Name of Faculty;

Dr.Jitendra kumar

Department of Physisc
Unit-1
Interference of light

Contents
1. Newtons ring
2. Application of Newtons ring
3. Michelson Interferometer
4. Application of Michelson Interferometer
5. Anti-reflection coating
6. Interference filter

Page | 1

Newtons Ring
Formation of Newtons rings When a Plano-convex lens of large radius of
curvature is
placed with its convex surface in contact with a plane glass plate, an air-film of gradually
increasing thickness from the point of contact is formed between the upper surface of the plate
and the lower surface of the lens. If monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on this film,
then alternate bright and dark concentric rings with their centre dark are formed. These rings are
known as Newtons rings. The fringes are circular because the air film is symmetrical about the
point of contact of the Plano-convex lens with the plane glass plate.
Newtons rings are formed because of the interference (by division of amplitude) between the
waves reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of an air-film formed between the planoconvex lens and the plate.

Newtons rings in reflected light We know that when monochromatic light falls normally on
a plano-convex lens resting on a plane glass plate, alternate bright and dark concentric rings
with dark centre are formed due to waves reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of an airfilm or any other medium of refractive index between the plano-convex lens and plane glass
plate.
For reflected system, the effective path difference is given by

2t cos r

2 t

(since light is falling normally, cos r 1)

Page | 2

At the point of contact t 0 , therefore, effective path difference

This is the condition for minimum intensity. Hence, the centre of Newtons rings is dark.

For constructive interference (bright fringes/maxima)

2t

Or

n = 0, 1, 2, 3..

2t 2n 1

For destructive interference (dark fringes/minima)

2t

Or

2n 1

n = 0, 1, 2, 3. .

2t n

Diameters of Bright and dark Rings

Page | 3

Therefore, ON 2 PN 2 OP2

Or

R tn

rn2 R2

Or

R2 tn2 2Rtn rn2 R2

Or

rn2
2tn
R

neglecting t n2 , since t n is small

Determination of refractive index of a liquid - Newtons ring experiment can be used to

determine the refractive index of a liquid. The liquid whose refractive index is to be determined
is placed between the plano-convex lens L and the glass plate P of the Newtons ring set-up. In
case liquid is rarer than glass, a phase change of will occur at reflection from the lower surface
of the liquid, but if the liquid is denser than glass, phase change will occur at reflection from the
upper surface of the film. Hence, in both the cases, path difference will be equal to /2.
therefore, effective path difference 2 t cos r

for normal incidence r 0,cos r 1

Or effective path difference 2t

and from eq4

rn2
2tn
R

Page | 4

for nth bright fringe, 2t

Or

2t

2n 1
2

rn2 2n 1

R
2

Or

rn2

Or

2n 1

If d n is diameter of the nth ring, then d n 2rn

d n2

therefore,

2 2n 1

If d n p is the diameter of n p ring,

th

2 2 n p 1
d n2 p
R

then,

Or

2
n p

dn2

liquid

4p R

Since, 1 , for air

Page | 5

therefore, dn2 p dn2

air

4 p R

Or dividing eq9 by eq8

n p

np

d 2n

air

10

n liquid

By measuring diameters of nth and n pth rings for medium as air and liquid and substituting
the values in the eq10, refractive index of the liquid can be determined.

since, liquid > 1,

dn liquid

<

dn air

therefore, when liquid is introduced between the lens and the plate, the diameters of the rings
decrease, that is, rings are contracted.

diameter of a ring in liquid film

1

diameter of the same ring in air film

Michelsons interferometer

Construction and working M.i is a device that can be used to measure lengths or changes in
length with great accuracy by means of interference fringes. The basic principle of this
instrument was given by A.A. Michelson in 1881 according to which when a parallel beam of
monochromatic light coming from an extended source is incident on a half silvered glass plate
(also called as beam splitter), it is divided into two parts. One part is reflected wave and the
other part is a refracted wave and both are coherent. In this experiment, coherent waves are
Page | 6

produced by the method of division of amplitude. These waves proceed in the perpendicular
directions and are incident normally on the two mirrors. After reflections from these mirrors, they
superpose and produce interference fringes, which are observed with the help of a telescope as
shown in the figure.

Michelsons interferometer consists of two highly polished mirrors M1 and M2 and two plane
glass plates A and B parallel to each other but inclined at 45. The glass plate A is half silvered
so that half of the intensity of the incident wave is reflected and rest is transmitted. Mirrors M1
and M2 are perpendicular to each other. Mirror M2 is kept fixed while mirror M1 is movable. Light
from a monochromatic source S after passing through the lens becomes parallel and falls on the
plate A. The half silvered plate A reflects one half of the energy towards the mirror M1 and the
other half is transmitted towards the mirror M2. These two beams (reflected and transmitted)
travel along two mutually perpendicular paths and are reflected back by the mirrors M1 and M2.
The beam going towards the mirror M1 and reflected back passes twice through the glass
plate A whereas the beam going towards the mirror M2 and reflected back does not pass even
once through the glass plate A. Therefore, to compensate for the path, the plane glass plate B
of same thickness and refractive index as A is inserted between the mirror M2 and A. That is
why this plate B is also called as compensating plate. Thus, the light beam going towards the
mirror M2 and reflected back towards A also passes twice through the plate B. Therefore, the
paths of the two waves in glass are the same. If t is thickness of the glass plates A and B and
the refractive index, extra optical path 2 1 t is introduced in 1. Hence for observing
achromatic fringes with white light, it is essential to compensate for this optical path 2 1 t
for all wavelengths. Thus, the introduction of plate B nullifies the effect of extra path difference
created. The mirror M1 is movable and the distance moved by it can be read on the scale
attached. Mirror M2 is fixed. Since 1 and 2 are derived from the same source, hence they are
coherent and when superpose, interference pattern can be observed through the telescope.
Page | 7

When the mirrors are orthogonal to the optical axis and the half silvered glass plate A (beam
splitter) is at an angle of 45, the interference may be considered due to hypothetical air film
between enclosed between mirror M1 and image M2 of mirror M2. In this case the air film has
constant thickness and since the source is broad, circular fringes of constant inclination are
formed. If mirrors are not orthogonal, localized (straight) fringes are formed.
Type of fringes
In Michelsons interferometer, the form of fringes depends on the separation d between M 1 and
M2 and the shape of hypothetical air film formed between M1 and M2, which is virtual image of
M2.
Circular fringes are produced when the mirrors M1 and M2 are perpendicular to each other
and thickness of air film between M1 and M2 is not equal to zero, that is d 0 . If d 0 then,
the
whole
pattern
becomes
dark.

Appearance of fringes in the Michelsons interferometer as the mirrors are moved away from each
other. Arrows on the far right figure indicate motion of the fringes.

s
Page | 8

If thickness of air film is d , the light waves reflected from the mirror M1 and M2 and reaching
towards the telescope will coming parallel from M1 and M2 and will be equal to 2d . If these
parallel waves make an angle with the normal, the path difference between them will be
2d cos .

We know that when a wave is reflected from a denser medium and another wave are reflected
from a rarer medium, path difference of

is created between them.

2

Hence, effective path difference between these waves will be 2d cos

If

Or

2d cos

2d cos 2n 1

n = 1, 2, 3

Then a bright fringe will form due to constructive interference. Same condition will be at all
points on the circle of inclination and bright fringe will appear circular.

If the effective path difference

Or

2d cos n

2d cos

2n 1

n = 0, 1, 2
2

Then a dark fringe will form due to destructive interference. Same condition will be at all points
on the circle of inclination and dark fringe will appear circular. Hence, alternate bright and dark
circular fringes are observed.

Localized fringes are formed when mirrors are not orthogonal, that is, M1 and M2 are not
exactly parallel. A wedge shaped air film is formed between them giving rise to fringes of equal
thickness. The path of the two waves reflected from mirrors M1 and M2 and originating from a
single wave, are no more parallel but intersect near M1 as shown in the figure below and so
fringes are localized near M1. The shapes of these fringes are curved with convex side towards
thin edge of the wedge. As mirror M2 is moved gradually the air film wedge varies successively
and fringes change the shape and when mirrors M1 and M2 intersect each other, fringes
become straight as shown in the figure.
Page | 9

s
Radii of circular fringes- It is clear that in the fringe system of Michelsons interferometer, for
given d , as n increases, cos increases and hence decreases, that is, order of fringes
increases towards center and decreases as we move away from it. For central fringe 0 and
order is n , then order of the successive fringes from the central fringe are

n 1 , n 2 , n 3 ... and so on.

Then from eq2

2d n

If 1st, 2nd, 3rd mth circular fringes subtend semi-angles 1 ,2 ,3 ...m respectively from the
telescope, then

2d cos 1 n 1
2d cos 2 n 2
2d cos 3 n 3

2d cos m n m
Page | 10

Thus, if fringes are counted from the central fringe (assuming its order zero), then subtracting
eq4 from eq3, we get

2d 1 cos m m

Or

cos m 1

m = 1, 2, 3

m
2d

If radius of mth fringe is rm and final image of circular fringes is observed at a distance D (least
distance of distinct vision), then

cos m

Or

m
1

2d
r D
D

2
m

m 2
rm D 1
1
2d

If angle m is very small, or m

rm D

2d , then using binomial approximation we get

m
d

That is, near the central fringe, radius of fringes is directly proportional to square root of natural
numbers.

Application of Michelson Interferometer;

1.

Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light; For this, monochromatic light

from source is allowed to fall on half silvered plate A and Michelsons interferometer is adjusted
for circular fringes. Then, mirror M1 is moved such that AM1 = BM2. The mirror M1 and M2 are

Page | 11

made perfectly perpendicular to each other. Thus, concentric circular fringes are observed
through telescope.
Let the separation between real mirror M1 and virtual mirror M2 is such that bright fringe of nth
order is formed at the center of the field of view and let reading of micrometer screw is say x1 .
Then, path difference,

2d cos 00 n

Or

2d n

Where d is separation between M1 and M2.

Adding on both sides of the eq1, we get

2d n 1

Or

2 d n 1
2

From the above eq2, it is observed that when d becomes d

center is replaced by n 1

th

th
, the n fringe at the
2

fringe. We can also say that if M1 is moved by distance , one

2

fringe is displaced in the telescope. Now the mirror M1 is gradually moved and number of fringes
displaced is counted and reading of micrometer screw is say x2 . If M1 is moved through distance

x x2 x1 and the number of fringes displaced is N . That is, by moving the mirror by

, the
2

number of fringes displaced is one.

Page | 12

Therefore, on moving the mirror by distance x x2 x1 , the number of fringes displaced will
be

2x

Or wavelength

2x
N

Hence, by knowing the values of x and N experimentally, wavelength of monochromatic

light used can be calculated.

2.Determination of separation between two close wavelengths - For this, light is

allowed to fall on half silvered plate A and Michelsons interferometer is adjusted for circular
fringes. Let two wavelengths 1 and 2 are very close to each other. The two wavelengths form
their separate fringe patterns, but because of very small difference in wavelengths, the two
patterns overlap. As the mirror M1 is moved slowly, the two patterns separate out slowly and
when the path difference is such that the dark fringe due to 1 falls on the bright fringe due to 2 ,
the result is maximum indistinctness. When the path difference is such that, bright fringe due to
1 falls on the bright fringe due to 2 , or vice-versa, the result is maximum distinctness.

Let the mirror M1 is moved through a distance x x2 x1 between two positions x1 and x2 of
successive distinctness. In this position nth fringe due to 1 must coincide with n 1 fringe
th

due to 2 . Therefore,

Or

n1 n 1 2

2
2

2x

Page | 13

And

n 1

2x

Subtracting eq...1 from eq2, we get

1 1
1 2x
2 1

1 2x 1 2
12

Or

1 2

Or

12
2x

1 2

Or

Where

2
2x

12 is geometric mean of the two wavelengths. Thus, by measuring the

distance x moved by the mirror M1, the difference between two close wavelengths can be
determined.
Compare the rings formed by Michelsons interferometer and Newtons rings.
1. The fundamental difference between the two is that in Michelsons
interferometer rings originate as locus of equal inclination (also called as

Page | 14

Haidingers fringes) whereas the Newtons rings are locus of the air film of
equal thickness (also called as Fizeau fringes).

2. In Michelsons interferometer rings are located at infinity and are therefore

viewed by a telescope whereas Newtons rings are located in the plane of the
film and hence viewed by traveling microscope.

3. The air film in Michelsons interferometer is imaginary (hypothetical) whereas

in Newtons rings experiment it is real.

4. Center of circular rings in Michelsons interferometer can be dark or bright

whereas in Newtons rings, in case of reflected light it is dark and in case of
transmitted light it is bright.

5. In Michelsons interferometer, order of the rings decrease when one moves

outwards from the center whereas in Newtons rings order of the rings
increase when one moves away from the center.

6. In both, Michelsons interferometer and Newtons rings, the thickness of the

rings decreases as radius of the rings increases, which is a common feature.
Anti-reflection coating - Whenever a ray of light moves from one medium to another, for
example, when light enters a sheet of a glass after traveling through air, some portion of the
light is reflected from the surface (known as interface) between the two media. The strength of
the reflection depends on the refractive indices of the two media as well as the angle of the
surface to the beam of light. When the light meets the interface at normal incidence
(perpendicularly to the surface), the intensity of light reflected is given by the reflection
coefficient or reflectance R .
If 1 and 2 are refractive indices of the two media, then reflectance, R is given by

Page | 15

 1
R 2

2 1

It is clear from the above eq1 that reflection will not occur if 1 2

One of the practical applications of the interference phenomenon is the anti-reflection coating on
the glass. The reflection from a lens or a prism can be decreased to a minimum by coating a
thin transparent film of proper refractive index and proper thickness.

The idea behind anti-reflection coatings is that the creation of a double interface by
means of a thin transparent film gives two reflected waves. If these waves are of nearly
equal amplitude and out of phase, they partially or totally cancel. If the coating is of
quarter wavelength thickness and has refractive index less than that of the glass then
the two reflections are 180 degrees out of phase and complete destructive interference
occurs and no reflected waves will emerge from the film.
The thickness of coating and refractive index is chosen in such a way that light waves
reflected from the two layers have the same amplitude and out of phase so as to cancel
one another.
If refractive index of coating be c , that of glass be g and that of air be 0 , then the
amplitude of reflected wave from the first surface (air to coating) is given by
0
R1 c

c 0

and the amplitude of reflected wave from the second surface (coating to glass) is given by

Page | 16

 g c
R2
g c

The condition of equality of amplitude, that is, R1 R2 , at two reflections yield,

c 0 g c

c 0 g c
2

Or

c 0 g c

c 0 g c

Or

c g c2 0 g 0 c c g c2 0 g 0 c

Or

2c2 20 g

Or

c 0 g

Or

since, 0

(for air)

That is, refractive index of coating should be equal approximately to the geometric mean of
refractive indices of media on either side.

The -phase condition gives the thickness of the coating film to be

2c t 2n 1

Page | 17

For minimum thickness, n 1

Or

2 c t

Or

4 c

That is, optical thickness of the coating must be equal to one-quarter of a wavelength. Thus
transparent coating satisfying eq6 and eq8 eliminates reflection completely. The best
material known for this is MgF2 for which refractive index 1.38 . To have suitability at multiwavelengths, for example, white light, multi-layer coating is used. Each layer is optically quarter
wave thick.

Interference filters - are multilayer thin-film devices. They can be designed to function as an
edge filter or band pass filter. In either case, wavelength selection is based on the property of
destructive light interference. This is the same principle underlying the operation of a FabryPerot interferometer.

Incident light is passed through two coated reflecting surfaces. The distance between the
reflective coatings determines which wavelengths destructively interfere and which wavelengths
are in phase and will ultimately pass through the coatings. If the reflected beams are in phase,
the light is passed through two reflective surfaces. If, on the other hand, the multiple reflections
are not in phase, destructive interference reduces the transmission of these wavelengths
through the device to near zero. This principle strongly attenuates the transmitted intensity of
light at wavelengths that are higher or lower than the wavelength of interest.

In many spectroscopic studies, it is required to have a narrow frequency band of light of width
about 100 or less, centered on a chosen wavelength of visible light. It can be obtained by an
interference filter. In an interference filter, a thin transparent dielectric spacer like magnesium
fluoride (MgF2) or cryolite is sandwiched between glass plates. Reflecting surfaces are coated
by extremely thin semi-transparent layers of a good reflecting material like silver, deposited by
vacuum evaporation method or a dielectric of desired characteristics. When a beam of light is
incident normally on the filter, multiple reflections take place within the film.

Page | 18

Path difference between successive pair of emergent parallel rays is 2t , for normal incidence.
With white light, the transmitted beam will be maximum for only those wavelengths which
satisfies the condition

2t n
Or

n = 1, 2, 3

n
2

Where, is refractive index of the dielectric and t is its thickness.

If the effective thickness of the spacer is integral multiple of half of the desired wavelength, then
other wavelengths will be attenuated by destructive interference and wavelength , 2... will be
transmitted through the filter. If for a particular thickness there are two maxima in the visible
region, one of them can be eliminated by using colored glass filter. However, if the angle of
incidence is and angle of refraction in the spacer is , then, the wavelength of light passing
through the filter can be obtained from

2t cos n
Page | 19

2t 1

sin 2

sin 2

For n 1 ,

2 t 1

Or

0 1

sin
and sin 2 cos2 1
sin

sin 2

using

where 0 2 t

Unit-11(Polarization of light)

Un-polarized light Ordinary light is a collection of wave trains emitted by atoms or group of
atoms with coherent time no longer than 10-8 second. Each wave train has different orientation
and phase of the electric field. Consequently, it is a mixture of light polarized in different ways to
different degrees, that is, it is randomly polarized or generally referred to as un-polarized light.

Plane polarized light If electric field vector of light oscillates in some definite orientation, that
is, it oscillates in a fixed plane as light progresses, the light is said to be plane polarized or
linearly polarized light.

Page | 20

Partially polarized light If a plane or linearly polarized light contains an additional

component of natural or randomly polarized light then light is said to be partially linearly
polarized light.

Elliptically polarized light If electric filed vector rotates on a flattened helix as the wave
progresses, that is, electric field vector rotates on the circumference of an ellipse when
observed from fixed point in space, the light is said to elliptically polarized light. Elliptically
polarized light may be left handed or right handed depending on the rotation of the electric field
vector in anti-clockwise or clockwise direction when seen towards the source.

Left handed elliptical polarization

Right handed elliptical polarizationss

Page | 21

Circularly polarized light If the tip of electric field vector of constant magnitude rotates on the
helix as the wave progresses, that is, when seen from fixed point in space, the electric field
vector appears to rotate on the circumference of a circle, the light is said to be circularly
polarized light. If the tip of electric vector when seen towards the wave (source) rotates
clockwise, the light is said to be right circularly polarized. On the other hand, if it rotates anticlockwise, the light is said to be left circularly polarized light.

Left handed circular polarization

Right handed circular polarization

Plane of vibration The plane containing the direction of vibrations of electric field vectors and
the direction of propagation of light in plane polarized light is called as plane of vibration.

Page | 22

Plane of polarization The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration in which components
of electric field vectors are zero but contains the direction of propagation of light is called as
plane of polarization.
Thus, the plane of vibration and the plane of polarization are perpendicular to each other.
Brewsters law states that the tangent of the angle of polarization i p for a given reflecting
medium is numerically equal to the refractive index of the medium relative to incident medium.
That is,

tan i p

2
1

Where, 2 and 1 are refractive indices of reflecting and incident medium respectively.

Consider incidence of monochromatic light at polarizing angle i p .

According to Snells law of refraction

According to Brewsters law

Or

Comparing eq2 and eq3

1 sin i p 2 sin r

tan i p

sin i p
cos i p

2
1

1 sin i p 2 cos i p

cos i p sin r cos r

2

Page | 23

ip r

Or

That is, reflected and refracted rays are mutually perpendicular at polarizing angle of incidence.
Also, as a consequence, we get reflected light as completely plane polarized and refracted light
as partially polarized.

Law of Malus- According to Malus, when a completely plane polarized light is incident on an
analyzer; the intensity I of the emergent light is directly proportional to the square of the cosine
of the angle between the planes of transmission of the analyzer and the polarizer.

That is,

Or

I cos2

I I 0 cos2

Where I 0 is the maximum intensity of the plane polarized light incident on the analyzer.

To prove this law, let E0 be the amplitude of the plane polarized light transmitted by the
polarizer and incident on the analyzer and be the angle between the plane of transmission of
the polarizer and that of the analyzer. The amplitude E0 may be resolved into two components

E0 cos parallel to the plane of transmission of the analyzer and E0 sin normal
(perpendicular) to it. Because of polarizing ability of the analyzer, only parallel component
E0 cos will be transmitted through the analyzer. Since, intensity is directly proportional to the
square of the amplitude, therefore,

Page | 24

I E0 cos

I kE02 cos2

Or

If k 1 , then

I E02 cos2

Or

I I 0 cos2 ,

where I 0 E02

If 0 , then cos2 1 , hence. I I 0 . Thus, when planes of transmission of polarizer and

analyzer are parallel to each other, maximum light is transmitted through the analyzer.

If

, then cos2 0 , hence I 0 . Thus, when planes of transmission of polarizer and

analyzer are perpendicular to each other, no light is transmitted through the analyzer.

If un-polarized light is incident on the polarizer, the intensity of light transmitted by the polarizer
is one-half the intensity of un-polarized light incident on it.
Page | 25

To prove this, let be the angle between the plane of vibration of the electric field vector of the
incident light and the plane of transmission of the polarization. According to law of Malus, the
intensity of light transmitted by the polarizer will be

I 0' Iu cos2

Since, incident light is un-polarized; its electric field vector vibrates randomly in all directions
from 0 to 2 . Therefore, the intensity of light transmitted through the polarizer will be
the average of eq3. Hence,

I 0 I 0' = I u cos2

24

Since, cos 2

I0

1
therefore
2

Iu
2

Thus, the intensity of light transmitted through the polarizer and the analyzer is given by

Iu
cos 2
2

Where I u is the intensity of incident un-polarized light

Page | 26

Double refraction There are certain transparent substances such as calcite (crystalline
CaCO3 or Icelandspar), topaz, quartz, mica, argonite etc. which forms two images of an object,
that is, incident ray splits into two refracted rays. This phenomenon is called as double refraction
or birefringence and substances showing this phenomenon are called double refracting crystals.

For example, when a calcite crystal is placed on a white paper having a small ink dot, two
images of ink dot are seen when viewed through the upper surface of the crystal. If the calcite
crystal is rotated about the direction of incident ray; out of two images, one image remains
stationary while the other image rotates around the stationary image. The first type of image
(stationary) is formed by a ray which obeys ordinary laws of refraction (Snells laws) and is,
therefore, called as ordinary ray (o-ray). It always remains in the same plane of incidence and
its velocity in crystal is found same in all directions. The second type of image (rotating) is
formed by a ray which does not obey ordinary laws of refraction and whose refractive index is a
function of direction, that is, its velocity in crystal is found different in different directions, and is,
therefore called as extra-ordinary ray (e-ray).
When a tourmaline crystal is placed on the calcite crystal and rotated about the direction of
incident ray, if intensity of ordinary image decreases, then intensity of extra-ordinary image
increases. At one position of the tourmaline crystal, when intensity of ordinary image becomes
zero, the intensity of extra-ordinary image becomes maximum. If the crystal is further rotated by
90 degree, then the intensity of ordinary image becomes maximum and that of extra-ordinary
image becomes zero. Thus, it is clear that both o-ray and e-ray is plane polarized light and
planes of vibration of these rays are perpendicular to each other.
Huygens explanation of double refraction Double refraction or birefringence is analyzed in
light of Huygens theory which is generalization of the Huygens construction for isotropic media.
The basic postulates of this theory of wave front construction are:

Page | 27

1. When a beam of light strikes the surface of double refracting crystal, each
point on the surface becomes a source of secondary emission. It originates
two types of disturbances: one each corresponding to ordinary ray (o-ray) and
extra-ordinary ray (e-ray).

2. For o-ray, the velocity of light is same in all the directions and, therefore, it
Spreads on the surface of a sphere, that is, o-wave front is spherical.

3. The crystal is anisotropic for e-ray. Its velocity is same as that of o-ray along
The optic axis and differ maximum in the direction perpendicular to optic axis.
Thus, e-wave front spreads over the ellipsoid of revolution along optic axis.

4. Since, along the optic axis, ve vo and for negative crystal ve vo , e o ,

the ellipsoid encloses the sphere and touches along optic axis. For positive
crystals, the otherwise is true, the sphere encloses the ellipsoid and the two
Page | 28

touch along the optic axis. The vibrations of e-ray lie in the principal section
but that of o-ray lie perpendicular to it.
Phase retardation plates When a light ray travels perpendicular to optic axis, the o-wave and
e-wave travel in the same direction but with different velocities. Thus, after traveling certain
length of the crystal, one wave shall lead in phase to the other wave. Such plates are called
phase retardation plates.
Consider a monochromatic plane polarized light of wavelength incident normally on a double
refracting crystal like calcite, with optic axis parallel to the surface. It splits into o-ray and e-ray
which travels in the same direction but with different velocities and the phase of one wave shall
retard as compared to the other. In calcite crystal, the velocity ve of e-ray is greater than
velocity vo of o-ray. So the difference in time T taken by the two waves to cross the plate of
thickness t will be

t
t

vo ve

Therefore, path difference between the e-ray and o-ray will be

x t o e

Where o and e are refractive indices of calcite for o-ray and e-ray respectively.
Hence, the phase difference between the e-ray and o-ray will be

Or

2 t

o e

Eq1 represents the relative phase retardation between o-ray and e-ray.
Two main types of phase retardation plates are: Quarter wave plate and half wave

Page | 29

Quarter wave plate (QWP) A plate of double refracting uniaxial crystal of suitable
thickness t cut with its optic axis parallel to its refracting faces and capable of producing a path
difference of

or a phase difference of
between two mutually perpendicular o-waves and e4
2

waves is called as quarter wave plate (QWP).

For a quarter wave plate

5 9
2

... 2n
2
2

where

n 0,1, 2,3...

Comparing above eq2 with eq1, we get

Or

4n 1
2

2 t

o e

4n 1
4 o e

Quarter wave plate is used for producing elliptically or circularly polarized light.

When a plane polarized light (PPL) is incident normally on a quarter wave plate and its plane of
vibration does not makes an angle of 45 with the optic axis, then the emergent light is
elliptically polarized light (EPL).

Page | 30

When a plane
polarized light is incident normally on a quarter wave plate and its plane of vibration makes an
angle of 45 with the optic axis, then the emergent light is circularly polarized light (CPL).

Half wave plate (HWP) - A plate of double refracting uniaxial crystal of suitable thickness t
cut with its optic axis parallel to its refracting faces and capable of producing a path difference of

or a phase difference of between two mutually perpendicular o-waves and e-waves is

2
called as half wave plate (HWP).

For a half wave plate

,3 ,5 ... 2n 1

where n 0,1, 2,3...

Comparing above eq4 with eq1, we get

2n 1

Or

2n 1
2 o e

2 t

o e
5

Half wave plate is used for changing the direction of plane of vibration of the plane polarized
light.

When a plane polarized light is incident normally on a half wave plate (HWP), the emergent ray
remains plane polarized but the plane of vibration of the emergent ray rotates through an angle
2 from the plane of vibration of incident ray, where is the angle between the plane of
vibration of the incident light and the optic axis of a half wave plate. Half wave plate changes left
Page | 31

handed elliptically or circularly polarized light into respective right handed elliptically or circularly
polarized light and vice-versa.

Production of elliptically or circularly polarized light Elliptically or circularly polarized

light may be produced using an experimental arrangement shown in the figure below.

Light from a monochromatic source, say sodium lamp S1 falls on Nicol prism N1 which produces
plane polarized light. Nicol N2 is adjusted in crossed position so that the field of view is dark.

Now a quarter wave plate (QWP) mounted on a tube T1, which is free to rotate about the outer
tube T2, is placed between the crossed Nicol prisms. Due to introduction of quarter wave plate
between N1 and N2 some light is observed through N2.

Page | 32

The quarter wave plate is rotated until the field of view is again dark. It means that incident
vibrations are making angle 0 or 2 with optic axis. Keeping quarter wave plate fixed, T1 is
rotated so that the mark S on plate coincides with zero mark on T1. Now by rotating the quarter
wave plate, if mark S is made to coincide with 45 or 135 marks on T1, then the light coming out
of quarter wave plate will be circularly polarized. At these positions, the amplitudes of ordinary
ray and extra-ordinary become equal.

For rotation of quarter wave plate by an angle other than 45 will produce elliptically polarized
light, that is, amplitudes of ordinary ray and extra-ordinary ray become un-equal.

N2 shall analyze light coming out from quarter wave plate. If on rotating N2, intensity varies
between maximum and minimum, that is, not equal to zero, then light coming out from quarter
wave plate is elliptically polarized light. If it shows no variation in intensity, then light coming out
from quarter wave plate is circularly polarized light

Page | 33

Analyze the light of unknown polarization by quarter wave plate (QWP) and rotating
Nicol?
The following can be used to analyze the light of unknown polarization by quarter wave plate
and rotating Nicol.

How shall you distinguish quarter wave plate (QWP), plane glass plate and half wave
plate (HWP)?

The following table can be used to distinguish quarter wave plate, plane glass plate and half
wave plate.

Page | 34

Laurents half-shade polarimeter Laurents half shade polarimeter is suitable only for one
wavelength for which the path difference between o-ray and e-ray is

. It is usually constructed
2

for sodium source.

When position is adjusted for equally dark halves, it gives fairly accurate observation as slight
rotation of the analyzer changes the intensity of two halves.

Bi-quartz polarimeter In bi-quartz polarimeter, transition from red to blue is very rapid,
hence, zero position can be obtained very accurately.

Page | 35

In this polarimeter, white light can be used, that is, mercury lamp can be used.

It is highly sensitive device for measuring optical rotation.

This instrument does not give accurate results for colorless optically active substances due to
rotatory dispersion produced by the substance itself.

It is not possible for color blind person to use this instrument.

Page | 36