
the ultimate
ultimate rights
rights of
of native
native populations.
populations. The
ensure
mandate was
was designed
to prevent
prevent the
the sphere
sphere of
of influence
influence
mandate
designed to
A
becoming
an
old-time
veiled
protectorate.
League
League of
becoming an old-time veiled protectorate.
Nations was envisaged,
under whose authority
the manNations
authority the
envisaged, under
date
was juridically
juridically conferred
great power,
to
date was
conferred on some great
power, to
the
state
guide
and
assist
the
young
and
state
until
such
backward
until
such
assist
young
guide
its own feet.
feet. It
It would then
then bebetime
time as
as it
it could
could stand on its
and
able
to
join
the
League
as
aa
come free
able
to
the
as
free and sovereign
sovereign
League
join
member,
and
the
mandatory
connection
would
autothe
autoconnection
member,
mandatory
matically
end.
matically end.
These principles
mandatory system
differentiated the
the mandatory
principles differentiated
system
the old
old colonial
colonial system
or
even
the
protectorate.
from the
or
the
even
system
protectorate.
1.
I.
The mandatory
administer the
the territory
as trustrusmandatory Power must administer
territory as
tee solely
in the
interest of
the interest
of its
tee
its ward and
and share
share on
on equal
terms with
with
solely in
equal terms
the League
of the
other members of
whatever economic
economic or
or commercial
commercial
League whatever
opportunities
there were.
were.
opportunities there
2.
It must be a temporary
2.
It
ultimate aim
aim was
temporary arrangement
arrangement whose ultimate
emancipation
of the
the territory.
emancipation and independence
independence of
territory.
to be answerable
The mandatory
3
answerable not
3.
not to
to its
its own conconmandatory was to
to the public
science,
of the
the world
world before
science, but to
before the
the bar
public opinion
bar of
the
of the
opinion of
League
of Nations.
Nations.
League of

[288
[288]]

THE ARABS AND THE WORLD WAR

The historic
historic interests
interests of
of France
France and
Britain in
the
and Britain
in the
the major
borne by
by British
Middle East,
share borne
armies
East, the
British armies
major share
in the
the two campaigns
which
freed
the
Arab
territories
in
freed
the
Arab
territories
campaigns
from the
the Turks,
namely about
about fifty
thousand battle
battle cascasTurks, namely
fifty thousand
and
eighty
thousand
in
Mesoualties in
in Palestine
Palestine and Syria
ualties
Syria and eighty thousand in Meso5
these two
as the
the natural
potamia (Iraq)
two Powers
Powers as
natural
(Iraq) 5 marked these
potamia
the political
political idealism
the times
times gave
gave
mandatories. But the
mandatories.
idealism of
of the
both
in
both
in
Peace
Conference
circles
and
in
Syria
itself,
rise,
circles and in Syria itself,
rise,
to the
notion that
that the
the Arabs could
could choose
their own mandamandato
the notion
choose their
of
history
to
begin.
French
interests
tory.
new
kind
was
A
kind
of
to
French
interests
tory.
history
begin.
from crusade
be set
set aside
as though
though
times onwards could
crusade times
could be
aside as
matter
and
'history
is
all
bunk.'
The
Arab
France
didn't
France didn't matter
Arab
'history is all bunk/
nationalist
to recognize
recognize aa French
mandeclined to
nationalist leaders
leaders declined
French mandate
for Syria
or,
indeed,
have
any
dealings
with
the
have
date for
with
the
Syria or, indeed,
any dealings
out
that
their
war
negotiations
had
been
French,
pointing
their
out
that
French, pointing
negotiations had been
with Britain,
Britain must
must satisfy
national aswith
asBritain, and Britain
satisfy Arab national
The
revolters
revolted
against
the
pirations.
revolters
now
Arab
revolted
the
pirations.
against
British army
of occupation
having evacuated
evacuated
French
French (the
army of
(the British
occupation having
Syria
in
favour
of
France
in
accordance
with
agreement).
Syria in favour of France in accordance with agreement).
as postwar
Anglo-French
postwar events
strained as
relations became strained
events
Anglo-French relations
Turkey
showed,
for
France
supposed
then taking
taking place
in
in
for
France
then
Turkey showed,
supposed
place
that
the British
officers attached
British officers
the
attached to
to the
that Lawrence and the
Revolt movement were
were at
of Arab
the bottom of
at the
Arab Revolt
opposition
to
them.
to
them.
opposition
The French
French landed
army in
expelled the
the
in Syria
landed an
an army
Syria and expelled
Faisal, who thereupon
thereupon fled
London. In
In the
the same
fled to
to London.
Amir Faisal,
the
inspiration
of
members
of
the
year,
partly
under
of the
of
the
under
inspiration
year, partly
in
directed
Arab Revolt,
an
rebellion
took
place
in
Iraq
directed
took
rebellion
Arab
Revolt,
Iraq
place
against
the local
local British
administration. While the
the French
British administration.
against the
a confollowed a
the British
conresisted Arab demands in
British followed
in Syria,
resisted
Syria, the
B
"British
for Mesopotamia
alone,
disease casualties,
British figures,
Mesopotamia alone,
casualties, for
including disease
figures, including
1 ,3 86,
were:
prisoners of
missiDg 13,494>
wouDded 551,386,
of war and missing
killed 14,814>
were: killed
13,494* wounded
14,814, prisoners
of disease
dead of
disease 12,807=92,501.
12,807=92,501.

[289]

THE ARABS
ciliatory
policy in
in Iraq.
Iraq. The Amir Faisal was allowed to
to
ciliatory policy
British
offer
for the
the throne
throne of
Iraq and was,
of Iraq
himself for
offer himself
was, with British
the
and
administrasupport,
accepted
by
the
inhabitants,
the
administrathe
inhabitants,
support, accepted by
tion was Arabized.
tion
territory,
Legally
enemy-occupied territory,
still enemy-occupied
the country
country was stilI
Legally the
for the
did not
not ratify
ratify aa peace
peace treaty
treaty recognizing
recognizing
the Turks did
for
Iraq's
i.e. five
five years
years after the
the war
till 1923,
1923, i.e.
Iraq's independence
independence till
ended.
be
real independence,
ended. Its
Its real
moreover, could only
only be
independence, moreover,
other
of
its
other
neighbours,
at
assured by
recognition
and
at
of
its
assured
neighbours,
by recognition
in the
the south
first neither
neither Persia
nor Ibn Sa'ud in
south
east nor
the east
Persia in
in the
first
to recognize
recognize the
was disposed
the new Arab regime.
was
regime. The
disposed to
this end,
mandatory
used
its
good
offices
to
bring
about
this
offices
to
its
used
end,
good
bring
mandatory
thankless
though
its
task
rendered
more
onerous
and
thankless
its
task
was
rendered
though
if the
to live
by the
the internal
live
internal situation,
the mandate was to
for, if
situation, for,
by
up to
to the
standards behind
behind its
not only
its design,
the moral standards
up
design, not
only
must the
mandatory guide,
but
the
must
acacmust
the mandatory
but
mandated
the
guide,
cept
guidance.
Arab
official
elements
in
Iraq,
like
But
elements
in
like
official
cept guidance.
Iraq,
in Syria,
not consider
mandatory guidance
necesthose in
those
did not
consider mandatory
Syria, did
guidance necessary;
they
preferred
to
be
untrammelled.
They
held
that
to
be
untrammelled.
held
that
they
preferred
sary;
They
to
they
were
quite
competent
to
manage
their
own
affairs
and
their
affairs
and
they
quite competent
manage
were morally
entitled
to
release
from
an
enforc~d
status
an enforced status
morally entitled to release
of
of tutelage.
tutelage. Meanwhile Britain,
as mandatory,
mandatory, had laid
laid
Britain, as
foundations of
the foundations
of aa clean,
progressive and
well-ordered
the
and well-ordered
clean, progressive
administration
administration under
under two brilliant
brilliant servants
servants of
the governof the
government of India,
Sir Percy
India, Sir
Percy Cox and Sir
Wilson.
Sir Arnold Wilson.
Subsequently,
recognized the
the
Subsequently, when Iraq's
Iraq's neighbours
neighbours recognized
new experiment
experiment of
of Arab king,
king, Arab parliament
parliament and
and aa
constitutional
constitutional government,
government, Britain
Britain found
found it
to
it expedient
expedient to
recommend to
to the League
League the
abrogation of
the mandate
mandate
the abrogation
of the
election of Iraq
to
and the
the election
to
membership
of
the
League
of
the
as
Iraq
membership
League as
state
(October,
1932).
state
a sovereign
sovereign
(October, 1932).
after attempting
France,
attempting at
to follow
a different
at first
first to
follow a
France, after
different
course in
in Syria
by tightening
tightening control
under aa large
large army
army
control under
Syria by
0 ]
[29
[290]

THE AMIR
AMIR (LATER
(LATER KING)
KING) FAISAL.
FAISAL.
(By courtesy ofof Mr
lvIr Lowell
Lo'U.ell Thomas)
Thomas)

(By courtesy

THE ARABS AND THE WORLD WAR

of occupation,
announced her
intention of
of
of
her intention
occupation, has lately
lately announced
in favour
abrogating
her mandate,
mandate, too,
too, in
treaty relations
relations
favour of
of treaty
abrogating her
lines somewhat similar
similar to
on lines
to those
those followed
by Britain
Britain in
in
followed by
Iraq.
Iraq.
Peninsular
Peninsular Arabia
Arabia was also
also finally
the Turks
Turks
freed from
from the
finally freed
the
the
by
the
Great
War,
the
Yemen
and
the
Hijaz
both
obtainthe
both
obtainWar,
by
Hijaz
the Arabian
Arabian
ing their
their independence.
Sharif Husain,
independence. The Sharif
Husain, the
ing
chief who played
the
leading
part
in
Arab
participation,
chief
the
played
leading part in Arab participation,
the war,
war, proclaimed
proclaimed himself
king of
of
and who,
who, shortly
after the
and
himself king
shortly after
the Hijaz,
Hijaz, did
not long
maintain
his
position,
for
the
the
did not
his
maintain
the
for
long
position,
under Ibn
Ibn Sa'ud
drove him
him from
his
invasion under
Sa'ud drove
Wahhabi invasion
from his
throne to
not, however,
however, before
before he
he had
had lived
in exile,
die in
throne
to die
lived
exile, not,
to see
his line
line established
established dynastically
dynastically on
Arabian
to
see his
on two
two new Arabian
Faisal
thrones, his
his son
aisal as
as king
king of
Abdullah as
son F
of Iraq,
his son
son Abdullah
as
thrones,
Iraq, his
amir of
of Trans-Jordan.
amir
Trans-Jordan.
of the
the two
two
King Faisal
Faisal ibn
was doubtless
one of
ibn Husain was
doubtless one
King
outstanding
figures
of
the
war
and
postwar
period,
Arab
the
of
and
figures
outstanding
postwar period,
as
was the
the other
one, of
of
Sa'ud was
as King
ibn Sa'ud
the one,
other;i the
King Abdul Aziz ibn
Constantinople upbringing
upbringing and
and sophisticated
mien, nominomisophisticated mien,
Constantinople
nalleader
the Arab Revolt
Revolt and spearpoint
of
wartime
leader of
of the
of
wartime
nal
spearpoint
nationalism, who came,
came, as
result of
Allied victory,
victory,
a result
as a
of Allied
Arab nationalism,
to be
be raised
raised to
throne i the
the other,
product
a throne
the supreme
to a
to
other, the
supreme product
of Nejd,
of
the deserts,
the puritan
puritan warrior-statesman
warrior-statesman of
Nejd, totoof the
deserts, the
day
the
master
of
the
holy
cities
and
most
influential
cities
most
influential
the
master
of
the
holy
day
out his
among Arab rulers,
rulers, aa Cromwell who carved
his own
carved out
among
kingdom and founded
a royal
royal line.
Europeans who have
have
line. Europeans
founded a
kingdom
and
of his
his personality
admire
come under
under the
the influence
influence of
come
personality
the day
given to
day when
his wonderful
wonderful exploits
to bemoan the
are given
his
exploits are
the Allies,
Allies, in
in supporting
Faisal, 'backed
wrong horse.'
horse.'
the wrong
'backed the
the
supporting Faisal,
the
had
sire
Faisal's
days
it
was
Faisal's
sire
who
the
But
it
was
war
in the
the early
But in
days
early
the
to
prestige
which
must
attach
at
all
times
to
the
possession
all times
at
attach
which
must
possession
prestige
with
of
the holy
holy places,
places, nor
nor did
Ibn Sa'ud's
influence-with
Sa'ud's influence
did Ibn
of the
Ibn
Rashid in
in the
the way-reach
to
far enough
Ibn Rashid
enough northwards to
way reach far
;

[29 1 ]

fi

THE ARABS

admit
his rendering
rendering effective
military assistance
effective military
assistance on
of his
admit of
cast their
their
General
Allenby's flank..
flank. Yet coming
events had cast
General Allenby's
coming events
shadows,
though Ibn
'ud did
not take
take aa more active
Ibn Sa
did not
Sa'ud
active
shadows, and though
part
War, his
his benevolent
benevolent neutrality
neutrality brought
brought
Great War,
in the
the Great
part in
6
him
a
handsome
subsidy
from
the
British
government
as
British
the
him a
government 6 as
subsidy
he felt
for the
the recognition
aa palliative
to the
felt for
the resentment
resentment he
recognition
palliative to
to
the
Sharif
Husain,
his
hated
enemy,
and support
given
his
to
the
Sharif
Husain,
enemy,
support given
and as
pacifying the
the tribes
Allied interests.
interests.
in Allied
as a
a means of
of pacifying
tribes in
that it
it was
was Ibn
first
Despite the
fact that
Sa'ud who was the
the fact
Ibn Sa'ud
the first
Despite
revolt and expel
Turkish
influence
to raise
to
raise the
of revolt
the standard
standard of
influence
expel
before the
War-the
from Arab soil-this
the Arab
soil
this before
the Great War
nationalist movement during
war, as
as we have
have noted,
noted,
nationalist
the war,
during the
politically minded
was, in
effect, aa movement of
in effect,
of the
the politically
was,
Turcofied
Arabia. Thus the
the conception
Turcofied Arabs outside
outside Arabia.
of
conception of
the two great
great Arab figures
of
the
period
as
the
embodithe
of
as
the embodithe period
figures
ment of
the two Arab cultures
to aa view
view that
that the
the 'fancy'
of the
cultures led
led to
'fancy'
the Arab backers
of the
backers in
nationalist stables,
time,
the nationalist
in the
at the
the time,
stables, at
colours.
would be
be for
for Faisal's
Faisal's colours.
"60,000
per annum.
annum.
'60,000 per

[292
[292]]

CHAPTER XII
XII

Palestine
Palestine
give unto thee,
seed after
after thee,
the
will give
And II will
to thy
thee, and to
thy seed
thee, the
land of
sojourning, all
all the
the lanti
of Canaan,
for an
everland
land of
an everthy sojourning,
of thy
Canaan^ for
lasting
possession. JEHOVAH'S PROMISE TO ABRAHAM.
lasting possession.
We have come not as
as Conquerors
Deliverers.
but as
as Deliverers.
Conquerors but
GENERAL ALLENBY.

We

T
hE
Am

campaigns of
the Allies,
waged in
the
of the
.HE military
in the
Allies, waged
military campaigns
lands
the Arabs,
Arabs, have
have nearly
nearly everywhere
brought these
these
lands of
of the
everywhere brought
political emancipation.
emancipation. Of the
the five
provinces
Arabs political
five Arab provinces
that
that

had for
lain under
under Turkish dominion
dominion-the
centuries lain
for centuries
the
Iraq,
the Hijaz,
the Yemen,
Yemen, Syria
Palestine-three
three
Hijaz, the
Syria and Palestine
Iraq, the
have achieved
independence; the
appears about
the fourth
fourth appears
about
have
achieved independence;
to achieve
achieve it;
Palestine remains.
remains. Viewed in
a wide
wide
to
in a
it; only
only Palestine
the
out
perspective,
therefore,
the
have
done
better
out
of
better
of
Arabs
perspective, therefore,
the Great War that
ravaged their
countries than
than many
many
their countries
the
that ravaged
the
of its
its regular
regular participants.
participants. The Palestine
are the
Palestine Arabs are
of
and
their
country,
too,
they
say,
be
an
exception,
be
must
their
country, too, they say,
exception,
Arab state.
state.
Philistine) connotes
connotes to
to a
'Palestine' (=
The word 'Palestine'
(= Philistine)
stranger
a
country
of
considerable
significance.
In
point
a
considerable
of
point
significance.
stranger
country
of
fact it
province rather
rather than
than aa country,
country, being
being in
in
of fact
it is
is a
a province
that
is
but
than
Wales;
its
population
is
but
that
of
a
size
no
bigger
size
bigger than Wales its population
European city,
recently passed
passed the
the million
million
European
city, having
having only
only recently
;

[293
[293]]

THE ARABS
mark;
its entire
entire revenues
revenues would
would scarcely
pay for aa modern
scarcely pay
mark; its
a
local
battle
cruiser. Yet for
mastery a local struggle
struggle goes
goes on
its mastery
for its
battle cruiser.
in crusading
times
as
in spirit
that it
crusading times;
it knew in
as any
as bitter
bitter in
spirit as
any that
the
rival
though
the
disputants
are
no
longer
the
rival
peoples
no
are
the
peoples of
longer
disputants
though
Christendom
and
Islam,
but
Jew
and
Arab,
and
the issue
issue
Christendom and Islam, but Jew
Arab,
is
religion but
but nationalism.
nationalism.
is no
no longer
longer religion
At present
present Palestine
Palestine is
administered by
by neither
neither Jew
is administered
At
Jew
that
nor
Arab,
but
by
the
Christian
power
that
conquered
it
nor Arab, but by the Christian power
conquered it
if a
a false
false
from
echo of
the crusades,
of the
the Turks-a
Turks a curious
curious echo
from the
crusades, if
one,
being
an
adventitious
result
of
an
war.
of
unwanted
war.
But
result
an
adventitious
one, being
its population
scant its
however small
the area
involved and scant
population
area involved
small the
however
course of events
today
yet the
the postwar
in
events in
(1,300,000), yet
postwar course
today (1,300,000),
Palestine
been no smooth one.
intervals of
of every
Palestine has
has been
one. At intervals
every
few years,
years, recurring
recurring all
all too
too regularly,
violent collisions
collisions
regularly, violent
between
its
Arab
and
Jew
inhabitants
have
disturbed
the
disturbed the
between its
Jew inhabitants
the land.
cause of
outbreaks, whether
whether
peace
such outbreaks,
of such
of the
land. The cause
peace of
attributed
to some immediate
immediate local
over land
land
local disaffection,
attributed to
disaffection, over
or
religion, for
for instance,
has
been
at
nationalistic.
or religion,
at
has
been
bottom
nationalistic.
instance,
The Arabs avow that
an Arab state;
Zionstate the
that they
the Zionthey want an
ists
they want aa Jewish
Jewish majority.
the
root
of
ists declare
declare they
the
At
root
of
majority.
racial
is
the
impelling
desire'of
each
for
pois
racial antagonism
the
desire^of
for
each
antagonism
impelling
political ascendancy.
litical
agitation is
is further
further encouraged
ascendancy. Local agitation
encouraged
the very
by
very nature
nature of
the mandatory
mandatory system,
namely that
that
of the
by the
system, namely
the
the mandatory
mandatory connection
only temporary.
temporary.
connection is
is only
The League
of Nations
Nations is
is under
under commitments
to the
the
commitments to
League of
Zionists
Zionists and to
to the
the Arabs.
Arabs. The mandate expresses
expresses itself
itself in
in
the
as the
the same terms as
the Balfour Declaration,
namely that
that
Declaration, namely
the aim is
is to
to bring
bring about "the
'the establishment
National
establishment of
a National
of a
Home for the Jewish
people.

it
being
clearly
under...
it
Jewish people.
being clearly undershall be
that nothing
nothing shall
be done
done which
may prejudice
prejudice the
the
stood that
which may
civil and religious
civil
rights of
of existing
existing nonnon-Jewish
communicommunireligious rights
Jewish
ties.'
ties.'
The mandatory's
difficulties in
in implementing
implementing this
policy
this policy
mandatory's difficulties
;

[[294]
294]

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PALESTINE
need only
only be stated
stated to
to be
be understood.
understood. Palestine's
Palestine's populapopulaneed
tion is
is predominantly
predominantly Arab and has
has been
been so
so for
for the
the last
last
tion
twelve centuries.
centuries. At the
the time
time of
of the
the British
British conquest
conquest Arabs
Arabs
twelve
ninety per
per cent
cent of
of the
the population.
population. Today
Today no
no less
less
formed ninety
than seventy
seventy per
per cent
cent are
are Arabs,
Arabs, nine
nine tenths
tenths of
of them
them
than
Arabs, and their
their political
political leaders
leaders oppose
oppose the
the
Moslem Arabs,
and
League's
policy
declare
that
the
outside
world
has
declare
that
the
outside
world has
League's policy
no right
right to
to dispose
dispose of their
their country
country in
in opposition
opposition to
to its
its
wishes and contrary
contrary to
to the
the League's
League's early
early dedeown wishes
clared principle
principle of
of the
the rights
rights of
of small
small nations
nations to
to selfselfclared
Zionists, similarly,
similarly, insist
on the
the rights
rights
determination.
determination. The Zionists,
insist on
of
their own gifted
gifted people
people to
to aa place
place in
in the
the sun,
point to
to
of their
sun, point
the unique
unique position
position in
in the
the world
world today
today of
nation sixteen
sixteen
the
of a
a nation
millions strong,
strong, scattered
scattered in
in hopeless
hopeless minorities
minorities among
millions
among
the
other
nations
of
the
earth,
without
a country
country to
to call
call
nations
of
the
the other
earth, without a
its
urge that
that it
is with
with Palestine
Palestine that
that the
the ancient
it is
its own. They
ancient
They urge
of
their
nation
are
associated,
claim
that
all
down
glories
of
are
their
nation
claim
that
all
associated,
glories
the
centuries, both
both before
the Arab conquest
in
before and after
after the
the centuries,
conquest in
the seventh
have continuously
continuously lived
lived there
there
the
seventh century,
Jews have
century, Jews
and that
never ceased
Palestine
ceased to
that world Jewry
to regard
Palestine
Jewry has never
regard
as
its spiritual
as its
spiritual home.
The Zionist
that they
Zionist Jews
moreover, that
consider, moreover,
Jews consider,
they have
moral claims
upon an enlightened
of the
claims upon
world because
the
because of
enlightened world
in
great
contributions
in
music,
art
and
science,
in
philosophy
art
in
contributions
science,
music,
philosophy
great
to Western civilization,
and religion
the Jews
civilization,
Jews to
religion made by
by the
that a
while
a Jewish
have urged
while non-Jewish
Jewish
urged that
non-Jewish sympathizers
sympathizers have
the
is but
for the
national
but compensation
Palestine is
national home in
in Palestine
compensation for
the
persecution
Jews
suffered
at
the
hands
of
Western
Europe
at
suffered
Europe
persecution Jews
lot in
their lot
still their
in Geris still
in
Persecution is
in the
the Middle Ages.
Ages. Persecution
tired of
are tired
many
eastern Europe.
of eastern
They are
Europe. They
parts of
many and parts
deothers
being
unwanted
guests
in
the
houses
of
others
and dehouses
in
the
guests
being
their
mand aa home of
this
home
to
be
their
own
this
their ,own,
of their
own,
thouthree thouruled three
historic
historic one where David and Solomon ruled

[295
[295]]

THE ARABS
of their
sand
years ago,
the background
their ancient
ancient and superb
sand years
superb
ago, the
background of
literature, our
problem has
has been aggraour Scriptures.
aggraliterature,
Scriptures. The problem
vated
by their
their increasing
by that
that spirit
vated by
spirit of
increasing numbers and by
in Germany
itself in
is manifesting
renewed antipathy
manifesting itself
renewed
Germany
antipathy which is
the
in
time
and
elsewhere
today.
The
Jews
in
the
time
of
our Lord
and elsewhere today.
Jews
three millions.
are
thought 1:0
millions. Under the
the
to have
are thought
have numbered three
numbers
fell
their
persecutions
of
the
Middle
Ages
their
fell
so
of
the
Ages
persecutions
the
that
at
the
beginning
of
the
seventeenth
century
world
the
that at
century
beginning
so. Early
nineteenth
Jewry numbered but
million or so.
a million
but a
Early nineteenth
Jewry
three
millions
century
estimates
place
them
at
or
three
millions;
by
at
two
estimates
by
place
century
had
their
doubled
numthe middle
middle of
they
doubled
their
of that
that century
the
century they
sixteen or
or seventeen
bers, and today
seventeen
there are
are some sixteen
bers,
today there
million Jews.
Jews. Their voice
voice is
a growing
growing one,
is therefore
therefore a
million
one,
in the
however much it
may be aa voice
voice in
the wilderness.
wilderness.
it may
however
When the
the war ended and found Palestine
Palestine occupied
by aa
occupied by
British army
army and ruled
by aa British
British administration,
administration, adruled by
adBritish
that
Palestine
vanced Zionists
that
Palestine
be
as
must
as
Zionists were urging
be
vanced
urging
England
was
English,
enthusiasts
among
Jewish
as
as
and
enthusiasts
England
English,
Jewish
among
are said
in the
the outside
to have left
outside world are
left some
them in
said to
part of
their new buildings
sign that
of their
unfinished as
as a
a sign
that they
buildings unfinished
part
they
in a
land.
At
were pilgrims
pilgrims in
land.
the
Peace
Conference
a strange
the
Conference
strange
put forward three
three demands:
the
the Zionist
Zionist Organization
the
demands the
Organization put
recognition of Jewish
to Palestine,
opportunities
claims to
Palestine, opportunities
Jewish claims
recognition
to settle
settle three
to
three to
to four
there
and
the request
request
four million
million Jews
there
the
Jews
that Britain
that
Britain should
be the
the mandatory
Power.
favourable
should be
Power.
A
favourable
mandatory
reception
the Zionist
Zionist repreWeizmann, the
reception was accorded Dr Weizmann,
representative and the
sentative
the distinguished
chemist,
by
his
scienhis
scienwho
chemist,
distinguished
by
tific
discoveries had done great
tific discoveries
service
for
the
Allies;
the
service
the
for
Allies
the
great
immigration
demand
was,
however,
left
to
the
discretion
was, however, left to the discretion
immigration
of the
the mandatory.
mandatory.
of
The Arabs also
also had their
their claims
claims to
to Allied
Allied consideration.
consideration.
The value
value of the Arab Revolt in
in India
and Syria
has alIndia and
alSyria has
been
noticed. The Sharif
ready
noticed.
in his
his negotiations
negotiations
Sharif Husain in
ready
;

6]
[29
[296]

PALESTINE
which brought
brought about the
the Arab Revolt
Revolt had
had asked,
asked, at
at the
the
outset, for
for the
the autonomy
autonomy of
of all
all the
the Arab
Arab lands,
lands, which
which of
of
outset,
course
course included
included Palestine,
Palestine, and although
although this
this was
was not
not exex-

plicitly
plicitly

agreed
agreed

to, the
the Arab revolters
revolters considered
considered that
that they
they
without foreseeing
foreseeing aa policy
policy in
in Palestine
Palestine
war without
which, in
in their
their view,
view, was more damaging
damaging to
to Arab
Arab interests
interests
which,
than the
the old
old Ottoman rule
rule had been.
been. The Balf
Balfour
Declarathan
our Declaration, therefore,
therefore, came as
as aa bombshell
bombshell and was utterly
utterly disdistion,
tasteful to
to them,
them, and the
the name Balfour
Balfour among
among politically
politically
tasteful
today is
is aa name of
of execration.
execration. On the
the other
other
minded Arabs today
the Amir (later
(later King)
King) Faisal,
Faisal, who represented
represented the
the
hand the
Arab cause
at the
the Peace Conference,
Conference, is
is said
said to
to have
have been
been
cause at
on friendly
friendly terms
terms with
with the
the Zionist
Zionist leaders
leaders and to
to have
have sent
sent
aa letter
letter to
to Dr Weizmann expressing
expressing cordial
cordial sympathy
sympathy
with the
the idea
idea of
of the
the establishment
establishment of
of the
the Jewish
Jewish National
National
with
Home in
in Palestine,
though it
is clear
clear that
that he could
could not
not
it is
Palestine, though
have foreseen
present political
political developments.
all the
the present
foreseen all
developments.
day the
into existence,
onthe mandate came into
From the
the day
existence, onwards,
proportions of Jewish
the proportions
wards, the
Jewish immigration
immigration have been
aa matter of
concern
for
both Arabs and Jews,
concern
the deepest
of the
Jews,
deepest
for
of
one
or
the ultimate
ultimate numerical superiority
for on it
it rests
rests the
superiority
the
other
within
the
state.
In
the
exercise
of
the
mandate,
of
other within the state. In the exercise
mandate,
its problems.
therefore,
the most delicate
delicate of its
has been
been the
this has
problems. A
therefore, this
stony
the eastern
eastern Mediterranean
of territory
territory along
along the
stony strip
strip of
the
coast,
bordered
eastwards
by
the
Jordan
eastwards
Jordan Valley
Valley and
coast, bordered
by
of
the Sea of
stretching
well short of the
to end well
stretching northwards to
limited potentialities
Galilee,
Palestine clearly
potentialities for
Galilee, Palestine
clearly has limited
supporting
population.
The
Zionists,
anxious
for Jewish
Jewish
Zionists,
supporting population.
its
immigration
on
a
large
scale,
place
its
capacity
high. The
capacity high.
immigration on a large scale, place
it correArabs,
inflow of Jews,
the inflow
to stop
anxious to
place it
Jews, place
Arabs, anxious
stop the
spondingly
low.
Some
estimators,
who
have
no
obvious
low.
estimators,
spondingly
is capable
Palestine
political
bias,
have
supposed
that
Palestine
is
that
have
capable of
supposed
political bias,
double
than
more
supporting
double
of not much
a population
population of
supporting a
to,

entered
entered the
the

[297
[297]]

THE ARABS
the degree
its
present number,
number, estimates
varying with
with the
of
estimates varying
its present
degree of
industrialization
permitted. But
But as
pastoral and agria pastoral
as a
industrialization permitted.
agricultural
with
about
two
thirds
of
its
soil
already
soil
of
its
thirds
about
with
cultural country,
already
country,
under
cultivation, any
the popupopuin the
increase in
considerable increase
under cultivation,
any considerable
lation
inevitably
means
changing
the
face
of
the
land.
of
the
land.
lation inevitably
changing the face
Immigration
a higher
countries having
of workmen from countries
higher
having a
Immigration of
standard
leads
to
new
wants,
for
different
food,
for
different
leads
to
of living
new
standard of
wants,
food,
living
clothing
and
housing,
imposes
on
Palestine
the
necessity
the
Palestine
necessity
clothing and housing, imposes
for
her
ways,
of
no
longer
contenting
herself
herself
no
of
her
for changing
longer
contenting
ways,
changing
in
short,
she
is
being
comwith her
her own milk
is being
in
comshe
milk and honey;
with
short,
honey;
pelled,
by
outside
influences,
to
become
progressive
acto
become
outside
influences,
progressive acpelled, by
cording
to one
thought, to
to become
become alienized
of thought,
alienized acacone school
school of
cording to
cording
to
another.
to
another.
cording
The Jews
Jews claim
claim that
that with
the
industrialization the
with greater
greater industrialization
population
of
the amenities
amenities of
could be
be vastly
increased, the
vastly increased,
population could
life
to and
and the
the country
prosperous. Already
Already aa
life added
added to
country made prosperous.
big
waters of
the Jordan
the waters
of the
electrification scheme from the
Jordan
big electrification
is
progressing under
under the
Concession.
But the
is progressing
the Rutenberg
Concession.
But
the
Rutenberg
highest hopes
hopes are
reserved for
for development
her chemiare reserved
of her
chemihighest
development of
cal
Estimates that
of
supplying
is capable
cal wealth.
wealth. Estimates
she is
that she
of
the
capable
supplying the
world with
with all
potash it
will need
need for
for aa thousand
years
all the
it will
the potash
thousand years
may be
be exaggerated,
but of
of the
the existence
existence of
of large
may
exaggerated, but
large and
valuable deposits
no doubt,
there is
valuable
is no
with proper
doubt, and with
deposits there
proper
exploitation
is said
that Palestine
Palestine potash
be
it is
said that
could be
exploitation it
potash could
at
half
the
recent
monopoly
price
and
at
produced
at
half
the
recent
German
and
at
produced
monopoly price
of American war prices.
fraction of
aa fraction
prices. That curious
phenomcurious phenomenon,
the Dead Sea,
its concentration
concentration of
of chemical
chemical
enon, the
Sea, with its
salts ten
that of
water, has
has always
salts
times that
ten times
sea water,
of sea
attracted
always attracted
the
the chemical
chemical minds
of
the
world,
so
that
as
long
as
the
so
that as long ago
minds
world,
ago as
sixteen hundred
1867
hundred memoranda had already
been
1867 some sixteen
already been
published. Harbour development
is
another
feature
of
is
another
feature
of
published.
development
Palestine's
Palestine's recent
recent progress,
progress, and Haifa,
with
its
oil
reits
with
oil
reHaifa,
fineries at
at the
the end of the
fineries
the transdesert
transdesert pipe
pipe line
line from the
the

[298 ]

PALESTINE
new Mosul fields,
is already
the third
third seaport
in the
the eastfields, is
eastalready the
seaport in

ern
Mediterranean.
ern Mediterranean.
If the
If
the Arab political
political leaders
leaders see
see in
in developments,
developments*
with
coupled
foreign
capitalistic
interests,
an undermining
undermining
coupled
foreign capitalistic interests, an
their own hoped-for
of their
hoped-for leadership,
or
for
some other
other
leadership, or for some
reason
prefer the
the old order of things
things to
to the
the new,
new, if
they
reason prefer
if they
desire
to stop
stop Jewish
immigration
and
Jewish
concessions
desire to
concessions
Jewish immigration
Jewish
as prejudicial
interests of
of their
their native
native land
as
prejudicial to
to the
the interests
land as
as they
they
for measuring
conceive them,
their complaints
conceive
them, the
the onus for
measuring their
complaints
a remedy
and applying
is thought
thought necessary
remedy where one
one is
applying a
necessary
the mandatory
rests with
with the
mandatory Power.
Power.
rests
difficulties inherent
The political
political difficulties
the Palestine
Palestine maninherent in
in the
date
are clear.
clear. The liquidation
of
Zionist
claims
in full
date are
of
Zionist
claims in
full
liquidation
of
of
claims
and
vice
versa.
involves the
the repudiation
involves
Arab
claims
and
vice
versa.
repudiation
is one that
that calls
The problem
problem is
fine adjustment,
calls for
for fine
one that
that
adjustment one
entails, in
in practice,
partial repudiation
repudiation of
a partial
fullof the
the fullentails,
practice, a
therefore can
be satisblooded claims
claims of
blooded
of both sides,
can be
satissides, and therefore
factory
to
neither.
In
the
administrative
sphere
it
is
posto
is
administrative
it
neither.
the
In
sphere
factory
posto hold
hold the
the scales
between the
the two,
two, but
the
sible
but the
scales evenly
sible to
evenly between
moment an
happens vital
irreconcilable
an incident
vital and irreconcilable
incident happens
political principles
principles emerge
to complicate
complicate the
the situation.
situation.
emerge to
political
some sacred
that some
sacred princiProtagonists
either side
side avow that
princiProtagonists on either
of
is
involved
that
does
not
admit
of
compromise.
The
ple
not
admit
that
does
is
involved
compromise.
ple
the
unless
problem
is
on
the
face
of
it
insoluble
peaceably,
unless
the
of
insoluble
is
the
it
face
on
peaceably,
problem
on
the
one
and
'Arab
rights'
terms
'national
home'
hand
one
the
'national
home'
terms
rights'
on the
the other
other are
limited meaning
meaning than
than
a more limited
are given
given a
at
will
Arab
sides
at
present
partisans
on
the
Zionist
and
sides
will
on
the
Zionist
present
partisans
fact that
easier by
is not
by the
the fact
that
allow. The situation
not made easier
situation is
allow.
rather
the
mandatory
is
only
a
trustee,
an
agent
rather
than
a
the mandatory is only a trustee,
agent
is not
proprietor, in
that the
Arab-Jew
problem is
the Arabin law,
Jew problem
law, and that
proprietor,
ramifications.
world
merely
a
local
problem
but
has
ramifications.
Mosbut
has
a
local
problem
merely
in
kinsmen
Arab
lems
throughout
the
world,
especially
in
the
lems throughout
world, especially
Palestinian
the
Iraq, Syria
with the Palestinian
and Egypt,
sympathize with
Egypt, sympathize
Syria and
Iraq,

[299
[299]]

THE ARABS

Arabs, and
and their
their newspapers
newspapers condemn
condemn Zionist
Zionist aspirations
aspirations
Arabs,
narrow religious
religious Moslem circles
circles
while doubtless
doubtless in
in narrow
while
Palestine is
is thought
thought of
of as
as Islam
Islam Irredenta.
Irredenta. On the
the other
other
Palestine
hand the
the Zionists
Zionists also
also represent
represent aa world
world movement with
with
hand
of
wide
financial
and
political
interests
and
the
the
backing
interests
the
the backing of wide financial and political
ear of
of
ear

many influential
influential chancelleries.
chancelleries.
many

For both
both Zionist
Zionist and
and Arab politicians
politicians Jewish
J ewish immigraimmigra~
For
tion
tion

is of
of fundamental
fundamental importance
importance as
as affecting
affecting vitally
vitally the
the
ultimate constitution
constitution of
of Palestine's
Palestine's population.
population. The manman~
ultimate
datory,
in
its
role
of
establishing
a
national
home,
has
al~
national
a
has
its
of
alin
role
home,
establishing
datory,
lowed Jewish
Jewish immigration;
immigration; in
in its
its role
role of
safeguarding
of safeguarding
lowed
Arab civil
civil rights
rights it
it has
has set
set limits
limits to
to it.
it. The principle
principle it
it has
has
normally followed
has been
been based
based fundamentally
fundamentally on PalesPales
followed has
normally
at the
the time.
time. There have
have been
been two
two
tine's absorptive
absorptive capacity
capacity at
tine's
half-yearly
quotas.
These,
announced,
have
produced
when
have
announced,
produced
half-yearly quotas. These,
violent and
and opposite
in the
the Arab and Jewish
reactions in
violent
opposite reactions
Jewish
To
the
Arabs
the
figures
have
been
as
a
red
rag
press.
Arabs
the
been
as
a
the
have
red
press.
figures
rag
to aa bull;
bull; by
by the
the Jews
Jews they
have,
till
the
last
years,
till
the
last
to
few
they have,
years,
been
bitterly criticized
criticized as
niggardly and
and inadequate.
been bitterly
as niggardly
inadequate.
the last
the total
According
to the
last census
total number of
census figures
of
figures the
According to
immigrants
allowed
in
during
the
thirteen
years
19
I
9in
the
allowed
thirteen
during
immigrants
years 1919
193
to say,
that is
is to
one immigrant
to every
101,400; that
19311 was 101,400;
say, one
immigrant to
every
ten
expressed
in
another
way,
ten
immigrants
ten natives;
natives expressed in another way, ten immigrants to
to
the
the square
or in
in still
still another,
an average
of 7,800
mile; or
another, an
square mile;
average of
7,800
per
annum.
per annum.
The countries
countries of
of origin
as follows:
follows
origin were as
Is

Russia
Russia and
and Poland
Poland
Roumania
Lithuania.
Lithuania
United
United States
States .
Germany.
Germany
British Empire
British
. . . .
Empire
Miscellaneous (Bulgaria,
the
(Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia,
Czechoslovakia, the
Yemen,
Yemen, etc.)
etc.)
00 ]
[3
[300]

67,000
67,000
4,400
4,400
3,500
3, 500
1,400
1,400
1,000
1,000
400
23,000

PALESTINE
That sixty-seven
sixty-seven per
per cent
cent of
of the
the immigrants
immigrants should
should have
have
come from Russia and Poland constituted
constituted aa grievance,
grievance, acac-

cording to
to the
the Arabs,
Arabs, namely
namely that
that the
the less
less desirable,
desirable, not
not
cording
the
the best,
best, Jews
Jews were being
being brought
brought into
into Palestine.
Palestine. They
They
held
held that
that the
the old
old native
native Palestinian
Palestinian was,
was, for
for the
the most
most
part, aa simple,
simple, God-fearing,
God-fearing, conservative-minded
conservative-minded son
son of
of
part,
the
the soil,
soil, whereas the
the incoming
incoming Jew
Jew was
was the
the proletarian
proletarian
from eastern
eastern Europe,
Europe, of
of advanced left-wing
left-wing political
political and
and
opinions, obnoxious
obnoxious to
to the
the Palestinians
Palestinians and
and subsubmoral opinions,
versive of
of their
their way
way of
of life.
life. Against
Against this
this it
it was
was said
said that
that
versive
the
the personnel
personnel of
of the
the incomers,
incomers, which
which was left
left to
to the
the
Zionist
Zionist organizations,
organizations, was the
the subject
subject of
their special
special
of their
care
in unless
care and that
that none was allowed
allowed in
unless possessing
possessing capicapi-

tal
tal

or under promise
promise of
of work.
work.
or
the capital
capital backing
backing of
of Jewish
But the
often
Jewish immigrants,
immigrants, often
made possible
possible by
by American generosity,
subanother subgenerosity, was another
of
grievance,
for
this
influx
of
capital,
they
held,
ject
for
influx
this
of
Arab
grievance,
capital, they held,
ject
was upsetting
upsetting the
the economic equilibrium
of Palestine's
Palestine's agriequilibrium of
agriculture.
the country's
basic industry,
culture. This agriculture,
country's basic
agriculture, the
industry, was
to sell
sell overseas;
founded not in
in raising
it was
overseas; it
crops to
raising crops
primarily
a
subsistence
economy.
The
cultivator
was aa
subsistence
cultivator
a
economy.
primarily
a
not for
small
for a
a profit
or a wage,
but
holder who worked not
small holder
wage, but
profit or
for
for food for
for himself
himself and his
his family.
subsistence
for subsistence-for
family.
Immigration,
it was argued,
backing and
capital backing
argued, with capital
Immigration, it
modern machinery
from
outside,
tended
to
upset
to
this
tended
outside,
upset this
machinery
equilibrium
land values
values
a demand for
for land;
land; land
by creating
creating a
equilibrium by
landowners
soared,
of
individual
Arab
landownersindividual
of
the urge
soared, and the
urge
often
landowners to enjoy
absentee landowners-to
often absentee
wealth, led
enjoy sudden wealth,
to
native
to
a
change
of
owner
from
native
to
immigrant.
in
places
in places to a change of
immigrant.
to
it tended to
This
unrest,
because
it
make
for a
because
This produced
unrest,
produced
his
deprived
of
his
habitual
landless
landless class
class of
of native
native suddenly
suddenly deprived
means of
of livelihood.
livelihood.
inflow
Hence on
that every
is held
held that
one hand it
it is
on the
the one
every fresh inflow

[3 01

THE ARABS
of
its fresh
land means aa
for land
fresh demand for
with its
of immigrants
immigrants with
fresh
tendency to
the other,
that the
the new
on the
to dislocation;
fresh tendency
other, that
dislocation; on
technique
and
more
up-to-date
methods
of
the
incoming
the
of
methods
and
more
incoming
up-to-date
technique
agriculturist
must increase productivity and result
result in
in aa
agriculturist must increase productivity
higher standard
living for
the country
country as
as aa whole.
whole. This
This
for the
of living
standard of
higher
is
which may
may lend
itself to
to exaggeration,
because
because
lend itself
is a
feature which
a feature
exaggeration,
only
tenth of
in Jewish
is in
Palestine's agriculture
one tenth
of Palestine's
Jewish hands,
hands,
agriculture is
only one
and
deny
that
Jewish
immigration
has
that
has
Zionists strenuously
and Zionists
Jewish
immigration
deny
strenuously
brought
about
a
landless
class
of
Arab.
of
Arab.
a
class
landless
about
brought
It
is industry,
industry, trade
that have
have attracted
trade and
and commerce
commerce that
attracted
It is
Jewish
enterprise. According
According to
the 1931
census already
to the
1931 census
already
Jewish enterprise.
one
Palestine's commerce
was in
in Jewish
Jewish hands.
hands.
one third
commerce was
third of
of Palestine's
This
the basis
another fear
of the
the Arab politician,
is the
fear of
basis of
of another
This is
politician,
namely that
that even
where immigrants
are agricultureven where
immigrants today
today are
namely
agriculturists,
their sons,
sons, the
the Jews
be
the second
second generation,
will be
of the
ists, their
Jews of
generation, will
agriculturists
no
longer.
Natural
propensities
and
superior
no
and
Natural
longer.
superior
agriculturists
propensities
education
them into
into nonproductive
nonproductive but
will draw
draw them
but more
education will
will be
be lawyers,
remunerative
remunerative callings-they
lawyers, shopkeepers,
callings
they will
shopkeepers,
landowners
members of
rent-drawing
at all
of the
the rent-drawing
landowners or,
all events,
or, at
events, members
classes,
the native
native Arabs of
the country
will be
their
while the
of the
be their
classes, while
country will
hewers
of
wood
and
drawers
of
water.
The
Zionists
hewers of
drawers of water.
anZionists answer
this fear
is groundless
the bulk
bulk of
the
swer that
that this
fear is
that the
of the
groundless and that
productive forms
of
immigrants
have been
been absorbed
absorbed in
in productive
forms of
immigrants have
industry
which
the
Jews
themselves
have
established
in
the
the
have
themselves
established in the
industry
Jews
country.
country.
In manner of
living, dress
and occupation
the Arab
of living,
dress and
Arab
occupation the
community
falls
into
three
main
classes,
the
~
into
falls
three
the
classes,
community
Be4ttiiv<he
fellahin _~nd
and the
fella~~n
~he .~ity
T.h.~.B~Q!lin are ~.h~.EE~~_est
dw;^Qr^TJhj^dm
city _dw:~ll~
element shepherds,
ana;~he most
mOJ~ _pr~rp.itiye_
s.h~pher~~, who^culturWh<LfIllturprimitive, et~me~!-.
andjtHe
ally
correspond
nearly
with.
their
kinsman,
the desert
d~sert.
most
with
their
ally correspond
nearly
kinsman, the
nomad. They
are
a.re
scarcely
producers
and
do
not
participate
and
do
not
They
scarcely producers
participate
in politics
in
except indirectly,
indirectly, in
political upheaval,
upheaval,
in times
times of
of political
politics except
to indulge
the inherited
of improving
the
shining
inherited instinct
instinct of
the
indulge the
improving
shining
02 ]
[3
[302]

RISHON-LE-ZION: JEWS AND ARABS WORKING TOGETHER

HARVESTING GRAPES.
(By ,.'"tes), .f ilIr No,ml/II BCIII~""")

PALESTINE
hour by
by robbing
they regard
legitwhich they
as a
a legitrobbing and looting,
looting, which
regard as
imate phase
phase of
of war.
war. There may
may be
be sixty
thousand of
them,
of them,
sixty thousand
but they
they are
be dwindling.
are said
said to
to be
but
dwindling.
fellahin are
are the
the agriculturists-the
peasants and
and
The fellahin
the peasants
agriculturists
farmers who form the
the backbone
backbone of
population and
of the
the population
and are
are
holding
of
a
family
Palestine's producers.
producers. The average
Palestine's
a
of
is
average holding
family is
about
twenty acres,
acres, which is
is sufficient
a peasant
peasant life
about twenty
sufficient for
for a
life
in
in the
the Old World but
living
but means a
a low standard
standard of
of living
the land is
poor and
and the
the methods
is stony
where the
methods of
of farmfarmstony and poor
1
ing
old
fashioned.l.
Tenancy
conditions
are
severe,
and
the
old
fashioned.
conditions
are
and
the
severe,
ing
Tenancy
fruits
generally
twenty
per
cent
to
thirty
labour small,
of labour
fruits of
cent
to
small, generally twenty per
thirty
per cent
cent of the
the cultivator
the seed,
the crop,
if the
cultivator supplies
or, if
crop, or,
seed,
per
supplies the
per
cent.
A
view
of
the
Zionists
is
that
the
lot
of
the
fifty
cent.
view
of
the
Zionists
that
the
is
lot
of
the
fifty per
wretched
the hills,
living
a
precarious
existence
fellahin of
a
wretched fellahin
of the
existence
hills, living
precarious
and often
often in
in the
usurer, will
be greatly
the grip
of the
local usurer,
the local
will be
grip of
greatly
improved
their activities.
activities.
improved by
by their
The Arab town dwellers
of the
the professional
professional
dwellers consist
consist of
propertied
and
trading
classes,
with
a
small
but
growing
small
with
but
a
trading classes,
growing
propertied
Here, as
in the
the world,
- labouring
class. Here,
as elsewhere
is the
the
elsewhere in
it is
world, it
labouring class.
lettered
that produce
produce the
the politically
politically minded
minded
circles that
lettered urban circles
and vocal
vocal elements.
voice the
the Arab opposition
a
to a
elements. They
opposition to
They voice
for
Jewish
national
home
in
Palestine
clamour
in
for
national
Palestine
and
clamour
Arab
Jewish
freedom
a foreign
freedom and independence
yoke.
foreign yoke.
independence from a
Palestine's population
population figures
according
its census
for
census for
to its
Palestine's
figures according to
the ten
years 1922-31
as
follows:
as
follows:
were
ten years
the
1922-31
Population
Population

Population
Population

in
in

in
in

2
192
IQ22

1
193
1931

Percentage
Percentage
tncrease
increase
approx.
approx.
28.5
28.5

60,000
Arabs
7760,000
591,000
Arabs (Moslems)
591,000
(Moslems)
101,000
23.0
Arabs
82,000
Arabs (Christian)
101,000
23.0
82,000
(Christian)
100.0
84,000
175,000
Jews
175,000
84,000
Jews
1The
Sir John
John Hope
Hope Simpson
(October, 1930)
states that the
the
^he Sir
1930) ^states
Report (October,
Simpson Report

to support
presminimum requirement
family, under presagricultural family,
support an Arab agricultural
requirement to
is about
ent
about thirty
thirty acres.
acres.
ent methods,
methods, is

03 ]
[3
[303]

THE ARABS
in 1931
The birth
birth and death
rates in
I 93 I were:
were:
death rates

Deaths per
per 1000
Deaths
26
26

Arabs
Arabs

Births per
per IOOO
Births
1000

9.4
d. England
England
9-4 cf

Jews
Jews

48
48
32
32

105
10.5

Taking
these figures
the percentage
percentage of Jewish
Jewish
together, the
figures together,
Taking these
the
Arab
increase.
increase
four times
times greater
than
the
increase.
than
was four
increase was
greater
the Arabs
On the
hand the
absolute figures
that the
the absolute
the other
other hand
figures show that
increased
more than
the Jews
Jews had done,
viz:
than the
increased more
done, viz
:

169,000
169,000

increase
Arab increase
increase
Jew increase
Jew

9I,000
91,000

for the
Thus the
the expansion
expansion of
population for
the
Palestine's population
of Palestine's
in
of
to 1931
I93I-an
astounding one
one of 36.8
36.8 per
per cent
cent in
period
an astounding
period up
up to
primarily not
not from immigration,
ten
came about
about primarily
ten years-came
immigration,
years
Arab
fertility
but
fertility of
the existing
population;
but from
of the
from fertility
fertility
existing population;
to
an
extent
which
largely
offset
exceeded
Jewish
fertility
to
extent
which
an
exceeded Jewish fertility
largely offset
rate of
at this
this rate
of
Jewish
and the
the population,
population, at
Jewish immigration,
immigration, and
fertility
plus
immigration,
must
double
itself
in
the
short
in
the
double
itself
short
must
fertility plus immigration,
space
unless checks
occur according
to
of twenty
checks occur
space of
twenty years
years unless
according to
Malthusian
principles,
that
is
to
say,
checks
imposed
by
Malthusian principles, that is to say, checks imposed by
subsistence
subsistence limits.
limits.
the prospect
prospect of
in view-assuming
that
With the
of saturation
saturation in
view assuming that
Palestine
cannot support
a
popula:tion
than
double
a
Palestine cannot
more
than
double
support
population
its present
its
present one-the
Zionist grievance
grievance was that,
that, under
under the
the
one the Zionist
rate of
of immigration
rate
immigration allowed
the decade
I922-I93I,
allowed for
for the
decade 19221931,
there was no
there
no chance
the Arab lead,
lead, so
so
chance of
of catching
with the
catching up
up with
that
that the
the National
National Horne,
as
they
understood
it,
was
not
as
Home,
they understood it, was not
being
brought about
mandatory.
about by
the mandatory.
being brought
by the
of
During the
the past
past few years
years aa greatly
accelerated rate
rate of
During
greatly accelerated
has
taken
immigration
has
taken
place.
This
would
appear
to
have
would
to
have
immigration
place.
appear
been stimulated
stimulated by
external world
by external
world affairs.
been seen,
affairs. As has
has been
seen,
04 ]
[3
[304]

PALESTINE

the
policy of
mandatory has
has been
been to
to base
base the
of the
the mandatory
the normal policy
the
quota
the purely
purely economic
of Palestine's
Palestine's
economic consideration
consideration of
quota on the
to absorb.
the persecution
persecution of
Germany
ability to
absorb. But the
of Jews
in Germany
ability
Jews in
and aa far-reaching
far-reaching economic
economic and political
political discrimination
discrimination
against
through eastern
Europe generally
to
eastern Europe
seem to
Jews through
against Jews
generally seem
proshave introduced
a new feature.
periods of
introduced a
have
feature. Abnormal periods
of prosor
at
least
unusual
labour
demands
in
Palestine,
perity,
at
or
least
unusual
labour
demands
in
Palestine,
perity,
have coincided
coincided with
with aa large
large exodus
exodus of
of Jews
from central
central
Jews from
at a
and eastern
eastern Europe
Europe at
time when the
the United
a time
United States,
States,
Canada,
other countries
great spaces
Australia and other
countries of
of great
Canada, Australia
spaces
where,
normally, they
they could
could have
have turned
turned to,
to, have
have closed
closed
where, normally,
their
doors during
a world slump.
their doors
to emiemiduring a
slump. The pressure
pressure to
grate
from
Poland,
Austria,
Roumania
and
central
and
central
and
Austria,
Poland,
grate
eastern
Europe generally
seems
to
have
encouraged
Palesto
seems
Paleseastern Europe
have
generally
encouraged
appropriate asylum
under the
the National
National
tine,
as their
their appropriate
tine, as
asylum under
Home, to
to open
wider its
doors, while
the inflow
its doors,
while the
fresh
inflow of
of fresh
Home,
open wider
created
scope
for
them,
in
the
mandatory's
judgcapital
created
for
in
the
them,
mandatory's judgcapital
scope
ment. 22
ment.
Hence, as
the ten
only
ten years
as against
Hence,
19221931, when only
against the
years 1922-1931,
71,000
Jewish
immigrants
allowed
in
(an
average
were
in
allowed
(an
average
71,000 Jewish immigrants
of
year touching
touching its
its low point
point in
in 1929
4,000) ,
a year
of 7,100
1929 with 4,000)
7, 100 a
the
past
four
years
have
seen
the
annual
quota
up
annual
zoom
seen the
the past four years
quota
up
so that
by 400
400 per
per cent
cent and last
per cent,
that alalto 800 per
last year
cent, so
year to
by
most as
as many
many immigrants
immigrants came in
last year
year as
in last
as were allowed
allowed
most
1 93 I,
in
the ten
ten years
years ending
in the
viz
1, viz:
ending 193
,

193.2
1932
1933
1933
1934
1934

1935
1935
1936
1936

9,553
9,553
30,327
30,327
4,2,359
4^,359
61,854
61,854
14,646
to June)
June)
14,646 (up
(up to

-rmmigrants
are distinguished
by those
those having
having capital
capital backing
backing and those
distinguished by
"Immigrants are
being
under the
labour schedule.
schedule. During
the peak
peak year,
year, 1935,
in under
the labour
allowed in
1935,
During the
being allowed
the labour
n,ooo approximately.
for 11,000
labour schedule
schedule accounted
accounted for
the
approximately.

05 ]
[3
[305]

THE ARABS
alone Jews
Of these,
these, 35,000
Germany alone-Jews
35,000 came from Germany
which
number
of
Hitler
who have
under the
the Hitler regime
regime-of
left under
have left
8,000
in the peak
peak year
year 1935.
1935.
8,000 came in
of Jewish
It is
is this
increased rate
rate of
this increased
It
during
immigration during
Jewish immigration
of
bottom
the
that
is
at
the
of the present
present
the
past
few
years
is
at
that
the past few years
will
if maintained,
unrest (I936).
Arab unrest
maintained, will
(1936). The new figures,
figures, if
of
is
it
and
it
is
the
prospect
of
bring
about
a
Jewish
majority,
a
about
prospect
Jewish majority,
bring
the
so
aa Jewish
majority
which
has
so
alarmed
the
Arabs.
Popu~
has
PopuJewish majority
this rate,
lation capacity,
will soon be
be reached,
reached, and
at this
lation
rate, will
capacity, at
be looking
Zionists
to be
Zionists are
are said
said to
Palestine, across
beyond Palestine,
looking beyond
ancient lands
the
Jordan to
to the
spaces
of
the
ancient
lands of
the Jordan
the emptier
the
emptier spaces
Transthe
as Trans-]
familiar nowadays
Moab, familiar
nowadays as
ordan, the
Edom and Moab,
Jordan,
Arab buffer
buffer state
the desert,
under the
the rule
rule of the
state against
desert, under
against the
Abdullah. The Arabs are
hostile to
to this,
holding
that
Amir Abdullah.
are hostile
this, holding that
National
Home
is
exexclusion
the
Trans-]ordan's
exclusion
from
the
National
is
exTrans-Jordan's
for by
plicitly provided
provided for
by promises
promises made to
to them. Today
plicitly
Today
so
are no Jews
in
there
times
fierce
has
been
there are
there,
and
in
times
past
so
fierce
has
been
there,
Jews
past
the local
the
a
that
a
]
ew
crossing
the
Jordan
withthe
local antagonism
that
withJew crossing
Jordan
antagonism
out government's
protection did
the
out
government's permission
permission or
or protection
did so
at the
so at
of his
his life.
life. Not all
all Arabs
Arabs are
politicians, of
peril of
of course,
are politicians,
course,
peril
all Jews
are Zionists,
conflict of
ews are
Zionists, but
but the
and not all]
the conflict
of extremists
extremists
in
stir
up
in Palestine
Palestine has,
unfortunately,
been
to
to
stir up racial
anracial anhas, unfortunately, been
tipathies.
tipathies.
Both Arab and Zionist
their political
political
Zionist movements have
have their
whose
are
mutually
conorganizations
aims,
naturally,
are
aims, naturally,
organizations
mutually conThere
are
are right-wing,
parHicting.
and centre
centre parflicting.
right-wing, left-wing
left-wing and
in each movement,
ties
the greatest
ties in
movement, the
hope of
of co-operation
greatest hope
co-operation
lying
respective right
right and left
left wings
wings touch.
touch. But
But
lying where respective
in the
is, in
of
things,
the wing
wing of a movement is,
the nature
nature of things, not
not
representative, and men of most moderate
one
moderate opinion
on one
representative,
opinion on
side with
for the
moderate opinion
opinion on
on the
side
with sympathies
the most moderate
the
sympathies for
aside
mass
other are swept
aside
by
emotion
as
political
crises
emotion
as
crises
swept
by
political
periodically recur.
recur.
periodically

[3 06 ]

PALESTINE

The Arab Higher

the official
mouthofficial mouthHigher Committee today,
today, the
is formed
representatives
piece of
of Arab nationalism,
formed of
of representatives
nationalism, is
piece
of Arab bodies.
of a
a number of
of
bodies. The Arab
Arab Congress,
reprea repreCongress, a
in 1921,
sentative body
sentative
body formed in
immediately
voiced
its
voiced
its
1921, immediately
protest
against
the
Balfour
Declaration
and
denounced
the
Declaration and denounced
protest against
Jewish
principle. When in
the
in 1922-23
immigration on principle.
Jewish immigration
192223 the
made
for
a
legislative
counmandatory
certain
proposals
certain
a
for
counmandatory
proposals
legislative
cil,
and
then for
for an advisory
council of
of nominated
nominated Arabs
Arabs and
cil, then
advisory council
finally, when these
these fell
through, for
for an
an Arab
Arab
Jews,
fell through,
Jews, and finally,
to
the
agency
parallel
to
the
Jewish
Agency,
these
proposals,
as
these
Jewish Agency,
agency parallel
proposals, as
made,
did
not
satisfy
the
Arabs
who
were
averse
to
cothe
did
not
Arabs
were
averse
to
comade,
satisfy
operation
because it
to them to
be an
recogit seemed to
to be
an act
act of
of recogoperation because
nition of
the Balfour
Declaration and to
to invalidate
the
of the
nition
Balfour Declaration
invalidate the
principle
of
the
state.
of
Arab
the
state.
principle
representative but
but ostensibly
ostensibly nonpolitical
nonpolitical Arab body
body
A representative
of
today is
of considerable
influence today
the Moslem Supreme
considerable influence
is the
Supreme
Council
under the
the presidency
of
the
grand
mufti
of
eruCouncil under
mufti
of
of J
the
Jerupresidency
grand
purely Moslem body
body administers
administers waqfs,
or
salem.
This purely
salem. This
waqfs, or
sacred
as the
the
so enjoys
influence as
sacred endowments,
endowments, and so
great influence
enjoys great
the advanced
patronage. Some of
of the
nationsource
advanced Arab nationsource of
of patronage.
alists
desire to
to see
of the
the great
great influence
influence
alists desire
see the
the lessening
lessening of
still a
wielded
by
religious
leaders,
as
such,
but
religion
is still
but
wielded by religious leaders, as such,
religion is
leaders have
potent factor
with the
the Arab masses,
masses, and such
such leaders
have
factor with
potent
the offices
as
power as
political leaders,
offices
if indeed
indeed the
as much power
as the
the political
leaders, if
are
are not
in many
cases identical.
identical.
not in
many cases
Palestine
In
there were
were three
parties, the
the Palestine
three main parties,
In 1934
1934 there
Arab party,
party, the
the National
National Defence
Defence party
party and the
the party
party of
of
Independence.
Independence.
The Palestine
party is
is the
majority party
the majority
Palestine Arab party
supparty and supported
by the
the representatives
representatives of
fellahin and labour
labour
of the
the fellahin
ported by
It is
is opposed
to co-operation
with the
the mandatory.
groups.
mandatory.
co-operation with
groups. It
opposed to
The National
National Defence
Defence party
party is
party
is the
the moderate party
minded
and
attracts
the
wealthier
and
bureaucratically
and attracts the wealthier
bureaucratically

[307 ]
[307]

THE ARABS
is
class
the people,
people, including
It is
intellectuals. It
of the
the intellectuals.
of the
class of
including some of
the
with
regarded as
as aa party
party aiming
co-operation
the govat co-operation
govaiming at
regarded
ernment.
ernment.
The party
party of
extremist group,
group, an
the extremist
is the
of Independence
Independence is
is PanIt
offshoot
in
1932
of
the
Palestine
Arab
party.
It
is
offshoot in 1932 of the Palestine
party.
Arab rather
rather than
than Pan-Islamic
Pan-Islamic and has
its aim the uniunihas for
for its
Arabian
inPalestine, Syria
and
Iraq
into
one
infication
one
into
of Palestine,
fication of
Iraq
Syria
in
the
two
centuries
following
dependent
nation
as
existed
centuries
in
the
two
nation
as
existed
following
dependent
the Prophet.
Prophet.
the
In
religious differences
differences between Palestine
Palestine MosIn spite
of religious
spite of
lems
Palestine Christians-and
the massacre
massacre of NesN esand the
Christians
lems and
and Palestine
torian
Iraq immediately
immediately following
following Iraq's
in Iraq
torian Assyrians
Iraq's
Assyrians in
achievement
of independence
year or
or two ago
not
a year
achievement of
ago bodes not
independence a
too
well for
minorities who get
above
themselves
in
the
in
themselves
for minorities
above
the
too well
get
young
Arab
state
at
this
stage-politics
transcend
religion
at
transcend
this
state
stage
politics
religion
young
in
the nationalist
the masses,
Palestine. If
If the
in Palestine.
in the
nationalist movement in
masses,
being brought
brought together
Moslem and
Christian, that
that are
are being
and Christian,
together
under the
the common banner,
yet scarcely
understand polipolias yet
under
banner, as
scarcely understand
tics
the Western sense
the word,
their leaders
leaders do and
and
tics in
in the
sense of the
word, their
avow enthusiastic
the political
political philosophy
philosophy
of the
enthusiastic discipleship
discipleship of
of
John Morley,
namely that
that self-government
is to
to be
be
of John
Morley, namely
self-government is
preferred
to
good
government,
and
also
avow
a
fondness
to
also
a fondness
preferred
good government,
of his
his successor
for
the India
India Office,
for the
the dictum
dictum of
successor at
at the
Office, Edwin
Montagu,
himself aa Jew,
Jew, as
as applied
applied to
India, namely
that
to India,
Montagu, himself
namely that
the
should be
the masses
masses should
be stirred
content.
stirred out
their apathetic
out of
of their
content.
apathetic
of Arab nationalism
The demand of
is for
nationalism is
for self-determination.
self-determination.
in Palestine
The Jewish
Jewish parties
parts of
parPalestine are
are parts
of larger
parties in
larger parties
in the
Zionist movement throughout
ties in
the Zionist
throughout the
the world.
world. In
In
cases divisions
some cases
occurred in
in Palestine
Palestine itself,
itself,
divisions have occurred
the ideals
for the
ideals formed outside
outside have
have undergone
undergone modification
modification
when coming
into
contact
into
contact
with
the
realities
of
the internal
with
the
realities
the
of
internal
coming
situation. If
If the
the underlying
ideal
is
a
one,
namely
situation.
ideal
is
a
common
one, namely
underlying
the
establishment
the Jewish
National Home,
Home, there
the establishment of the
there are
are
Jewish National

[3 0 8 ]

PALESTINE
PALESTINE
several
several parties
parties among
among the
the Jews
Jews with
with different
different programmes
programmes

reflecting distinctions
distinctions of
of class
class and
and of
of interests.
interests. The leftleftreflecting
wing party,
party, called
called the
the Labour
Labour party,
party, is
is Socialist
Socialist with
with aa few
few
wing
Communists.

It
It is
is composed
composed largely
largely of
of immigrants
immigrants from
from
eastern
eastern Europe
Europe who,
who, having
having been
been oppressed,
oppressed, corne
come with
with
advanced political
political views.
views. The Federation
F edera tion of
of Jewish
Jewish

Labour in
in 1932
1932 numbered 34,000
34,000 members,
members, and
and these
these
with their
their wives
wives and children
children constituted
constituted about
about one
one third
third
of
of the
the Jew
Jew population
population of Palestine
Palestine (at
(at the
the end
end of
of 1935
1935 it
it
was 67,800).
67,800). They
They have
have aa daily
daily newspaper,
newspaper, hospitals
hospitals and
and
schools.
first plank
plank. is
is to
to insist
insist on
on aa large
large and
and steady
steady
schools. Their first

immigration of
of Jews
Jews into
into Palestine
Palestine as
as aa means of
of attainattainimmigration
ing the
the National
National Home
Home; their
their second
plank. is
is the
the nationalnationalsecond plank
ing
;

ization
ization of
of land;
land; their
their hope
hope is
is that
that Palestine
Palestine ultimately
ultimately bebeit is
is to
to their
their
comes aa co-operative
co-operative commonwealth,
commonwealth, though
though it
comes

to stand for
at present
for co-operation
co-operation with
with the
the
interests at
interests
present to
mandatory.
mandatory.
in 1923,
is called
called
The Jewish
party, founded in
right-wing party,
Jewish right-wing
1923, is
critics
as
Its
describe
it
the
Revisionist party.
the Revisionist
Fascist,
party. Its critics describe it as Fascist,
the anti-Semitism
a paradox
in view of
of the
anti-Semitism of
of
if
is not
not a
if that
that is
paradox in
European
Fascism.
An
anti-Socialist
movement,
it
would
it
anti-Socialist
Fascism.
movement,
European
state
replace
ultimate ideal
ideal of
of the
the state;
the ultimate
the class
class struggle
by the
struggle by
replace the
it
hold strong
views and
finds support
it finds
strong views
among youth
youth who hold
support among
out-and-out
about
believe
action
to
bring
about
an
out-and-out
to
in strong
action
believe in
bring
strong
a self-governed
Jewish
is to
to create
create a
state. Its
Its object
self-governed Jewish
Jewish
object is
Jewish state.
a population
commonwealth in
with a
Palestine with
in Palestine
predomipopulation predomithis
to attain
attain this
nantly
the Jordan.
sides of
of the
both sides
Jordan. And to
Jew on both
nantly Jew
uncultiall
of
all
uncultipredominance
it
sequestration
it demands the
the
sequestration
predominance
the recent
recent tempo,
at the
vated
rate of
of immigration
and aa rate
lands and
vated lands
tempo,
immigration at
in twenty-five
holding
achieved in
could be
be achieved
that the
end could
the end
twenty-five years
years
holding that
Transif
by
a
yearly
quota
of
forty
thousand
or,
if
Trans-Jordan
thousand
of
a
or,
Jordan
forty
by yearly quota
thousand. The Revisionbe
thousand to
to sixty
be included,
included, fifty
sixty thousand.
fifty thousand
Palestine so long
ists
reject
self-governing
institutions
in Palestine
ists reject self-governing institutions in
long as
;

09 ]
[3
[309]

THE ARABS
the
the
a minority,
in a
are in
the Jews
minority, reject
negotiations with the
reject negotiations
Jews are
the Balfour DecArabs
not recognize
as they
do not
so long
Arabs so
recognize the
long as
they do
Britlaration
for
the
time,
the
continuance
of Britcontinuance
the
the
for
and favour,
laration and
time,
favour,
control.
They
form
a
ish
legislative
and
administrative
control.
ish legislative and administrative
They
small
Zionist organization.
the Zionist
outside the
small party
organization.
party outside
Palestine Jews
of Palestine
are
The middle
or
liberal
party
liberal
or
middle party
Jews are
party of
party
the
the
General
Zionists,
who
demand
the
immigration
of
the
the
the General Zionists,
immigration
wholesale admission of
middle-class
the wholesale
than the
rather than
middle-class Jew
Jew rather
anti-Revisionist and
workers.
anti-Socialist
and
anti-Revisionist
anti-Socialist
It is
is mostly
workers. It
mostly
is
attached
to
the
principles
of
private
of
is broadly
attached
to
the
enterprise
private enterprise
principles
broadly
is a
a central
central
and
and personal
freedom and,
and, generally
speaking, is
personal freedom
generally speaking,
similar
party
with
a
social
and
economic
programme
similar
to
to
a
social
with
economic
and
party
programme
that
in
Europe.
It
attracts
the
It
attracts
the
in
that of
of traditional
traditional centre
centre parties
Europe.
parties
merchant,
the like,
the educationist
the orange
educationist and the
merchant, the
like,
orange grower,
grower, the
the
and co-operates
with
the
mandatory
Power.
.
with
co-operates
mandatory
religious organization
organization among
the Palestine
Palestine
An orthodox
orthodox religious
among the
nearest
Jews,
the
nearest
thing
perhaps
to
the
grand
mufti's
counthe
Jews,
thing perhaps to the grand mufti's council among
among the
the Moslems,
Moslems, is
is the
the Orthodox
Orthodox or
or Mizrachi
Mizrachi
cil
It
party.
It
is
traditionalist
in
spirit
as
opposed
to
modernist,
is
traditionalist
in
as
to
modernist,
party.
spirit
opposed
is
is inspired
inspired by
by ideals
ideals of
of religious
religious and
and pious
pious upbuilding
upbuilding of
of
the
the state
state founded
founded in
in the
the law
law and
and traditions
traditions and
and opposes
opposes the
the
irreligious and
and unorthodox
unorthodox in
in the
the Zionist
Zionist movement.
movement. Its
Its
irreligious
activities
activities have
have most
most to
to do
do with
with religion
religion and
and education,
education,
while
while politically
politically it
it inclines
inclines to
to the
the right
right wing
wing of
of Zionism.
Zionism.
Lastly there
there exists
exists aa Jewish
Jewish society
society whose
whose influence,
influence,
Lastly
more especially
especially outside
outside Palestine,
Palestine, is
is greater
greater than
than the
the
It
is
known
as
Brith-Shalom,
meagre
membership
suggests.
It
is
known
as
meagre membership suggests.
Brith-Shalom,
or
or Covenant of
of Peace.
Peace. It
It criticizes
criticizes the
the Zionist
Zionist leaders
leaders for
for
looking to
to the
the West for
for support
support instead
instead of
of coming
coming into
into
looking
closer
closer contact
contact with
with the
the Arabs
Arabs among
among whom the
the Jews
Jews will
will
have to
to live,
live, and it
it advocates
advocates buying
buying from
from Arabs
Arabs instead
instead
of
of boycotting
boycotting them.
them. The Brith-Shalom
Brith-Shalom enjoys
enjoys neither
neither the
the
confidence
confidence of
of the
the Arabs
Arabs nor
nor the
the Zionists.
Zionists. The Arabs
Arabs welwei

[3 IO ]

PALESTINE
come its
but suspect
suspect it
it for
for that
that very
very reason
reason and
its moderation but
in
a
see
it
to
their
ideal
see in it a greater
greater danger
danger to their ideal of
of the
the Arab state.
state.
Brith-Shalom's
Brith-Shalom's main idea
idea seems to
to be that
that Palestine
Palestine should
should
be neither
neither an Arab nor aa Jewish
Jewish state,
state, but
but aa biracial
biracial state
state
in
in which Jews
Jews and Arabs should
should enjoy
enjoy equal
equal civil,
civil, religious
religious
political rights
rights without distinction
distinction between
between majority
majority
and political
and minority.
minority. It
It is
is aa group
group of
of intellectuals
intellectuals who construe
construe
the
the term 'national
'national home for
for the
the Jews'
Jews' less
less as
as aa Jewish
Jewish
state than as
as aa spiritual
spiritual home. Both the
the Labour
sovereign state
sovereign
arfrl
artd the
the Revisionist
Revisionist parties
parties oppose
oppose it
it as
as standing
standing for
for 'just
'just

another minority
minority group
group of Jews,
Jews, this
this time
time in
in Palestine.*
Palestine.'
this
underestimates
what
has
Perhaps this underestimates
has already
been done
done
Perhaps
already been
for
status of the
for the
the Jews
Jews by
by the
the mandatory,
mandatory, for the
the status
the Jews
Jews
in
in Palestine
Palestine is
is equal
equal to
to that
that of the
the native
native Arab
Arab; though
though
1
8
in
a
the
of
to
one
the native
native Jew
Jew was in
in 19
I
8
in
minority
of
one
to
nine,
tonine, to19
minority
as three is
to the Arabs as
is to
seven and for
day
Jews are to
to seven
day the Jews
birth
are of foreigq.
the most part
part are
birth;
the
Hebrew
language
foreign
language
official
status
that of
has been
been elevated
to an equal
official
status
with
that
elevated to
with
equal
in three
coins are
are in
Arabic
the postage
postage stamps
three lanlanArabic;j the
stamps and coins
guages:
Arabic, Hebrew and English
Jewish university
English;j a Jewish
university
guages Arabic,
there has been
has sprung
in Jerusalem,
everywhere there
Jerusalem, and everywhere
up in
sprung up
so
ancient
that
a revival
of
the
ancient
Hebrew,
so
that
from
being almost
the
revival of
Hebrew,
being
the common tongue
aa dead language
it has now become the
tongue
language it
all
of Jewish
immigrants
coming
from
all
over
the
world.
All
Jewish immigrants coming
learn
as
Palestine
in
Jewish
children
growing
up
in
Palestine
learn
Hebrew
as
children
Jewish
growing up
old days
the prithe old
in the
their
their mother tongue,
days the
pritongue, and whereas in
vate
schools were Anglo-Jewish,
vate schools
German-Jewish, FrenchAnglo-Jewish, German-Jewish,
Hebrew-Jewish.
the Zionist
Zionist schools
Jewish,
schools are Hebrew-Jewish.
Jewish, today
today the
that (a)
the mandate that
The twin terms of the
(a) Palestine must
recivil and refor the
the Jews,
be aa national
national home for
(b) the civil
Jews, and (b)
account
rights
of
the
Arabs
must
on
no
account
be
permitted
ligious
of
the
permitted
ligious rights
are without
to
of perfection
a counsel
counsel of
to suffer,
be a
suffer, may
perfection and are
may be
the high
for the
doubt
in intent,
doubt unimpeachable
intent, but for
high commisunimpeachable in
;

[3 11

~HE ARABS
THE
action they
are
into action
to translate
sioner
translate them into
they are
called upon
sioner called
upon to
Periodical rebellion
often
horns of
rebellion and the
a dilemma. Periodical
of a
the horns
often the
less
fault of the
resultant
is,
in
origin,
perhaps
less
the fault
in
resultant impasse
is,
origin, perhaps
impasse
in
of
those
Arabs
or
of
the
Jews
than
of
those
in
authority
the
of
the
or
Arabs
during the
authority during
Jews
declarations or verbal
war, who,
by idealistically
who, by
war,
idealistically framed declarations
Arabs to
promises,
have
led
both
Jews
and
to expect
led
too
both
have
expect too
Jews
promises,
much,
so
that
each
one
is
demanding
and
expecting
more
each
is
so
that
demanding
much,
expecting
the
than
the demand and expectation
with the
than is
is compatible
expectation of the
compatible with
other.
is another unfortunate war legacy.
It is
other. It
legacy. The moauthorities in
time led authorities
in
mentous issues
involved at
at that
that time
issues involved
mentous
to
to
make
closest
touch
with
Jews
and
Arabs
severally
closest touch
severally
Jews
promises, in
enthusiasm or gratitude,
in moments of
of enthusiasm
gratitude, which
promises,
side.
side by
by side.
are
incapable of
fulfilment side
are incapable
of fulfilment
the agrarian
The issues
issues are
than the
discontent or
are deeper
or
agrarian discontent
deeper than
the religious
religious incident
incident which in
in the
the past
past has been the
the imthe
imstrife
of
communal
strife;
though
the
mediately
preceding
cause
of
cause
the
though
mediately preceding
pursuit
by
one
side
or
other
of
some
unenlightened
selfside
of
other
selfunenlightened
pursuit by
latent anger
to
interest has
has been
the means of
of bringing
interest
been the
bringing latent
anger to
white
to riots
riots and rebellion.
rebellion.
white heat
heat and leading
leading to
occasion of
the flare-up
The occasion
Hare-up in
in 1929
of the
a religious
in1929 was a
religious incident connected
Wailing Wall of
Jerusalem. The
cident
with the
connected with
the Wailing
of Jerusalem.
to Jerusalem
visitor to
visitor
witnessed the
interesting
has witnessed
the interesting
Jerusalem who has
ritual
at the
the Jews
Jews praying
praying at
will remember that
ritual of the
the Wall will
that
structure forms part
the sacred structure
part of
the temple
of
Herodof the
of
Herod
temple
the lower
six courses
the
lower six
courses of
of original
stonework still
still actually
original stonework
actually
remain
and is
is the
remain-and
the traditional
traditional site
temple.
site of
of Solomon's
Solomon's temple.
Here the Jews
have
been
accustomed
from
time
immemortime
Jews
ial to
Tradition goes
ial
to bewail
bewail the
the departed
glories of
of Judah.
departed glories
Judah. Tradition
goes
prophet Jeremiah
Jeremiah that
that the
remained
back to the prophet
the Jews
Jews who remained
in the Holy
in
Holy Land during
the Babylonian
Babylonian captivity
in
were in
during the
captivity were
on
these
ruins;
the
Pilgrim
of
the habit
habit of worshipping
these
the
of
ruins;
worshipping
Pilgrim
Bordeaux who visited
mentions that
visited Jerusalem
in A.D.
A.D. 33
that
Jerusalem in
33 mentions
all Jews
all
once aa year
to this
this place,
place, weeping
and
lalaand
Jews came once
year to
weeping
;

3 12 ]

PALESTINE

menting ; Jewish
Jewish writers
writers of
of the
the tenth
tenth and
and eleventh
eleventh centuries
centuries
menting
mention repairs,
repairs, while
while in
in 1840
a Turkish
Turkish decree
decree forbade
forbade
mention
1840 a
the
the Jews
Jews from paving
paving the
the passage
passage in
in front
front of
of the
the wall,
wall, it
it
being
only
permissible
for
to
visit
it
'as
of
old',
so
for
them
to
it
visit
as
of
being only permissible
old', so
that
that under the
the Turks there
there was no hindrance
hindrance to
to the
the old
old
;

Jewish usage.
usage.
Jewish

The troubles
troubles of
of 1929
brought about
about by
by the
the Arabs
Arabs
1929 were brought
in
of
special
sanctity
for
the
J
ews-a
erecting
in
this
place
of
this
for
the Jews
a
special sanctity
erecting
place
place from which
which God's
God's presence
presence has
has never
never departed
departed-a
a
place
structure at
at one end,
end, and at
at the
the other
other end
end converting
converting
new structure
zawiyah, fitting
fitting up
up aa lavatory
lavatory close
close by,
by, and
and
a house
house into
into aa zawiyah,
a
making
a
doorway
that
opened
up
a
thoroughfare
that
new
making a
doorway
opened up a thoroughfare
the sacred
sacred pavement
pavement under
under the
the Wall into
into the
the mosque
mosque
from the
of the
the Dome of the
the Rock,
Rock, so
so that
that the
the Jewish
Jewish worshippers
worshippers
of
interrupted by
by aa stream of
of men and animals
animals over
over
were interrupted
the pavement.
pavement. The Jews
not put
put forward aa claim
claim to
to
did not
the
Jews did
ownership
but
asserted
that
the
Arabs
were
behaving
that
Arabs
but
asserted
the
ownership
behaving
bickerings led
to riots.
riots.
malevolently,
led to
malevolently, and bickerings
The Arabs alleged
provocation. They
that this
held that
this
alleged provocation.
They held
was not
the matter.
matter. The Jews,
the crux
crux of
not the
of the
said, were
Jews, they
they said,
right to
never done
doing
to do and had never
doing what they
they had no right
before,
namely
they
were
making
use
of
benches,
use
of
a screen
screen
benches, a
making
before, namely they
with the
Scrolls
for
the Scrolls
ark with
an ark
for separating
women, an
separating men and women,
constituted
of
which
together
constituted
ritual lamps,
of the
the Law and ritual
together
lamps,
for the
an
this on Moslem property,
an open
property, for
synagogue, and this
open synagogue,
the
wall of
of the plinth
Wall forms
the western wall
of the
forms part
plinth on
part of
the
as the
which
of the
the Rock (otherwise
which the
the Dome of
(otherwise known as
is a place
Mosque
of
Omar)
is
erected.
This,
too,
is
is
erected.
of
too,
This,
place of
Omar)
Mosque
special
sanctity
to
the
Moslem
world,
for,
according
world, for, according to a
special sanctity to the
called David
'here that
that God called
medieval
it was 'here
medieval Arab writer,
writer, it
all that
that
and
here
that
he
put
here
to repentance,
and Solomon to
put all
repentance,
air under subjection
worked in
the air
in the
or flew
flew in
the earth
earth or
in the
subjection to
which
the
David,
to Solomon the Rock which
discovered to
here was discovered
David, here
13 ]
[3
[313]

THE ARABS
was the
the first
the whole
whole earth
to be
be created,
here
earth to
first corner
corner of
of the
created, here
was
in
came
unto
(peace be
be upon
upon her)
her) winter
in sumfruits
winter fruits
unto Mary
Mary (peace
winter, here
did Jesus
Jesus speak
mer,
here did
in winter,
fruits in
and summer fruits
speak
mer, and
when in
in the
the cradle,
here
where
angels
ascend
and
descend
ascend
descend
where
here
cradle,
angels
Magog shall
the
every
night, here
here Gog
shall conquer
conquer the
Gog and Magog
every night,
shall take
whole
except the
and here
here shall
take
the sanctuary,
earth except
whole earth
sanctuary, and
Resurrecthe
place
the
gathering
of
all
on
the
Day
of
Resurrecmen
all
of
the
Day
gathering
place
22 *
the sacredness
tion.'22*
But
perhaps the
the greatest
greatest stress
on the
stress on
sacredness
tion.'
But perhaps
it was here
of
Wall and
and pavement
belief that
that it
here
lies in
in the
the belief
of the
the Wall
pavement lies
that
Prophet tied
up his
his aerial
aerial steed
steed on
tied up
that Muhammad the
the Prophet
the occasion
of his
miraculous visit
through the
the seven
visit through
seven
occasion of
his miraculous
the
the Qur'anic
as the
heavens to
to the
the throne
throne of
the Almighty,
Almighty, as
Our'anic
of the
heavens
version, in
tiles around the
mosque dome,
recalls, and the
the
in tiles
the mosque
dome, recalls,
version,
the local
this steed
steed Boraq
Boraq is
the name by
by which
which the
is the
local
name of
of this
to this
day.
Arabs know the
the Wailing
this day.
Wailing Wall to
The magnitude
magnitude of
the delicate
of the
disturbances and the
the disturbances
delicate
of the
the religious
implications
led
the
League
nature of
nature
the
led
of
League of
religious implications
Nations to
to send
inquiry. It
consisted
Nations
send out
out a
of inquiry.
a commission
commission of
It consisted
of three
three non-British
members, under
under the
the chairmanship
chairmanship of
non-British members,
of
aa former Swedish minister
minister of
affairs,
and
its
findof foreign
its
findaffairs,
foreign
under
ings
were legally
legally enacted
and are
enacted and
are now enforced
enforced under
ings were
mandatory
pavethat the
the Wall and pavemandatory authority.
authority. These were that
ment belong
to the
the Moslems,
but Jews
have the
right of
the right
of
Moslems, but
belong to
Jews have
their
usage
for
their
services,
except
that
they
must
not
introthat
must
not
introservices,
usage
except
they
which constitute
duce screens
screens and other
other appurtenances
a
constitute a
appurtenances which
are forbidden
forbidden the
the right
right of
synagogue.
of structural
structural
synagogue. Moslems are
alterations impairing
the new doorway
doorway
alterations
impairing Jewish
Jewish access,
access, and the
into the
and
into
the mosque
mosque must be
be closed
Jewish holy
holy days
closed on Jewish
days and
a prohibition
prohibition placed
placed on the
the driving
of
animals
along
the
of
animals
driving
along the
certain hours
pavement during
during certain
hours daily,
perare perpavement
daily, when Jews
Jews are
their devotions;
devotions the
the maintenance
maintenance of
of the
Wall and
and
forming
the Wall
forming their
the
pavement
being
the
joint
concern
of
Moslems
and
mandaconcern
of
mandapavement being
joint
tory.
tory.
;

PALESTINE

Disturbances broke out aa few years

years later
later in
in Jaffa
folJaffa fola
bitter
lowing a bitter press
Arabs' grievaround the
the Arabs'
lowing
press campaign
campaign around
grievchief among
ances and fears,
which was the
the question
of
fears, chief
among which
question of
illicit immigration,
the Arabs declaring
illicit
immigration, the
that
during
the
that
the
declaring
during
preceding twelve
twelve months over
over fifteen
fifteen thousand
thousand Jewish
impreceding
Jewish imin illicitly
migrants had come in
over and
above the
the quota.
and above
migrants
illicitly over
quota.
Jewish
Emphasis
the land question
question too.
too. The Jewish
Emphasis was placed
placed on the
in 1932-33
at about
about the
population in
the two
two hundred
hundred
population
193233 was at
the
thousand mark,
mark, representing
representing approximately
approximately aa fifth
fifth of
of the
entire population.
entire
population. Nearly
Nearly aa quarter
the Jews
in
of the
lived in
quarter of
Jews lived
it
is
relatively
less)
agricultural
settlements
(today
settlements
it
is
much
agricultural
(today
relatively
less)
forming
the highest
highest proportion
proportion of
of Jewish
rural populapopulaJewish rural
forming the
tion in
tion
in the
the world.
world. They
and
self-contained and
They were largely
largely self-contained
was
this:
autonomous communities.
communities. The Arab grievance
was
this:
grievance
that lands
lands acquired
that
by the
the Jewish
National Fund,
whether
Fund, whether
Jewish National
acquired by
a Palestinian
from government
Palestinian landowner
or from a
landowner (often
government or
(often
absentee),
became
henceforth
forbidden
territory
to the
forbidden
henceforth
the
absentee),
territory to
native Arab cultivator.
Jewish National
National Fund acacnative
cultivator. The Jewish
quired
land,
evicted
the
native
peasant
and
installed
Arab
installed
peasant
quired land, evicted the native
leases quite
conthe
Jewish immigrant.
Zionist leases
openly conthe Jewish
quite openly
immigrant. Zionist
nontained aa clause
the
employment
of
non-Jewish
tained
the
of
clause forbidding
Jewish
employment
forbidding
of
labour. Inquiries
troubles, by
by aa judicial
judicial officer
officer of
labour.
after the
the troubles,
Inquiries after
the government,
Hope Simpson's
reSir John
the
John Hope
Simpson's refollowing Sir
government, following
port,
established
six
hundred
cases
of
Arabs
been
of
Arabs
who
had
hundred
cases
established
six
port,
of land,
rendered landless
landless by
purchase of
whether
rendered
land, whether
Jewish purchase
by Jewish
since
these
have
privately or
under the
the National
National Fund,
Fund, and these have since
or under
privately
been offered
by the
the government
in compensation.
compensation. The
been
offered land
land by
government in
Arabs complain
complain of
boycott
of Arab labour by
Arabs
of a
a systematic
by
systematic boycott of
the Jews.
Jews. The Zionists
Zionists affirm
is
that more Arab labour is
affirm that
the
in Jewish
employed
gardens than
than Jew.
Jew.
orange gardens
Jewish orange
employed in
The rising
to
be
subsidiary.
Such
questions appear
be
to
Such questions
rising of
subsidiary.
appear
national
the
the
Arabs this
this year
(1936)
in
the
form
of
national
politin
the Arabs
polityear (1936)
fundamental
the
ical strike,
arose from the fundamental
as we have seen,
ical
seen, arose
strike, as
15 ]
[3
[315]

THE ARABS

grievance-the
in the
quota of
of Jews
the quota
increase in
the sudden
sudden great
Jews
great increase
grievance
being
allowed
in.
Arabs
are
indifferent
to
the
causes
to
indifferent
the
causes
are
in. The Arabs
allowed
being
which
have impelled
impelled acceleration,
being concerned
concerned
which have
acceleration, they
they being
only
by
its
effect
for
themselves,
as
they
see
it.
Arabs
see
it.
The
as
effect
for
Arabs
its
themselves,
they
only by
do
not
want
the
Jews
and
they
do
not
want
the
mandate.
the mandate.
do not want the Jews and they do not
Recent
history in
the Arab countries,
well as
Palestine,
as Palestine,
as well
in the
Recent history
countries, as
does
that
they
are
amenable
to
political
to
amenable
are
suborthat
not suggest
does not
political suborthey
suggest
of
the
dination.
Political
domination
under
the
sword
the
of
the
dination. Political domination under
strong,
such
as
they
themselves
originally
imposed
upon
as
themselves
such
originally
imposed
upon
they
strong,
the world,
in their
recurrent moods more honourable
to
is in
their recurrent
honourable to
the
world, is
them,
however
distasteful
for
others,
than
a
voluntary
sura
than
for
distasteful
surhowever
others,
them,
voluntary
render of
of rights
rights they
they consider
take of
sacred. The give
consider sacred.
of
render
give and take
Western democratic
politics is
yet alien
alien to
East
as yet
to Middle East
is as
democratic politics
Western
tradition.
tradition.
The recent
recent remarkable
remarkable growth
growth in
in Palestine's
population
Palestine's population
is
index to
to its
prosperity. It
country which,
is a
its prosperity.
It is
a country
under
is an
an index
which, under
the
mandate, has,
speaking,
been
without
been
without
the mandate,
has, comparatively
comparatively speaking,
an unemployment
unemployment problem.
has balanced
balanced its
budget,
its budget,
It has
problem. It
year after
after year,
year, without
recourse to
to foreign
without recourse
loans. Where
foreign loans.
year
almost
other
country
has
experienced
economic setalmost every
other
has
setexperienced economic
every
country
backs,
Palestine
has
been
largely
free
from
them.
This
is
Palestine
has
been
free
them.
is
This
backs,
largely
of
gold
that
has
acdue
principally
to
the
copious
inflow
inflow
due principally to the copious
of gold that has accompanied
in part,
part, to
an efficient
to an
efficient
and, in
Jewish immigration
companied Jewish
immigration and,
of
administration.
and enlightened
form
of
form
administration.
enlightened
Politically
has undergone
undergone aa great
Palestine has
Politically Palestine
great change.
change.
From being
a
being a small,
Turkish-administered province
it has
has
small, Turkish-administered
province it
status of
and
is
ruled
under
an
acquired
the status
of a country
and
is
ruled
under
an
acquired the
country
elaborate crown colony
form
of
British
administration.
of
British
administration.
colony
direction of
The direction
of affairs
affairs rests
an
rests in
in a
a high
commissioner, an
high commissioner,
council composed
executive council
executive
composed of
of four
members of
four senior
senior members
of his
his
staff and an advisory
of
these
and
five
staff
council,
made
up
of
these
and
five
council,
advisory
up
other chiefs
chiefs of departments.
departments. Though
Palestinian Arabs
Arabs
Though Palestinian
and Jews
do
not
as
not as yet
yet hold
hold these
these senior
posts they
provide
senior posts
Jews
they provide

[3 16 ]

PALESTINE

nearly
nearly

all
personnel, while
while in
in their
their respeiy
respec...
the subordinate
all the
subordinate personnel,
tive
religious affairs
affairs they
tive social,
social, economic and religious
they enjoy
enjoy great
great
freedom,
with
the
spirit
of
the
mandate.
in keeping
the
with
of
the
mandate.
freedom, in
keeping
spirit
As yet
yet there
there is
is no representative
in Pales-Palesrepresentative government
government in
tine.
government truly
truly representative
representative on
on
to make government
tine. Indeed to
the
basis of
numbers, at
this stage,
would entail
entail aa prepreof numbers,
at this
the basis
stage, would
dominantly
the
and the
dominantly Arab and actively
actively anti-Jew
anti-Jew majority;
majority; and
in
this
mandatory
has
therefore
resisted
Arab
demands
has
therefore
resisted Arab demands in this
mandatory
direction.
mandatory is
is in
position of
not being
being
in the
direction. The mandatory
the position
of not
to allow
nationalist aspirations
to
debar
the
able
able to
allow Arab nationalist
to
debar
the
aspirations
basic promises
promises made to
to the
the Zionists.
Zionists. On the
the
fulfilment
of basic
fulfilment of
other
cannot allow
on the
the scale
it cannot
allow Jewish
other hand it
scale
Jewish immigration
immigration on
utter
opposition
to
the
wishes
of
demanded by
Zionists
in
in
utter
Zionists
to
the
of
wishes
by
opposition
the native
population, who claim
Arab Palestine
their
claim an
an Arab
the
native population,
Palestine as
as their
as ancient
birthright,
they say,
Englishman's
a right,
ancient as
as the
the Englishman's
say, as
birthright, a
right, they
right to
to England.
is to
to hold
hold the
the scales
role is
scales
mandatory role
right
England. The mandatory
and
Arab,
to
mitigate
their
differences
evenly
between
Jew
to
their
differences
between
Arab,
Jew
mitigate
evenly
as
as possible
by inclining
extremist of
neither
to the
the extremist
of neither
as far
far as
inclining to
possible by
to bring
and
to use
use its
power and influence
bring the
two comthe two
influence to
its power
comand to
munities
nearer to
other in
the hope
of
to each
in the
Palestine nearer
each other
in Palestine
munities in
hope of
making
future
co-operation
between
possible.
between
them
future
possible.
making
co-operation
Sympathizers
will be
be found for
persecuted Jews
of
for persecuted
Jews of
Sympathizers will
central
and eastern
Europe faced,
these days
of world
world
in these
eastern Europe
central and
faced, in
days of
doors by
by almost
almost every
unrest
dosed doors
with closed
unrest and
and depression,
every
depression, with
and
looking
to
Palestine
as
country
in
the
world
Palestine
their
to
as their
the
in
world
looking
country
principal hope.
hope.
principal
Sympathizers
will be
the Arabs of Palestine
Palestine
for the
be found for
Sympathizers will
of
who,
under
the
recent
tempo
of
immigration
of
Jews,
are
the
recent
under
Jews, are
who,
immigration
tempo
native
of
their
native
country
passing
witnessing
the
population
of
their
country passing
witnessing the population
alien
to
against
their
wishes
and
without
their
consent
to an alien
consent
their
without
and
their
wishes
against
majority.
majority.
Chrisis Holy
Holy Land to
to Jewry,
Jewry, to
to Islam
to ChrisPalestine
Islam and to
Palestine is
which
to consideration
tendom,
such it
has claims
consideration which
claims to
it has
as such
tendom, and as

[3 1 7 ]

THE ARABS
transcend
both those
those of
nationalism and Jewish
of Arab nationalism
transcend both
Jewish
nationalism, though
though the
the special
special interests
of each cannot
cannot be
interests of
be
nationalism,
it represents
meagre size
size is
that it
but
overlooked. Its
such that
is such
but
Its meagre
overlooked.
represents
freed from the
a fractional
part of
of the
the Arab territory
territory freed
the yoke
a
fractional part
yoke
scant
its scant capacity
of the
Turks by
by British
armies j its
for
the Turks
British armies;
of
capacity for
a
that
small
population
is
such
that
it
could
only
support
a
small
fracis
it
such
could
fraconly
support
population
of the
the Jews
Jews of
of the
the world.
world. That this
this little
little shrine
tion
tion of
shrine of
of
to anyone
three
world religions
religions should
should be
be sacrificed
exthree world
sacrificed to
one
exany
clusive
nationalism, apart
apart from the
the unlikelihood
unlikelihood of
of a
oneclusive nationalism,
a onesided
unscathed another world war,
sided settlement
settlement surviving
war,
surviving unscathed
to the
the most liberal
liberal and enlightened
is
probably distasteful
distasteful to
is probably
enlightened
thought
of today.
thought of
today.

[318]

EPILOGUE

Epilogue
Epilogue

Wx

HAVE TRACED briefly

the Arabs:
the life
life story
of the
Arabs :
briefly the
story of
their
their deliverance
deliverance from a pagan
pagan barbarism
barbarism in
the seventh
in the
seventh
by one of the great
history-the
century by
of history
the Prophet
figures of
century
great figures
Prophet
'threefold founder of
Muhammad, 'threefold
a nation,
nation, of
of a
an empire,
of an
empire,
and of
of a religion';
religion'; their
their marvellous
world expansion
marvellous world
in
expansion in
that followed;
followed their
the century
their splendid
medieval civilizacivilizacentury that
splendid medieval
for three
three centuries
centuries more
more; then
then disintegration
disintegration and
and dedetion for
tion
cline
the buff
buffetings
of
foreign
invaders
East
cline amid the
of
invaders
East
from
and
etings
foreign
;

West, crusaders,
crusaders, Mongols
Mongols and
and Tartars,
Tartars, and so
so to
to subsubWest,
within
the
Empire
during
the
past
four
mergence
within
the
Ottoman
four
mergence
Empire during the past
in a
a postemergence, finally,
finally, and
and signs
signs of
of new life
life in
postcenturies j emergence,
centuries
swept by
by aa wave of
of nationalistic
nationalistic revival.
revival.
war world swept
Today the
the Arab world in
in common with
with the
the rest
rest of
of the
the
Today
world is
is stirred
stirred to
to its
its foundations.
foundations. Under the
the pressure
pressure of
of
world
civilization is
is in
in the
the melting
melting pot
pot;
modernism Middle East civilization
;

many of
of its
its distinctive
distinctive features
features are
are disappearing
disappearing or
or bebemany
calthe
out
of
recognition.
Politically
the
calcoming
modified
of
modified
out
Politically
recognition.
coming
of government
government has
has gone,
gone, an anachronism
iphate system
system of
iphate
Arabs themselves,
the
for
the
twentieth
century
even
for
the
themselves,
in
in the twentieth century even
nationalistic
and in
in its
its place
place limited,
limited, constitutional,
constitutional, nationalistic forms
and

[3 21

THE ARABS

of
evolution hold
the
hold the
of Western
of government
Western form and evolution
government of
field.
field.
Arab civilization,
civilization,
Universal education,.
theglory
once the
Universal
education, once
.glory of_Arab
qTde~ay;J~enthr~ned
but abandoned
abandoned in
the later
in the
later centurfe.;
centuries of
but
decayTTs enthroned
cinema
again,
and
with
the
universal
cinema
and the
the universal
universal
with the universal
again,
is producing
producing aa new shape
of mind in
in the
the young,
young, while
while
press is
press
shape of
industrialization under
under the
the invasion
of Western capital
invasion of
industrialization
capital
is true
is changing
the livelihood
their elders.
elders. This is
true not
not
of their
livelihood of
is
changing the
of the
the Arabs
Arabs of
course, but
but of
of the
the Arabs withof
withof Arabia,
of course,
Arabia, of
out, the
the historical
historical Arabs
Arabs who have been
been liberated
liberated from
out,
the Ottoman yoke
yoke and
awakened to
to the
the sense
sense of aa new
the
and awakened
the
ancient
destiny, whose
whose territories,
territories, forming
land bridge
forming the ancient land
destiny,
bridge
between East and West,
have today
today as
as airway
airway and oilway
between
West, have
oilway
acquired aa fresh
fresh world significance.
acquired
significance.
Politically
many Arab states
pursue their
their separate
states pursue
the many
separate
Politically the
fa~ade are
are the
the ties
ties of
existences,
mosaic fagade
but behind
behind the
the mosaic
of
existences, but
a
and
common blood,
blood, common tongue
and
a
predominantly
comcomtongue
predominantly
historical and religious
religious outlook.
outlook. Educated
Educated Arabs
Arabs
mon historical
naturally cherish
hope of
of ultimate
ultimate political
political federation,
federation,
cherish the
the hope
naturally
conscious as
as they
not merely
merely of
of aa tradition
tradition of
conscious
are not
of empire,
they are
empire,
of empire
a
but of
that
once
dominated
a
civilized
world.
but
civilized
that
once
dominated
world.
empire
foreign observer,
To aa foreign
disobserver, however sympathetically
sympathetically disposed, the
the obstacles
the way
way of
immediate realization
realization of
in the
of immediate
obstacles in
of
posed,
this
this aspiration
seem
considerable,
arising
as
they
do
not
as
do
not
considerable,
aspiration
arising
they
political influences
but from inherent
inherent
from outside
outside political
influences alone,
alone, but
cultural and
have seen
seen aa clearcultural
and economic conditions.
conditions. We have
clearcut
division between Arabs.
peninsular Arabs,
Arabs, among
cut division
Arabs. The peninsular
among
intertribal and interstate
whom intertribal
have been
been pereninterstate wars have
perennial
the centuries
nial through
our own times,
times,
centuries and down to
to our
through the
to preserve
are jealous
jealous to
their own light,
indigenous
preserve their
light, indigenous
tribal
of government,
tribal forms of
their individual
still more their
individual
government, still
liberties.
In
In
Palestine
unqualified
political
personal
liberties.
Palestine
personal
unqualified political
other, seems
remote in
view
sovereignty,
whether Arab or
or other,
seems remote
in view
sovereignty, whether
22 ]
[3
[322]

EPILOGUE
internationalism of
essential internationalism
of that
of
the essential
problem, and
the
that problem,
of the
and the
communal
discord
between
present
discord between Arab and
Jew is
is likely
likely
and Jew
present
to
to need the
the safeguard
into the
friend as
as far
far into
the
safeguard of a guide
guide and friend
is possible
as it
foresee. There are
future
it is
possible to
to foresee.
observers, of
future as
are observers,
of
that
the
next
course,
who
suppose
that
during
the
next
twenty
years
course,
suppose
during
twenty years
the
the mandatory
will everywhere
everywhere disappear
disappear by
by comcommandatory system
system will
consent of interested
mon consent
interested parties,
parties, as
has recently
recently taken
as has
taken
in Iraq
to take
take place
in Syria,
place
Iraq and is
is about to
place in
but PalesPalesSyria, but
place in
well be the
the exception.
tine may
tine
may well
present antipathy
beexception. The present
antipathy between Arabs and Jews
be softened
softened with
with
should, however,
however, be
Jews should,
the doors of immigration
the
the closing
immigration which
which must
must ultiulticlosing of the
at
and
no
distant
time
come
mately
at
very distant time
about
about from the
the
mately
very
a law of saturation,
future generations
operation
generations of
of
saturation, and future
operation of a
will then come to
to regard
Palestine Arabs will
Palestine
regard Palestine
Palestine Jews
Jews
colonists as
as they
alien colonists
not as
as alien
do today,
as felnot
they can
can and do
but as
feltoday, but
recent coup
d'etat in
low natives*
natives. In Iraq
Iraq the
the recent
in which an
coup d'etat
constitutional government
was
overthrown
by
the
elected,
was
overthrown
elected, constitutional
government
by the
a
army,
a
popular
and
distinguished
minister
was
assassiminister
assassidistinguished
army,
popular
his two most important
nated and his
important colleagues,
nated
one of
of them
colleagues, one
driven into
the
prime minister,
were driven
into exile,
the prime
that
minister, were
exile, suggests
suggests that
ruthless
still
is
ruthless and overmastering
individualism
is
still
a
paraindividualism
a
paraovermastering
mount quality
not a
a propitious
in Arab leadership
leadership-not
propitious quality
quality
quality in
for
the wider
by real
real federation.
for the
wider teamwork required
federation.
required by
Between Syria
and
Iraq
have
seen
aa historic
seen
historic rivalry
we
have
Between
Syria
Iraq
rivalry
came. The Syrian
Arab
considers
even
before the
the Arabs came.
considers
even before
Syrian
adto be
himself and was considered
by the
be more adconsidered by
the Turks to
himself
if
vanced and more capable
the Iraqi
Iraqi Arab,
Arab, which,
vanced
than the
which, if
capable than
in
true,
may
be
expected
to
lead
to
Syrian
dominance
in
lead
be
to
to
true, may
Syrian
expected
the other
other hand,
hand,
any
between the
the two.
two. Iraq,
Iraq, on the
any relationship
relationship between
assured
is
is the
part of
territories with
with an assured
the one part
of the
the Arab territories
in oil,
great wealth
economic
it has
wealth in
cotton
economic future;
has great
oil, great
future; it
great cotton
potentialities,
may
well
become
another
Egypt.
another
well
become
Egypt. Iraq,
Iraq,
potentialities, may
its
is not
be persuaded
persuaded by
poor relations
relations
therefore,
to be
not likely
therefore, is
by its poor
likely to

23 ]
[3
[323]

THE ARABS

to abdicate
to
abdicate

its
place of
natural priority
the family
family councounin the
of natural
its place
priority in

cils.
cils.
It
would seem
political prerequisite
prerequisite of
of
chief political
seem that
that the
the chief
It would
of
Arab
federation
is
the
building
up
of
an
educated
and
educated
an
and
the
is
Arab federation
building up
strong
public opinion.
opinion. Here
Here the
the Syrian
Syrian Arabs seem most
strong public
likely
to
lead
the
way.
With
them,
Arab nationalism
nationalism is
is
the
to
lead
With
them,
way.
likely
founded
homogeneous cultural
group speaking
the
the
cultural group
in the
the homogeneous
founded in
speaking
common tongue,
tongue, irrespective
irrespective of
is,
it is,
of religious
allegiance it
religious allegiance;
in
other words,
words, the
the geographical-linguistic
geographical-linguistic grouping
grouping of
of
in other
Western
Moslems
and
Syrian
ChrisChrisform. Thus Syrian
Western form.
Syrian
Syrian
in the
the ideal
ideal of
nationality.
tians
of Arab nationality.
tians find
a superloyalty
find a
superloyalty in
While
revolting against
Western domination,
are conconWhile revolting
domination, they
they are
against Western
verts
to Western
political philosophy.
philosophy.
Western political
verts to
The political
political problem
problem of
great importance
importance in
the dealin the
of great
dealThe
ings
between
East
and
West,
one
that
has
loomed
large
ings between East and West, one that has
large
in
the past
past and
do
so
again
in
the
political
evolution
the
In the
so
in
evolution
and may
again
political
may
of
East, is
the problem
problem of
of minorities.
minorities. It
is the
It was
Middle East,
of the
the Middle
aa problem
problem that
that faced
the Ottoman Empire
Empire and was
was bebefaced the
queathed
it to
to the
the Arab
Arab states
their dismemberment.
states on
dismemberment.
on their
queathed by
by it
What the
the West conceives
morally unjustifiable
unjustifiable
of as
as morally
conceives of
massacre of
minorities in
in Ottoman times
times the
the
of Christian
Christian minorities
massacre
East
holds
to
have
been
a
perfectly
legitimate
suppression
to
East holds
have been a perfectly legitimate suppression
of
traditional viewpoint
viewpoint
a divergence
of revolt.
is a
revolt. There is
of traditional
divergence of
of
agitation
against
authority
of
as
to the
as to
the legitimacy
of
and of
agitation against authority and
legitimacy
the ways
ways and means of
dealing with
it. Public
Public opinion
opinion in
the
of dealing
with it.
in
circles with
circles
with absolutist
traditions differs
our own,
own, as
absolutist traditions
differs from our
as
the
us
the feelings
us
over
the
attitude
towards
over
the
attitude
towards
feelings evoked among
among
minority
Fascist Germany
Communist
in Fascist
minority movements in
Germany and Communist
Russia show.
In the
the Middle East
repression
springs
priRussia
show. In
East repression springs primarily from political
political motives,
not religious
religious bigotry;
bigotry j ininmotives, not
marily
seen when Jews
deed,
as we have
have seen
were
outlaws
in
Christenwere
outlaws
in
Christendeed, as
Jews
dom it
it was the
the Moslem countries
countries that
that gave
refuge.
gave them refuge.
Nor is
is the
the traditional
traditional Middle East
absolutism illiberal
East absolutism
illiberal so
so
;

[3 2 4 ]

.crJ.LV\.:I U .c

long
are obedient
to authority
obedient to
as subjects
law abiding,
and law
subjects are
authority and
abiding,
long as
but
where
political
power
is
an
entrenchment
and
is
an
entrenchment
and
but clearly
clearly
political power
not
democratically
derived
minority
movements
aimed
at
derived
movements
not democratically
aimed at
minority
weakening
unhealthy lives.
lives.
it live
live unhealthy
weakening it
The Turks
Turks were by
by no means illiberal,
for they
allowed
illiberal, for
they allowed
minorities aa large
measure
of
autonomy.
Kurds,
Assyrians,
of
measure
minorities
large
autonomy. Kurds, Assyrians,
Yezidis, living
in groups
in the
the mountains,
were encourencourYezidis,
mountains, were
living in
groups in
their
aged
to
maintain
their
own
la
ws,
language
and
customs
and
to
maintain
and
and
customs
laws,
language
aged
were
dealt with
through their
their own native
with through
leaders
native leaders-aghas,
were dealt
aghas,
begs, patriarchs
patriarchs and
and the
the rest.
rest. Indeed
the easygoing
way of
of
Indeed the
begs,
easygoing way
the
Turks proved
proved to
to be
be aa weakness
weakness when nationalism
the Turks
nationalism came
came
to
raise its
in Asia
Asia and
and liberalism
gone as
as far
as
its head in
liberalism had gone
to raise
far as
it
might.
Intimidation
and
terrorism
were
then
resorted
to
terrorism
then
were
resorted to
it might. Intimidation
as
prevention of
political disintegration.
disintegration. The young
young Arab
Arab
of political
a prevention
as a
state
of Iraq,
on
the
threshold
of
independence
a
brief
on
the
threshold
of
brief
state of
a
independence
Iraq,
for
repeating
the
Turkish
experiment.
decade
ago,
was
not
not
for
the
decade ago,
repeating
experiment.
The state
the state
had no
no attractions
It
state had
within the
attractions for
state within
for Iraq.
Iraq. It
wanted the
the solidarity
of
a
Western
state,
a
thoroughgoing
of
a
a
wanted
state,
solidarity
thoroughgoing
absorption
all minorities,
without recognition
adof all
of adminorities, without
recognition of
absorption of
for each
the Turks
had
ministrative distinctions
each such
such as
distinctions for
as the
Turks had
ministrative
conceded,
providing constitutional
constitutional safeguards
but providing
for
conceded, but
safeguards for
complete
religious
toleration,
equality
before
the
law
before
the
and
complete religious toleration,
equality
for instance,
enjoy in
such,
as Jews
Britain or
in Britain
or France;
France; and
instance, as
such, for
Jews enjoy
this
by the
the League
under mandatory
advice.
this was approved
League under
mandatory advice.
approved by
East
Assyrian
resistance
was
in
the
traditional
Middle
East
met
in
the
traditional
resistance
Assyrian
manner,
in
other
words,
a
which
was
locally
conin
other
a
manner
which
manner,
words,
locally considered
justifiable.
sidered justifiable.
as the
laboured for
the spirit
as well
well as
the letter
letter
Those who laboured
for the
spirit as
of
democratic
and
parliamentary
governdemocratic
of constitutional,
constitutional,
parliamentary governconof Western
Western form for
Iraq may
have had their
their confor Iraq
ment of
may have
of civilization
victions
but 'distinctive
civilization
traditions of
'distinctive traditions
victions shaken,
shaken, but
cannot
be surrendered
borrowed precipitately
precipitately without
without
surrendered or
or borrowed
cannot be
26 *
in an
aa shock
shock to
the
system,
'26*
and
political
institutions
in
institutions
to the system,'
political
25 ]
[3
[325]

ARAB6
THE ARABS

"*

English sense
sense require
require aa long
long apprenticeship
apprenticeship and an
an edueduEnglish
and in
in the
the Middle East time
time is
is
cated public
public opinion,
opinion, and
cated
our system
system of
of combining
combining aa democratic
democratic
needed. Indeed,
Indeed, our
needed.
form of
of government
government with
with an
an aristocratic
aristocratic 'organization
'organization of
of
form
the
Eastern
society is,
is, in
in aa sense,
sense, the
the converse
converse of
of the
system.
system.
society
There we have
have aa social
social democracy
democracy side
side 'by
'by side
side with
with aa
There
of
of
political
autocracy.
governing
class
imbued
with
ideas
ideas
with
class
imbued
political autocracy.
governing
Certain left-wing
leftwing political
political movements in
in the
the West appear
appear
Certain
to have
have aims
aims not
not dissimilar.
dissimilar.
to
important the
the political
political reforms
reforms that
that are
are comcomHowever important
because
it
more
revolutionary
change,
because
it
intiing
about,
a
intia
revolutionary change,
ing about,
the everyday
everyday life
life of
of the
the common people,
people, is
is
mately affects
affects the
mately
the industrialization
industrialization of
of these
these Arab countries.
countries. It
It is
is aa change
change
the
that springs
springs not
not merely
merely from the
the world's
world's appetite
appetite for
for oil
oil
that
and phosphates
phosphates or
profits in
in selling
selling machinery,
machinery, but
but from
its profits
or its
of
aa genuine
demand
on
the
part
of
the
progressive,
especially
the
the
progressive,
part
especially
genuine
the
youthful elements
elements of
of the
the local
populations. These are
local populations.
are
the youthful
oil
looking
to
the
royalties
from
their
oil
fields,
to
the
develto
their
the
develfields,
looking to the royalties
of irrigation
projects and power
power plants
plants to
to bring
bring
opment
irrigation projects
opment of
are
standard
of
life,
and
they
are
well
aware
of
well
them aa higher
of
of
life,
they
higher
the
to
serve
such
ends.
to
serve
such
ends.
the need
need of
of security
security
The oil
oil pipe
but a
a year
or two ago,
line, completed
ago, which
completed but
year or
pipe line,
brings
oil
from
the
new
Mosul
fields
across
the
Syrian
fields
the
the
oil
across
brings
Syrian
is
a
triumph
of
a
new
order
desert
to the
is
a
desert to
a
the Medit.erranean,
order
Mediterranean,
triumph
in desert
desert security.
of things
things in
security. Enterprises
Enterprises have sprung
up
sprung up
along
the shores
shores of
the Dead Sea
Sea oblivious
of the
oblivious of the
the proxalong the
proximity
of the
the desert
desert raider,
not have
been
have been
raider, which again
imity of
again would not
possible
under
the
Turks
thirty
years
ago.
What
is
the
is the
the
possible
thirty years ago.
is not
It is
that the
explanation?
the desert
the 'fringes
desert man on the
not that
explanation ? It
'fringes
the sown' is
is no longer
of the
the man he
he was,
has suddenly
lost
was, has
longer the
suddenly lost
his lust
lust for
for plunder,
that
but
that
his
raiding
has
ceased
to
pay
his
but
his
ceased
to
has
plunder,
raiding
pay
has
to be a
a menace for
him,
ceased to
for others.
unothers. However unhim,
the thought,
palatable
modern
weapons
it is
is the
the deadly
palatable the
thought, it
deadly
weapons

r ~261

that
governments now possess
possess that
that organized
that intimidate
intimidate
organized governments
him-the
bomber
cruising
through
the
skies
at
the
him
incredible
cruising through the skies at incredible
speed,
the
steel
bulletproof
coach
with
its
machine
gun
steel
the
coach
with
its
machine
bulletproof
speed,
gun
frontiers-that
have
driven
the
desert
scorching
along
the
the
frontiers
that
have driven the desert
scorching along
into his
man back
back into
his sandy
wastes. It
It took
took aa Roman legion
sandy wastes.
legion
to
a few airplanes
cars
ineff ectively what a
to do ineffectively
and armoured
armoured cars
airplanes and
in making
making the
frontiers secure.
do
today in
the frontiers
do today
It is
secure. It
is weapon
weapon
superiority,
or
rather
the
inventions
of
the
internal-comor
rather
the
inventions
the
of
internal-comsuperiority,
bustion
engine and wireless
wireless telegraphy
telegraphy enabling
enabling aa lightning
bustion engine
lightning
use
weapon superiority,
that
have
possible
the
that
use of
of weapon
have
made
superiority,
possible the
development
of
these
borderlands,
where
the
native
warof
these
borderlands, where the native wardevelopment
like
not otherwise
have permitted
permitted intrusion.
intrusion.
otherwise have
like man would not
It
the fear
peace
and
fear of
of force
which has
has compelled
It is
is the
force which
compelled peace and
progress. And thus
thus Iraq,
with wealth
from her
wealth enough
her oil
oil
Iraq, with
enough from
progress.
royalties
to
maintain
airplanes
and
tanks,
has,
by
this
fact,
to
maintain
this
and
fact,
tanks, has, by
airplanes
royalties
the prestige
prestige to
compel obedience
obedience in
in her
lawless tribal
tribal
to compel
her lawless
the
areas,
a peace
which without
them would
would be
be wanting.
wanting.
without them
areas, a
peace which
in the
the East
in the
making governments
governments
Science
East as
as in
the West is
is making
Science in
more powerful,
powerful, the
the governed
more at
at their
mercy, and
and
their mercy,
more
governed more
thereby
increasing
the
moral
responsibility
of
those
in
in
the
moral
of
those
responsibility
thereby increasing
authority.
authority.
But if
if security,
necessary for
progress, is
indirectly
is indirectly
for progress,
But
security, necessary
affecting
the
habits
and
outlook
of
the
borderlands
the
borderlands
the
outlook
habits
of
the
the
and
affecting
effects
of industrialization
the sedentary
industrialization among
effects of
sedentary populapopulaamong the
reaching. In
the construction
of
tions
are even
construction of
In the
far reaching.
tions are
even more far
the
desert
pipe
line
alone
some
fourteen
thousand,
natives
natives
fourteen thousand,
the desert pipe line alone
were
into new forms
their
of activity,
forms of
were drawn
drawn into
activity, leaving
leaving their
of
ploughs,
their
sheep,
their
primitive
crafts,
many
of
them
their
their
sheep,
ploughs,
primitive crafts, many
doubtless
never to
return to
them. Novel
Novel dress,
novel food
food
to return
to them.
doubtless never
dress, novel
and
clothing perhaps,
perhaps, novel
working conditions
conditions certainly,
certainly,
novel working
and clothing
folline is
is one day
must
have left
left their
their mark.
mark. If
pipe line
day folIf the
the pipe
must have
for which
lowed
by aa railway
railway-the
preliminary surveys
surveys for
the preliminary
lowed by
the
in
have
been
made,
its
cost
computed
in
millions,
its
cost
been
have
millions, and the
made,
computed
27 ]
[3
[327]

THE ARABS
the ramifications
time required
to build
build several
ramifications
several years-the
time
years
required to
of
effect
industrializastill wider
will
wider and deeper.
will be
be still
deepen The effect of industrializaill
tion
to Europeanize
the Arab.
Arab. Whether for good
is to
tion is
good or ill
Europeanize the
is in
great
in progress.
progress. The shepshepreadjustment is
sociological readjustment
great sociological
he comes to
when
skirt
his loose
herd must
must discard
loose skirt
to drive
drive
discard his
herd
it. It
aa lorry,
the gears
It may
may seem a small thing,
for the
thing,
lorry, for
gears demand it.
well
as
the
common
in
but
and
habits
in
the
people
as
well
as
habits
but clothing
people
clothing
are
of
government
are
changes
in
the
traditional
methods
traditional
government
changes in the
the extent
the change
place in
in Middle
signs
of the
extent of
of the
change taking
taking place
signs of
East
East civilization.
civilization.
unaffected. In
as
is the
the religious
outlook unaffected.
In the East as
N or is
Nor
religious outlook
intellectual questioning.
in
it is
of intellectual
in the
a time
time of
the West it
is a
questioning. A wider
and more secular
impact of modern
education and the impact
secular education
which
ideas
ideas,
especially
progressive
ideas
which"
challenge
the
ideas, especially progressive
challenge the
are
the fatalistic
naturally tending
tending
whole basis
basis of
fatalistic attitude,
whole
of the
attitude, are naturally
familiar European
that
outlook. The familiar
to
to a modern outlook.
notion that
European notion
in terms,
a contradiction
contradiction in
modernism and Islam
Islam are
terms, that
that
are a
is one,
of Islam,
knell of
Islam, is
one, however,
however,
modernism is
is the
the death
death knell
the educated
which the
educated orthodox Arab vigorously
contests. He
vigorously contests.
to
the
of
points
with
conviction
to
the
great
age
of
Arab
civilization,
with
conviction
civilization,
points
great age
the
indeed immediately
followed
birth
of Islam,
birth
of
Islam,
which indeed
followed
the
immediately
the Arabs assimilated
when the
philosophy and Persian
assimilated Greek philosophy
Persian
culture without
practise their
their faith.
culture
without ceasing
to practise
faith. He holds
holds
ceasing to
that
condition
is
that the
the depressed
condition
of
today
is
not
the
result
of
of
not
the
result
of
depressed
today
but
an unprogressive
unprogressive religion
but
of
an
unenlightened
interof
religion
unenlightened interit in
in these
later centuries
its
pretation of it
these later
centuries of
of decay;
that its
pretation
decay; that
original
progressive, and only
only when
free, liberal,
liberal, progressive,
original spirit
spirit was free,
the doors of research
the
research and independent
independent thought
thought were
were
when
the
laws
well suited
closed,
the laws well
to medieval
suited to
medieval times
times as
as
closed,
of the
the early
evolved by
the findings
came to
doctors came
to be
be
by the
findings of
early doctors
established as
as a
a final
final and irrevocable
established
reirrevocable interpretation
of reinterpretation of
that
that
stagnation
and
narrow-mindedness
brought
ligion,
narrow-mindedness brought
ligion,
stagnation
their
their trail
trail of
woes.
of woes.

[328]

EPILOGUE

Among Arabs of the enlightened

world modernism
modernism takes
takes
enlightened world
Among
of
forms. To one school
school the
a variety
variety of forms.
rationalizing influa
the rationalizing
influis welcomed as
ence
ence of modernism is
rid
of
superstias getting
rid
of
getting
superstitions
religious belief
belief which
tions and outworn interpretations
of religious
which
interpretations of
in the
of
of
a
scientific
world.
Although
discredited
the eyes
discredited Islam in
a scientific world. Although
eyes
school are often
often rationalists
Arabs of
of this
this school
rationalists who no
no longer
longer
believe in
in revealed
revealed religion
and
share
the
general
believe
share
the
outlook
religion
general outlook
class in
in Turkey
of
the ruling
ruling class
they cherish
cherish Islam
Islam on
hisof the
on hisTurkey they
sentimental grounds
torical
grounds as
as the
the faith
faith of
their fathers
torical and sentimental
of their
fathers
in the
the adherence thereto
the masses
masses aa valuable
valuable
see in
thereto of
of the
and see
to Bolshevism
counterpoise to
Bolshevism and other
other alien
alien revolutionary
revolutionary
counterpoise
attitude is
is found
among
the
govmovements. This attitude
found among the Arab govclasses of Syria
are alive
alive to
to the
the
erning classes
Syria and Iraq
erning
Iraq who are
as an instrument
of political
value
of Islam as
instrument of
political solidarity,
value of
solidarity,
especially
among communities not
not reached
reached by
by the
the secular
secular
especially among
and intellectual
intellectual claims
claims of
of nationalism.
nationalism.
in Islam has its
its genuinely
genuinely religious
religious side
too.
Modernism in
side too.
circles a
a phase
folIn intellectual
intellectual circles
phase of
of agnosticism
has
been
folhas
been
agnosticism
one
of religious
religious revival.
revival. There are
are movements
lowed by
by one of
lowed
afoot
believe that
that there
there can
be
afoot among
can be
young Arabs who believe
among young
in the
in
no health
the political
state
unless
it
is
rooted
in
the
health in
state
unless
it
is
the
rooted
political
religious
life, no health
world until
until its
peoples are
in the
its peoples
are
the world
health in
religious life,
a closer
drawn into
mutual understanding,
understanding,
into a
closer brotherhood
brotherhood of
of mutual
toleration
will.
Last
year
at
a
congress
will.
at
a
toleration and good
Last
of world
congress of
good
year
in London a
distinwritten by
faiths held
held in
paper written
by aa most distinfaiths
a paper
of Al Azhar Uniguished
rector of
the rector
scholar, the
guished Moslem scholar,
versity of
'World Fellowship
Fellowship
of Cairo,
the subject
of 'World
Cairo, on the
subject of
versity
how
showed
It
through
Religion',
attracted
wide
interest.
It
wide
interest.
attracted
through Religion',
closer in
the
religions
of
the
world
are
today
in spirit
the
world
are
the
of
much closer
today
spirit
religions
should
than
before, deplored
that exponents
exponents of
of them should
than ever
ever before,
deplored that
their
misuse their
their energies
one another
another when their
misuse
in attacking
attacking one
energies in
front
ends
the same and pleaded
pleaded for
for an
an allied
allied front
ends and aims
are the
aims are
for
to combat
combat the
the real
real enemy-the
of the
the world,
world, and for
evils of
to
enemy the evils
29 ]
[3
[329]

THE ARABS
a
a

common ideal
ideal-the
achievement of
of good
good fellowship
fellowship
the achievement
of the
the earth.
earth.
among the
the peoples
peoples of
among
bitter legacy
legacy inherited
inherited by
by East
East and
and West from the
the
The bitter
centuries of
of medieval
medieval warfare
warfare-lies,
misrepresentation
centuries
lies, misrepresentation
of the
the other
other-is
happily dwindling.
dwindling. Old
and hatred
hatred one
one of
is happily
and
intolerances, old
old bitternesses
bitternesses are
are disappearing
disappearing before
before the
the
intolerances,
of another
another spirit
cherished by
by good
good men of
of all
all
spread of
spread
spirit now cherished
of
peace
on
earth,
good
will
towards
religions,
the
spirit
religions, the spirit of peace on earth, good will towards
men.
men.
Arabs, in
in their
their many
many ways,
ways, are
are feeling
feeling the
the influence
influence
The Arabs,
of
modernism,
their
receptiveness
varying
with
their
culwith
their
culof modernism, their receptiveness varying
tural condition;
condition; hence
hence educated
circles in
Iraq
in Syria
educated circles
tural
Syria and Iraq
occupy
a
position
midway
between
backward
Moslem
between
a
position midway
occupy
communities of
the Arabian
Arabian peninsula
peninsula and
and advanced Mosof the
communities
lem
of India
and Egypt.
But it
it is
is Egypt
Egypt whose
whose
lem communities
India and
communities of
Egypt. But
its Arabic
influence
the long
long run,
Arabic press
press
for its
tell in
in the
influence must
must tell
run, for
occupies
a
commanding
position
throughout
the
Arab
the
a
Arab
occupies
commanding position throughout
countries,
publicists are
are becoming
its thinkers
thinkers and
and publicists
countries, its
becoming known
to
ever-widening circle
of literate
literate Arabs,
Arabs, its
theological,
its theological,
to an
an ever-widening
circle of
social
controversies
are
echoed
in
the press
press
in
are
the
social and
controversies
and political
political
and the
Damascus
and
Jerusalem.
the diwans
diwans of
of Baghdad,
Jerusalem.
Baghdad,
to accept
Egypt,
the first
first of
countries to
the Arabic-speaking
of the
Egypt, the
Arabic-speaking countries
accept
Westernization
the
European
philosophical
Westernization and adopt
the
European philosophical
adopt
outlook,
is preaching
to the
the Arab world.
modernism to
world.
outlook, is
preaching modernism
has the
the wheel of
Thus has
of fate
fate turned
turned full
full circle.
circle. A
A thouthousand years
the Arab was teaching
to
years ago
ago the
teaching modernism to
Europe.
His
civilization
was
then
pre-eminent,
his
influcivilization
then
his
influEurope.
pre-eminent,
ence of
of imperial
ence
extent. Great warrior
warrior though
his
he was,
imperial extent.
was, his
though he
could clearly
sword could
not
alone
have
wrought
his
splendid
not
alone have wrought his splendid
clearly
achievements. Besides
achievements.
Besides strength
of purpose,
there must
must
strength of
purpose, there
creative genius
have been creative
and
qualities
of
the
spirit.
of
the
Yesgenius
qualities
spirit. Yesof
freedom-these
terday
and
today
pride,
honour,
love
of
love
freedom
these
terday
today pride, honour,
are the
the strong
are
in his
his character.
character.
strong elements of nobility
nobility in
0 ]
[33
[330]

EPILOGUE
of the
cultural side
If
the cultural
side of
had its
If much of
of Arab civilization
its
civilization had
roots
earlier civilizations
conquests
the earlier
in the
roots in
civilizations of
of the
the Arab conquests
great human qualities
qualities derived
as surely
some of
its great
of its
derived as
from
surely from
the
herself. Among
Among them
them generosity
of Arabia herself.
school of
the hard school
generosity
and heroism stand
stand nobly
nobly forth.
people in
in the
the
forth. There is
is no people
world more naturally
naturally generous
than the
Arabs. They
They give
world
the Arabs.
generous than
give
hands, they
give
with
all
their
heart.
It
is
no nignigwith both
all
both hands,
with
with
their
is no
heart.
It
they give
of
gardly,
calculating
generosity
impelled
by
the
hope
gardly, calculating generosity impelled by the hope of
something
better in
in exchange.
It springs
something better
exchange. It
spontaneously
springs spontaneously
from aa nature
nature that
that way.
once
but twenty
twenty
is made that
that is
Not
once
but
way.
times
my
journeyings
in
south
Arabia
I
have
been
in
times during
south
Arabia
I
have
been
during my journeyings
admiration by
by little
little acts
humanity among
my
to admiration
acts of
of humanity
moved to
among my
Beduin companions.
companions. After long
thirsty
hours
in
the
saddle
hours
in
the
saddle
long thirsty
or two of
them accompanying
II have
ahead one or
trotted ahead-one
of them
have trotted
accompanying
me-to
be first
longed-for water
water hole.
hole. There they
they
a longed-for
first at
at a
me to be
have watched approvingly
have eagerly
eagerly slaked
my
as II have
slaked my
approvingly as
none
of
of
allow
a
drop
of
water
to
thirst,
would
a
them
allow
water
of
to
thirst, yet
yet
drop
till the
the rest
moisten
his lips
lips till
rest of
his companions-an
hour's
of his
an
moisten his
hour's
companions
came up
behind perhaps
perhaps-came
they might
might all
all drink
drink
that they
march behind
up that
to
one
I
have
noticed
that
together.
crust
I
have
given
I
to
one
A
crust
I
have
that
noticed
given
together.
he saved
to share
with aa companion
companion; and
and rarely
rarely has
has it
been
he
share with
it been
saved to
to pass
pass aa tent,
humble, but
but the
possible to
the owner
tent, however humble,
possible
has come running
running out
out with
his lips
to insist
insist
a greeting
has
with a
greeting on his
lips to
on our
his
bowl
of
milk,
his
few
dates
or
whatever
dates
of
his
or
his
whatever
our sharing
milk,
sharing
else
he had,
though his
his supply
inadequate perhaps
perhaps
else he
had, though
supply were inadequate
seen
for
his own wants.
wants. You are
are aa stranger,
he has
has never
never seen
for his
stranger, he
he
you
before,
he
will
never
see
you
again,
yet
unstintingly
will
see
he
before,
again,
yet
unstintingly
you
you
dire need
that of
has dire
need himself.
himself.
gives
of which he has
gives you
you that
Impulsive,
has its
its counterpart
counterpart
generosity has
Impulsive, unmeasured generosity
the spirit.
usage of sanctuary
in
quality of
of the
In another
another quality
sanctuary
spirit. The usage
claims
Arab, without
without any
claims
upon
him, will
will
the desert
desert Arab,
when the
upon him,
any
weak
the
who
has
protect
with
his
life
the
outcast
or
the
has
life
the
outcast
with
his
protect
noticed.
sought
protection has already
already been
been noticed. Driven by
by
his protection
sought his
;

[33 I

THE ARABS
in a
the
a true
hunger
to raid,
raid, he
true sporting
observes in
he observes
sporting spirit
spirit the
hunger to
absolves
him.
rules of
of the
the game,
unless aa blood
blood feud absolves him. To
rules
game, unless
shed
blood is
his adversary
is unyielding,
unyielding,
if his
is lawful
lawful enough
shed blood
adversary is
enough if
to retain
retain
but let
let him
him heed
will be
be allowed to
in time
time and he will
heed in
but
his
to
free
return
aa camel,
camel, be
be given
rations
and
so
return
to
his
tribe,
so
tribe, free
given rations
counter raid.
to
prepare aa counter
raid.
to prepare
the Arab
Proud of
of his
his dominion within
within his
his horizons,
horizons, the
Proud
that
will
allow
none
to
trespass
without
his
permission
his
or that
without
allow
none
to
will
permission or
trespass
of
kindred. On many
occasions the
the writer,
writer, engaged
in
his kindred.
of his
engaged in
many occasions
unknown
Arabian
camel
journeys through
the
south
borborthe
camel journeys
through
rein by
derlands, has
has been
been obliged
by aa hail
hail of bullets,
bullets,
to draw rein
derlands,
obliged to
close
some of
of them
them passing
the
uncomfortably close-carrying
carrying the
passing uncomfortably
'Halt!
haughty,
wordless
challenge:
'Halt!
goes
there?'
Who
there?'
wordless
goes
challenge:
haughty,
his doBut if
the Arab brooks
brooks no uninvited
uninvited invasion
invasion of his
doif the
to
immediate
militancy,
he
is
mains
and
is
roused
by
it
to
mains and is roused by it
militancy, he is no
in cold
unchivalrous exploiter
blood. True the
the short
list
cold blood.
short list
unchivalrous
exploiter in
of European
European travellers
travellers is
is not
not free
victims; those
of
free from victims
those who
a professor
include Palmer,
with violent
professor of
met with
violent ends
ends include
of
Palmer, a
Arabic
at Cambridge,
a Swedish botanist
botanist of
Arabic at
of
Seetzen, a
Cambridge, Seetzen,
European
reputation,
and
Huber,
a
French-Alsatian
nata
French-Alsatian
natHuber,
European reputation,
uralist and archaeologist-the
last two
two professing
professing Mosuralist
the last
archaeologist
Yet
in the
lems.
never in
exploration has
lems.
the history
of Arabian exploration
never
has
history of
be shot
aa European
up to
to ransom.
ransom. To be
been held
held up
shot in
in the
the
European been
is legitimate;
the
unwanted
intruder,
too,
raid, that
that is
the
unwanted
who
raid,
intruder,
too,
legitimate
comes ignorantly
without safe-conduct,
the suspected
or the
safe-conduct, or
ignorantly without
suspected
spy,
must take
take the
his ill-mannered
ignothe consequences
of his
ill-mannered ignospy, must
consequences of
rance
or his
rance or
his bad luck,
but methods such
those of
the
such as
as those
of the
luck, but
in
or
the
bandit
in
China
are
foreign
gangster
in
America
America
or
the
bandit
China
are
in
gangster
foreign
to the
warlike Beduin.
Beduin.
to
the sporting
of the
the warlike
sporting legitimacies
legitimacies of
In
In my
my fifty-eight
of Rub'
Khali, Arabia's
Arabia's
Rub' al
al Khali,
fifty-eight days
days crossing
crossing of
southern sandy
great southern
waste,
I,
the
first
European
to penethe
first
waste,
great
I,
sandy
European to
penetrate its
its depths,
trate
depths, moving
moving with
the utmost
utmost secrecy
possible,
with the
secrecy possible,
used
as my
saddle bags
used as
my saddle
bags by
day and
my pillows
pillows by
by night
night
and my
by day
;

2 ]
[33
[332]

EPILOGUE
stuffed with
gunny
bags stuffed
with many
many thousand-dollar
thousand-dollar pieces;
gunny bags
pieces my
my
of it,
companions,
fully aware of
were hungry,
it, were
companions, fully
hungry, penniless
penniless
seen before
Beduin
never seen
before and who could
Beduin whom II had never
could not
not
be called
to account
account by
by any
any authority
authority for
life-the
life
called to
for my
be
life
the
life
my
Christian. Their
of aa self-confessed
self-confessed Christian.
Their honourable
of
honourable conduct
conduct
are memories
and their
personal loyalty
their personal
memories II shall
shall always
loyalty are
always
cherish. The Arabian
Arabian custom of
to
gratefully cherish.
of going
forth to
going forth
gratefully
woman's
name
a
as
a
battIe
with
a
as
a
war
cry,
the
timebattle with
cry, the timeinto action
a girl
honoured practise
practise of
of being
being led
led into
mounted
action by
honoured
girl mounted
by a
latter no longer
the latter
on camel
camel back
back-the
possible
since
the ininon
since
the
longer possible
firearms
of firearms-speak
alike
of
the
gallant
in
their
troduction
alike
of
the
in
their
troduction of
speak
gallant
ever the
attitude
of mind.
mind. Chivalry
the quality
in
exalted in
attitude of
Chivalry was ever
quality exalted
it
be
their heroes,
be
it
not
forgotten,
found
its
not
its
found
their
heroes, and chivalry,
chivalry,
forgotten,
way
into general
practice during
the Arab
European practice
during the
way into
general European
period first
by way
French contacts.
of Spanish,
then of
of French
first by
contacts.
way of
Spanish, then
period
other claims
Arabs, then,
their
claims upon
us
and their
the Arabs,
Had the
then, no other
upon us-and
are
both
many
and
significantclaims,
as
history
shows,
are
both
and
as
claims,
history shows,
significant
many
their
to chivalry
chivalry alone
them to
to
alone would entitle
entitle them
contributions to
their contributions
aa proud
proud name among
the nations.
nations.
among the
;

[333
[333]]

Appendix
Appendix

RACIAL ORIGINS OF THE ARABS

APPENDIX

~ Racial Origins

0/ the Arabs

WHO

L':::

and whence are the Arabs? Traditions they cherish tell of the Flood, of Noah, of a survivor of that catastrophe and the father of the human race, of his three sons,
Shem, Ham and J apheth, the respective progenitors of the
peoples in their three divisions of the world, namely
Arabia, Africa and the rest-this a very simple and satisfying reconstruction of the history of mankind as seen by
the desert man twenty-five hundred years ago, and all
very clearly an inheritance from the Arabs' linguistic
cousins and ancient neighbours, the Jews.
The son Shem-from whose name, of course, our
words 'Semite' and 'Semitic' derive-had two sons, they
go on to tell us, Qahtan and Adnan. Qahtan (our Biblical
J okhtan?) was the begetter of the Arabs of the south,
Adnan of those of the north; and elaborate genealogies
piously devised in the desert and analogous in some ways
to Old Testament genealogies that enjoyed credibility in
the days of Bishop Ussher, purport to sho!" the Arabs as
all descending from a common ancestor.f.All are Semites,
i.e. sons of Shem)

[337 ]

APPENDIX
But how. does modern science regard the Semites and
an Arabian origin for them? In popular parlance the Jew
is the Semite par excellence of course. Now anthropologists
believe the Jews' original home, as that of the Semitic
types of ancient Assyria and' Babylonia, to have been not
Arabia at all, but the uplands to the north of Arabia,
probably of Asia Minor. The Abyssinians have a Semitic
tongue, too, but their physiognomy suggests evolution in
~heir native Africa or some corresponding low latitude.
,Language is no longer accepted as a criterion of race,
and the term 'Semitic' like the term 'Latin' or 'Aryan' is
used not in a racial sense, but in a cultural or linguistic one.:J
A Latin race or an Aryan race as understood yesterday,
or even today by the man in the street, is no more spoken
of. The French, for instance, are Latins only in the cultural sense-they speak a Latin tongue. Racially they are
something else. In the north the tall, blue-eyed, fair-haired,
long-headed Normans, such as largely make up the scrums
of the national rugby fifteens visiting these shores, are of
Nordic type; the small, spare, dark, long-headed southerner is said to be a Mediterranean man. In Germany,
too, with its common Aryan tongue, the Nordic type in the
north is of different racial origin from the typical thick-set,
roundheaded Alpine man principally in the south. And so
with our Ara,bs, Abyssinians and Jews; linguistically they
are Semitic; aciall t e dark Ion -headed wooll -headed
Abyssinian is a Hamite the hawk-nosed, roundheaded Jew
is an Armenoid (a racIal group, incidentally, to which the
Assyrians of Semitic tongue and the ancient Hittites and
modern Armenians, both Aryan-speaking peoples, belong)~]
Yet it must be supposed that the Semitic family of speech
has evolved within the bounds of the peninsula and that
the peoples among which this tongue has become nature

[33 8 J

APPENDIX
have some distant relationship of one kind or anotherjust as the Aryan tongue has broadly dominated certain
peqples who appear to have had a similar origin.
(What then is the racial make-up of the Arabs? The
answer mayor may not be found in their cultural and
geographical inheritance, their tongue and their traditions; it is more surely inherent in their bodily inheritance
-their anatomy, the shapes of their heads, the nature of
their hair, their pigmentation and the like)
Crhe original inhabitants of Arabia, then, according to
Sir Arthur Keith, one of the world's greatest living anthropologists/ who has m3;,de a study of Arab skeletal remains, ~
ancient and modern, (,}:!,;re not the famjljar Arabs of om:
own time, but a very much darker people:,)\ protonegroid
. belt of mankind stretched across the anCIent world from
Africa to Malaya. This belt, by environmental and other
. evolutionary processes, became in parts transformed, giving rise to the Hamitic peoples of Africa, to the Dravidian
peoples of India and to an inti5mediate dark people inhabiting the Arabian peninsula.l!..n the course of time two
big migrations of fair-skinned peoples came from the
north, one of them, the Mongoloids, to break through
and transform the dark belt of man beyond India; the
other, the, Caucasoids, to drive a wedge between India
and Africy
The Caucasoid wave took place in prehistoric (probably late Pleistocene) ,times when Arabia was a wellwatered and inviting land. }the more virile invaders over.Lame the dark-skinned people.s, absorbing most of them,
.drivin othe
..,..
ow
10 ation is
b~d to have di~c:= vestiges of them in a natu,2l,
~nctuarU!';yQnd ;;;sandy ocean of Rub' aI K.fuU~.3
..r;rlSee Appendix to iJrabia Felix, by Keith and Krogman." C;---.

the

[ 339 ]

,;,

APPENDIX
The cultural condition of the newcomers is unknown. It is
unlikely that they were more than wild hordes of adventurous hunters. But conditions must then have been favourable to their attraction; certain it is that at the time of our
last Ice Age, perhaps twenty thousand years ago, when
Europe and Northern America lay under a cap of ice and
were uninhabitable by man, Arabia must have been enjoying a Pluvial Period, been well fitted for habitation. Considerable dried-up river systems I came upon in the southern borderlands, and the fauna I collected in the Qara
Mountains-fauna that have African rather than Arabian
affinities-bear witness to a common climate with a wet
tropical Africa at some remote time and to a land bridge
that made the Red Sea an inland lake and which later
submerged to form the shallow straits of Bab al Mandab.
As the ice of the Northern Hemisphere receded and the
rain belt moved north behind it Arabia was bereft of its
rains, its climate changed; it became drier with the passing
of the ages until today it is one of the hottest and most
rainless parts of the earth's surface.
What then are we to understand by 'the pure Semitism'
of the Arabs? Primarily we must accept its cultural implications. On the threshold of history we find the Arabs and
the Jews, cheek by jowl, on the northern desert fringe.
If they were successive waves of a prehistoric culturespread from the north there were already physical differences, fQr the ancient Arab appears to have been a longheaded man, the Jew predominantly a roundhead.
The long and gradual desiccation of Arabia brought
about a shrinkage and a segregation of its peoples-a common climate, common conditions of life and suchlike common evolutionary influences led to the establishment of
well-defined desert types. In other words, Shem was an

[ 340

- APPENDIX
environment rather than a grandfather; and in this sense
Semitic man was the pastoralist of southwest Asia when we
first hear of him from ~he lettered peoples of the Nile and
the Euphrates.
The inhabitants of Arabia within historic times have
experienced invasions of foreign peoples so rarely, and
the effect of these, nearly all of them on her periphery,
must have been so slight, while her conditions of life are
so broadly and uniformly severe, that her culture is exceptionally homogeneous; indeed, may be without parallel
in any other land of comparable size. So, too, Arabia's
ancient tongues, as we have seen, belong all of them to one
Semitic family. No wonder then our authorities, historians and philologists alike, have been content to accept
without question the racial purity of an Arabo-Semitic
people.
Yet, anthropologically considered, the Arab peoples are
representative of several distinguishable racial types.
Physiological data, including head and skull measurements,
ancient and modern, show recognizable differences within
the peninsula and recognizable affinities of groups with
races outside the peninsula that establish diverse origin. .
The Arab tradition of Adnan and Qahtan would appear almost certainly to preserve a memory of two racially
distinct ancestors. The traditional Arab view of their
brother kinship we may the more easily dismiss when we
are told by the same tradition that only a generation
separated them from Shem and Japheth, the one the ancestor of the Arab and the other the reader's own ancestor,
who are also two blood brothers according to these Arab
lights.
Three races clearly have contributed to Arabia's blood:
the dark, gollywog, Hamitic man of the south, the round-

[ 34 1

APPENDIX

headed Armenoid, the narrow-skulled Mediterranean. 2

Popular imagination in the West, with stage and cinema
to minister to it, requires that the Arabs shall belong to the middle type resembling the handsomer kind of Jew,
that is to say, a refined hawk nose with hair black and
wavy; closer attention may show a flat back to the head
and the ear placed conspicuously far back. This is the Armenoid, whose evolutionary home is probably Asia Minor.
Prehistoric waves westwards may help to account for
some of these features in the Alpine man of central
Europe, but whether or not, southern waves planted these
Jew-Arab types on the shores of the Levant and projected
them into the penins~la. A late Armenoid invasion from
the north, distinguished for opening up the most ancient
trade route known to man and for the introduction of copper, took place in about 3000 B.C. It was a forked wave
that ran down both sides of the Syrian desert to invade the
river civilization of Egypt and Sumer and to leave its
mark on the physiognomy of Syria and northern Mesopotamia (Jews and Arabs) as we see to this day. Himyaritic
kings of fourth century southwest Arabia, judged by their
coins, were of this Armenoid race, and today many of the
tribes of Oman, who claim to have emigrated from the
Yemen at about that time, display the same features and
.
have the characteristic roundhead.
On the other hand most north Arabian tribes are not
roundheaded, hawk-nosed Armenoids at all. They are
Mediterraneans of characteristic long narrow skull. And
such ancient skeletal remains as have been dug up suggest
'The reader, interested, will find a splendid series of photographs and
measurements in Henry Field's The Arabs of Central Iraq."""
There is also some admixture of Negro blood outside the nomadic tribes
that has come about from union with slaves. This is very common in the
Hijaz and the Oman.

[34 2

ARAB RACIAL TYPES:

(b) A

TRANS-JORDAN

POLICEMA1'j

(Mediterranean characters)
(a)

HADHRAMA UTI DONKEY-

Boy
(Hamitic Characters)
(By courtesy of JH r Carleton S. Coon, Division of Anthropology, and the Peabody
NIliseum, Harvard University)

(By courtesy of Major 1. C. Clubb)

( c)

AN IRAQI TRIBESMAN

(Armenoid Characters)
(By courtesy of Mr Henry Field, Curator of
Physical Anthropology, The Field Museum,
Chicago)

..

f:':~r/,,;.:~ ~ i

r~~~~

f~~ '

APPENDIX

0":V' . '

~.

~~:.,.

'\"..

fq", that this was a common-perhaps the most common~' Arabian type in the early centuries of our era.

~~r,

StiJI different, doubtless, were the earlier inhabitants of

~t:' southwest Arabia, the dark, indigenous Hamitic type of
~.::;, marked affinities with the Abyssinian. Such blood probably
1.:!i' dominated southwest Arabia down into the times of the
~;(,ancient kingdoms. The Sab::eans, the Min::eans and the
~}>" rest who disappeared before the rise of the Himyarites
fM~::, may well in part have belonged to this ancient stock. Their
inscriptions are in a character of which the Ethiopic charr~, acter is a direct development; the dialectical survivals of

If',

~Ir'~.~ !."i...it~ heir tongues in sou.t~ Arab~a tod~y are spoken exclusively

'~~'by gollywog, HamltIc-lookmg tnbes, and although these

~)9i:tongues are now greatly Arabicized they are still incoms
I~~:i;'prehensible. to the .Arabs ?f the north .. ~ See PP: 22-24.)
~t,,;
The perslstence m Arabla today of dlstmct raclal groups
~:;'. suggests that earlier waves of peoples rigidly maintained
fi:i\ a front against later intrusions, whether or not the basal
~~~.:. stocks trom which they sprang were kindred. It provides
:~::. a reason for supposing that when the lettered peoples of
~!:' antiquity used the term 'Arab' only in the restricted sense
~. . of 'nomad', and to differentiate themselves from Arabs,
~< a usage found in Sab::ean and Himyaritic inscriptions and
~~r Common to the Jews, they were conscious of a distinction
~,': .d eeper than a cultural one; the term 'Arabia', in the sense
" of the land of them all, is, as we know, a later Grecof/.:, Latin appellation for a geographical conception of the
if, " Hellenistic world.
1":,';

~r
~~'

aFor grammar and vocabularies of these tongues known as Mahri, Sha, hari, Harsusi, Botahari, see my Tire Geography and Ethnography of
Soutll Arabia, Cambridge University Library.31*

[ 343 ]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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those to
The works
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works quoted.
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also is
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1927-1937
I927-I93729
29 STEPHEN LONGRIGG
LoNGRIGG: Four Centuries
of Modern Iraq.
Iraq. Oxford
Centuries of
University Press,
Press, 1925.
1925.
University
80
80 The Palestine
Palestine Census
Report, 1931.
Census Report,
1931.
31
GIBB Whither Islam?
31 H. A. R.
R. GIBB:
Islam? Victor
Victor Gollancz,
Gollancz, 1932.
1932.
82
82 R. A. NICHOLSON: The Idea
Idea of
of Personality
Personality in
Sufism. Camin Sufism.
bridge University
University Press,
bridge
Press, 1923.
1923.
38
38 HENRY FIELD: The drabs
of Central
Iraq. Field
Field Museum,
Museum,
Arabs of
Central Iraq.
Chicago, 1935.
Chicago,
1935.
11
11

[348]

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34
34
85
85

56
36
87
87

JUDGE PIERRE CRABITES: Things

Things Muhammad Did for
for
JUDGE
the magazine
magazine Asia.
Asia. U.S.A.,
U.S.A., 1927.
1927.
Women. From the
THOMAS: Alarms and Excursions
Excursions in
in Arabia.
Arabia. Allen
Allen
BERTRAM THOMAS
and Unwin, 1931.
1931.
Felix. Jonathan
Jonathan Cape,
Cape, 1932,
1932.
BERTRAM THOMAS: Arabia Felix.
Geography and Ethnography
Ethnography of
ofl
BERTRAM THOMAS: The Geography
S out h Arabia.
Arabia. Not
Nat yet
yet published.
published.
South
:

[349
[3493]

INDEX

INDEX

A
Abbasids, 86,
ff., %55,
170, %73
173
86, 123
155, %70,
Abbasids,
123 if.,
if.,
198 if., 2U, 229
ff., 198 ff., 211, 229
Abdul Aziz,
Aziz, see
see Ibn
Ibn Sa'ud
Sa'ud
Abdul
Abdulla,
281, 283,
283, 29%,
Amir, 2SI,
291,
Abdulla, The Amir,
06
3306
Abdullah
200
ibn Maimun,
Abdullah ibn
Maimun, zoo

Abdul
al Mu'awiya,
Abdul Rahman al
103,
Mu'awiya, 103.

ISS
135
Abraham,
36, 139.
139, 293
293
Prophet, 36,
Abraham, The Prophet,
Abu Abdullah,
200
Abdullah, zoo
Abu Bur,
ff.
67, 69
69 if.
36, 67,
Bakr, 36,
Abu Dhabi,
Dhabi, 234
234
Abu Hanifa,
see Hanan
Hanafi School
School
Hanifa, 134>
134, see
Abulcasis,
Abulcasis, 183
183
Abu'l
Abu'l Fida,
Fida, 179
179
Abu'l
Abu'l Wafa,
Wafa, 173,
173, 177
177
Abu Talib,
Talib, 35,
38
35, 38
Abyssinia,
13, 18,
18, 90,
90, 40t
338
40, 338
Abyssinia, 13,
Achila,
98
Achila, 98
Acre,
ff.
Acre, 212 if.
Adelard
of Bath,
Adelard of
Bath, 191
191
Aden,
258, 279
Aden, 258,
279
Adnan,
Adnan, 337,
337, 34%
34*
JElius
ff.
id If.
Mlius Gallus,
Gailus, %6
Afdal,
208
204, aoS
Afdal, 204>
Afghanistan,
91
Afghanistan, 91

:Aga Khan,
Khan, 234
234
Aga
Aghlabids, 103,199
103, 199
Aghlabids,
52 if., 86
86
A'isha, 52
A'isha,
Akkad,23
Akkad,
23
Aksum, 19
Aksum,
19
Al Azhar,
Azhar, 134>
152, 329
134, %52,
329
Al Battani,
Battani, 173,
173, 177,
177, 178
178
Al Biruni,
Biruni, 173,
178, lSI,
x8x, I84>
190
173, 178,
184, 190
Al Bitruji,
181
Bitruji, 173,
173, %SI
Al Farabi,
Farabi, 165,
165, 173,
173, 177,
*77, 184>
**4> 187,
187,
190
190
Al Farghani,
Farghani, 173,
173, 178
178
Al Ghazali,
Ghazali, 173,
183, 189
189
173, 183,
Al Kindi,
187
Kindi, 165,
165, 173,
173, 177,
177, IS,
Al Khuwarizmi,
Khuwarizmi, 173
173
AIlat,I2
Al lat, 12
Al Mas'udi,
Mas'udi, 119
179
Al Qadir
Qadir Billah,
Billah, :1:33
133
Al ZarkaIi,
Zarkali, 173
173
Albania,
Albania, z65
265
Alchemy,
Alchemy, 184
184
Alcohol,
57, 60
Alcohol, 57,
Aleppo,
76, 154154
Aleppo, 76,
ff.
the Great,
Alexander the
Great, 15
15 if.
Alexandria,
82, 143
Alexandria, 82,
143
Algebra,
176
Algebra, 176
Algeciras,
Algeciras, 99
99
Algeria,
see Maghrib
Maghrib
Algeria, lie

[353
[353]]

ff.,

INDEX
AIgorism,
176
Algorism, 176
Alhambra,
ISS
Alhambra, 155
Alhazen,
Alhazen, 183,
183, 185
185
Ali,
Amir, 285
285
AH, The Amir,
ff.
Ali,
Caliph, 36,
85 if.
67, 85
36, 67,
AH, The Caliph,
Alimony,
uS
Alimony, 128
Allenby,
Lord, 284,
284, 285,
285, 293
293
Allenby, Lord,
set! al
Bitruji
Alpetragius,
al Bitruji
Alpetragius, see
Alpine Man,
Man, 342
Alpine
342
America,
America, 287
287
Amr ibn
al As,
ibn al
As, So,
8x, 87
87
50, 81,
Andalusia, 99
99
Andalusia,
Anglo French Declaration,
DeclaratioD, 287
287
Anglo
Angora,
218
Angora, 218
ff.
Antioch,
212 if.
Antioch, 76,
208, 212
76, 208,
Apollonius, 177
177
Apollonius,
Arab:
ff.
Characteristics,
197, 330
112, 197,
330 if.
Characteristics, II2,
Chivalry,
IH, 331
Chivalry, 135,
331
Civilization,
190
Civilization, 190
Colonization, 74
ff., 196
Colonization,
196
74 H.,
Committee, The,
Committee,
276
The, 276
Congxes!, 307
Congress,
307
H.,
Conquests:
Africa, North,
North, 94
94 ff.,
Conquests: Africa,
196;
Afghanistan and Trans196; Afghanistan
Oxiana, 91
91: ff.,
81:
Egypt, 81
196; Egypt,
Oxiana,
ff., 196;
ff.
H.,
France, 100 H.;
Italian,
Italian,
ff., 196;
196 France,
I04
Mediterranean Is.,
Is., 104;
104;
104 if.;
ff.; Mediterranean
Persia, 18
196;
98
Persia,
Spain, 98
78 ff.,
ff.,
196; Spain,
if.,
Syzia, 72
ff., 196
196
ff., 196;
72 H.,
196; Syria,
Cultural Divisions,
Divisions, in
IlIff.,
Cultural
ff., 222 H.,
ff.,
26
7
267
Egyptian Leaderiship
of, 330
Leaderiship of,
Egyptian
330
ff.
Federation,
Political, 322
Federation, Political,
322 if.
Generosity, 331
331
Generosity,
Higher Committee,
Higher
The, 307
307
Committee, The,
Mariners, 245
Mariners,
245
Nationalism, 271,
271, 275
275 H.,
296 ff.,
H.,
Nationalism,
ff., 296
ff.
321 H.
321
New Thrones,
291
Thrones, 291
Patriots Executed,
282 ff.
ff.
Patriots
Executed, 282
Revolt, The,
The, 284,
284, 285,
Revolt,
289
285, 289
Risings:
Iraq, 290
290; Palestine,
Palestine, 312Risings Iraq,
3 12316;
316; Syria,
Syria, 289
289
Sea Power,
Power, 83
ff., 96,
ff.
83 ff.,
96, 103,
103, 244
244 ff.
Slavery,
see Slavery
Slavery
Slavery, see
Tolerance,
120, 204
204
Tolerance, 120,
;

Arabia:
Abyssinian
H.
Invasion, 18 ff.
Abyssinian Invasion,
ff.
Cultural
Divisions, 247
247 H.
Cultural Divisions,
Egyptian
Invasions, 14,
14, 237
Egyptian Invasions,
237
ff.
Exclusivism,
223, 331
Exclusivism, 223,
331 ff.
ff.
Livelihood, 237,
237, 240
240 if.
Livelihood,
Medieval Caliphates,
Caliphates, 226
Persian Invasion,
Invasion, 20
Persian
Political
ff.
Political Divisions,
Divisions, 234,
234t 237
237 ff.
PopUlation Pressure,
Pressure, Early,
66
Early, 66
Population
ff.
Roman Invasion,
Invasion, 16 H.
Southern Kingdoms,
Kingdoms, 13,
13, 343
343
War Subsidies,
285, 292
292
Subsidies, 285,
Arabian Nights,
Nights, The,
The> 125,
125, 165,
165, 179,
179,
246
246
Aramreans,
22, 93
93
Aramaeans, 22,
Archimedes, 175
Archimedes,
175
Architecture:
Architecture:
Arch Horseshoe,
Horseshoe, 150
150
Building Traditions,
Building
Traditions, 145,
145, IS3
153
ff.
Domes, 147
Domes,
147 ff.
ff.
Domestic,
Domestic, 154
154 ff.
ff.
Mosque Features,
Features, 144
144 if.
Mosque
ff.
Ornamentation,
ff., ISO
Ornamentation, 145
145 H.,
150 H.
Roundnesses, 148
H.
Roundnesses,
148 H.,
ff., 151
151 ff.
Saracenic,
if.
Saracenic, 156
156 ff.
ff.
Vaulting, 150
150 H.
Vaulting,
Arin, Cupola
Cupola of,
of, 180
180
Arin,
181
Aristarchus of
of Samos,
Samos, 181
Aristarchus
Aristotle, 171,
Aristotle,
171, 173,
175, 187
173, 175,
187
Arithmetic, 176
Arithmetic,
176
ArIes,
IOZ
Aries, 102
Armenia,
Armenia, 203
203
Armenoid Race,
Race, 338,
338, 342
342
Sir Thomas,
Arnold,
348
Arnold, Sir
Thomas, 348
Arts,
Arts, The,
The, 141
141 ff.,
ff., 156
156 if.,
ff., 2S2
252
Arts Club,
The, 276
276
Club, The,
Aryan Race,
Race, 338
Aryan
338
Arzachel (Al
(AI Zarkali),
Zarkali), 173
173
Assyrians, 266,
266, 308
308
Assyrians,
Astarte
Astarte (Athtar),
12
(Athtar), IZ
Astrolabes,
Astrolabes, 177,
177, 184
184
Astrology, 184
Astrology,
184
Astronomy, 180
180 H.
ff.
Astronomy,
Asturias, 100
zoo
Asturias,
Atabegs,
H.
Atabegs, 210 ff.
Athtar
Athtar (Ashtoreth),
IZ
(Ashtoreth), xa

[[354!
3541

INDEX
Avempace (Ibn
(Ibn Bajja),
Bajja), 167
167
Avempace

Avenzoar (Ibn
(Ibn Zuhr),
Zuhr), 184
184
Avenzoar

Averroes (Ibn
(Ibn Rushd),
Rushd), 173,
173,
Averroes
189
189

Buwayhids, 203
203
Buwayhids,
184,
184,

if.

Byzantines, 20,
20, 50,
50, 51,
51. 69
69
Byzantines,
940 160
160
94,

ff.

Avicebron (Ibn
(Ibn Gabirol),
Gabirol), 189
189
Avicebron
Sina), 165,
165. 173,
173, 177,
177,
Avicenna (Ibn
(Ibn Sina),
Avicenna
1840 187
IS7
183, 184,
183,

if.

Cairo, 82,
b, 153,
153, 201,
201, 213
213
Cairo,
Calabria, 105
lOS
Calabria,
Caliphs of
of Medina:
Medina:
Caliphs

B
Baalbek,76
76
Baalbek,
Babylonians,
Babylonians,
Bactria, 172
I7'J.
Bactria,

c
Czsaria,76
Caesaria,
76

ff.

Avignon, 101,
lOX, 102
102
Avignon,
of Egypt,
Egypt, 50,
50, 54
54
Aziz of
Aziz
Azure, 159
159
Azure*

18, 143
143

18,

Badr, Battle,
BattIe, 46
46
Badr,
Badr al
al Jumali,
Jumali, 1540
'J.03
Badr
154, 203
Baffin,
Baffin,

if., 76,
76, 82,
82,

ff.,

'J.S6
256

Baghdad, 155,
ISS, 156,
173
156, 173
Baghdad,

Bahrain, 234
'J.34 ff.,
if., 259,
'J.59. 279
279
Bahrain,
215, 228
328
Baibars, 215,
Baibars,
Bakhtishu,
x8z
Bakhtishu, 182
Baldwin
Flanders, 213
ZI3
Baldwin of
o Flanders,
Balfour
Balfour Declaration,
286, 297.
Declaration, z86,
297, 307
307
Balkans,
260, 265,
The, :u8,
218, 260,
265, 279
279
Balkans, The,
Balkh,92
Balkh, 92
Bani
Bani Hashim,
Hashing 41
41
Bari,
Bari, 105
105
Barker,
Prof. Ernest,
206,
Ernest, guoted,
quoted, 206,
Barker, Prof.
348
348
Basrah,
Basrah, 79
79
Becker,
C. H.,
347
Becker, C.
H., 66,81,
66, 81, 347
Beduin,
ff.
112 ff.,
ff., 162,
162, 331
68, 112
Beduin, 29,
29, 68,
331 if.

Belkis,
ff.
Belkis, Queen,
Queen, 13
13 if.
Berbers,
201
100, 201
ff., 100,
Berbers, 93
93 if.,
Bethlehem,
214
Bethlehem, 214
Bevan,
Prof. A. A.,
A., 58.
Bevan, Prof.
58, 347
347
Boat
Boat Building,
244
Building, 244Bokhara,92
Bokhara, 92
14
Borag,
Borag, 37,
37, 3
314
Bordeaux,
101
Bordeaux, 101
Botahari
Botahari Tongue,
Tongue, 343
343
Briggs,
148, 348
348
S., guoted,
Briggs, Martin S.,
quoted, 148.
Britain:
Britain
Arab Campaigns,
284 if., 289
289
Campaigns, 284
Arabian
ff.
Arabian Interests,
Interests, 256,
256, 279
279 if.
Mandates,
ff.
294 if.
Mandates, 289
ff., Z94
289 if.,
:

.,

if. 219
219

ff.,

Abu Bakr,
36, 67,
67, 69
69 ff.
if.
Bakr, 36,
Ali, 36,
36. 67,
67, 84
84 ff.
if.
AH,
Omar, 67,
67, 74
74 ff.
if.
Omar,
Othman, 36,
36, 82
b ff.
ff.
Othman,
Caliphs, of
of Baghdad,
Baghdad, see
SII Abbasids;
Abbasids;
Caliphs,
Cario, see
see Fatimids;
Fatimids; ConstanConstanCario,
tinople, see
see Ottomans;
Ottomans; Damastinople,
cus, see
see Umaiyyads;
Umaiyyads; see
see also
also
cus,
proper names
proper
Camel Raising,
Raising, 247
247
Tax, 77
77
Capitation Tax,
Capitation
Capitulations,
z76
Capitulations, 276
Caravan Routes:
Routes: Arabian,
Arabian, 99 if.,
ff.,
Asiatic, 160
ff.
160 if.
Asiatic,
Carlyle,
Carlyle, 347
347
Carmathians,
ff.
Carmathians, 137,
137, 227
227 if.
Carpet
Carpet Weaving,
Weaving, 157
157
Carthage,
96
Carthage, 93,
93, 96
Caucusoid Race,
Race, 9'J.,
92, 339
339
ff.
Ceramics,
Ceramics, 159
159 ff.
Cervantes,
Cervantes, 138
138
Charlemagne,
161, 205
101, 161.
Charlemagne, 101,
205
Chaucer,
166
Chaucer, 166
Chesney,
Chesney, 259
259
Children,
Children, Custody
Custody of,
of, 132
132
Chinese
161
Chinese Art,
Art, 161
Chingis
Khan, 216
Chingis Khan,
of Persia
Chosroes
Chosroes of
Persia Mission,
50
Mission, 50
Christianity:
Latins and Greeks,
Greeks,
Christianity: Latins
:110;
94; preAfrica, 94;
pre210; North Africa,
Islamic
Islamic Arabian,
18, 'J.5
25
Arabian, IS,
Christians
Christians Enslaved,
Enslaved, 137
137
Christie,
H., guoted
141, 149,
149*
Christie, A. H.,
quoted 141,
159
ff., 348
348
159 if.,
Civilization,
HI, 190,
East, XII,
190,
Civilization, Middle East,
2'J.0,
^20, 253.
253, 3al
321

[355
]
[355]

INDEX
Coffee,
244
Coffee, 244
Coinage,
ug, 198,
34*
198, 342
Coinage, 113,
Columbus, Christopher,
2540 255
255
Christopher, 254,
Columbus,
Committee
of the
the Covenant,
Covenant, 276
Committee of
276
Committee of
of Union
Union and Progress,
Progress,
Committee
211
27X
Compass, The Mariners,
Mariners, 179
179
Compass,
128
Concubinage,
Concubinage, 128
Congress
of World Faiths,
329
Faiths, 329
Congress of

ff.
ft.
Conscription,
268
Conscription, 268
Constantinople,
101, 208,
208, 21g,
2x3, 219
2x9
Constantinople, 101,
Copper,
14
Copper, 14
Cordova,
191
Cordova, 99
ff., 137,
137, 191
99 ft.,
Corsica, 104
Corsica,
104
161
Court
Court Art,
Art, 156,
156, 161
Covenant of
of Peace,
Covenant
Peace, 310
3x0
Sir Percy,
Cox, Sir
Cox,
Percy, 290
290
126,
Crabites, Judge
Judge Pierre,
Crabites,
Pierre, quoted,
quoted, 126,
127,
127, 349
349
Crete, 104
104
Crete,
ft., 253
Crusades,
Crusades, The,
The, 154,
204 ff.,
154, 204
253
Ctesiphon,
79
Ctesiphon, 79
Cyprus,
83, 104.
212, 2x8
u8
Cyprus, 83,
104, 2x2,
Cyrenaica,
93
Cyrenaica, 93

d'Albuquerque,
Admiral, llS5
d
255
Albuquerque, Admiral,
Damascening, 158
Damascening,
158
Damascus,
73, 88,
88, 91,
91, 156
Damascus, 10,
10, 73,
156
y

Damietta, 214
Damietta,
2x4
of Mar'ib,
Marib, 19,
Dam of
19, 66
Dante,
180
Dante, 180

the Rock,
of the
Dome of
Rock, 146,
146, 153,313
153, 3x3
Dowry,
128
The, 128
Dowry, The,
Dravidians, 339
Dravidians,
339
ff.
Dutch Pioneering,
Pioneering, 274
274 ft.
Dynasty:
Dynasty:
see Abbasids
Abbasid,
Abbaaids
Abbasid, see
Aghlabid,
103, 199
199
Aghlabid, 103,
of Cairo
Fatimid,
see Caliphs
Cairo
Fatimid, see
Caliphs of
Mamlukes, 153,
2140 219
219
Mamlukes,
153, 2x4,
Umaiyyad,
Spain, 103,
103, 135
135
Umaiyyad, Spain,
see Umaiyyads
Umaiyyad,
Syria, see
Umaiyyad, Syria,
Umaiyyads
E

Earthenware, 160
Earthenware,
East India
India Company,
256
East
Company, 256
East
East Indies,
Indies, 92
92
Edessa,
208
Edessa, 208

ft.
ff.

Edom,
Edom, 24,
24, 306
306
Edward, Prince
Prince Crusader,
217
Crusader, 217
Edward,
Egypt: 92,
258,
196, 199,
Egypt:
92, 120,
120, 196,
199, 252,
252, 258,
of, 8x
ft.,
330;
81 ff.,
330; Arab Conquest
Conquest of,
6
19
196
Egyptian
Arabia, 140
Invasions of Arabia,
Egyptian Invasions
14,
237
237
Enamelling
158
Enamelling on glass,
glass, 158
Euclid, 175
Euclid,
175
Eunuchs, 134
Eunuchs,
134
Europeanization, 327
Europeanization,
327
Exorcism Cult,
Exorcism
6
Cult, 6
F

Dastagird, 70
Dastagird,
70
Date Culture,
44
Culture, 44
Day of
of the
the Camel,
86
Day
Camel, 86
Dead Sea,
298
Sea, 298
Decapolis, 143
143
Decapolis,
da Gama,
Gama, Vasco,
Vasco, 179,
254
179, 2240
224, 254
de Santillan
a, D,
quoted, 262,
348
de
Santillana,
D, quoted,
262, 348
Deuteronomy, quoted,
49
Deuteronomy,
quoted, 49
de Vaux,
Vaux, Baron Carra,
de
Carra, quoted,
quoted, 173,
173,
176,
348
176, 182,
182, 348
Dhufar,244
Dhufar, 244
Dibai,234
Dibai, 234
Dinar, 95
95
Dinar,
Divorce, Moslem,
ft., 132
126 ff.,
ff.
Divorce,
Moslem, 126
132 ft.

Faisal,
283, 284,
Faisal, The Amir (King),
(King), 283,
284,
291, 292,
292, 297
297
291,
Fakirs,
Fakirs, S4
54
False
False Prophets,
68
Prophets, 68
Farmer, Dr,
Dr. H. G.,
quoted. 165,
Farmer,
G., quoted,
165,
348
348
Fast of
Fast
of Ramadhan,
6x
Ramadhan, 61
Fatima, 54
Fatima,
54
Fatimids, 183,
208 ft.,
228
Fatimids,
ff., 208
199 ft.,
ff., :u8
183, 199
Federation, Arab Political,
Federation,
Political, 322
322
Federation
of Jewish
Federation of
Labour, 309
309
Jewish Labour,

Fer t1tl1hi, 209

209
Ferenghi,
Fez, 152
Fez,
152

Field, Henry,
Field,
Henry, 342,
342, 348
348
Fine Arts,
Arts, 142
142

6]
[35
[356]

INDEX
France: Arab
Arab Invasion
Invasion of,
of, 100
100
France:
Arab Interests,
Interests, 260,
260, 278
278
(Syria), 285,
285,
(Syria),
If.
Frankincense, 8,
8, 244
244 ff.
If.
Frankincense,
Franks, 209
Z09
Franks,
Frederick II
II of
of Sicily,
Sicily, 214
ZI4Frederick
French Pioneering,
Pioneering, 257
257
French
Fustat, 82,
82, 143,
143, 201
20X
Fustat,
Mandate
Mandate
ZS9
289

If.

ff.

287,
287,

ff.

G
Galen, 172,
172, 173,
173, 175
Galen,
*75
Garonne, loz
101
Garonne,
Gaul, see
see France
France
Gaul,
*
215 If.
Gaza, 74.
Gaza,
74, **5

24
84

Genoese, 253
253
Genoese,
Geography, 178
178
Geography,
Georgia, 203
z03
Georgia,
Germany, 260,
260, 261,
261, 278
278 ff.
If.
Germany,
Gharraf, 270
270
Gharraf,
Ghassan, 20 If.
ff.
Ghassan,
Gibb,
Prof. H. A.
A. R.,
263,
R., quoted,
quoted, 26$,
Gibb, Prof.
348
348
Gibbon,
quoted, 86,
348
86, 348
Gibbon, quoted,
Gibraltar,
Gibraltar, 99
99
Giraldo
Giraldo Tower,
Seville, 156
156
Tower, Seville,
Gladstone,
260
Gladstone, 260
Glass
Glass Ware,
Ware, 159
159
Gooch,
G. P.,
Dr. G.
281, 348
Gooch, Dr.
P., 281,
348
Granada,
Granada, 155
155
Grand Mufti,
Mufti, 307
307
Greeks,
see Byzantines,
10, 15,
15, 24,
24,
Greeks, see
Byzantines, 10,
ff.
r69
169 If.
Greek
ff..
168 1'
Greek Sciences,
The, r68
Sciences, The,
Gudea,
15
Gudea, IS
Guilds,
Craftsmen's, 162
Guilds, Craftsmen's,
Guillaume,
Guillaume, Alfred,
186-191,
Alfred, quoted,
quoted, 186-191,
34~
34?

Hamadan,80
Hamad
an, 80
Hamitic
Hamitic Race,
Race, 337
337 ff,
If.
Han
aft School,
Hanan
Schoo}, 123,
123, 134,
134, 230
230 ff,
if.
Hanbali
Hanbali School,
School, 123,
123, 230
230 ff.
If.
Hanifs, 30
go
Hanifs,
Harem System,
System, 134,
134. 155
155
Hasrusi
Hasrusi Tongue,
Tongue, 343
343
Harun al
a1 Rashid,
Rashid, 125,
IZS, x6x,
161, 205
205
Hasa, 235,
235, 259
259
Hasa,
Hassan, The Martyr,
Martyr, 88
88
Hassan,
H,brew, 23,
23, 311
gIl ff.
1'.
Hebrew,
Heliopolis, 81
81
Heliopolis,
Hell, 39
39
Hell,
Hellenism
Hellenism in
in pre-Islamic
pre-Islamic Arabia,
Arabia,

Hijaz, 240,
240, 275
275
Hijaz,
Hijra, 43
43
Hijra,
Himparites, 18,
342 ff.
If.
18, 342
Himparites,
Hira, 20 if.,
71, 171
ff., 71,
Hira,
171
Hittites, 338
33 g
Hittites,
Hogarth,
Dr. D. G.,
quoted, 81,
8r, 221,
ZU,
G., quoted*
Hogarth, Dr.
25 6, 348
348
256,
Holy Cities,
Cities, 227,
227, 280,
280, 291
291
Holy
Holy War,
War, 280
280
Holy
Sir John,
Hope
John, 303,
Hope Simpson,
Simpson, Sir
3x5
303, SIS
Hormuz,
255
Hormuz, 255
Horse Raising,
247
Raising, 247
of Wisdom,
House of
Wisdom, 175
175
Hubal,
Hubal, go
30
Huber,
Huber, 332
332
Hulagu,
2x6
Hulagu, :u6
182
Hunain ibn
ibn Ishaq,
175, ISz
173, 175,
Ishaq, 173,
ff.
Husain the
the Martyr,
Martyr, 88 if.
Sharif Husain
Husain,
see Sharif
Sharif, see
Husain, Sharif,
66
Hyksos,
Hyksos, 66

H
Hadhramaut,
Hadhramaut, 9,
13
9, 13
Hadrian,
24
Hadrian, Emperor,
Emperor, 24Hagar,
Hagar, 29
29
Haifa,
Haifa, 298
298
Hajjaj
ibn Yusuf,
Yusuf, 91,
91, 123
123
Hajjaj ibn
Hakim,
Hakim, Caliph,
202, 206
Caliph, 202,

If.

ff.

Ht'raclius, Emperor,
Emperor, 76
76
Heraclius,
Heraldry, 159
1'.
Heraldry,
159 ff.
Herzl, Dr.,
Dr., 278
278
Herzl,

I
Ibadhism,
229
Ibadhism, 229
Ibn
Ibn Abdul Wahhab,
Wahhab, 236
236
al Arabi,
Ibn
Ibn al
Arabi, 189
189
Ibn Batuta,
242
Batuta, 179,
179, 242
see AvicebroD
Avicebron
Ibn
Ibn Gabirol,
Gabirol, see
Ibn
Ibn Jama'ah,
Jama'ah, 262

[357
[357]]

INDEX
Ibn
Ibn
Ibn
Ibn
Ibn
Ibn
Ibn
Ibn
Ibn
Ibn
Ibn
Ibn

Jahiliya, 24
24
Jahiliya,

Jubair, 207
20'1
Jubair,
Majid, 179
179
Majid,
Musarra, 189
189
Musarra,

Rashid, 235
235
Rashid,

Janaba, 234
234
Janaba,
Japan, 246
246
Japan,
Japheth, 337
337
Japheth,

if.

ff.

Rushd, see
see Averroes
Averroes
Rushd,
226, 235
235 ff,,
if., 238
238
Sa'ud, 226,
Sa'ud,

Jauhar the
the
Jauhar

if., 250,
250,

ff.,

if.
259, 291
291 ff.
259,
Ibn
Sina, see
set Avicenna
Avicenna
Ibn Sina,
Ibn Tulun,
Tulun, 199
Ibn
199
Ice
Age, 340
340
Ice Age,
Iconoclasm, 51,
51, 143
142
Iconoclasm,
Idrisi, 179
Idrisi,
179
lfrikiya, 93
93
Ifrikiya,
lUwan,239
Ikh<wan
f 239
Imams,
ff.
Shi' a, 90
Imams, Shl'a,
90 if.
Immigration,
see Palestine
Palestine
Immigration, see
India,
92, 258,
275, 279
ff.
259, 275,
279 if.
258, 259,
India, 92,
Indian
Army, 280,
Indian Army,
280, 285
285
Industrialization,
Industrialization, 32.6
326
Infanticide,
55
Infanticide, 55
Inscriptions,
Ancient SoutherD,
10,
Southern, 10,
Inscriptions, Ancient
u
12 if.,
ff., 343
343
Iraq:
Iraq:
Arab:
196
Arab: Conquest
of, 78
Conquest of,
ff., 196
78 if.,
Government,
Government, 3Z3
323
British
British Conquest,
Conquest, 289
289
Insurrection,
Insurrection, 289
289
Mandate,
Mandate, 290
290
Minorities,
Minorities, 324.
324, 325
325
Turkish
Turkish Administration,
266 if.,
Administration! 2.66
ff.,

Sicilian,

Sicilian,

201

Java, 92,
92 , 245
245
Java,
Jerusalem, 37,
37, 74,
74. 7*>
76, 87,
87, i43
143, *53
153,
Jerusalem,
2.n ff.
:If.
211
Jesus, Qur'anic
Qur'anic Teachings,
Teachings, 35,
35, 58
58 :If.
ff.
Jesus,
Jewish Nationalism,
Nationalism, 278,
278, 333
333
Jewish
Jews, see
see Palestine
Palestine
Jews,
Jews:
Jews:
24
Arabia penetrated
penetrated early,
early, 18,
Arabia
18, 34
Arabian Persecution,
Persecution, 49
49
Arabian

ff.

ff.

ContemporaIy Persecution,
Persecution, 295,
Contemporary
295,
17
305, 3317
305,

North African
African Medieval,
North
Medieval, 9494
Origin,
337
Origin, 337
Spanish
Persecution, 96
ff.
96 If.
Spanish Persecution,
Under Roman Law,
Law, 91
Under
97
Jihad, 280
280
Jihad,
Jinn, 39,
Jinn,
243
39, 60,
60, 243
John
VIII, Pope,
John VIII,
105
Pope, 105
John
X, Pope,
John X,
105
Pope, 105
Jokhtan,
Jokhtan, 337
337
Josephus,
Josephus, 13
13
Judea,
Judaea, 74
74
Judaism,
in Arabia,
18
Judaism, pre-Islamic
pre-Islamic in
Arabia, IS
Judge,
see (}adhis
Judge, see
Qadhis
Jundeshapur,
171, 173-175
173-175
Jundeshapur, 171,

275
*7$

Ishaq
ibn Hunain,
Hunain, x73
173
Ishaq ibn
Wam:
Islam:
Cardinal
Cardinal Tenets,
60
Tenets, 35,
35, 60
and Christianity,
ff., 20435, 58
Christianity, 35,
58 if.,
204
if.,
ff-i 330
330
Definition,
Definition, 34
34
Form of
of Worship,
61 If.
ff.
Worship, 61
Spread
Spread of,
of, 92
92
IsmaIi
Ismali Sect,
Sect, 234234
Ispahan,80
Ispahan, 80
Italy,
162, 279,
279, 287
Italy, 162,
287

J
Jabal
Jabal Tariq
Tariq (Gibraltar),
99
(Gibraltar), 99
Jaifa
Jaffa Riots,
Riots, SIS
315

K
K
Ka'ba,
31, 227
Ka'ba, 31,
227
Kahina,95
Kahina, 95
al Din,
Kamal a1
Din, x85
185
Sir Arthur,
Keith,
Keith, Sir
339 if.,
ff., 349
Arthur, 339
349
Khadija,
Khadija, 31
31
ibn al
al Wa1id,
Khalid ibn
ff,
Walid, 50,
68, 73
50, 68,
73 ff.
or Caliph,
Khalifa
Khalifa or
Caliph, definition,
definition, 67
67
Khawarij,
Khawarij, 87,
87, 230
230
Khorasan,
Khorasan, 90
90 :If.,
ff., 172
172
Khuzistan,
80
Khuzistan, 80
Kilboga,
216
Kilboga, zI6
King's
Council Spain,
King's Council
Spain, 97
97
Kitchener,
ff.
Kitchener, 280 :If.

8]
[35
[358]

INDEX
Kramer!,
Kramers,

J. H.,
H., quoted,
quoted, 178,
178, 180,
180,

J.

348
34

M., 339
339 ff.,
if., 349
349
Krogman, W. M.,
Krogman,
Kufa, 79,
79, 87-88,
87-88, 123,
123, 143
143
Kufa,
Kurds, 263
263
Kurds,
Kuwait, 234,
234. 259,
259, 261
261
Kuwait,

Magan, Land
Land of,
of, 15
15
Magan,
Maghrih, 94
94 ff.,
if., 102,
len, 197
197
Maghrib,
Mahdi, The,
The, 90,
90, 200
200
Mahdi,

Labour Party,
Party, Palestine,
Palestine, 309
309
Labour
Lagash, 15,
IS, 270
270
Lagash,
Lahej,234
Lahej,
234

Lakhmids, 21
21
Lakhmids,
Latin Kingdom,
Kingdom, The,
The, 209
209 ff.
if.
Latin
Latin Race,
Race, The,
The, 338
338
Latin
Law, Administration,
Administration, Medieval,
Medieval,
Law,
121
121

if.

ff.

of Contract^
Contract, 122;
122; of
of Divorce,
Divorce,
Law: of
126 :if.,
of Evidence, 121, 122 ;
126
ff., of Evidence, 121, 122;
Holy, ii
II66 ff.,
:if., 229
229 ff.,
if., 263
263; MerHoly,
;

cantile, 122;
122; Turkish,
Turkish, 266
266 ff.,
if.,
270
270
Lawrence, T.
T. E.,
E., 222,
222, 223,
223, 284,
284. 285,
28S,
Lawrence,
28 9
289
League of
Nations, 288,
of Nations,
288, 290
290 if.,
314
ff., 314
League
Lebanon,
Lebanon, 278
278
Legitimism, 228
228
Legitimism,
Lenin,
Lenin, 139
139
Leo
101
Leo III,
III, 101
Levi,
Dr. Reuben,
40,
Levi, Dr.
Reuben, quoted,
39, 40,
quoted, 39,
130
232, 347
ff., 232,
347
130 if.,
Liberalism,
Liberalism, 276
276
Liddell
B. H.,
Liddell Hart,
H., 284.
284, 28S
285
Hart, Capt.
Capt. B.
Lihyani,22
Lihyani, 22
Lisbon,
210
Lisbon, 210
Longrigg,
348
Stephen, 348
Longrigg, Stephen,
Lorimer,
L. R.,
Mrs. D.
D. L.
VI
R., VI
Lorimer, Mrs.
Luristan,
Luristan, 157-158
157-158
Lustre
Lustre Ware,
160
Ware, 160
Lycian
Coast, Battle,
Battle, 83
Lycian Coast,
8$
Lynch,2S9
Lynch, 259
cantile,

M
M
Machicolation,
Machicolation, 154
154
MacMahon,
Sir Henry,
283
MacMahon, Sir
Henry, 283
Mada'in,79
Mada'in, 79

Madagascar, 246
246
Madagascar,
Madarsas, 152
152
Madarsas,
Madhifs, 154
154
Madhifs,

Mahmood Zada,
Zada, 61
61 ff.
if.
Mahmood
Mahmud of
of Ghazna,
Ghazna, 92
92
Mahra, 243,
243, 343
343
Mahra,
Malacca, 245
245
Malacca,
Maliki
Malin School,
School, 123,
123, 231
231 ff.
ff.
Malta, 104
104
Malta,
Mamlukes, The,
The, 153,
153, 214
214 if., 219
219
Mamlukes,
Ma'mun, Caliph,
Caliph, 170,
170, 174,
174. 181,
1St, 186
186
Ma'mun,
Manahil, 234
234
Manahil,
Mandate:
Mandate:
Iraq, 290
290
Iraq,
Palestine, 289,
289, 311
3Il
Palestine,
Syria, 289
289 ff.
:if.
Syria,
Sy~emDefined,28~
323
System
Defined, 289, 323
Mansur, Caliph,
Caliph, 170
170
Mansur,
Maqrizi, 201
201 :if.
ff.
Maqrizi,
Marakkesh, 152
Marakkesh,
152
Margoliouth, Prof.
Prof. D.
D. S.,
5., quoted,
quoted, 23,
23,
Margoliouth,
27,
347
37, 347
Mar'ib (Mariaha),
66
10, 19,
(Mariaba), 10,
19, 66
Marriage Law and Procedure,
Procedure,
Marriage
u6if
126 ff
Martel,
101
Charles, 101
Martel, Charles,
the Copt,
Mary
Copt, 54
54
Mary the
Massacres: Arab,
Arab, 265,
265, 308;
308; Turkish,
ish, 265,
308
265, 308
Mas'udi,
Mas'udi, 179
179
Meakin,
Meakin, Budget,
Budget, 347
347
Mecca,
Mecca, 29,
224
29, 224
ff.
182 if.
Medical Science,
171, 182
Science, 171,
Medina,
Medina, 43,
43, 74>
74, 226
Mediterranean:
Mediterranean: Islands,
Islands, 104;
Race,
104; Race,
333;
Command, 96,
207
96, 207
333 Sea Command,
see Iraq
Mesopotamia,
Iraq
78 see
Mesopotamia, 78;
Mesopotamian
285,
Force, 285,
Exped. Force,
Mesopotamian Exped.
28
289
9
Metal work,
158
work, 158
Meyerhof,
Max, lJuottd,
185, 348
Meyerhof, Dr. Max,
qu oted> 185,348
Midhat Pasha,
Pasha, 268
Mihrabs,
Mihrabs, 144
144
Milton,
170
Milton, lJuoted,
quoted, 170

[359
[359]]

ff.,

INDEX
INDEX
Minzans,
Minaeans,
Minarets,
Minarets,

13, 343
343
143 if., 148
148 ff.
if.
Minor Arts,
Arts, 151,
lSI, 156
156 ff.,
if., 252
2S2 ff.
if.
Minor
Minorities, 264
264 ff.,
if., 324
324 ff.
if.
Minorities,
Mizrachi Party,
Party, 310
310
Mi2rachi
Moab, 306
306
Moab,
243
Mocha, 243
Mocha,
Modernism, 327
327 ff.
if.
Modernism,
Mongol Invasion,
Invasion, 155,
ISS, 215
215 ff.,
if., 253
253
Mongol
Mongoloid Race,
Race, 92,
92, 339
339
Mongoloid
Monophysites, 171
171
Monophysites,
Monotheism, 35
35
Monotheism,
Montagu, Edwin,
Edwin, 30$
308
Montagu,
Moors, 103,
log, 106,
106, 137
137
Moors,
Monacos, 106
106
Moriscos,
Morley, John,
John, 308
308
Morley,
Morocco, see
see Maghrib
Maghrib
Morocco,
Morris Dancers,
Dancers, 166
166
Morris
Moslem Flight,
Flight, Abyssinia,
Abyssinia, 40
40
Moslem Supreme
Supreme Council,
Council, 307
307
Moslem
Mosque Features,
Features, 144
if.
144 ff.
Mosque
Mosque: of
of AH,
Ali, Najaf,
Najaf, 90;
90; Great
Great
Mosque:
of
Damascus, I#.
of Damascus,
144, 146;
146; Husain
Omar, see
see
sain Kerbela,
Kerbela, 90;
90; Omar,
Dome of
of the
the Rock;
Rock; School,
School, 152;
152;
Tomb,
Quairawan,
Tomb, 152;
152; Uqba,
Uqba, Quairawan,
1:46
146
Mosul Minor
Minor Arts,
Arts, 158
158
Mu'awiya,
Governor (Caliph),
Mu'awiya, Governor
83,
(Caliph), 83,
85
ff.
85 if.
Muhammad,
see Prophet
Muhammad, see
Prophet
Muhammad Ali
Ali (author),
(author), guoted,
quoted)
6, 47,
446,
347
49, 347
47, 49,
Muhammad Ali,
ff.
Ali, Governor,
Governor, 237
237 if.
Muhammadanism,
see Islam
Islam
Muhammadanism, 34;
34; see
Muharram,
Muharram, 90
90
Mu'izz,
ff.
201 if.
Mu'izz, Caliph,
Caliph, WI
Musa ibn
ibn Nusair,
ff.
Nusair, 98
98 if.
Musailima,
Musailima, 69
69
Muscat,
Muscat^ 2340
279
234, 255,
255, 279
Museum,
Isabella Stewart
Stewart Gardner,
Museum, Isabella
Gardner,
16
5
165
Music,
ff.
162 if.
Music, 162
Musical
Musical Instruments,
LiteraInstruments, 164;
164; Literature,
ff.
ture, 167
167 if.
Musta'sim,
216
Musta'sim, Caliph,
Caliph, :1I6
Muta,
Muta, Battle,
Battle, 51
51
13,

14.3 ff.,

Muta, Marriage,
Marriage, 131
131
Muta,
Mutawakkil, Caliph,
Caliph, 175
175
Mutawakkil,
Mu'tazilite, 186,
186, 188
188
Mu'tazilite,
Myrrh,244
244
Myrrh,
Mysticism, 165,
16S, 189
189
Mysticism,

if.

ff.

N
Nabatzans, 12
12
Nabataeans,
Nafisat al
al Urn,
ihn, 135
135
Nafisat
Nakhla
Nakhla Raid,
Raid, 45
45

Napoleon, 235,
23S, 278
278
Napoleon,
Narbonne,
100, 102
102
Nar
bonne, zoo,
Nasir al
al Din,
Din, 173
173
Nasir
Nasrani, 119
II9
Nasrani,
National
National Home,
Home, Jewish,
Jewish, 285,
286, 295
295
Nationalism, 254,
zS,,", 262,
262, 264
264 ff.,
if., 271,
271,
Nationalism,
281, 294
294 ff.,
if., 308,
308, 315,
3 IS, 324
3Z4
281,
Nearchus, 15
15
Nearchus,
Negus, Mission
Mission to,
to, 50
50
Negus,
Nejd, 259
259
Nejd,
Nestorian
Nestorian Church,
Church, 171,
216
171, 2x6
Empire, The,
The, 213
213
New Empire,
New Learning
(Arab
(Arab Period),
Learning
Period),
ff.
172
172 if.
Prof. R. A.,
Nicholson,
A., 165,
165, 348
Nicholson, Prof.
348
Nihavand,
Nihavand, 80
Noah,
Noah, 337
337
Normans,
Normans, 105
105
Nubia,
Nubia, 13
13
Numerals,
Numerals, 176
176
al Din,
Nur al
211
Din, 2II

o
Observatory,
Observatory, Baghdad,
Baghdad, 181
ff.
Oil,
Oil, 298,
298, 3z6
326 if.
O'Leary,
ted, 10,
O'Leary, Dr. De Lacy,
Lacy, guo
quoted,
10,
26,
26, 347
347
Oman:
GO'Vemment,
Government, 227,
227, 235
235
Invades Persia,
80
Invades
Persia, 80
Invaded
Invaded by
20
Persia, 20
by Persia,
see Caliph
Omar,
Omar
Omar, Caliph,
Caliph, see
Caliph Omar
Omar II,
Omar
II, Caliph,
78, u9
Caliph, 78,
119
Omar Khayyam,
Omar
Khayyam, 173,
173, 176
176
Ophir,
Ophir, 244
244

[360
]
[360]

INDEX
Optics, 183
183 fL
ff.
Optics,

Osman, Sultan,
Sultan, 218
:u8
Osman,
Othman, Caliph)
Caliph, see
see Caliph
Caliph Othman
Othman
Othman,
Ottomans, see
see Turks
Turks
Ottomans,
OXUS,92
Oxus,
92

St. J.
J. B.,
B., 283
283
Philby, H.
H. St.
Philby,
Philosophy, 171,
171, 186
186 ff.,
:If., 253
253
Philosophy,

Phcenicians, 95
95
Phoenicians,

Pagan Cults,
Cults, 66
Pagan
104
Palermo, 104
Palermo,

PickthalJ,
Pickthall,

H., 293
ff., 293
322
322
Administration, 335
335
Administration,
Agriculture, 301
301
Agriculture,
Arab Conquest,
Conquest, 196
196
Arab
British Conquest,
Conquest, 289
289
British
Casualties, War,
War, 289
289
Casualties,
Census Figures,
Figures, 300,
300, 304
304
Census
Commerce, 302
302
Commerce,
Immigration, Jewish,
Jewish, 297,
291, 300
300
Immigration,
goS, 315
31 5
305,
Industrialization, 298
298
Industrialization,
Land Purchase,
Purchase, Jewish,
Jewish, 3x5
31S
Land

Palestine: 196,
196, 275,
215, 286
286
Palestine:

Mandate, 294
294
Mandate,

H.,

fL,

Marmaduke, quoted,
quoted, 114,
1140
Marmaduke,

341
347
Pilgrim of
of Bordeaux,
Bordeaux, 312
312
Pilgrim
Pilgrim Railway,
Railway, 222,
222, 260
260
Pilgrim
Pilgrimage, Mecca
Mecca and
and Medina,
Medina,
Pilgrimage,
go ff.,
:If., 52
52 ff.,
H., 146,
146, 242
242
30
Pilgrimage of
of ShVs,
Sh'a's, 90
90
Pilgrimage
Plato, 175
115
Plato,
Plotinus, 187
181
Plotinus,
Pluvial Period,
Period, 340
340
Pluvial
Poitier!, Battle,
Battle, xox
101
Poitiers,

H.,

ff.>

National Arab Strike,

National
Strike, 315
3x5
Political
306-u
Political Parties,
Parties, 306-11
Population, 294,
294. 302
302
Population,
Prosperity,
316
Prosperity, 316
Riots,
Riots, 312
fL, 315,
316
3x5, 316
312 H.,
Size,
Size, 294
294
Social
Social Classes,
Classes, 302
302
Pallentaria,
Pallentaria, 104104
Palmer,
Palmer, Professor,
Professor, 332
332
Palmyra,
21
xo, 12,
12, 21
Palmyra, 10,
Paradise,
180
38, 180
Paradise, 38,
Parliamentary
Government, 264,
Parliamentary Government,
264,
25
3n,
325
321, 3
Passion
Passion Play,
Play, 90
90
Peace
Peace Conference,
Conference, 296,
296, 291
297
Pearl
fL.
Pearl Fisheries,
Fisheries, 242
242 11'
People
of the
the Book,
Book, 119
119
People of
Persepolis,
142
Persepolis, 142
Persia:
Persia
Arab Conquest
of, 78
196
Conquest of,
78 H.,
fL, 196
Arts,
1 60 :If.,
fL, 252
252
Arts, 160
Ascendancy
in Caliphate,
125, 237
Ascendancy in
Caliphate, 125,231
Greek
ff.
Greek Wars,
Wars, 69
69 H.
:

Invasion of
of Arabia,
Arabia, 19,
19, 20
20
Invasion
and Islam,
Islam, 80
80
and
Persian Gulf,
Gulf, 15
15 ff.,
tE., 255
255 ff.,
if., 297
297
Persian
Persians, 69
69 ff.,
:If., X20,
120, 155,
155, 156
156
Persians,
Petra, xo
10
Petra,

Popes and
and Saracens,
Saracens, 105,
lOS, 183;
183; see
see
Popes
Crusades
Crusades
66
Population Pressure,
Pressure, Arabia,
Arabia, 66
Population

Portugal, 2i
au,
2SS
x, 255
Portugal,
Potash,298
Potash,
298

:If.

ff.

Pottery,
ff.
Pottery, 159
159 H.
Prayer, Moslem,
tE.
60 ff.
Moslem, 60
Prayer,
Prefect of
of Kufa,
Kufa, 123
Prefect
123
Prison
Prison Administration,
220
Administration, 220
Prophet,
Prophet, The:
Birth,
27
Birth, 21
Boyhood,
go
Boyhood, 30
Character,
Character, 32,
32, 53
53
ff.
Domestic Life,
Life, 31,
31, 53
53 tE.
Flight
to Yathrih,
42
Yathrib, 42
Flight to
Humanity,
27
Humanity, 21
of Mecca,
Investment
Investment of
Mecca, 51
51
and Jews,
Jews, 49
49
and Slavery,
56, 135,
135, 250
250
Slavery, 56,
to Foreign
Summons to
Rulers, 50
50
Foreign Rulers,
Syrian
52
Expedition, 52
Syrian Expedition,
Teachings,
35, 55
55
Teachings, 35,
Visions and Revelations,
Visions
Revelations, 33,
33, 57
57
Visit
Visit to
to Heavens,
Heavens, 31
37
Psychology,
Tribal, II2,
112, 271
271
Psychology, Tribal,
16
Ptolemies,
Ptolemies, 16
Ptolemy,
175
Ptolemy, 17S
Ptolemy
Sutcr, 178
178
Ptolemy Suter,

[361]

INDEX
Robertus Augustus,
Augustus, 191
Robertus
191

Pulpits, 145
145
Pulpits,
Punt,
Punt,

Land of,
of, 14
14

Purgatorio,
Purffatorio, 180
Puritanism,
55, 141,
157, 165,
*4
14*, 147,
Puritanism, 55,
ff.
167,
236 H.
229, 236
167, 229,
Pythagorean Scale,
Scale, 163
163
Pythagorean
Q

Qadlzis,
i2i
Q adhis, 121
Qadisiya,
79
Qadisiya, 79
Qalzira,
see Cairo
Cairo
Qahira, see
Qahtan,
337, 341
341
Qahtan, 337,
102
Qairawan,
95, 100
Qairawan, 95,
Qara
Qara Mountains,
340
Mountains, 19,
19, 340
Qasbah
of Rabat,
Qasbah of
Rabat, 156
156
Qatabanis,
Qatabanis, 13
13
Qatada,
228
Qatada, 228
Qatar,
259
Qatar, 234,
234, 259
Quraish,29
Quraish, 29
Qur'an,
58-62; and Christianity,
Christianity,
Qur'an, 58-62;
58
ff.; and
and Old Testament,
S9
Testament, 59
58 ff.;
Qusta
ibn Luqa,
Oust a ibn
173
Luqa, 173

R
Rabat, 156
Rabat,
156
Racial Origins,
Origins, 337
Racial
337
Rahmanism, 2S
Rahmanism,
25

ff.

ff.

ff.
Railways, 257,
257, 259
259 ff.
Railways,
Ramadhan,
61
Ramadhan, 61
Rayy,
Rayy, 159
159
254, 268
Reforms, Turkish,
268
Reforms,
Turkish, 254,
Religion and
and Modernism,
Modernism, 328
ff.
Religion
328 H.
zo
Religious Cults,
pre-Islam,
6 ff.,
fE., 10
Cults, p
re-Islam, 6
Religious
Renaissance,
X07, 254
254
\
Renaissance, 107,
Restrictive Ordinances,
Restrictive
Ordinances, 77,
77, II9
119
Revisionist Party,
Revisionist
309
Party, 309
Revolt, The Arab,
Arab, 284,
284, 285.
Revolt,
285, 289
289
Rhazes,
Rhazes, 182,
182, 184,
184, 190
190
Rhodes,
Island of,
Rhodes, Island
104
of, 104
102
Rhone, 100
Rhone,
Richard
Cceur de
Richard Ca:ur
de Lion,
212 ff.
ff.
Lion, 212
Richmond,
ISO, 153,
Richmond, T. E.,
B., quoted,
quoted, 150,
153,
211 ff.,
201,
if., 314,
348
202, 2II
201, 202,
314, 348
Riyadh, 239
Riyadh,
239

Roderick, 98
98
Roderick,
Roman Invasion
Invasion of:
Arabia, 316
316
of: Arabia,
No. Africa,
Africa, 94
94
No.
Roman Law,
Law, 97
97
Rome,
Rome, 105
105
Rothschild, Lord,
Lord, 286
286
Rothschild,
Rub'al
Rub'al Khali,
10, 332
Khali, 10,
332
203
Rum, 203
Rum,
Russia,
261
Russia, 261

H.;

ff.;

Rustem, 79
79
Rustera,
Rutenberg
Concession, 298
298
Rutenberg Concession,

s
Sa'aI,234
Sa'ar, 234
Saba,
Sab a, 10,
10, 13
13
Sabreans,
343
12, 13,
Sabaeans, 12,
13, 343
Sacred
Pavement, 312
Sacred Pavement,
312
Sa'id
200
Sa'id ibn
ibn Husain,
Husain, 200
ff.
211 ff.
Saladin,
Saladin, 154,
154, 2II
Salado,
Salado, 99
99
Samaria,
74
Samaria, 74
Samarkand,
92, 137
Samarkand, 92,
137
Samarra, 137,
Samarra,
137, 175
175
Samh,Ioo
Samh, 100
Sana, 10
10
Sana,
Sanctuary
Usage, 331
Sanctuary Usage,
331
Saracenic
Architecture, see
see ArchiArchiSaracenic Architecture,
tecture
tecture
Saracenic
Expansion, see
see Arab ConSaracenic Expansion,
quests
quests
Saracens,
Saracens, 107
107
Sardinia,
Sardinia, 104
104
Sargent's
EllaleQ,
x65
Jaleo, 165
Sargent's El
Sassanians,
ISS
Sassanians, 143,
143, 155
Sa'udi Arabia,
Arabia, 161,
234, 236
161, 231,
231, 234,
236 H.,
ff.,
259,
291
259, 291
Schools
Translation, 171,
H.,
Schools of
of Translation,
171, 174
174 ff.,
188,
188, 191
191
Sciences,
The, 182
252
182 H.,
Sciences, The,
ff., 252
Sea Crusades,
Crusades, 213
213 H.
ff.
Sea Power,
83 ff.,
H., 96,
207
Power, 83
96, 104,
104, 207
Sectarianism,
229 H.
ff.
Sectarianism, 229
Security,
Armed, 326
Security, Armed,
326
Seetzen,
332
Seetzen, 332
Seistan,
Seistan, 91
91

[362]

INDEX
Seleucia, 79,
79, 82
h
Seleucia,
Selim the
the Grim,
Grim, 219,
219, 229
229
Selim
Seljuqs, 203
203
Seljuqs,

if.

ff.

Semitism, 22,
22, 337
337
Semitism,
14
Sennacherib, 14
Sennacherib,
Se'lJenites, 234
234
Seventies,
Seville, 100,
100, 156,
156, 166,
166, 191
191
Seville,
Shafi'i School,
School, 123,
123, 231
231 ff.
if.
Shafi'i
Shahari Tongue,
Tongue, 343
343
Shahari
Shamanism, 216
Shamanism,
Shams, Goddess,
Goddess, 12
12
Shams,

Shari'a, see
see
Shari'a,
Sharif,
Sharif,

Law, Holy
Holy
Law,
Grand, see
see Sharif
Sharif Husain
Grand,

Sharif Husain,
Husain, 235,
235, 240,
240, 281
281
Sharif

if.,

ff.,

291, 296
296
291,
Sharifate
of Mecca,
Mecca, 235
235
Sharif
ate of
Shark Fisheries,
Fisheries, 244
244
Shark
Sheba, Queen
Queen of,
of, 13
13
Sheba,
Shem, 337
337
Shem,
Shi'a
Caliphate of
of
Shi'
a Caliphate
Fatimids
Fatimids

Egypt,
Egypt,

St. Peter's, Rome,

Rome, 215
21S
St. Thomas
Thomas Aquinas,
Aquinas, 189
189 ff.
if.
Strabo, 17
17
Strabo,
Sudan, 92
92
Sudan,
Suez
Suez Canal,
Canal, 258
258
Sukaina, 135
135
Sukaina,
Sultans
Sultans of
of Constantinople,
Constantinople, see
lee ConConstantinople
stantinople
Sum-ma
Summa of
of Aquinas,
Aquinas, 190
190
Sunnism, 121,
121, 123,
123, 229
229 ff.
If.
Sunnism,
Surgery, 183
183
Surgery,
Susa, 142
142Susa,
Sykes-Picot Agreement,
Agreement, 286
286
Sykes-Picot
Syllreus, 17
17
Syllaeus,
Syria:
Syria
Arab Conquest,
Conquest, 73
73 ff.
if.
British
British Conquest,
Conquest, 288
288
Caliphate, 87
87 ff.
if.
Caliphate,
French Invasion,
Invasion, 278,
278, 289
289
French Mandate,
Mandate, 289
289 ff.
if.
Mongol Invasion,
Invasion, 215
215 ff.
ff.
Mongol
Turkish Invasion,
Invasion, 275
275 ff.
ff.
See also
also Crusades,
Crusades, 204
204 ff.
if.
Syriac, 22
22
Syriac,
St. Peter's,

St.

see
see

80, 90
90 if.,
227, 229
229 ff.,
ff.,
Shi'ism,
121, 227,
ff., 121,
Shi'ism, 80,
232

Ships
Shipping, 83
83 if.,
244 ff.,
ff.,
ff., 244
Ships and Shipping,
257 if.
257
Sicily,
Sicily, 103,
103, lOS,
105, 162
Siflin,
86
Siffin, 86
Sil,k,
161
Silk, 161
Sinai,
Sinai, 1414
Sind,
246
Sind, 92,
92, 246
Sindbad the
Sindbad
the Sailor,
Sailor, 235,
246
235, 246
Skyscrapers,
Skyscrapers, 246
246
ff.
Slavery,
ff., 139,
57, 98,
98, 135
135 if.,
139* 248
Slavery, 57,
^48 if.
Slavonic
Slavonic Peoples,
Peoples, 137
137
Small
182
Small Pox,
Pox, 182
Smyrna,
218
Smyrna, 218
Solomon's
Solomon's Temple,
312
Temple, 312
Spain:
Spain:
Jewish
ff.
Persecution, 96
96 if.
Jewish Persecution,
Moslem Civilization,
Civilization, 172,
172, 183.
183,
1
19
191
ff.
Saracenic
Saracenic Conquest,,8
ff., 196
196 ff.
Conquest, 98 ff.,
Spices,
8, 243
243
Spices, 8,
St.
John
(Gt.
St.
(Gt
John Baptist
Baptist Church
Mosque,
146
144, 146
Damascus),, 1441
Mosque, Damascus)
St.
fL
Louis's Crusade,
St. Louis's
215 if.
Crusade, 215
St.
ff.
St. Paul's,
Rome, 21S
215 if.
Paul's, Rome,
.

T
Taif,41
Taif, 41
10
Taima,
Tairaa, 10
Taj
Mahal, IS6
Taj Mahal,
156
116
Talio,
Talio, II6
2x8
Tamerlane,
Tamerlane, 218
ff.
Tangier,
95 if.
Tangier, 95
ff.t
Tariq,
Spain, 99
99 if.,
Tariq, Conqueror
Conqueror of Spain,
6
19
196
218
Tartars,
Tartars, 218
Taurus Mountains,
Mountains, 16
76
Telegraphs,
First, 257
257
Telegraphs, First,
Prof. H. W. V.,
Temperley,
V., 2641
264,
Temperley, Prof.
281,
281, 348
348
see Solomon's
of Herod,
Temple
Herod, lee
Temple of
Temple
Temple
x$3
ibn Qurra,
Thabit ibn
Qurra, 173.
173, 177,
177, ISa
Theocracy,
115 if.,
ff., 120
Theocracy, !IS
Theodorus,
Theodorus, 73
73
Thrones,
Arab, 291
291
Thrones, New Arab,
12
Thuraiyya
(Pleiades), 12
Thuraiyya (Pleiades),

[363]

INDEX

Tin,
Tin, 245
245
Toledo,
191
ff., 158,
Toledo, 99
158, 191
99 If.,
Vandals,
Vandals, 95
95
Toulouse,
Toulouse, 100
Vasco da Gama,
Gama, 179,224,254
179, 224, 254
Battle of,
Tours,
of, 101
Tours, Battle
Vaulting,
150
Vaulting, ISO
Toynbee,
Arnold,
ljuMed,
168,
280,
Toynbee, Arnold, quoted, 168, 280,
Veiling
(Women), 132
132
Veiling (Women),
325,
348
3*5, 34
Venetians,
Venetians, 137,
137, 2IS,
218, 2S3
253
Trade Pioneer,
Pioneer, 257
257
Venice,
162
Venice, 162
Traditions:
Traditions:
ff.
Visigoths,
99 If.
Spanish, 99
Visigoths, Spanish,
Building,
145, 152
152
Building, 145,
121
Prophet's,
see Sunnism,
Sunnism, IZI
Prophet's, see
W
ff.
of Rule,
of
262 If.
Rule, 262
Wagwag,
246
Translations,
Schools
of,
171,
174
If.,
Schools
of, 171, 174 ff.,
Translations,
Wagwag, 246
Wahhabism,
ff.
1
I89,
160, z31,
231, 236
236 If.
Wahhabism, 160,
191
189, 19
Wailing
Trans-Jordan,
Wall, 312
312
Trans-Jordan, 73,
291, 306
306
Wailing Wall,
73, 291,
ff.
War,
Trans-Oriana,
Great, 239,
Trans-Oxiana, 172
239, 27S
172
War, The Great,
275 If.
ff.
Battle of,
Trench,
48 If.
Wazir,
Trench, Battle
of, 48
Wazir, 125
125
Wedding
Trend,
191, 196,
348
Trend, ].
B., quoted,
196, 348
J. B.,
quoted, 191,
Ceremony, 130
130
Wedding Ceremony,
Weizmann,
Trigonometry,
177
286, 296
296
Trigonometry, 177
Weizmann, Dr.,
Dr., 286,
Tripoli
Western
192,
Western Christendom,
279
(Africa), 93,
93, 279
Tripoli (Africa),
Christendom, 191,
191,
192,
211 If.,
Tripoli
ff.
253
ff., 217
217
(Syria), 2II
Tripoli (Syria),
253 If.
166
Troubadours,
Westernization
of Arab countries,
Westernization of
Troubadours, 166
countries,
Tulaiha,68
ff.
271,
Tulaiha, 68
271, 321
321 If.
ff.
Tunisia,
WIliam IV of
England, 258
2S8
of England,
WHiam
ff., 103,
196 If.
Tunisia, 93
103, 196
93 If.,
Turcomans,
Wilson,
290
Lieut-Col. Sir
Sir Arnold,
Turcomans, 137
13.7
Wilson, Lieut-Col.
Arnold, 290
Turkestan,
Wilson,
287
Turkestan, 172
172
President, 287
Wilson, President,
Turks:
Woman's Status,
126 If.,
Status, Arab,
Arab, 126
ff.,
Buwayhid, 203
203
132
Buwayhid,
ff., 139
132 If.,
139
Modern,
258, 263,
263, 266
266 If.,
275 If.,
Wren, Christopher,
Christopher, 148
Modern, 258,
ft, 275
ff.,
148
Wren,
279, 281,
281, 325
325
279,
Y
Ottoman, Early,
Early, 218,
218, 229
229
Ottoman,
Seljuq, 203
203 ff.
If.
Seljuq,
, Yaqut,
Yaqut, 179
179
Turquoises,
14
Turquoises, 14
Yarmuk, Battle,
Battle, 75
7S
Yarmuk,
ff.
Tyre,
212 If.
Tyre, 212
Yathrib
Yathrib (Medina),
(Medina), 14,
24, 41
41 ff.
If.
14, 24,
Ancient, 20;
20; Medieval,
Medieval, 277,
277,
Yemen: Ancient,
229, 234
234 ff.;
ff.; Modern,
Modern, 235,
23S, 275
27 S
229,
U
Yezdegird, Emperor,
Emperor, 79
79 ff.
If.
Yezdegird,
Yezid, Caliph,
Caliph, 88
88 ff.
If.
Yezid,
Ubaidallah
Ubaidallah the
the Mahdi, 200
zoo

Mahdi,
Uhud, Battle,
Battle, 47
47
Uhud,
Umaiyyad, Dynasty,
Dynasty, 86,
86,
Umaiyyad,

87,
87,

If., 123
123 ff.,
If., 143
143 If.,
172, 197
If.
ff., 172,
197 ff.
13S
135
Unbeliever's
Unbeliever's Tax,
Tax, 77
77
United States,
States, see
see America
Uqha,95
Uqba,
95
Ussher, Bishop,
Bishop, 337
337
Ussher,
12
Uzza,12
Uzza,

93
93

ff.,

Umm Salma,
Salma,

91,
91,

Zaidism, 229
229
Zaidism,
Zangi, Atabeg,
Atabeg, 210
210
Zangi,
Zanzibar, 92,
92, 235
235
Zanzibar,
Zem Zem,
Zem, 29
29
Zionism, 278,
278, 286,
286, 294
294 ff.
If.
Zionism,
Zoroastrianism, 18,
18, 129
u9
Zoroastrianism,
Zubaida, 135
13S
Zubaida,

[364]

k\RABIA FELIXACROSS THE "EMPTY QUARTER"

OF ARABIA
by

BERTRAM THOMAS

I
----1---------.-.O.B.E. [Mil.]; formerly Wazir to H.H. the Sultan of Muscat and Oman, sometime
Political Officer in Iraq, and Assistant British Representative in Trans-Jordan.
Founder's Medallist of the Royal Geographical Society; Burton Memorial Medallist
of the Royal Asiatic Society; Gold Medallist of the Royal Geographical Society of
Antwerp; and Cullum Medallisf of the American Geographical Society, New York

WITH A FOREWORD BY

COLONEL

T. E. LAWRENCE
[T. E. s.]

AND AN APPENDIX BY

SIR

ARTHUR KEITH,

F.R.S., M.D.

CONTAINING ALSO
i

MAPS, CHARTS, DIAGRAMS, AND

ILLUSTRATIONS COMPLEMENTARY
I
TO TIlE TEXT

NEW ydRK
I

CHARLES
SCRIBNER'S SONS
. I
I
I

1932 1

APPENDIX I

THE RACIAL CHARACTERS OF THE

SOUTHERN ARABS
BY SIR ARTHUR KEITH AND
DR. WILTON MARION KROGMAN. 1

a letter written from Muscat early in 1930, and ad. dressed to the President of the Royal Anthropological
Institute, Captain Bertram Thomas made the following
. statement: 'From consideration of language, tradition and
culture, there would appear to be little doubt that 1-8 of
my list belong to non-Arab remainders in Arabia, and as I
pointed out in my contribution to the Journal (Journ.
Roy. Anthrop. Institute, June 1930) they would appear
to be more kindred with Hamites on the other side of
the Red Sea than the familiar Arab of Central and North
Arabia.' !
A year later, in his second paper to the Royal Anthropological Institute (July 1931 ), Captain Thomas again emphasised the Hamitic traits of the South Arabs. 'After an
experience of fifteen years' service,' he said, 'living in close
terms of intimacy with its peoples in Mesopotamia, TransJordania, and the Persian Gulf, I am struck by the
peculiarities of the inhabitants of the Central South.' He
also cited opinions which had been formed concerning the
racial nature of the South Arabs by Captain Richard
. Burton and by Maj.-General Maitland. Burton regarded

. 1 At the time of this happy partnership Dr. Krogman was carrying out
anthropological enquiries in the laboratories of the Royal College of
Surgeons, being then (1930-31) a United States National Research
Council Fellow.

[301

APPENDIX I

RACIAL CHARACTERS OF SOUTHERN ARABS

the Arabs of the eastern and south-eastern wilds as representing the aborigines of the great peninsula. Maitland .
formed a very similar opinion. 'The Arabs of South
Arabia are smaller, darker, coarser featured and nearly
beardless. All authorities agree that the Southern Arabs
are nearly related in origin to th~/--Abyssinians, yet
strange to say it is the Egypto-Afrfcan race who are
the original Arabs, while the stately Semite of the north
is Arab by adoption and by residence rather than by
descent.'
Thus Captain Thomas's own experience has led him to
form an opinion of the racial affinities of the South Arabs
very similar to that held by Burton and by Maitlandnamely that their nearest kin is to be sought for amongst
the peoples on the African side of the Red Sea rather than
in the Semitic parts of Northern Arabia. Several questions
which he put to the fellows of the Royal Anthropological
Institute as he concluded his second paper reveal the fact
that he awaited expert advice before coming to a final
decision as to the racial nature of the unknown tribes he had
visited and measured. 'Who and whence are these tribes?'
he asked. 'Indigenous? Of African origin, or have they a
common origin with African tribes, or are none of these
hypotheses tenable?' In this Appendix we are to attempt to
answer Captain Thomas's questions-so far as the limited
evidence now at our disposal permits definite statements ,
to be made-for, beyond a doubt, there lie buried in the
sands of Arabia, materials which will yet help anthropoIo.
gists not only to return definite answers to Captain Thomas's
questions, but will also throw a new light on the history .0'
early man in the East.
.
Before we set out to discuss the

South Arabs in the light of Captain Thomas's observations

and records let us see what the opinion of the expert
anthropologist now is. This part of our task is made easy
by the labours of Professor C. G. Seligman. 1 In 1917 he
collected the few measurements which had been made on
.natives of Southern Arabia and examined the few skulls of
Southern Arabs which had found a place in Museum
collections. His observations on the racial nature of the
South Arabs are of especial value because Seligman is also
our leading authority on the peoples who live in that part
of Africa which lies opposite to Arabia, 2 the Red Sea and
Suez Canal separating the home of the African from that of
~he Arab. Now it was while collecting data concerning the
Southern Arabs that Dr. Seligman made a discovery which
greatly surprised most anthropologists. He found that a
high degree of round-headedness-brachycephaly-prevailed amongst them. Why should this discovery have
taken us by surprise? For this reason: the peoples of
Africa, from the Egyptian in the north to the Bushman in
the south, are emphatically long-headed. The Arabs of
the north are also long-headed; the early inhabitants of Dr
were long-headed. We expected that long-headedness
(dolichocephaly) would sweep in an unbroken sequence
over that part of the earth which lies between Mesopotamia
in the north and Cape Colony in the south. Dr. Seligman's
blication brought the orthodox anthropological mind up
with a jerk. The people of South Arabia we expected to be
long-headed. Dr. Seligman's data showed the opposite was
. the case; Captain Thomas's measurements proved that the

[302

Roy. Anthrop. Institute, 1917, Vol. 47, p. 214.

Seligman has summarised his various contributions to African
Anthropology in a small but most useful book, The Races of Africa, 1930.
1 Joum.

2 Dr.

[3 0 3 ]

APPENDIX I

RACIAL CHARACTERS OF SOUTHERN ARABS

South Arabs are amongst the most round-headed or

brachycephalic of peoples.
Now the peoples of North-eastern Africa are longheaded and deeply pigmented, brown in the case of the
Egyptians, black or nearly black in the case of the Somalis
and other pure hamitic peoples. In India we again meet
with long-heads and pigmented skins~V;rying from brown
to black. The resemblances between the natives of Northeast Africa and of the greater part of India are so numerous
that we are tempted to believe that the countries which lie
between Egypt and India had at one time been inhabited
by a dark-skinned long-headed race. We were prepared,
those of us who believed in this theory, to find that the
Southern Arab would be dark-skinned and perhaps woolly- '
haired, but if he represented the original native we were in
search of, he should not have been round-headed. We have ,
to face this fact that the Southern Arabs are round-headed
to a remarkable degree.
Now we do not rule out the possibility of round-headed~
ness being evolved independently in widely separated
peoples. If we are to look on the South Arabs as an evolutionary product of their homeland we have to suppose that
a people, originally long-headed, became in the course of
evolutionary progress round-headed. When, however, we
look at the present distribution of round-h eadedness and
observe that it is a characteristic of most of the peoples who
occupy a tract of Asia stretching from Afghanistan and the
Pamir in the east to Asia Minor and Syria in the west, we
must keep our minds open to the possibility of a spread of'
round-headedness from the northern belt into the southern '
most part of the Arabian peninsula. There is good reason
for supposing that the whole of Arabia, instead of being as, '

now a waste of sands was, in pleistocene times, even perhaps

as late as the neolithic phase of our period, one of the most
, fertile and pleasant parts of the earth. There must have
been, in this long period of time, many opportunities for a
break through of the round-heads from the uplands of
, Western Asia southwards long before the historic period
began. The Hittites, nearly allied to the modern Armenians, were of the round-headed belt, and they may have
pushed colonies to the south. It was a solution of this
kind which Dr. Seligman offered in explanation of the
round-headedness of the South Arabs. He postulated an
i\rmenoid admixture in the south bringing with it round,:"
headedness. A number of other features, including a coniVex ' or parrot-beaked nose, is one of these. He looked on
, the South Arab as being no more Hamitic in character or
- origin than the North Arab. They were both Semites, both
true Arabs. Now, in coming to this conclusion, Dr.
Seligman was weighed by characters of the skull, whereas
Captain Thomas, Captain Burton and Maj.-General Maitland, in attributing aboriginal and hamitic qualities to the
Arab, were weighed by skin, hair, language and a
,hundred other features the racial value of which we shall
, discuss presently.
No matter what our opinion may be of the racial nature
of these southern tribes, we must regard them, and speak
of them, as South Arabs. All observers agree in recognising
a profound difference between the Arab of the north and
Arab of the south. It so happened that at the : time
aptain Thomas was measuring the heads of so~thern
Mr. Henry Field, Curator of Anthropology in
Field Museum, Chicago, was applying callipers to a
, of true Badawin Arabs in the neighbourhood of

[30 4]

[3 0 5 ]

'U,","HA\., H,

APPENDIX I

Kish, Mesopotamia. How different the North Arab is

from the South, in shape and size of head, will be seen
from the appended chart, Fig. I. In that chart the
Kish Badawin (38 in number) are represented byo's,
while Captain Thomas's Arabs (40 in number) are depicted by 'so The reader will quickly grasp the manner
in which such a chart is constructed. The vertical lines
indicate length of head, beginning at 160 mm., a very
short head, and ending at 2IO mm.-which is a very long
head.

LENGTH
OF HEAt)' .
M)'
)I

The horizontal lines, on the other hand, indicate width

of head, beginning at 120 mm., a very narrow head, and:. /,
ending at 160 mm., a very wide head. A man with a head .
190 mm.long and 130 mm. wide is indicated on the chart at
the point where the corresponding vertical and horizontal
lines cross. Four diagonal lines, 70, 75, 80, 85, mark the
boundaries between five groups of differently shaped heads.
In such heads as fall above the '70' line the width is 70 per
cent. or less of the length; such heads are very narrow- ~~jl~f'T:.::r-+~rl-1f-F-:k~~'1-~:...p..-d-4.q-I-v~~-4--+-4--I
ultra-dolichocephalic. The heads which fall below the 85 '
line have a width which is 85 per cent. or more of the .
length; such heads are very round-ultra-brachycephalic. " .ahIH----'T'---i----jr-t--+-~~9--+--P-.ct-4-f-f--:~+++-+---t-___l
In the chart it will be observed that only South Arabs fall
in the ultra-brachycephalic group; only Kish Arabs in the
0= KISH B~DOUINS(38) (HENRY fIELD)
ultra-dolichocephalic group. The heads which fall between
= SOUTH .' ARABS (40) (BERTRAM..THOMAS)
the '75'-'80' lines-whose width varies from 75 per cent.
to 80 per cent. of the length-form an intermediate or
FIG. 1. CHART TO SHOW THE SIZE AND SHAPE OF HEAD.
i (1) IN TRUE.BADAWIN OF THE NORTH; (2). ARABS OF THE SOUTH.
mesocephalic group. In this intermediate group fall both
North and South Arabs, but in the six South Arabs in this .
group two were Somalis. The normal long heads
between the '70'-'75' )ines, constituting the

[3 06 ]
307

APPENDIX I

RACIAL CHARACTERS OF SOUTHERN ARABS

group-men whose heads have a width which is over 70 '

per cent. and under 75 per cent. of the length. Not a single
South Arab falls in this group-only the northern or true
Arab. Similarly there is a round-headed or brachycephalic:
group whose percentages-or head indices-fall above 80
per cen~. and un?er 8~ per cent. Only-two no~thern representatlves fall III thIS group; all the others are of the.
south. Thus if we sum up the results depicted in our chart
we find that the numbers in each head group are as follows:

from the top left-hand corner to the bottom corner on the

right. The curved lines are so drawn as to divide heads into
three size-groups. Those which fall above and to the left
of the line A, A are small, I325 cubic centimetres or under,
those which fall below and to the right of the line B, Bare
"1475 cubic centimetres or over-large heads, while those
falling between the two lines are intermediate or medium in
size. As regards size of head the Badawin of the north
stands to the tribesman of the south as follows:

IDtra
Dolichocepbalic.

North Arabs
South Arabs

8
0

Dolichocepbalic.

22
0

M esocepbalic.

6
6

Brachycepbalic.

2
13

Ul trabracbycephalic.

0
21

As regards head forms the Northern and Southern Ara

represent opposite extremes- the North Arab being an
extreme dolichocepho.I, the South Arab, an extreme brachycephal. Indeed, as regards the proportion which the width
of the head bears to the length, the North Arab is more
hamitic than him of the south. We shall return to the value
of head indices for the purposes of racial discrimination. In
the meantim:: there is a further character brought out in
our chart whIch deserves consideration. Actual size of . .
is, we believe, as important as shape of head in our 'Search '
for racial affinities; even more so when we wish to make an
estima~e of the brain e~dowment of a people. The length
and WIdth of a head gIVe only a crude indication of brain '
volume. Yet in a preliminary survey, such as this is, length
and breadth dimensions do bring out a remarkable character of the Arabs-both of the north and of the southnamely the smallness of their head and brains. One
of us (W. M . K.) has introduced two curved
.
the chart, Fig. 1. Head dimensions increase n r,()(J"1r",C! .C!,u.p l u

[3 08 ]

North Arab
South Arab

Largebeaded.

Smallbeaded.

M ediumheaded.

10

25

33

" We thus see that Captain Thomas's tribesmen are not

:' only very round-headed but also predominantly smallheaded-when compared with the true Badawin. But as
regards size of head even the Badawin occupies a relatively
low position; only three of the thirty-eight fall into the
upper group-fall above the cranial capacity of an
average Englishman-which we may assess at I475
cubic centimetres. Exposure to desert conditions may
help to preserve or stimulate certain qualities of body
mind, but such conditions apparently have not
encouraged brain growth. The men found in ancient
graves of Vr by Mr. Leonard Woolley and assigned by
him
to the 4th millennium B.C. were both long-headed
\
and big-headed.
Our chart has brought out very decisive differences
between the shapes and sizes of head of the South Arabs
measured by Captain Thomas, and the Kish 1Badawin
measured by Mr. Henry Field, but our analysis has brought
'us no nearer to a decision concerning the racial affinities of

[3 0 9J

APPENDIX I

the South Arab. To what great branch of the human stock

are we to assign the people measured and photographed by
Captain Thomas in South Arabia? Let us begin with the
natives of the south-east corner of the peninsula-the Omani.
In Fig. 2 an Omani is viewed in profile; the head above
the ears seems lofty; its occiput rises steeply from the neck;
the ears are planted very near to the back of the head-as
in short-headed or brachycephalic peoples. This ' man's
head index is 82'7-the width is 82'7 per cent. of the
length. The nose is long, prominent and aquiline seen .
in full face, Fig. 3. We also note the full, prominent lips
and the sparse distribution of beard under the lower lip
and on the upper cheeks. The hair of the head is black
and with no tendency to curl. The face is long, the colour
a sallow brown, the stature 5 ft. 6t in. In Fig. 4 is reproduced a profile of a typical Armenian of Asia Minor, one .
chosen by Austrian anthropologists to represent the Armenoid type. The head is more lofty, the occiput more
flattened, and the nose more prominent and semitic, than
the corresponding features in the Omani. There are a
multitude of minor differences between this Armenian and
our Omani yet there are resemblances in the points just
mentioned which lead us to regard the two as members of:
the same basal stock- whatever name we may choose to
give the flat-occiputed people of Asia Minor. Then in
Fig. 5 is reproduced the profile of a peculiar tribe of Madras
and numbered by Thurston amongst the tribes native to
that presidency. Here again we meet with the leading,
Armenoid features- but the resemblances which link the
Omani to this peculiar type of Madrasi are closer and
more numerous than those which link him to the
Armenian of Asia Minor.

!'

FIG .

3.

AN OMANI (FULL F A CE) .

F IG.

5.

A MADRASI (IN PRO F ILE ) .

[3 10 ]

FIG.

4.

AN AR M E N IAN ( I N P ROFILE) .

RACIAL CHARACTERS :OF SOUTHERN ARABS

. Now although the Armenian is native to Asia Minor,
the home of the Armenoid type-the people with flat
Qcciputs, lofty heads, prominent aquiline noses and long
. Jaces-is a wide tract of Asia stretching from the Pamir
to the Levant. How, then, are we to account for the
prevalence of the Armenoid features at / Oman and
in certain districts of India, for we cannot suppose
that the Armenoid type h,as arisen in India except
by transportation. The only explanation which appeals
to }ls is an early trade migration from Persia or an
aqjacent country along the Persian Gulf to India.
The discoveries of Sir John Marshall in the valley
of the Indus prove that Mesopotamia and north-western
lndia were linked by trade as early as the 4th
millennium B.C. We suppose that somehow the brad~y
cephalic people of the Pamir-Levant tract broke southwards and implanted their predominant traits at various
. ts on the Persian Gulf and further afield. We
agree with Dr. Seligmqn as far as the Omani is
; this type shows ,certain Armenoid features.
pesfdes these, it does possess many others which
"it with Captain Thomas's tribes along the southern
of Arabia.
'
willi.
well that we should here break the thread of
, :, ent which seeks to d~monstrate hamitic traits in
aJJ"--~H order that We may introduce a relevant
derived from the study of skulls. In the
the College of Surgeons there are two skulls
must describe to bring out the fact that the
of the South Arabian tribes is not the same
,seen in the Om ani and i'n true Armenians. One of
" ~k{hls is from Oman ~nd shows quite decided
<\

.'"',V.L,",,","..L,",,",

': II

~__".':l

[3

II

APPENDIX I

RACIAL CHARACTERS OF SOUTHERN ARABS

1

Arme~oid features.

The other is a skull obtained by

Captam Thomas from a pre-Islamic grave-in the central
s~uth-and which shows a form of brachycephaly very ',
dIfferent from that found in Armenoid skulls (see Figs. 6, 8). '
The following account has been drawn up by one of us
(W. M. K.):. ../'.
. Cap~ai.n Thomas was ~ble to bring back with him only one skull, with
Jaw IDlssmg, representatIve of the South Arabian tribes. It was "unear~hed from a rock t?mb in South. Ar.abia. Practically nothing else remamed but dust. ThIS form ofbunal m a bricked-up cavity in the rock
was prevalent in pre-Islamic times, and is now only resorted to when a
travell~r dies and his companion has not the means to dig an orientated
grave m the orthodox fashion." The skull is probably that of a young
male adult approximately 25-30 years of age. The sex characters are veryweakly devel~p~d .. The fore.head .is ~mooth, with glabella only slightly .
accent,:ated; mlon IS only famtly mdIcated; the mastoids are small; the '
pal~te IS very small.ar:d shallow; and the entire lower portion of the face
IS slIght, though thIS Impressi?n is enhanced by alveolar absorption attendant upon the loss of the nght first and second incisors.
.
T~e sutures of~he vau~t are patent, with a suggestion of beginning clo~
sure m ~he postenor portIOn of the sagittal. They are all simple, with the
lambdOId the most complex. It is worthy of note that there is a frontotemporal articulation on the right side.
The skull is brachycephalic (C.I. 80 I 2; the index is 82 I if corrected to
the livi?g by adding 8 I?m. to length and 10 mm. to width), and moder,ate~y.hIgh, or~hocephalic (H-L.I. 76.8; corrected to living, 74-16). The
;OccIpItal arc IS well developed, the post-auricular length being 53 per
cen~. of t?e total skullle?gth. From its vertical aspect the skull is roughly
OVOId, WIth ~he left paneto-occipital arc markedly more developed.
The face IS low (upper face mdex 495). The zygomatic arches are
comparatively slight and arise from the maxillae in a gradual upward and
lateral sweep, and keep well within the contour of the cranium. The
maxill~ry po:tion of the f~ce is extremely short. The nasal aperture i~
ofme.dlUrr: WIdth, meSOrr?lI~e (N.I. 48-5) and is small and oval in shape.
The mfenor nasal margm IS sharply demarcated and the nasal spine
prominent. The nasal bridge is well elevated and the nasal bones meet
at a f~irly sharp ~ng~e. Seen laterally, however, the nose is not markedly ;;
promment. NaSIOn IS not depressed. The orbits are of medium height;

[ 3I 2

. \ mesoconchic (0.1. 815). They are rectangular in shape, slightly oblique,

\ and everted infero-Iaterally_
, The palate is very small, shallow, and parabolic in shape. All the teeth
are missing, right upper incisors having been lost ante-mortem, the rest
post-mortem.
The face in its entirety is orthognathous (Gnatlllc Index 88-3)In order to emphasise the uniqueness of this type, it will be well to compare it with that of the skull of an Omani preserved in the Royal College
of Surgeons Museum, as representing a possible "Armenoid" influence in
southern Arabia (see Figs. 7, 9).
This skull, complete with mandible, is that of an adult male approximately twenty-five years of age. The sutures of the vault are patent and
of average complexity, the lambdoid being most complex, the coronal
next, and the sagittal quite simple. The sex characters are, in general,
weak, though not so faint as in the preceding skull; the supraorbital ridges
and inion are not strongly marked, the mastoids are rather small but
glabella is fairly prominent.
The skull is markedly round, brachycephalic (C.I. 869; corrected to
living 88-7), and is high, hypsicephalic (L-R.I. 84-1; corrected to living
802). The most prominent feature, however, is the strongly flattened
. occiput, so that the post-auricular length of the skull is but 45 per cent. of
its entire length. Seen from its vertical aspect the skull is asymmetrically
round, the left parieto-occipital area being greater than the right.
The face is long, the upper face index being 93-7. The zygomatic arches
are strong, but do not project beyond the cranial contour to give "high
cheek-bones." They arise abruptly from the maxillae, sweep laterally,
and are deeply notched at the maxillo-malar suture. The nasal aperture
is narrow, leptorrhine (N.I. 43-6) with a sharp inferior margin and a well- developed nasal spine. The nasal bridge is narrow, forms a sharp angle,
and is prominent viewed from the lateral aspect. Nasion is not depressed.
The orbits are high, hypsiconchic (0.1. 897), and while only slightly
oblique laterally, are strongly everted at their infero-lateral margins.
The palate tends to be U-shaped and of average depth. The teeth are
small, particularly the third molar.
,The entire face is orthognathous (Gnathic Index 89-4)The mandible has a robust corpus and a broad ascending ramus. The
sigmoid notch is shallow and the coronoid process projects but little above
the level of the condyles. The chin is well developed_ The arch is Ushaped and the teeth small. The first molar has a rudimentary fifth cusp,
while the second and third are + -shaped_

[ 3I 3 ]

APPENDIX I

examined by Captain Thomas than among the Omani, yet

it does seem probable that a people with Armenoid
, characters has at some past period mingled its blood with .
that of the ancestors of the southern tribes. This admission
does not mean that we assign the South Arabs to the
Armenoid Caucasian stock.
,/
Before proceeding to discuss the racial traits revealed in
Captain Thomas's photographs of South Arabs it may be
well to touch here on the kind of evidence which should
guide us in fixing the place of a newly discovered people in
any scheme of racial classification. Professional anthropologists have unconsciously given the impression that a race of
mankind can be identified only by measurement of head,
body, of colour of skin, of texture of hair-by calculating
indices, etc. Now if we are to build up a scientific system
of knowledge concerning races-a system to which every
'worker can add his quota, then exact instrumental measurements must be made. But we should never forget that every
man and woman born into this world is an anthropologist
by nature-a student of the breeds of mankind. We need
no technical aid to help us to identify negro, Chinaman,
European, Bushman, etc., as they pass us in the street; c;t
cast of the eye is sufficient to weigh a hundred and one
diagnostic features.
Explorers and travellers become
wonderfully expert at identifying at sight members of
tribes and of peoples, wherever they meet them; by merely
glancing at them they can often assign them to their native
localities. We can never hope to make our technical,
methods yield us so delicate and so reliable results in
identification as are reached by travellers dependent ,
.on their senses and judgment. For instance, Captain
,
cites the opinion of the Sultan of Muscat in support of
[ 3 IS ]

RACIAL CHARACTERS OF SOUTHERN ARABS

contention that the affinities of the South Arabs are with

the races of North-east Africa rather than with those of
Northern Arabia. Such an opinion deserves consideration;
from day to day the Sultan has to make racial ide:r:tifications
and has a wide experience of the peoples who lIve on the
coastlands from Zanzibar to Bombay. It is by exercise of
these natural gifts that Captain Thomas has come to the
conclusion that the South Arab should be placed amongst
the hamitic rather than among the semitic races of mankind.
A survey of his photographs leads us to support this
conclusion. The South Arab presents us with a strange
blend of characters. His fuzzy hair, his face often almost
beardless, his dark complexion-almost black, his small .
body and some of his facial features are reminisc.ent of rac~s
in the neighbouring parts of Africa-Somah, Danahl,
Hadendoa, Egyptians-both predynastic, and dynas.tic and
, modern. But there are many other features whIch are
Caucasian-to be more precise, Semitic Caucasian. The
large luscious dark eye is met with in North A~abia as well
as in the south. The facial features and expreSSIOn, the nose
and lips-often full-are Caucasian. And yet amon.gst
them, especially in childhood, we come across features whIch
recall those of the native of southern India. Some of the
. women are hamitic in their facial traits, and yet again, as
we shall point out presently, individuals occur in the
south with the same ram-faced countenance as we meet
with so frequently in Persia and Afghanistan, the Pamir
and valleys in the western flanks of the Himalayas. The
North Arab (Badawin) to the tutored eye IS. Wholly
Caucasian or Semitic Caucasian. The South Arab III comparison is only half a Caucasian; the rest is Hamitic-or
lDravidian.

[3 1 9 ]

APPENDIX I

Now when anthropologists meet with a people who

exhibit mixed characters they are apt to at once presume
that such a people is of hybrid origin. The mere fact that
Armenoid traits occur in the natives of South Arabia gives
support to such an interpretation. We have still, even while
admitting an Armenoid admixture, to explain the hamitic
traits we find in the south.
We shall now proceed to develop a new theory which
helps us to understand why the people of South Arabia
should resemble adjacent natives of Africa on the one hand
and those of India on the other. We have also to account
for the Armenoid traits. The new data placed at our disposal by Captain Thomas's daring expeditions into
unknown territory lend support to the theory which we
are now to put forward.
The enigma of modern anthropology is the Black Belt of
mankind. It commences in Africa and peters out amongst
the natives of the Melanesian Islands of the Pacific. At each
extremity of the belt, in Africa as in Melanesia we find
peoples with black skins, woolly hair, more or less beardless,
prognathous and long-headed. We cannot suppose these
negro peoples, although now widely separated, have been
evolved independently of each other. We therefore suppose
that at one time a proto-negroid belt crossed the ancient
world, occupying all intermediate lands, Arabia, Baluchistan, India, Further India, the Philippines and Malay
Archipelago. We further suppose that intermediate parts of
the proto-negroid belt became transformed, giving rise to .
the Hamitic peoples of Africa and to their cousins the
Dravidian and brown-skinned peoples of India. On our
theory, the Arabian Peninsula was at one time occupied by
a people intermediate to the Somalis on the one hand and

[3 20 ]

RACIAL CHARACTERS OF SOUTHERN ARABS

to the Dravidian peoples of India on the other. Then, at an

uncertain date, the great Black Belt was broken into by two
great eruptions from the north. The Mongolian stock,
evolved to the north of the Himalayas, broke southwards
into Further India, the Malay Archipelago, and reached
the islands of the Pacific, obliterating, except in isolated
areas, the people of the proto-negroid belt, thus isolating
the people of India from those of Melanesia. There was
another racial break-through which separated-in a racial
sense-India from Africa. The meagre evidence at our
disposal leads us to believe that the Caucasian st~ck :v~s
evolved in western Asia north of the highlands whIch Jom
the Himalayas to the Mountain Chains of Asia M~nor. ~he
Caucasian stock broke southwards into the ArabIan penmsula and the lands which link Mesopotamia to the Punjab,
Persia, Baluchistan and Afghanistan. At the time of the
Caucasian break-through, probably in late pleistocene
. times Arabia was a well-watered and fertile land-a land
to te:npt a race of adventurous hunters. If our theory is
well founded then we ought to find in the extreme southif anywhere-traces of the original hamitic population of
Arabia. We may reasonably suppose that long before the
Caucasian invaders had penetrated to the southern extremity
of the peninsula they had absorbed native hamitic blo~d;
or to state the matter somewhat differently, the natIve
p:oples of the south would have absorbed much invading
blood. At least such a theory helps us to explain the racial
. characteristics which Captain Thomas observed in the
South Arabs. Only our theory was formulated before
. Captain Thomas's observations were at our disposal.
How are we to account for the round-headedness of the
South Arab? Although he has not the flat high occiput of
[ 321 ]

APPENDIX I

the Armenoid he is extremely round-headed.

Arabia is an oasis of brachycephaly in a wide desert of
dolichocephaly. It is improbable that the South Arab came
by the roundness of his head by independent evolution;
most likely the character was introduced from the north. '
Were the original Caucasian invader~of the peninsula
round-headed? The evidence derived from the ancient
graves of Mesopotamia is against such a supposition, for the
early inhabitants of Mesopotamia, so far as we yet know
them, had long and big heads. It does seem possible that '
southern Arabia was riot invaded from the northern base of
the peninsula but from lands on the eastern side of the
Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. To the north of these lands
lies the chief centre of Caucasian brachycephaly. I t is not ,
to Armenia but to Baluchistan and Persia that we would
seek for the originals of the round-head of South Arabia. '
The Yaf'i soldier squatting in the front row, the second ,
on the spectator's left, in the illustration between pages 24
and 25, reproduces features often met with in countries to '
the east and north of the Persian Gul
We have now done with theory and must deal with anthropological matters of much greater importance-the '
records made of the South Arabs by Captain Thomas--":" ,
particularly his measurements and photographs. T he part '
of the report which follows has been drawn up by one of.
us (W. M. K.), but for the statements made both authors ,
are responsible.
The data placed at our disposal by Bertram Thomas has proved of
great value, not so much in interpreting a puzzling racial situation, as ill'
suggesting lines of racial contact and hinting a t the modus operandi of hU,7
man evolution. Indeed, we may add that its greatest value lies in, the
fact that it presents important problems to be solved only by subsequent
exhaustive research.
The head measurements taken have been only two in number" the

[3 22 ]

MEASUREMENTS OF S. ARABIAN TRIBES

,length, taken as glabellar-inion length, and breadth, greatest breadth
wherever found . The resultant index, the cephalic index, offering a
length-breadth ratio, has long been a favourite m easure of racial comparison. In this report the measurements of only forty-two subjects are
, ,considered, and of these, thirty-seven are adult and five are children.
" Furthermore, the forty-two subjects are divided among ten tribes: Somali
. (six), Yaf'i (five), Masha'i (one), Mahra (five), Qara (seven), Shahari
(nine), Al Kathiri (four), Bautahari (one), Harasis (one), and Omani
(three). The conclusions to be drawn, therefore, are only tentative. The
important fact remains, however, that the material at our disposal is significant for the very reason that within its limited range it offers several
clues to racial origins in South Arabia.
The cephalic index, objectively considered, permits of a very rough
classification into long-heads and round-heads, with intermediate graduations. In doing so, however, it tends to neglect the relative proportions
which have gone into its make-up. It must be self-evident that the brachycephaly of one people may not be like that of another; the first may have
achieved round-headedness by a very short skull; the second by a very
broad skull. The absolute dimensions, therefore, become of importance
in the detailed analysis of cranial form.
With the exception of the Somali, all of the south Arabian tribes
measured by Bertram Thomas are brachycephalic, confirming the earlier
, investigations of Professor C. G. Seligman. l
The average head measurements and indexes are given as follows, the
tribes being grouped according to geographic location, west to east, for
',reasons we shall make clear later on:

LIST OF MEASUREMENTS OF SOUTH ARABIAN

MADE BY BERTRAM THOMAS
Breadth.
Age.
Stature.
Length.
Group.
Somali:
163
I
20
5' 4i"
130
2
20
5' 4!"
175
137
169
3
20
5' 4!"
13 8
4
30
5' 8!"
174
142
5
32
5' 8!"
188
147
5' 10"
180
~
6
36
Averages
5' 6i"
174. 83
139.66
I

Seligman, C. G.-Physical Character

pp. 2t4~37

[3 2 3 ]

!if the

TRIBES
Index.

79' 75
78 '28
8165
8161
78 '19
80'00
79'9 1

Arab, J.R.A.!., 47, 1917,

APPENDIX I
Tribe.
Somali
Yaf'i
Masha'i
Mahra
Qara
Shahari
Al Kathiri
Bautahari
Harasis
Omani

TABLE I
Length.
174. 8 3
175. 10
174.00
16880
164.57
169.77
16225
18200
174.00
170.66

Breadth.
139.66
143.00
150.00
146.20
!4657
149.22
146.50
144.00
145.00
145"33

Index.
79.9 1
8168
8620
8667
89. 12
8802
9 0 .32
79. 12
8333
85. 18

This table permits of a more careful analysis of the south Arabian

cranial types included under the general term brachycephaly. Most obvious is the transition from mesocephaly in the west to marked brachy- ,
cephaly as one goes east, though at the extreme east it decreases slightly.
Of more importance still is the fluctuating head length. There are three
obvious groupings: a western, a central, and an eastern, the first and third
of equal length, the second considerably less. It is as though from the two
sides influences making for greater length were encroaching upon a possibly indigenous or earlier shorter-headed people. Breadth does not seem
to have changed much, if one excepts the Somali who are clearly of different stock.
We have here the crux of the problem: the disentanglement ofthe several
strains which may have influenced the apparent diversity in cranial form. "'.
It is well established that the northern Arabian is long-headed or
dolichocephalic, in keeping with the general Semitic type. We may well
consider, then, the possibility that the southern Arabian represents a
northern type influenced by a brachycephalic invader.
Through the courtesy of Mr. Henry Field we have been privileged to
stud y his unique photographic collection of Mesopotamian types, Arabs
around Kish, and a group of Baiju Badawin. With the exception /of an
occasional "Semitic nose," none of the southern Arabs resemble the
northern types in the least detail offacial feature. More important, how"
ever, is the comparison of actual cranial measurements, which has been
already illustrated by our chart (Fig. 1, page 307).
.
The very marked difference in the grouping of the northern and southern types has already been made (Fig. I) evident. With but few exceptions the latter are to be found in the portion of the chart which marks off '
small heads. The essential difference is seen to be one of absolute size: the
northern Arab is a relatively big-headed type; the southern Arab is small-

[3 26 ]

F~G . 10.

A YAF'I ( IN PROFILE) .

FIG. 11. A YAF' I ( FULL FACE) .

MEAS UREMEN'TS OF I S. ARAlnAN 'TRIBES

headed. The possibility of a common origin seems remote, unless one assumes that a tendency to brachycephaly-achieved through an intermixture with a brachycephalic type-is accompanied by diminution in
length. And, as we shall note, this is not the case, for the Armenoid skull,
pronouncedly brachycephalic, is considerably longer than the skull of the
southern Arabian.
In Table I we have noted that the more western tribes were less pronouncedly brachycephalic and that the head length was greater. It was
hinted that this may be due to the impact of a longer-headed people from
the west, viz. North-east Mrica, or to the origin of the South Arab and
Somali f~om adjoining parts of the original black belt. That a kinship
between pouth Arabs and Somali e~ists we may infer, for not only do we
have an intimation of such a conclusion in the head-form, but much more
strongly so in the facial aspect of the tribes as far east as the Mahra and the
Shahari; there is an unmistakable hamitic strain evident in this entire arep..
A study of the photographs made by Bertram Thomas of the Yaf'i
(Figs. 10 and I I), Qara (Fig. 12), Mahra (Fig. 13), and Shahara (Fig. 14),
tribesman will reveal the typical hamitic "fuzzy-wuzzy" hair, black-or
dark brown-pigmentation of hair and skin, as well as general facial similarities more difficult of exact definition. A comparison with the excellent
p~otographs of the Hadendoa and Beni Amer by Seligman l will establish
' the impression of hamitic affinity. At the same time it must be observed
tlj.at the southern Arabians are more fully bearded than the Hamites,
though less so than the northern Arabians.
We h <)-ve thus far identified on~ racial strain positively manifested
among the tribes under consideratior\., viz. the hamitic. But we have noted
that eved though the features be of this stock, the cranial form is certainly
not, for lthe typical H amite is dolichocephalic. The extreme brachycephaly of the southern Arabian leal:1.s us at once-and geographical contiguity si.tpports us-to suspect the possibility of Armenoid influence, for
this p ople possesses an average cephalic index of approximately 85.
But again we must question the' components of the index: how is it
a hi ved? Kappers 2 gives an average length of 182'0 and width of 155'4
r r 7 Armenians, both measurements being considerably larger than any
f the averages for our south Arabian tribes. If there has been any influnee on cranial form it must have been accompanied by an absolute decrease in dimensions.
Seligman, C. G ., p. cit.
Kappers, C. U. 'A., Contributions to the Anthropology of the Near East, I.
'The Arinenians,' Vol. XXXIII, Proceedings, Amsterdam, 1930, pp. 79'2-801.
1

I
I

[ 32 7 ]

FIG. 12. QARA AND ALBINO.

FIG.

13.

GROUP OF MAHRA.

FIG. 14. GROUP OF SHAHARA .

APPENDIX I

MEASUREMENTS OF S. ARABIAN TRIBES

But we may have a final check on the probability of the infiltration of '
an Armenoid type-the shape of the skull itself. The Armenoid skull is
characterised by a greatly flattened occiput, resulting in a decreased postauricular dimension, and a very high vault. The living are further distinguished by a prominent "Armenoid" ("Semitic") nose, which, to a
lesser extent, can be discerned on the skull as a relatively prominent nasal
bridge. (See Fig. 19.)
Now, the question is, do we find these Armenoi<frraits among the south
Arabian tribes? The answer is yes, though their occurrence is limited to
the extreme east and possibly south-east, among the Omani and the
Harasis, the latter being doubtful. I am referring here only to the typical
cranial form. The prominent "Armenoid" nose may be discerned as '
slightly more widespread, extending to the Mahra-Shehera-Qara group.
But even then its occurrence is sporadic, infrequent, and it tends more
toward prominent aquilinity rather than the curved full-winged nose
typical of the Armenian.

It may be well, at this stage, to make a cor.spectus of the relation of one

tribe to another. In Figure 15 I have plotted the average head-lengths
and head-widths of the several tribes, the data for which is presented in
Table 1. In addition the following comparative material is offered.

UNGTlioFH40
-~

f'

'"'" "
"'-

C2Sc.c.

""A"

no

165

~ r-.....
f'...

'"

" -<-.
----

Y
H

'-'

...

1
125

I
I
I.'0

~ ~/

....
~

"

.........
......

~T
\... ~

I.

...

r-...

i'..

HAMITIC TRIBES

~ENOO,,(seu,;M;W'"
BE' BENI AMEP./SCUJMANN)

So' SOMAU {UYfJO>C}

T .. TIGRE (SERGI-AlJYSSINbtNj

"" '" "'"""

....

flY""'........lJ.

VI' YEMEN
Sy" SHEHER

I
I

t1 HARASIS
o OMANI

'Mu' MU5KAT

/'
;'

Q. QARA

S .. SHAHARI
K .. ALKAT111RJ
8 .. 8AUTAHARI

SOtm1ERN ARABs UF"-'OJRL>

r ~ "" ~ "

ME'A'SUR,m 8.r7lf(JUGlllai

51' SOMALI

Y YAfA'1
Me" MASJ-tA:1
M" MAHRA

~ ~J"/ ...
..~~

/.

~ .6iir
.! ....

MJ

""

,MEDIUM)

""

s. ,. ....;, !

CJ.:5 - 1475cc.

I
I

..............

t.

".

"~

Q.

Sot..rrtt ARABIANS

ns

130

185

"'" ~

I"-.
.
-..- .....
/.-

'l\

,."

NORTH ARABIANS ME.ASIJREJ> BY FlELI! '

'"

"

I.

a".. 8AIJU BEDOUINS

ARMENIANS Nt:ASUI/P BY JG(11'J?5

~ANS

I.

""- "- ,

_ . __ _ AACA OI'THOMAS~SOUT1f ARABt4N TRIBlS

.. ... . .. AAA "SOlfTIiWESrARABUNS(8A(/1;f/'t4R! acEPTCq)
_
...., '" II4MITCi (o/S<l<l4US HEASlJIi'ELJ BY lJIOMASj
1Jtc STRAKiIfT DlMiONAiS D""~ THe ARCA /Nl'O cr:Rf4UC INOJt'D..
Tm Q/IWO) ~LS DlWOI: 77f ARCA INTO QWNIAJ. OlAAClTis.

FIG. 15. A CEPHALIC CHART TO SHOW THE POSITION OF THE VARIOUS

SOUTH ARABIAN TRIBES MEASURED BY CAPT. B. THOMAS.

Tribe.
Muscat
Yemen
Sheher
Somali
Hadendoa
Beni Amer
Tigre
Baiju Badawin
Armenian

TABLE II
Length.
18 4-35
180'95
180-21
191.81
189'97
190 -49
192 '10
19 1-37
182'00

Breadth.

Index.

144'5 8
78 '28
145'5 0
81'07
145'7 6
80'9 2
143'19
74'79
145'10
7Q'39
14 2'25
74'7
143'20
74'0
14.0'26
73'0
1 55'40
85'3 8
A comparison of this Table with Table I brings out at once the interesting feature that in all of these groups the head-length greatly exceeds.
that of the south Arabian, whereas, except for the Armenian, the headwidth is about the same. In other words, the brachycephaly of the tribes
we are studying is due mainly to diminished head-length, and not to a
change in head-width, such as might be expected from an admixture with
a pronouncedly brachycephalic population. The round-headed ness of
" the south Arabian seems to be quite unlike that of the Armeman.
Now what does Figure 15 tell us? First of all it emphasises the smallheadedness of the groups under discussion, at the same time graphically
recording their relative isolation from other groups. Secondly, we may
'note how the south-western Arabian tribes-the Yemen, the Sheher, and
Muscat-form connecting links between the dolichocephalic Hamites on
the one side, and the hyper-brachycephalic south Arabians on the other.
Finally the distinctness of these tribes from the north Arabian type, and
from the Armenoid type, is clearly demonstrated.

The south Arabians are shown to be a small-brained

people. The curved lines sloping upward ' from left to
right on the chart (Fig. I) roughly delineate three levels of
cranial capacity: below 1325 e.e., from 1325 e.e. to 1475
'c.e., and over 1475 e.e. This division does not hold
absolutely, for smallness III length and breadth dimensions
[3 2 9 ]

MEASUREMENTS OF i S. ARABIAN TRIBES

. may be compensated for by an increase in height, either

basio-bregmatic or auriculo-vertical, or vice versa. Again,
length may have been achieved by large frontal sinuses,
, breadth may be due in part to thickened parietal walls, and
so on, so that actual cranial capacity is lessened. In general,
however, the grouping holds.
The possibility of Armenoid influence in the Omani is at
once admitted, but it must be emphasised that only this
possesses
the typical Aimenoid
hypsi-brachycephaly.
group
.
,
I
The other groups are brachy,cephalic, to be sure, but the
head form is achieved by decreased length rather than
increased breadth. Most important, however, is the fact
that the decrease in length is not post-auricular, a trait which
is so typically Armenoid.
The conclusion seems logical, therefore, that there exists
in South Arabia a brachycephaly which is relatively unique;
, a wide, short skull of medium height, but with nonArmenoid dimensions (i.e. post-auricular length).
; With regard to the hamitic element, its influence is to
be traced as far east as the Mahra Qara-Shehera groups.
The fuzzy-wuzzy hair, the chin tufts, the hair and skin
pigmeritation, the general f~cial picture, are all hamitic.
'In this connection it is of in1port, as Capt. Thomas! himself remarks of a Qara who looked like a Bisharin, and a
Mahra ' who had a pronounced (Egyptian) chin.
, . It is, perhaps, dangerous, on the strength of a few
photographs, to speak of racial resemblances, yet attention
must be drawn to the Masha'i (Figs. 17, 18), and to a
. lesser extent the Kathiri (Figs. 19, 20), who give a strong
hint of the Dravidian, i.e. Tamil
or Singhalese, also the
,
I

I '

Thorpas, :B., 'Among Some Unknown Tribes of South Arabia,'

J.R.A.I., 1929, Vol. LIX, pp. 97-112.
1

[ 33 I

NEJDI

MURRA

CHART SHOWING

DISTRIBUTION OFTRlBESOF.

SOUTH ARAB IA
MEASURW BY BERTRAM TliOMIIS/

A CHART TO SHOW THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VARIOUS SOUTH

ARABIAN TRIB ES MEASURED BY CAPT. B. THOMAS.

FIG.

16.

HAMUMI AND KATHIRI.

APPENDIX I

photographs of Shehera and Kathiri children who look

strongly 'Indian' (Figs. 21, 22). The occurrence, in
South Arabia, of these types raises an interesting question; have they an Eastern (Indian) origin, or have the
Dravidians moved in from the west, or have both come
from a common (intermediate) centre, or, finally, do both
represent remnants of a once common ar;c;-riginal population,
the traces of which are now largely obliterated through the
impact of later waves of migration?
In conclusion we wish to thank Captain Thomas for the
privilege he has accorded us in permitting us to assist him
with his anthropological observations. It is clear, from
what we have already written, that a full knowledge of the '
native peoples of South Arabia is essential to those of us
who are seeking to explain the origin and distribution of
the races of the Old World-particularly races which occupy
countries bordering on the Indian Ocean. How are we
to account for the resemblances of the Hamites of Africa
with the Dravidians of India? Hitherto we have been
hampered by lack of data. Dr. Seligman certainly rendered '
anthropologists a great service by systematising the state of .
knowledge concerning the native peoples of South Arabia ....;,
before Captain Thomas, taking his life in his hands, :
succeeded in giving us a harvest of facts concerning
representative tribes of the 'darkest' part of Asia. We have
approached the problems concerning the racial nature ofthe
South Arab under the conviction that the various stocks or races of mankind have evolved in an orderly way, and we
presume, until the contrary has been proved, that any given
race has come into existence under the working of evolutionary processes in or near the country in which we now :
find it. Races do extend their territory; they migrate and
[33 2 ]
I

FIG. 19 . A KATHIRI (IN PROFILE) .

FIG. 20. A KATHIRI (FULL FACE) .

MEASUREMENTS OF S. ARABIAN TRIBES

"colonise; new races can come into existence by hybridisation. If migration and hybridisation can be substantiated
by evidence-however imperfect-we accept these factors
as explanatory of the characters of a race. But we believe
that 'intermediate' races rarely arise by miscegenation of
two extreme types, but represent a stage in evolutionary
development which is intermediate to the two extremes. It
is from the evolutionist's point of view we have sought to
interpret the origin of the tribes amongst whom Captain
Thomas lived in South Arabia. Our final conclusion, then,
regarding the racial nature of the South Arabs, is that they
represent a residue of hamitic population which at one time
occupied the whole of Arabia. To account for their round, headedness. and certain caucasian features we have had to
postuJate migration and miscegenation. We are aware,
however, that the anthropological facts may be explained
in ways which differ radically from the solution we have
offered. The dark-skinned indigenes of South Arabia may
have been round-headed and, at a later date, Hamites from
Africa . and round-headed Caucasians may have invaded
their land and ' their marriage beds. For aught we know
many :racial waves may havy spread southwards or north wards in Arabia in long past times. As already said the
cll).es to such problems lie but ied in the sands of Arabia.
I

[333 ]

FIG. 21. GROUP OF SHAHARA AND KATHIR CHILDREN.

FIG. 22. GROUP OF SHAHARA AND KATHIR CHILDREN.