MinisterulEducrtlel,Cercettrrilsl'l lnor(tiulul

MIRCEAGANGA

|AA't[]AA'nC
Manualpentru clasaa XII-a Ml
Elementede algebrl
Ftllerr teoretictr,profil rerl, specirlizrrer mrtemrttcd-tnformrdctr(TC + CD)
Flllcrr vocatiodsl!,protll mllltrr M.Ap.N.,spechll,rrer-mrtmrtlcl (CD)

EDITURAMATHPRESS

Munurlulcsteaprobat
prinOrdinulministruluiEducafiei,
Ccrcetlrii$i
'l'fnorotului
ff. 1262/33din 6.06.2007
este
realizat
in
conformitate
$i
cu programa
prin Ordinal rninistruluiEducaliei,
analiticaaprobate
('of'cotlrii$iTineretuiiN. 5959dir,22.12.2006.
It! fFr'lrlii prolgr. I
prof.gr. I

ION NEDELCU, Colegiul Nafional,,Mihai Viteazul", Ploie$ti

RADU SIMION, Colgiul National,,Mihai Viteazul", Ptoie$ti

ELEMENTE
DE
ALGEBRA

I)o.crLrca CIP a BiblioteciiNrllonrl r Romaniei

(JANCAMIRCEA
Matemstictr: mrdull pontruchs. r X[-r Ml /
N4lrc6s
Ganga. Ploie$ti. Mathpless,
2007
tsBN 978-973-8222-26-7
s r(07J.15)

'foatcdrepturileasupraacesteicdrtiapa4hdituriiMATHPRESS.
CopyriShtO 2007MATHPRESS
lidituraMATHPRESS,
Ploietti
Tcl.I!ax:0244.592.1
18
c-mail:mirceaganga@yahoo.com

comenzilar[
Tol;0244.592.1
l8
021 . 3 5 r . 0 1 . 1 1
0122.745,965
0723.955.444

ComenziBucuesti
Tel.i02t.327.26.23
021.351.01.11
0721.679.326

r. GRUPURI

Nofur.r d6 grup.rt uDAtutd.m.ntrtl tn mrtehsdcl, .vlnd |pttcsg ft| dveB. domcn :

hodr .cu|fllor dg.br.lcc i . ..u.dttor r t ilnd.tq torh r.ledvitlft, crtrtdogr.let, toda
hlbrrBd.l. eoc
CaSrupurl rd!.r(|bll !8unar|: glupudlo d. brr.tc., 8rulurlc dc trrrrtorrltrt (c.rt nt
FDud lD||!ft.), gropu d. p.nnuu4 fmput ct.sctord!.!e.turl, gruput rrdftldlot & ordjn ,|
i.u!n$l(c|I.
!rBupudttdc).t.
8..d.6r.ta.-co_rc.Daul
d.lronoltrntr d. grupud.Dout salil d. g purl ,. bucurt d. .c.Lrd
Dfopr|.lld dg.h'|c.. P.oEu 8ruDudhn!ft. honnft bbt.t. lor runiL t t oltark.ta
nst.
conc.ts hhodur bonddut d. p$bhm. rcro|rlt. dtvrnc plrrurn ;t rte un rct
cord.l.||t d. probhn propu.. (c.l! Ed nutt ttbd drt. t. b.r.burit lid rd|nh.r. h hcutt|d
b uldndl .d).
Istod.' Nodur.r d. grr! . lo.t utttkrit
D.nhr prtnr darl
d. n a.m.id.nul ft[c.r Evrl r cdolr Otl1.1&t2)
(norl tD du.l h vlflt. d. 2t .nl). ctr! sG iitevllrtul
ctrto .l la .t trupurlo!, Id.ll. t orld glupu lor,,sr.u
h ..d' (crm .. htlrnplt id.r.| qr fthtt. I[rt nudc.
n|lrdrDrd.L) bdrt. rL Crtotr, tt rlurdt. r.[sl|| rl.
Lor{d gnrpudloraulolrtdalnol|rtlrt rub o lofrnl ndvl ds
L.Snre. 076r8f). Cod.|npo.drl lul Crtd! r.m ttod..
I dd dd ryrrd.l lElrlL rib grrlda El nu !{u lDier..si
d.dt d||![ .Ioddr t. laro r dlsl ld Jodln ,,tY.tta d.B
nrb.ftudor d rL. qurdombabdqu.C,. D! cblala dlAlnn
blulul rl )trX1.. b taorla grupurtlor,,lsd.dr . tt
ddddv rtdndoldl p.ntlo a tbcetocrnd plqtftl rrtdc .
tdd.iuld logld, (F. KlelD.Codc.l$ .g|plo deayolirrn
Ed.[nddlor

scoluhdd XIX-ka.9.

Mrl.h..r.lqul .rgLr Arrhu Clrley O8lt-189s),uur dtlarr cel nrl pmlncl mrrenifdenr
(cn lturtn h cd.bnl lYnlty Collgeol CambrldgeUdyeEtty, r scd! Dest2m de sldcole)r
lo.t prbtrc pr'tdl crra r de*crlsSrupudleatstcre
LcA. d. cortrpodfelfi erd-......-.--5
lhrte salbllt -...-.-...-.-......-.--.-.....E
Prnprtet$ Senerd..Ic lcsllor de
compod$c..-------*-------12
. Samctdrlsebdc.--.-.-...-.-...-...34
. Momld.--.--.-.--.-.-....--.--.3s

Grupufl........-....-.-.....,.-.-......37
. Gropurlflnfte

16

dgupud
.

Testeileev.luale.-....-.-,......,..-.-118

I.I, LEGE DE COMPOZITIETNTER}{A

Conccptulcareurme625a fi prezertall-am intahir irtcl din gimnaziu,fdri a-l defini in
tomcnii folosiii h acestpalagaf, iar mai t6rziu, in anii de liceu precedenli,l-am

ortlnr pootrualc cat gorii dc mulflrDl.Acumvom intcrptctalucrurllolnvqate ln

colhlll lnl dintr-unpunctdcvcdcrcm0labstracr.
Rludndm c[ &ti fiind o multimoncvidi M prin produsulcrtr](zid MxM
lnloloSoftmullime&tutuor percchilordcclemeotc
(r, ),)(prlra componentd
este,t' iar
0!r do.rdouaesle)) cetd t,yeM , afuc6M xM =l(t,f\lx,yeMl.
DGnrfle" Fic M o multimenevidtr.Se numegreoperrEe rtgebrfcl
bhrrl (o8ulgede compodfo lnt n sausimplulegde comDodtte)
dofl[ttI pc M o rylrc'f f rM xM -a M, carcasociaztr
fierlrei pelechi
(r,rre M xM ununiceleme Jlx,r)eM.
compurullul r cu y.
Elcftlllul ,f(a y) sonumcglc
A|rd!t, le odce pcrcche(cuplu)(x,y)eMxM =M2, aoealtiopr4iefacestr
co$8pundtr
ln modunicelementul/(r,)) dh 8catlmulttne M. Uneoriln loc de
operatisbinarnpe M prinrr-un
.f(r,y) sc rcrle ,ft, darcl maidcssedesemneaztr
dnbol special:

*,., -1,-f, U,n,e,.,... .

Urmlndsccasttr
colevomnumi .I ], (sausimplury, Etd sici ua semnlntre.r ti y)
prudulultl ,+J, surraelementclor
r,)M.
ln primulcazvomspuncc[ legeacstedattrDuldptcsdv, ia! fu al doileaaditiv.
Setntllcgccd,ln najoritateacazurilor.aceste
denumiri6untconventionale.
In gcncrsl,pe o multimeM setrntdefinidai multeoperaliidiferite.CanddorimsA
puncmln. evidenFutradintreele ydm utiliza parantezle
(M,*) qi vom spunectr
opcr4ia * conferErDulfirdiM o siructurtr algebrlctrsauc, (M.+) estun sistem
rliebrlc.
Dc cxcmplu,pe mutimea 7, pe lfln& opelatiile +,. (adrnarati inmultirea
numcrclor
lntregi)puremdefid ti alteopemtii,derivare,,:
x"y=,+y-2ry,x*y=-,'+y,tIJ=-x-,+r)
eic.carseobfincuajuto l
.,
(sau
olcr4iilor +
-) $i
Rezulti asdel structuri iilgpbrice diferite:

(2, (2..\.(2..
r\ .
l.@.*).(2.
-\.
Ata cu[r vom

vedeain capitolelecarcudneaztr,
vom clasificasfucturilealgebrice
dup6:
. numtrruldc lgldecompodflei
. proprletit c ace6toroperrfll.
l.:xrmplocunoscutede legi de compozitie
L Adun$or pe N (multhred numlr.lor mt|frh) eraelpnc.ds +:NXN-+N c.r. sodrrlt
.{Dlulul (r,}) dcmcntul r+) (rurn dtnrrc.y y' J). Vom norc. tcrrltr coEspord.ng prrn
(r,y)-+r+y,

2.ltrEul$r.tFoN ort.rDtl..ll. . :Nx N -+ N drtt d. corespondenF

(r,y)-+.r.y.
3 Adun.r.rp. ,i4(C) (tnultlmor
nrrrlcelorprtrrttcedeordln,l cuete enlenumr
comDte
.d. d3firf.tprln +:.!rtr(c)i,^4(c) _+r6(c). (A,B)+ A+ R.
q.bnutfrcrpo
4(A) |esp[c!tt!detuirrprln.t^\(C\x]/'/'n|f)-+ M@), (A,Bl-+AB.
s.Reuduno.pe P(M) (nnline! prrltbr tut/; rprezinttr
tortlubnulgdile lui Lt) $re dethttn
pi||l| u : P(rrl x P(rrO-+ p(Mr, (A,BI-+ Au B .
o.Ina.n4cfh
p. P(.rtt)clt defirinp r flr p(rf\xp(Mr +p(W (A,8.)-+AllB,
7. Conpurcrer pe .F(,V) (Euldr!r furcfflor defrite pe M cu vrtort tn M) ette apltcrtt
.tf(Mrx t(Mt--+F(Mt (l.s)* I
"e.
lre.lgorcl eleeplelspotcorthusc! rtte legtdecoEpozide
tnrflrite tu rnlt pr.edetrti
Tsbh opraliei (legti)

Dsod multimea M estefllittr, ahmci operaliaalgebrictr.* pe M poatefi datd prh aga

lumita t bll a openfiet (sautrbla lut Coyleg. inh-adever,dac[ M :{ay a2, a,) ,
-,

atulci tabh operatieialati astfel:

A1*Ol

Alt,Az

a2*41

42* a2

ati+ Al

ai*42

,,n*at

An *a2

d2* 4n

ln acesttabelelementul4j *4j estesituatpe linia i

9i coloanaj.Dacallotem di = 4i x dj, atunciputed
g6ndirablaoperaliei
cao matrice,4= {a4}.'_- .

I
.I
t

I -t
I
*i
i
i

DacnlutunM={1,-1,i,*i} cu operaliade inmul;ire

atunci avem tabla legii prezentatlaldturat.Alcetuifi
tablalegiipemullimeaMin caztile:
l) M : {1,2,3,4, s,6\, .r* y : min{r,/} .
2) M = 11,2,3,4,5,61,
r"-y: c.m.m.d.c.{r,y}.

|,2. t'AR'l'USTAU ,A
Drof (M,*) cstco structur[algcbricl,iu Il cstco $ubmulfirne
levidl a lui M, atunci
psntru,.y Il clcmentul, * y poatcs! fic ln multirnea
L saus6fie ln afalaei, adicd
''nM.H,
IrollDlfle. Dac! pcntruolice ,, ] Il , compusulr*y apartinelot lui
atunci8puncnctrllcsto portgltrb I.lul Mh rrport cuoprafn * .
Deqi,a*H CM astcparrcstabil!a lui Mln raportcu *++[Vr,yeH+
+**yelll(fig. 1)
ln raportcu adunarea,
N estoprr stabiltra lui Z,
paftcstrbiu a lui Q etc.
Z GBtc
Ando!, ln lapoltcu adurEr!!I'l.fri(,',lor/\4n.n@,
ort! partostabiha lui ,^,l,r,,t(Q) ,
t1nJt(Q) .str pqltest8billa hi I4.,(lR) erc.
Dsc, X(M),5(M) sunt mullinea funcliilo!
lqjoclivcdcfinitcpe M cu valoriln M li respecriv
nul$nFafuncliilorsurjeciivcdela M la M, auncl
rcootcasunlp!4i stabilea]elui .F(M) ln laportcu

3) DscidH e$epa4t $arlld r lul M ln raportcu *, {tunci ItxrtcMxM

si dcci
putcmvorbi dc rosEicl! logll . la It x I/ . careesreroro IcScde compoziFe,
penEu
comoditatevom not8tl rc0trlcllslot cu * .
De-ci,dac[ H cstc partc stabild s lui M in raport cu *, atunci leges de compozilie
*iH xH +H sc8pu[cc[.ste industrde
legeadecompozilie
depeM. Semai-spune
cd legadepe M inducepeIl o legede compozitie.
PmbleDercolvate
r.Ih M=2, fe E =u,=Ixlker) (mdf's nmrdc br,eslw., d n=Z+r=gt+1ke4
(nu4ln.t n||nll.lo! hlnsl lttrpal!)av|n,', U, CZ .
R.Pr Z co4sidrhlegcsd. mmpozigc
ldunar!nunertor
tnr.gi. SeconsrnulorcaH esrepaftc
Ntbif! a ful Z ln npon cu ldllnara
dcodccc
din x,teli,r=2k,r=2t,k,teL
;yen
x+!=2(k+l)e2z
ln tinp c
esr!part stabills lui Z tu mpoficu sdunsrca
penruct daci
'''nu
e2:2+1,x=2k +1.r = A +r,
k,teZ,a$Ki x+ y =2.(k+ I + It d 2Z+\.
',r

2,P.''r,tr M = 2 coDltderlh Lscr de conpod$e .r * J = rrx(r, r) . Irt

fl =(0'1' 2.3,41. Alr||d zcde o p$te ltrbllt r lul Z h rrport dr *,
R.Intr-adevtr, acc$ lucru va rci.si din raDlaleqii !c ru H.
(MriEre din codpun;) e fi8uttjz! tn iabli
Obs$m cr rosFelenEorle
es4ir
lui fl. Prh unnarcIl c,e!c
padsbbill a I'ii Z tl rwrt cu lega* .
3. nc M=l
Cofftitcrlm
tl leger de compodle r.'=rJ-r-r+2.
In&rrdele H (1,2), H'= (2,3) subnulfr de td n. Si probln crl'
-

L!e H + x*yeH

fig. I
opcr4ia dc compunera funcliilor.
l)l)\crv4ii. 1) Adjectivul.,stabil5"
din Dotiuoea
de .,parre
stabil6.'penru
o submullime
Il a lui M ln raport cu vine s5 preci?zrctr daci r,yfl
(sunt dou6 elemenie
$rhilraredin Il), atunciSi'compusullor ,* ) rllmgneln t1.
2\ Dscd H c M $i seconsiderao aplicalie +pentruIt atunciaceaslanu esteneaperat
o lcgc decompozilie.Acestluca! tsebuiedovedit.Deci enunlulnu poatefi deforma:
.,Fie o multime$i legeadecompozilie
peH, .t * ) - ....,.
'/ lucruprinurmltoarea
Excmplific[macest
problemtr:

Fic H =10,21$iaplicali.r*), = r)- x-r+2, (V\x,y,H .

A!trtalic[ . esteo legedecornpozitie
pe1{.
Dccitebuies[ artrtimcd (V)x,y e E + x * y e H. Oriavemx x 1 : (.r- 1)(y-l) + l.
CumI,y e It + l.r- ll :i I,l),- { < t.
Prinurmare
faptulc[ .! H <+lr- { < 1. Decir*1e}r<+l"r*y-{g1<+](x-t)(r-t)l<t<+

penrru
ctrlr- ! < t, ly - t]< t.
ix - 1]lr- 1 S l, ceeacca$tcadevdmr

01234
11234

414 4 4 4 4
.!t4 prte lrrbtu r lul nh r.polt {n ;, h dnp c.I! |ru sr sct''tI
pro! .bta,
R. Intr-adev& fie ,,)fl.
Atutrci trEluie prcbar 6 , + , < fl 1, | < xt - r - t + 2 < 2 1)
<+.1.<('-1Xy l)+l<2<+0.SI-1X)-l)<1
ceeace gt"
,,F -{+
.$ I < r,t < 2 <+0 < r - 1,t - I < I, iardeaici0 < (r- lxy l) < 1 "'i&ot-deoar.e
Penduatmlria rclariver. fl

esred. obseryar.r r"o

,=l.r-j

din n,. rczulti

D*i buPnt'u
oric!x,r'H'+''vLH
"t=;';
i-;-'=;dn
4lre 1r,= C hoprcml or op.ltf r.ton ldrc a Nn .dor comptqe$ rr =ar=b+riweq.
sd
orflam d fl 3!e!rtc stshill a lui C h rrpo crirmot$rca"
R. Fier:4+nsir:c+di,
a,b,cdez. Antnci
ry = (a+u)(c + di)= M -bd +ilad +bc)eztij,
(oFrafii
delJa!@ac b.I,ad +beeZ
c'rluErclntrgi).
s,Ite M=1. $ lcse!decomrdfic rTr=7'J-7('fJ)+8.Arr.aFca
rr = (r,oo)sreparte
st3b l.h
X fuEponcu ' .
st arnumcndac! r,y>1, aruncirT],>t.
R.Trebui
Av.m.rTJ:7(r-lX/-1)+l>l<+.(r-1x)-l)>0.
cviden!
Altf.l. Selot lua r. y > I subforma.t = I + a, ) = I + F.o,F > 0 card r I' = 7aF-t 1> l.
6. CoI3lderlr{ M = Mt(A,
lmpreu|rl cu oprlFr de tnmsrfrc a matrlcelor, Iff

.c = , *, ,
&rn,r.rdlvtu,
",, ll Sl] il I :J* "
o 2ab)
l2ab
A(a)A('r=120,
^v'm
f, ,L1- ^''^"

+ t|rrX cr z[r[l=1o 1a]lppez. p elf prrnl,

aJ\Fl={ar}.f?h,,O,p N*pdn}

obdnuoaft
' d@'e 2"/IR ti matricea

?. flo M=.F(R)=t/rR--rRl
tnpreul cu operada,te compu|rer
o tonctiito l
H-l/dr:n-'R,
=ar
ldbQ)
+bF,b en,a 10) (rransfonnrrtre
dircale dEptd rE le).
R, Dln !o,b. f"d: fo",od+b,
a.-0 rczuttn
ci A esQpane$abibatui14torapono ..
Pr
n
se
conslded
lge,
t.
dc compozitie,,
*...teflnttlsstfet:,*J=rr+E(r+r)+qaR.Sl
.6 d.tern ne a .!.fet .Dcrt r, = ( r&@) si fle p,rre srrbit, a lut R to rrlort co .. . ...
& Flc d lR penmcareH e$epane$abitns tur R . Fr !o . 8 fixardinH.Atruci.pentruorice r t
llzuluJ . )O6 t/ . Deaici
t6r_8/o+o.,> E.adicrd>56. Reciproc,
d46 d>50.
,tinr8rrlo
ltunci:r*)'=(r+8xy+8) 64+a > -64+56 = -8, Vj,) fl, cees ntinncnE ste
lanesr&bij6
o lul lR ln raponculesea* .

.!n1 plrf ltrl||le rI! ld R h llport c[ adonlrta rt bnolt|r!..

5. SIscintecl
It={.Cllzl=l}leFrte
sr{bll|.lul C in isport cu oper4is it tnmul$re.
Etrc firltl Dddme, fl ?
6. Pe t sc condd.d lege! d! corDpodfer * J = ry - 2(r + y)+ o, Sl sc arare cr fl = (ln es.e
ptd. slrbflI ! ld R h rapoi cu legr . .

7. Pc n re coddd les..r-LJ=s.rr-at(r+r)+84. Sr ic rrctecr r =[l,oo)este

prrre
dor rlM n h.rpo cob8.s *.

8. P. R coDrtderlml.g.o .le crmpod e r * , = ,,,f,'*1, - r-. ,r*t"g a =

lr,*) eseoparre
"r
ltsblll o lui R lh r[pod cu . ,
9. Arlrd d oruatorr.le subnuldEt.h hd C n
pals dibile b rrport cu lnmuldrca

">{*v.,1'

ar{. rlzl>
r};

"){, tkl>4 r

{augl'pea'2+t *ol;

ro. Pe t(R-{0,1D corutderlm oFrrlir

o
io prrl steb na|ul M3(It) ln rapo( cu tumurdrea |hirricelor.
R. Fic ,4r}r,A()rE H . Atunci:
t.
rfv
d . ' c n _ a t" _ b xt btl
lr

.a r r ) Ar r)=]0 r

.,r | ,t

loo

l_ l{ a , rt e H

da ax2+ ct! + at2 + tx + br = aG + t2 + b(t + r) . De aja c = 20,a,b e E .

1. PeNr secoruldedte8a
deconpodfer*J = c.nl[.,r.c-(r,r).llle n={tervl,

d!r&10}.
Arltal cI r ed. psrtestibtln a hri N. iI ralDn o . , .onlaruitrdr.bta tegii.
2. P. nulflmla Z dfinlmtl deconpozidq
re) = resrullnptrftdt lul + J prin S,
rEr= rc51u1tmplrdrlt
lul 'r.] pdns.
Arlt{f cI /t = t0, l, 2, 3,4} 6te parrest b n a tu; Z tn leporr cu fic,Is dtn cde,rouI lest,
rlcrlulDd atbleleleg[o..
.r. rh Ir=l-I-r.o.llcZ
p. Z, pmb.ticII' cste
d r*)=Inln(x.y) o tegedeconpodtie
plrlc ctrblll a lul Z ln rapon cu * , atcitutndtebh teeii

hoholddlteFtled.HlIeld.F(R-{0,1D
h llporr cu oFr.ttr decorFu|er,atcrbird rlbts
Ld.
rr. Pc .F(t - {01)sGcoDdd.rropr4rNd. compun.nr tum$flor.

th Ir =Ih,fz,fs,tttc.F(x - t0), onde h1r= r, f2ur=-,, h(a = 1,y.19= -1.

Arnog cI It $te part strb r! ld f,(n - {0}}lr lspori cu ., rlcriutnd bl rt gtt
12.I}.tcntu.li ptufl. finl& sle tul X strhiteto rapo clr adolrft{ dn n d plrge f,trttede lut
n drblL b nporr cutu|trutdft. dtr t .

I'".q

ne fl=ir{k)=10 I 0ll,>01c,u30).
13.
t0 0 ",
I
I
A!ftaf cr It errepfftc lrr

I a tut -^6G) h leporr ct op.r.tts dettrDuldr{.

,."."={,"=l-T"l
flll}"."}.-,,*,

Sl serrr.. cl II esreo Frte stor ir lut ,{,6n) tn fspon cu oFlria dellnuldr.

B,c D.EF,c,
,s.n E-'.4,
a= ;1,,=F _1},"{ ;},.[j, -J,
''I "d" {r0'
o =[t

(0

IO

o{"r"r:i}
de compu!rr tr|trc6tor. Ft H =lfr,J2,fil,

,:n-{0,t}-+x.-{Or},i=L2.}/l(t)= r, /2(rJ= '; t. fsr"r=

r*-L,,en -tOU.

lrobl{me pfrpu*

o {akl<r}
r

0l _f-i
tl"" - lo

ll,'=[;),"=[
:]
1t

A bl cl It..h o perr. ftbtu I h I4(C) tn rlDorl cu hnuldmr mrr.tcrto!

lt dottd
oDaltfd ldu.. !. H.
f/'r
f6.n. ,'

rrbl|

xx"1tcr fl e!.epc.r!,rrbfl.s t,,t

llp,t,c,aez,..t-"+Alc,t4tzl.
-ll'u c cr'
t-

i{,tq(Z)lD nporr cu o[!!gr rtetornutfrc r rurr{cdor.

ll
sr1.o,r-,"
n. m r=]ee,u"rotl.r=[2'

scs|rt' cr }r eltcpart4
, \r zx)
f
''=I'''JQJ's!
daull.lot I42(Q)lnnDortcuhmdlttr.rE trlc.loryI csrdlrr)= oo.
f 0 r 0l

Il.t corddldn.rtcer
r=l o o -rl 1.'U."" r ={e" e,v.}c,urrrrr.*rtrp
I,
"r
l -r o ol

f |t. D|n d.bfi r lut ,^/t3o) tn mport cu hmutdrt{ mladcetor,Alcttutd ,ablr opersld
tarln Il
10.P. I!. ddlna|t legesde cornpod$e
. pdn r.J=r+r+ry.StsdetenDtne,Rastfd
=
ttt lt tntd{n r tr [a,oo)sl tle Dortesrrb lrtd n h mport cu tcger *,
10,P6tu ce vdorl .tc por.rmtfulut rct a, tDtervalut/ 3teprlt lrabll . tut R ln rrpofl cr'
n."trc$udta:
ll x r t e xt -2r - 2r + n, I = \\@J i
2) r*, =r+r+rxJ, r =l_!oo)
2t..P. n !! d.fiDqtc
legerdecompodde
r*J=ry-a(,+y)+t,c,Ain.Srsearaecr
{a,oo)
ri. FrtG.t blt !lut Rln r.port or * drcl,llurnri,trcLb-a2-a10.
22.+A L! d pft$. tlDli4d lul C ltdtre f4a,tehnl|urc sutr:

= (t =n.
{ol,u,,{oluu",'
N',u- LF
t

r.3.pRopRrETATrGENERALEArE LEGILOR
DE COMPOZITIE
ln cele ce ulmeazl vofi considerashucturaalgebrici (M,*), pentnr legeanotate x
vom folosi denumircade legeastar(saustea).
Pt. Asoctsdr'ltsaea

ln membrulsteng,(r * ))* z , sc cfectuear{mai lntei calculul din paranteze,r + y $i

apoi rezultatul acestuiasa ,pompune"cu ln membruldrept efectulm operaliadin
paranle?r,)r,z ti apoicalcubmr,*(y*z)."
Definilia spunectr indiferent cum am efe.tua calculelealgebrich cei doi dtembri
obtinemacela{irezultat.
Din acestmotiv dacdlegea* esteasociativtl,atunciseomit in scderepamntezele9i se
Scrie
simplux*)"2.
Vom da acela$inumesfiucturii algebrice(M,*)definitn prin ,., adic! vom spunecA
rste o sftucturtralgebricdasociativil,sauspunemsirplu cd legpa* estealociativdpeM.

o prrte dablu a lui M ln rapoltcu

asochdvtrpeM, atunci* Itrmene
asociativ!si
I
DeI{.
li pe

qi dactr* e.ste

ildet spus(4, *) devineo sbu.tur[algcbrictr

asociativtr.
Sproxcmpluadunqrea
ti lnoul'jreamahicclo(din n4(C) iunt operatiiasociative.
Dac[tt estro pafisrrbill a lui ,44 (C)ln raportcu ceb dou! opclrlii, atunci(IJ,+),
(H,) sunt8tsucnui
algebrics
alociativc.
PcnuuH={-l,UclR, lnmultirraeEtrsociativ!pe ;I, doarece
erteasociativ!
DalR.
Observsfl, 1) O lcge * nu srealocladv! dac! xlstl, y, z M pentrucafe
( r *y) *z- **( y,r z ) .
2\ DrgA \, x2,,,,xneM gi,pcM lcga! * cstcasociativ6,
atuncipri[ cornpunqea
(ln
.lcmcdtclordatp accaordid.)lnf.lcgdn \* x2*.,.txn lcmntdinM oblinutFin
= I cl estc4.
rcurcnt!,
PenEu'r
DacIamoblinut
alanatul4 *.r2*,..*41, uunci4 r,x"*...*4=\4*rr+..*41)*4,
Drctr lcgc. dc codlpozi$epe M eslc muldplicativr.atunci ft xt=xf2-:r,=
j=1

iar llt notaliaaditi\dln loc de produsulelementelor\,r2,.,,,tn

-(4r2^x,-)xn,
lvcm sumrlor .q + 12+.,. + r, =
l4xomplecunoccuk d lgi osorlstive
l. Adunrno y'bmdfna p. I{, Z, Q,I, C ernt Lgl e&drdy..
2.R.u or.q lnr4n cfl! !. P(M) lurt LC.!odrdv..
.).Adub.Er tl conpurerorn|lrcfnor pe t(M) luri legt.lodrdve.
,t.Adumtla tl ftl|nrl0r'8 nat clorpe ,44(C) suri l.gl.rodrdv.

l,

'

l irrqt(.1. hgl trrlr\ori tr(

ll. Pcntuo slr, cI t/ carcOulcNrul'l|n

tr lui.r(n) ln nFm ctropcratirdc con)puncrc
ftbuic vsincrr cd:

r, ri.l.loroo
DeR.Ar dmci(rhu r,r,r( Rpotrrrucar
(r_r)_",,,-(r
r). or=s,r=r,
nct
|--.r.Ar
('-r)
.=(s r) ( r)=4+3=7rl t (r_i)=s-(r+3)=r.com
?*1,
{edn(tD ctrscddere.p. ln nu crrr oso.tatvn.
L lrllonnh denultlhi pe ?2(R).
r,r. / = R, 8=(0,-),c=(-6,0).
Aruncr(a_r)_c=(_co,0l_(_6,0)={0}
$

rit = tl('), (v)r R.

A9!de/r.t, = tt }l d@@@din
4tN* =]t*tl*.
Sc $ie c! itrtotdounacompu@r fih4iilor pe .F(R) estedmiativd. A$rnciea rlmare la fel 9i pe

(r - c)= R_ (0,-): (_-,01.

^
Dd (,{- r)-c +A-(, -c).

s. Pe R-(-r,r)

01234
0
01234
L llc}1. {0,r,2,3,4}g apncafla
r*,'=1.'*Jl,r,Jn.Ar
eficr * esre I
10123
l.to dc conpoddeg sbbilltl dacl esre$octatlvi2
2tot2
l( tnbhaplicafii
estedat6alilurat9iseconsrad
ce , { ) H, (V)r,)eIt.prii
3 32i0r
uflnM!aplicaliaesreo legedecomlozige
peH lgeanuest alociati\d
&oatece
a\ista
4321O
= ptrdu
r i l, =

carck* y)* z = 3 +'+(i, * z)= 1

,1.P6 nrddlnea nul[Idor rtlt R dd n tessde conpodde
)

2, z

r * J = {/t , ArItoSc! .cts.i rse

L. vr trlbuis! s&imkeinumerc
,,),2 e R pentru
care(,t*y)*1*r*(y* z). Alegemr=l.r=+z=3

pnuu
co"l .yr.z.
Ff ,r=ffi

I * -11.4-r.{-=f f i= m .

nvldcnrV3V-2 = V-5a +V-6 .

J. Dcnnlm
pe R lgea
deconpozllle
r*J=rr-.r-J+2.
Arltrf cl l3a* Indocep(1,2)o tgcdecotnpoatde
aroclrdvi,
R. Am v&ur la prcblchsrczolvatr3 dinpangratuldela parteshbiu ca(l,2) .lt partestabil!a rui R
Pcntrudprobaasociativirsrea
leeiirrebuies6demonstdm
cU

(r*r)*z = , , ( ) , *4 ,( v),,).2
(1 ,3 ),

(r)

Col.uun membrulsttngd egalirltiig aveml

_, - ! + 2 )_ . + 2 _
k * ) ) N .= ( a - x- ) + 2)*z=(q_t_ y+2).2_Gy
= ryz-\4+ yz+t2)+r+ ! + z .

\2)

M.mbruldrcpral egdn4ii(l) scscriel

r r (y * : ) = . t r ( y x- y - 2 a 2 )= x (y z - y - z + 2 )- t -(rz - y z + 2)+ 2=
-

= "qz- (r1+ rz + yr)+ r + y + z .

(3)

Dln (2) 9l (3) sc deduce(l ). P.in unnarele8a$te asociatiw.

L F l eH - l /* ,R + R .tr {r )=.r'lr N,}cr(R).

r t)
Arlirtl cI lleste o panestlbttt a lut t(R) ln ruportcu opmisdecompunere
. tuncdilor,l
lsorlr

ope.atl. Induce pe It o legessodsttvl.

rt .rr tr!(m h,./r.R

ln)h,t"c'fl+h"l,

,R $ ./{. /a{fl - fr { ,a{r't -/r(/'/

(.'j

rklrllll lc8.a r*J = ,2!2 - rz - !2 +2. Arltrd cl ace.ltt lae ldue

pe

(l,qo)o lesp 8lociadvr.

R. Airtltn rtraili6i c!
0.6).stc pattcstabil[ a R - (-]"l)ln.sport

y ro
'. '
"FllFllli

o *. Fie 4 / > I $ snalntim cn:

>re ?y2- 12- y2+z> t* (,, - r)(r,- r)>o, ."ia.'t a-**

A{!tu ((l,),*)estestrucrur|als.bricl
S[ PIoblE &um cl * esieo leg. asociativ!,adicas! demomdtn c!

(r- r)*z= r*(r* d, (v)ar,:e(t,,:o)

(l)

Avcm:(r. y), r = 1/l)'- *! - y' +2t z=

,= l\"r'-t'r'+2)z'-\i:y'-

= {('rz)--t,'}'+,'r'+ !'z')+

x'- y'+z)- z'-2 =

"

+ r' + z'

(2)

!222-!2-t2+2=
=

-----;------ ,
,-:;-;-;----:--=
+z)- x" -\y'2" - r'- z'
z"
!"
lr'ly'z'
-2)+2

t:--:;---7-;-;----;-;----:-;i-;---;
={(ryr)--(r'}'
+r'z' + y"z'l+ x' + r' + z' .

(3)

Dln(2)ei(3)r.zul6(l).
6.Pe n il.ttdm l.Sesde comDodFe
rnl tlpGa,r3fifttclt
r.J=.r+ry,r,,R'.Iht
hSood ne .!.dtdrl.
r. coodilir pc ru alocinivir|t a bsn c,te: (r* )) * z = r* () * z), {v)r,r,r e R sru
(c+t/)* z
(V)r,),! R srulncr
-r*(4y+r?),
a\or+ b!J+ b.= ar + b(rr + r.), (VI'J,? R) srutnfinc
(l)
azr+abt+bz- at+abt+,2r,(v)r,y,rR,
(l)
Cum
@ ld pcnt! oricc vdori rslc de lui r, ), ., rtunci lr. loc.vidcnt t pntrur = I,
(2).
a'=a,
r -o ctndobtinem
'.Dcoscmcne{(l)arloca-ipentru.r=z=0,r=|ctudab=ab,evidenilnfincpuntudrn(l)
r r ) = 0,r= l.ezulur= 4.,
).

l5

Dln (2) d (3).dnlndconrc! d., * 0 ftduolm. r /' . I, ctr. v.rificl (l). A$d{r t6t!r r.y-r+}

cstc

?i. A trd c! let.. * dcnrli| pdn: j r, = ry _ t2 y2- +t, ,t el-t,t|,

"2 t2
d.t lrdnl pc t r, U o legem_$et[ttvr,
|l. M|ll lnui a|Idm c! (t- I,l],*) careo strucrurale.hcj, sltflspB (V
),, , I_ l,1l +
i+f .)t-l,ll. P.rru numte
aris6 o,Fto.,!l penEu
caie.,=60, y=cGE. Cu
',)l-l,ll,
tc..i.8.d.ri lesa* .re forna
r*':cosocosp_lsinosinFl:cosacor9_sina.ing=
.oor(q+F)t-L!..
D.nonrrrNmrnrDlcr lcs.a nu $t! alociativrdo@ceex*a ,:|,
ur.l6cdcurc)
(,'/)*z=o,w

,-(y- r\= -9.*!d!,ru

t = -), r=o Fnt!! cffe (dup,

pcntru
oriccar,zt-1,11avm

(t.y)*7-y.1y.r1
0.P. trNId|ncet r. codd.r! tcge6decoDlndfh d.dnttl Ddr:
. r = qr - b(x + t)+ c,a,b,c.e
n
c. ddhtt hd. |I !ni. tltrle 4 4 d,p.oJruc. t.3.a d !e &odqdvt?
R. lr8.t t c,t a!o.l.riv!d!.t al! loc.gatibrci (,,y)*z=n(y*z),
(V)r,y,.<n. Catcultnd
tl..[. m.nbrus. ajung.b.gdir.Lr
a2ryt- ab(ry+xz+ y,) +(ac -t)z+t2(x+
- ab(rr+ n+ yz)+
)-bc+c= d2xy.

3rrl&!rumr.carcrrb,
Na-\r+*ly+z)-u+c(t1rr,rR,
(--r-l)(,-z)=q(g!),rR.
A.!.rlluldml6gdltrl.6rctod!.!tt

l. stt

rtulnt

nffilid!.i

ac-r_r2=0.

f c.tt dh ur|rttdd. .flc.dt |tnti op.! it .t tuta rto.edvcF |obrl|t&..

,, t.b=::-ibl

o.b =a+b-ttc,

,Tb=db2 id,s ,]-t=a, ;cl att=J6

9 a.b=tryo ia) ar b =df',(a,blt h, aT r=l(-bl,

2.P6 n r. d.d!..c urmttd.rda Ld rt coElMf,e!
.t x* r = r+ t+zib) x. t = [ry i.l tj t = x+ r -jrr

(0,oo)

5.rbll = :r -+nl,r.(,,=
1/.
{}, : ;;,.,.].

d.btll r tut .F(r) td nporr cuopefrtrrdecoo,punert

! rurctfirori2)rs{. ]Elr
Hta*ffff
6. Pc n sccondderlt $a decoDpooifa,*J =rrr.t
t,n R. SIadeterminc,',ltfel tnctr

l.ge3d ie rlodrrtyt
7. Pe R Eed.trn taeLpsd. cotrpod$e,.r=xr+raft
t_r,.aeR. D.r.rntn ti d a!trettDcAr
res!. d tre.lodrdvlr
E,P. n ddlt|r Lsle.t conpod$e
t.t=81b,-tt.t=Ztr-2x_2!t..x,,=os!+,+b,a,b,ce&..
_
t eLrElrrF 4 4 c aldel hda operadlesi th esoctrnre.

P2.Comutativltsts

DD aceastldefinitie deduce@
c6 pentruo legecomutatildnu conteaziordinealr| cale
h r.remPrulstangprimul eledent in compuneresrex al doileafiind iD
:.orbeTe^m
),
In membruldrrpt priaul elemelt din coElpuDerceste iar.al doileaese x
lrnp.ce
),
r(eaxtaof este a.laqi. DacI rutinea M ste finit!. M =
lat ab -., a"l, atunci
comutativit
tealegii s Faduc!ptrao!= al, (V)i,j:tr,
undeay:a; *a;. Ginditit
table legii ca o E Eice petratici fosamndcI elenEntula,i esle simetricullui
au, ln
raport c! diagonalaFincipaltr (vezi t8bla de mai jos). itnnu z = +, aOta iegn
comut&tivcesteurodtoart&:

at !r2 aB a!
ai- an""ia "ia

idr, L, = q -4x _4! +mi

a3

.t

t. y = fi{}
. c"o oo.d. t grd.,oddvr?
'.r=t+r-+tq
r. n r ={/. f (2,@)-+(2,61,faer=t+e -2f,, >0}. Arrir$ d (n,.)3te|(ructl}r
d3.bdcl |t.drdv|, urde o 6ts comprrerrrlhDdthr,
I
l. ; l
l
r.rh n=la=l r. dct(,{)= rlc ,{"m) . Arr.r! cr!
114.,
4,
r \o
t
f) ,{ .rt prn drbtll hndlr 0M ,{4(xi tn raponor rrhugreamatrlcelor.
2) (X,) crr.rhucrlrl eISeb'tcI.ro.rrdvl.

t6

Arr,scr:
"rn).

.6'!rj"'i1x'isa

Co 9i ln cazul terdinologii folosite pentru legea asociativ[ aici vom da acelaSi

,i
numc structudialgebrice(M,*) defuid prin * spunandctr dac[ * estecomutativ;,
otunci sfrrctum algebrictr este coqnrtativ[ sau mai simplu 6plmem cA *
este
comutativtrDeM.

l7

2. Fl. It r tr, 2J,4ltl D6n brr docorrportttc:

.I.r=i]

Un llt clc[iDntimponodutiliarllr)0l)licrliicstcurmtrtoruli

-''

drcl .rS2 rl J>,

Arllrl cr {H,.) sio.trucrurtn.conuirrht.

Dacd1l steo part dtl|blltr t lui M in mport cu legea * 9i duc6 ,t

cstecomutrtlvf DeM rtunci * rdmenecomutadvasi DeI/.

& Mulim.a fl nind fintrt vom fscc tablalgii. Obtinemat&uar tabla.

lh vc& cl pnt$ oriccr,) H+r*y/J,
ceeacearat!cI allicalia * ese lege

Altfol Bpus(tI,*) devinela randulei o structurdalgebricecomutative.De exernplu

lunorc0 $i lnmultirca pe lR sunt operafi comutativeintotdeauna.Atonci aceste
opcftilii man h fel de exemplupe Wl"lZ): {t + tJzl",t eQ} dace am adtat in

lrlca;slc ;.6muhdva doaree t.bla legii nu are sinenic.din mpon o dis8onela

Ftncipl!.Dc erDplup<nnu, = t, y = 4 avemt - 4- 3 + 4l I = 4.
!. P. n ! coDrtded legr de compodfleroJ='J-4(.1+J)+2O.
Ft
fl = (3,5) . Adtld ci (Ir,c) lre o srructurn dsbdcd condtltivr.

prrllabil cd QIJZI estepartestabiha lui R in raportcuceledou6opemli

n. Arinmmail ei c{ (Ir,.) eslesrructurn

algebrici,
adic!(V)r/(3,5)+i"J(3,5)
De!
(X5)anrnci
3< r<5 <+-1< r-4<l +) l'-4]< l
'

()bacrvo$e. O lege * nu estecomutadvtr dac6exista x, y M asfel ircet t* ) t )*r.

N,Z,Q,R,C $ntlecl de.oBpuilieconutattve

l. Adunrra lnmulltreape
2. Raunluner,Intersecllape P(M) sltrt lesi @nutrfte.
r, Adunarail tn'nulfEa r'Dcliilor pe .r(R) suntlegiconut.tiE.
(Cr esreo legecomuiatlvL
{. Adunarernrlrlcelor p+ ,rt-1d.u

AYem

= 12-1. Elrd'. trupentu orra r en, (r-rf =l-1.

(,f.8)(')=('-rF p"
"a.d is..f)(')
l)brerv.d..Totutl.lsclsedl o submuttlne
firitl E C J-lR, nl secem sl s{tim c{ (It.C esle
rttucturtr dSebrlcl corutsdvI, atund sefacetablalgli c5rctrebuh 3i [ simetric!in raport cu
dl.8onahpdftlplta3. Inrnultlreo Inltrlcelor p I4(C) nu 6te comutsdYn.Pdtru s = 2, ile exemplu, lulm

o'*'o'
llu,u*
123456

d{6r'ilDdtcafr

.!rJ=..nnd.c.{aJ).

2 t2t2
3 I I 3' l

Arltofl cr.lructu'a rlgebrlci (It. ) cstcom('rivl.

R, Ai[tim cn apteliq T esteo lege de corrpozilie pe H @$nuind tabla
lcgii. Avm aldturaitablalegii.
Cum tablal8ii ca1esimeticl in rapon cu diagomlaprincipall sededD@ce 5
lcgcndc conporilicste.onutaiv!.
6
llstccl$ cil c.I)).m.d.c.
(r, )) - c.D.nr.d.c.(
), rJ .

l8

ll

ooci.r"ye(:,s)
<+J'.
r -{ <r<+l('+)(r-+)cr<+1"-rjr-rl<t.
aoevarat
oomcelr rl<r,lr_rlcr

al['
a|
B6A-.a H.' Arunci
"' *" " v,{-.r,
" ,--[r
t0 r J ( o'l-lr
r J .o r 'r) - Aa+beH .

l. Scldelerpe IRnu e3teconutstlvl

Lulmr " 3,] =s rl avenx,-! =:2,lsrr -t =2, Aiem 2+-2.
2. CompumlerftrDc$llorp f(n) Du ettecomuLtiyn.Lunm /(r)=t',s(r)=.t-1.

tr,13,416]

43

|
|
|
tEde . e3tclDmolilfta otttnuig a na.riceior,
X. Ar&!m mai indi ca . steleSede compozigpe A

Iixemplede legl necrmutr0vc

1.Pc mrl$rult=

2 43
l 43

4
23
t2
21
21

Awn:.r"y=r),-a(i+])+20:}J-4(r+.r)+m=).a(v),,yEp.
I
rr
I
=l; -)
.. Ile n=1,{ e,rt4(R)l.1o
(1r,.)esre
strucrurar8cbrrc,
@mur,tivi.
;l.oRl.turtadc!
rw r/

Ilxcmple cuno6cutede legl conrutodva

t].a=lt 11""",** ol={o ll ,, ro=[l

A.BeM.tct.,l-,lo
0
(ru
ll
l l J t0 u'

123

12\
1.1 l
t232

ll

l2
l3
.l
2
4
I 51
16

pe1tst!comuati\adeoa@.
lnmulfirla
Aa.4: Av+b= 4+d: 4.An,F)A!|Ab e H.
r
doua
cgditale
aln
folosit
conukrivirarea
adunlriilumerelorr@lea+b=b+ a).
dI
,. P. tnuidne{ Rxn detut; oprads
slgebnc!(r,r)* (;',rJ = (s'+ yy,,rr,- yy,). erltag cr
I.| . * .ir. conutrdvl.
R. lnn-ldcvirsvem(penru(',/),("',y')R,R )
(r,r)* (,',I ) = (* + n,l ",c'-1y) p (r',r,)*(ar)= (r,r+ r,),x,r_ l,r)
um xr+1y'=r'.r1y'y9i n'-yy'=x'a-y'y
s deduce
Gnnuttirc.pe R estecomuradva)
(lr)'(,"r)-(,'
v)-(,'r)aaica* eeteomut*iva.

6.n6 |r = (l,oo)-{2}rtrprcrfr

"-y=r1(.'-r}'JF.

8l .o .rrte c-r (tl.*) elteo siructurr stgebrtcaconutsder.

& Prcblinnai lntli c! * esttcSede coffpozitie
p. H. F\|L!H.
.l+r* / > l,.r* y + 2, Avml
r+('-r)'',/r-' > l (r-l)'{r-,

Dl rs.mcn.ar*/'.2.$l+1,-r;hff

>0

Sn dQm cfu*yt<+

p.nt.
r.
"deur.ar "a* r>

,,2o1,-4t"6-r *1 adevrrar
deorecer-l>0.,-t+r,

l -l > 0,)-l * 1.

t9

l.tri

r, .*r.

(+l+('-01" J) I *l I (r''l)l"F
@dutatlvr
drcd rr !- r,*x,(V),i,)H

1u r)r"G T.1v 1" . rnc + I n! t : J r n { r - r ) =

r).In(r-r)= lr"('- r)rn(r r),(v)',]e ri,
| h() - r).(v),,, It .)
;r"() - h fi ( v )i, r(r+r ,- r/" Jtl

=l,2.J,4deflnltesdelr
r, ttb tuncflllo,:{1.2,J.41-1r.2,3.411

f','='

l2,x=t

r,,,,.'' lt''=:
,r'"
,r,f,)-]2''=2
r,r, -1 3 , r = 3(ftrctili.teDrtcir

la,' =a

1 3 .r_I
[q"=l

I1'=1
12'x=2

l::,=l
lLr=2

l3,r=a

[:,-=r.

" r r =la.r = J
J3 (r ' = 14.r _3/a'

a tu|lcliilor' Arr'ati ci
Conddcllm /' = {-/1,12,.f!,/4} c /(l'2,3,4}) ti oprrda " decoDPuner
(f4,, c3testruclurl atsebdc!comutstivn
linii
t, Accst.tuncii semaipotrePEza subformaunuitabtcualoud
23 4).
lt234l
{r 2311 - ll 234J
- fl
n=11z : +l /r=i2r i aJrs=lr: e :] ,r-lz
143)
in
a
doua
lini
domeniului
de defini$,iaf
In pdns linie strecelementele
IzhJa
in luncteldollriuh.ide definitie.Acsttunclii
vrlodlc tunctrildcalculate
fz lt ft
J
/
I
I
plnlcukE F nudes permudri dgradulpaFu. Tablalegii estedd"6aldirat.
I
.
pe
H
ii
esle
vede
de
compozitie
.f2
f\ Ja J3
cd lcgca esreo lege
/2
D. dci r.
9i Plus
comutativl dat! firnd simetriaablei ln l.pon cu diagonalaprincipall.

J+ fr Jz
S. Ilo M ={r'r'c}. Ctte legl tle conpodtle se pot dcfint p M tt ctte J? | /a Jtlzt

l. P. n||umcr fl - {r, 2, 3, a, r} d6ndm .pncrsr : _LJ = re!.d inpr4n

cl (It,-L) e.teo srructurrotsebrtcrcomutrdvr.

2, PGEultl|ncr lt={r,X3,4}s coDdd.d spXcrge r*} E reshrl tnpl.frit

D.momnra$cr (It,*) ede3Fircrurl.I8!bdcr ncollulr.tv|,

j. P.nulsneiIt = (--.r1* ccnoat"

rnlc.fl,,.r =;ffi.
Dfirorrtl.{ d (tt,*).3t o rtsucto dgebrlctr
comutrdv!.
P.
nnrl$rD..nxn
.e dciretreop.lalhrtgbddk,y). (r,,rJ = (rr'+,,J,yJ,). Arfi,rdcr
6.
r.

r' .da leC. conutedyl.

n
Io rl
I-r ol
to -rl
t.H.n =Ur.h,4,{lc!r'r{R),und
/r =l: r)
:,J'^,=ltoJ,4=[o
_rJ,'.=l_r
ol

"

Adlrd d (tr,, edcof||cturl.tglbrt4t comtrdr|, ude,,, ( .{reoperafsd.ftnr

tjle arErdcdor.

i. &"*ddd"={4 =[ri;!a ;)l,

r"l. *o).D.cmxir4creoctu:rr$dcr
(r.,.)

ri. conolafvl, unde ,. t estcopr.fts de tnnulth i hlrdcdor.

' "" "

!l.mGd. din M).

lo carul nostd card(n4)= 3, iar cad(rt x M ) = 9 . Deci nwn&il d legi de clnpoziiie p M cstc cgar

xr. FIG', = t4./2,J'rlc.rrR - {0,1}L

tr(rr = r. /2{r, =, -1, yyr = j.

modurih cnE sepotcoqL6 todc laqnil mff.{te cu I ca egatcu3x1i:.x3=3',

9i a.st

nun{r ftprezinutoarelegiledeconpoziriepeM.
O tegede conpoziti deffnid pe o mulim finitl M estcomutarvddacntablal81ieste
sinnic! ln r.!on o diagonalaEhcipah.
Deci ste suficient s! completIm locurilc marcaiecu * din abla przntrtt aLona!
penEuc[ cslelaltelocui m&lntEpdn . seconpLtazl Irin sitrtic ln lalon cu dngpnala
plincipab.ori locurilen,Itate prin * sepol ctmplelaln 3x3x3x3x3x3 = 3' Acesta
ete nu irul legilor decompozitiecomutdive.

20

lut r/ prin 5,

3.Pol!ed.tuqtalege.d!cohfodtte.r.J=!x+J.tuItrSct,....rteoka6necomut{tivl.
4. P. |n||fdn r Ir=(2,oo)!.corddcrrodtcrfsr*J= t, -Z,-2! +6.
tult Scr(E, r).3t ltrlcturl dgebrlcl conuhdvl.

dlntn acelterlunacomutsdv!?
.Plicalii
asrco aPlicalic
/: n-'xlt 4 M , 4uncis$ie c! numkulacstor
R.Cumo lcg! dc compozilie
ooogrt cu (caro1vl)'d(MxM)undccard(ff xn )= catd(M) card(M) (csrd(M)= nunrrd d

Altfcl. Pcntfl cI M esteo mullimc fflit! c poatemliom utilidtd tabla legii Pentru fie.are lcge de
compotfi. av.n o sinerlrt tabl! ti Miproc.
Am mafcatpriD sLluF posibileleelement rczulRtecompunetdelemenlelemulimii M
.
Erie limpede c! necsrc loc marcat cu t poate 6 ocupal d. oricarc din lcme le
mullimii M. Deci ffecareasdel de loc poatefi completlt ln trci noduri Nunllll lotal de

|rt rJ prln 6. ArIlaF

=fl'Jrl'

*n s cr (,,,.)estc
srrudu.r
,1'*J1,,.*,,,-rr,=r|..1u,.

rlS.hdcl coErt{dya.

(f,,").!t

Derbo6lragc{

o structurl dsebrtcl comutdhn,u[de,,., esteconpNalr tunqiilor.

I r. Sccodd.rr t ={O@)-tl} d rpu-f" ,. y =,bii.

turbd ci (rr,.} edeo shoctraaEeric{

t2. Po R . defln$t! le8rdecompordfie

deflrdtnprin .r *, = ry + 2dr + tJ, a,, R . Deterninsti
., , pcnaruc.I. l.geaGlac,sodadvl ri comutatvl
l.t. ne a,rn'. re m,,r6nea(Uoo)
opratis:
sn se
'ldiDin
',=sor"*-rror,r,),>0,
d.t.mlne 4 , a!treliDdt lgeisI fle comutodyl
si esociadr{.
14. P. n s constderllsade compoziFex*y=(t-al"+w-a,x,JR.
Lgls ste
qm .ttvldacl:.) a=I ;b, a=-t :ct d=1 :ir t d =- tt.P. R o.csr8ldedregeadeonpodtie

2
I defirirlprin:

iet . =lt .

r) r * J ='' +c' + lsJ + 3,v',) r i b),' = (2a+1), +(& +1)J_ 2,vr,) R.

",
fl .. dot rrtrlrca n , $tfel hcla lc8a* sl necomurrdva
tr Ecrrcrr.

2l

lege{(l( (onrtr,rlllr {rlf(l:

10,Is n rc drjnDettc
'
l) rry=a3a6y1" t
2)x{y rlrl2.r+2J+u;

3) xrJ=ry tl|.r tr}+6i

a)r rJ = ry - 3 ( r + . r ) + zi 5 )r{J,, .!rJ-L r(}+r)+r4 r )

' *r = zr r + .r + b+ :.

ll ro dotormlnea,r,. R , ss(tcl lN{l, h [c$re c!2, legcasI tle comutativl qi Boclatlvl.

Itl,lilcment neutru
Un elemente M senume$teelementneutru pentrulegea *

pentruoricerMavem
dactr

lJncori semai spunecb logea']. admitepe e M ca elementneutntdaci

tre-e.t-:,.|v)'eu.
Frtplulctr o structurdalgebricd(M,x) are elementulneufu e se noteazhuoeod prin

(u,-."1
D0c[ ln plus legea * estecomutativd,atunciconditiaca e M si fie elqmentneutru
pantrulegea* sereducela , * e : r, (V)r e M (saue*.r: r, (V)rM ).
Atmgematentiacd elementulneufu e al uneilegi * peM trebuie si apar$ntrmuuimii
M,D@] e e M . Nu oricelegedecornpoziliepeo multme admiteelementneutu.
o legede compozte
compozFeadTUteelementneutru,aluno aceqta
esteunic.

DemoNtrotle. Vom arlta ctr dacear exista doud elementeneutreq,e2 M penftx

lcgea * atunciacesteacoincid.Avem:
- r* e t : q * .r : r , ( V) r M, (1)
x* e2= e2* x: r, (v)xe M 1 Q).
(3)
ln (l) punemt: e2$irczlltl e2*et:et+e2:e2,
iarin (2) facem.]r: q fi obFneme1*e2: e2+el: et (4).
Din (3) $i (4) rezulti q : ez. r
Obderva$e.Dacl fl esteo partestabilda lui Min Iapon cu legea* $i dacd e M este
clmentneutrupentm * , atuncialacds 11, acestaesteelementneutrual legii induse
de * pemullimea11.
Astfel numtrrul0 esteelementneutrupentru adunarcape lRCum0 Z , acestava fi
pe Z (A se vedeaprcblemarem1va16
elementneutruqi pentruadunarea
4).

22

n clcmcntr" M senumegrdiiifriiiiEffita-

pentru

le g e a* d a c t r * r = r , ( V ) x e A .
Un elemente/ M se nudre$telementneutnr la drapta penhu legea *
daci x*ed = x, (V)xeM .
Agadarun elementeM esteelementneutrupenhu legea * dacA numai dacde
$i
csteelementneutluat6tla slangacatsi la drcapu.
Dactro legede compoligje
esti notarimultipiicariv.
elementulneutru.dacaexista,se
nuttltte-elcme unitate $i senoleaz?ide obiceicu simbolul 1. Dacdlegeaestenotat6
editiy,-elementulneuhu,dactrexisti, se numegteelernentnul qi se not!"ri d; ;i;;l
cu slDbolul 0.
Fie M o multime pe care am definit o lege de compozitieasociadva cu elemer{
$i
neutrueM. Pe o asdelde multimeam definit codpusula n elemente,n>1.
Operaliadata-avend$i elementmutru.definimacstcompus
,i lrntru /, = 0 ca fiind ?.
Dacl operatiaalgebdcepeM eslescrisemultiplicarivanmcidefrnirnpurereaa ,?_a
a
x
factorir'
dace
,l
>
0
-rrn
lui .r M -prin ,' - {x
dacan:0.
le,
AvemevidentpentruoricerM$io ce n,nN
{.in

_rn+n,({\'t

_ xnn.

Dlcd M esteinzesEate
cu o legede conpozitiescris,adjriv.asociarivd
si cu element
ncutru_o
M, aruncipenFuorice.r( M Siorice|l N. definifi ru prin:
+t+
+'(n termeni)'dactrn>0
,r - lr
daca/, = 0.
10,
Au loc egalitttilel
nx + N(:ln+ n)x, n(nx): (mn)x, (v)x M, (v)lz,lr N.
||xcmplecunGculattetgtcutemnt
neutru
l. Adunsrt{pN,Z,Q,R, C srecaetement
neutrun|mArulze.o,cSndevem:
+0=0+, =,, (Y)r.
2, Irnuldrr peN, Z,Q,R, C arecarelnnr
reutru,uD.rtl Du, ceodavem:.
t.r=r.t=r,(vlr.
Cornpunerea
pe
adiotte
J.
caefement
fln4
rcu.ru tundis idenncldeta M r, M, rM. M -+ M,
{. Adun.rc! hatdcetor pe ,rt4 (C) e ca etenent neutru marricer nulI (cu roate elementelegale
6u r.m) notdl rlmptu Or .

nt,tsrh'lr olc u|tt neuiru peniru op{nrth d. htmt\|ft e

r. M{lrl$tr trtrlt'lte I,'^4(C)
n.lrl$l0r dln .{4(C).
mulflmea
n }$ nn'lllmc! P(,rlt) a pl4llo. trn.l M'lthnl /lt ol.n.nlrl ncurrufrtl de reunluncNte
nul tl mer
i
nterscl
i
este
e
n
c
u
rru
frtl
d
r\ lr , l u a =anX = X J V ) X P ( M ).h r$ t' !n { n h ' l

r, n. |M.
| Mn . x = x n M = x ,(v)xeP (l rl

a. Se coruldcrl mulllnes de matrlce

I 1,0tr'ulllmcq M = {e, 4 4 c} sconslderl lesc! do conpo'lllc

brll{ilItNd).
Hl e urote cI legor T dnlte eleme[f nuiru.
eT e = e, aa e = e I 4 :.t,b T e = e T h - b ,c I e = ea. = t te
|t t )h rcg Al i dlils
(l.ducc c! . M cstelementulneulrupentd T .
a d h { tta r*I= ry-2(' + r)+ 6.A rrtattcI
s ec o ru l d e rn
, . r ,omu l tl neaM = ( - 6, 4u( 3 ,6 )
(M,+) oeteo liructurI slsebncllltrl

elme mutn|,

*
o Iegede
k.I,rprul cd r M e .r- 2l> I . Probdmcd (v,*) estestructuoalgettlcl' adicl este
A vem ,* y' l c< e
t u'np ri ti c F M c es c e F v i te l a t a rd tac I (V)r.) n 4 + ,* ]M

s l,*, -21>1<+
l(' 2)(y-2)l>r<+1,-2llv-21>1'evideit
lrt|upunem acumca e M esteelementulneutru.Ttebuie.! avem:
M
' ,\Y )x
' a e :e * t=
S. vcdc uqor..4 leg@ e$e comutaiiv! $ deci plim egalilaiede mai sus se veiifi.5 D@i trhle @
< + (a -2 )k 4= 0' (v)rM< + = 3
r +d.. r, (v) r M < e
' e- 3( r + s )+ 6 :' ,(v )r M
neutru
+
tdBite
elemem
prin
unde
legea
nu
3lM
ohrcNlncd
9i
r.I,c multlmeaII = [-2,)detlitm apncrfta]*]=3rr+6(r+J)+r0.
Snrc aEle ctr + esto lgede comporifie pe ltr cu elmentneutnl
!e lt
R-Ard6mcI * esteo legedecompozili
lric J,, ,9 . A t uoc ir= 2+ o .l = -2 + 0 ,o ,P > 0 .9 i d @ i

\"

'=3(

2+o ) ( - 2 +p ) +6(-4
+s+ p)+r0=-2+3dp> -2

A.custaaEt! cddin ,, ) lt + r * e H , adic[ * esteo legede comPoziliepe H

'
coNtadva trebuieseavem
l:ic e H eleneDlulneuru-bgea fiind
"

0'(v)' a.
r* c= r,(v)I H {+3'+6(r+,)+ r0: r, (v)i s'{+(r+2)(3.+5)=

l)rcn r + -2, alDncidid ulrim ecalibte3" + 5 = 0, adict. - -;

( 2 r-l _ l 4 z ) l i l - "
J]
J]
\

t :l -r0 -r0 2 2-r0 - 2

I <\
A("n ,p (n ,D d, i( ( . - H av e m e s rl ra texa l .-l -\'
\ )l

ci(n elto
o
*'''''Aratsf
")
-'1..

,l

f,

lr I a-rrri

0' r ] fl . Au n ci.1: 4 = 1 00
4 - 1 9 9'"1
il 4 =1 0
lo o r J
to o r j
to o

I l = A, r r r n . o e o a r e ce
rJ

a+b+la22+1,
Md muftllnnut$r.!!e /t stecomutativd
doarcce
Aa.4= Ao+b+t:4+o+t=4.Aa.
Flc .4,H elm.rtulunitatepnr! lnmultire.Trebuiesi avm 4.a,:.a",(V)Aafl
Aa+"+t=4,(v)Aa eH .
Btre.LrcdA,= 4ca=b.Decidin d+.+t = lkrezultta+e+1=s s! e: t22+t.

sau

tl I -lt
Bloiicrful rEuru .stc ,4.t =10 0 I i. Esteoa.evreocontradicfie
lntrefaprutc! 13 esteelement
t0 0 ll
noutu pcnm tnmultircadin M@) ga cazul acesra)d faplul cd A.resre elernentneutru
p.nr Hc.Ar3(Z)?Nu,pcntNl
.13nuapa4innultimiiH.
Ir,Dlme prupu!

='
r' r,cmutdmea
L - {0.r,2,J.4}defl
ntmlp'catia.....'s,r", = Ii I i. I I I
-,,
[r -r. rS3 d r> l.
Arllnll cI (fl, t .!.e o structurl rlgebficnDearocladel,
Dtomuratlv{dar o elmentDeutru.
I P. mulflneaIt t5, 71dnrimaplcala r * J = .tJ - 6r - 6t + 42.
Arll4l cI (Il,*) 6teo siructurnalsebriclavAndelmeDrul
Durru, = ?,
J lh ,1=C-{j} os nnl|fnEstd C,I)t6ntnpeC leeadednpodde
}rr=,J+i(r+J)-1r+i),
Arll'rtl ci (Ir, T) steo tluch|rl slsebri.I asoclrtlva,conursfivncu elementneutru . =1 -i .

t(

.-\

l(4J

t=-2

"- -rll4rn.ar4-0lc,v2rR, riteseidecohpo,irie

. (i'DldcrrmaJ=ll-'
p-^22(R'
d4I

I,

Accsr esteelenenlneutrupentru* dac! vdncAm galilatear*d:rC1pentru

/(l
/
rl

"=llo
LtoX iJ"

iructurl algebrlct cu elermnt uttrt.

R. Mai intni aratlm cn lnmultireamt icelor din .113@) inducepe H o legede conpoziiie. liir-adevnr

l,

t da$ pdn tsbh

ll'

On tvem:

o,l Ih b.l I
6
a, h
-l + 1. .-l = l
'.
l .- d4l
,4,
t.r
t,3
l4J+444
x lofvl, co elmentneuinl
Ir^ n\
I

i rh u=ll:

\4

:lla,bezlc
0)
l

a, +d, b, l
'
. "1. I xnoD. r r ar ici ( H. . ) 6t e o sr r ocr r r ot sebr icd
aaial

M2tzt -srs. rnte cr (fi.relte sruclorrar8brici

almiativrcu

.lrnFnte neutre la .t!rga.

rc|Iczinll elenenlncDlru.

25

6,Pon rod.ttnettelegerdetomfxlrlllor.JErJ-2.}-2r+D,Dn,SIrodoi6rrdnvdor
e
pontru
lul r
cffe fl=l2joo).eto o pnrtodrbll! I tut R tr nport cu,,*(. tht nr n s rpot
dcn.ntul neutrud leSll,, . ., pefl.

Ir-' 0 ,]

,l
rn. r=le(''=l o o o
I'er,'*|f 'j c,v,,n'. e.rt d ci {rr,.}$iestucturi
[- o r-,J
[

.l:.brlcl .r{dsdvl, comutatiel!cu elemeDr

neutnl
l.ll .. dol4rnltrevdoile p$snetrulut rEil 4 $rfel lnctt tegidBcompodflepe n deltrds prtrl
I . J d(; + J) - rJ sI fie $ochtivl rl comutadvl.Detrnlnrd elemoftorneutru,
e. P.- R|s ddtrc*legerde compoddel.]=2rr-2x-2r+c,xen.
Fr. It=R-{1}.
D.t nr r.d !. . peNrhrc.Ie (H,r) steo srructurl rlgebrtcr,soctritrd rt rpot plrclrsf ethenrt
nautru.
l0.Po mrtdl'rx R se coBtderllegeade colnpoztfer.]=r,l+dr+rJ+..
SI se $ate ct
l.$|', * " este$odativr drcl d nunrt dacl .dnjte lenert reutru.
I l.Pon !. definEttlsoa,,* ,, prtn: r *y = ry-(r +y)+z+,6,
r,r en.
l) tuItrtl cI lese., I i' oiteconutauvf tar
panes..bi[ a hi n tu raportcu r, . ,/.
lrE,oo) este

2)sr

llxemplecunos{uredo l$tt cu otemnae

stmerrtc.
L Eler|entulmuku ? e6retemenidmerrizabit.un 6inetricat s,u lreeti
nsuri,?,_ , .
z. Fot! d{ rduD".ei nuneretorm'rlrat.singunl elmnrsirneriz.bit
eslt0 t?{ro),citnd_.0= 0.
J. rlrtr de 8dumrc pe Z (elerDetrtul
neuFulre 01,orie temenrestesihttriz{bil (ortceetemenr
r z !r utropus+) dodece'+ (-4= (_4+ J = 0.
4' FsfI delnnultlra pe Z (lelnoDrul
nedru estr), stngureleetnentetnversrblesurt I (evend
drn tltcolI ) g -1 (avindsilnetdcul
-r) ctnd r-1=rri {*r)-l = _r.
s. FoStls hrn ft p,14(C) (elemDtulDeurue3ie,r
drEhizaHlsuDtllnnlceteI cu
) etnEnrere
d(.q +0,drdoi nErtcda ffrd mtdcatnrcnr A-r ,&n *A-r=/rr.e=4.
6.FatI de conpunoreap
stnor.izab e smt tuncfiile
'F(M) (etemenr neutrultelM ) elemeDrr
bllerdve, deoarecco .pticad / sle inversabitdtrac!
numat d.c! e!.e biiecrtvr cjnd

y . 1 - r = 7 - r . 7=r ,,

ne
rncat
r*r = r, vr e lJl,oo).
'e't,ern r [!6,o)*aa

3) thtelmlrrs elcneDt'dDe"m ,r r"9r ,, " p.

["E,-) .
-

ll renm. e (Jz,*) n"arsrsedcrerdne

y q (Jt,o) o*

o* y = r+,6.
"u"ino.er4i"

u.Pe R s cotrstderllcger de conp{dde * defiDit!pdn r*J=ry+srraJ+r,

d.i6rhlne a,, n , sltfel hclt legexsI ldmftn ebnent neutru.

Si s

P4. Element simetrlc

Dettuttle.Fie (M,*) o smctu[ algebric!cu elementneutru M $i

r M . Spunem
ceunelernentx' M esteun slmetfical lui .rin raDon

Demonstr4ie. Fie /, r,, douaebmentesimetricepentrur Avem

r* . r' : r" F x : ,
(l) $i
x * t " : t " t rx : e ,
(D.
(2)
(1)
Atunci:t'=.t'*e:x'x(r*r"):(;,xr)*x":e*r':.r"qireoremaestedemonstrari.r
Notolte. Dacd (M,*) estesmctura algebricdasdciadvi cu elmelrt
neutru, atunci
$i
notdm U(M) submulfimeaelemenrelordin M simetrizabilein mport cu * .
Asadar

* dace x,r' = r'* r:,

Dacdexisttrr' cu aceastaproprietate,spunemcil .xesteelementBimedzabll, ln mport

cu regea* .
Strobservlmctrx' estesimetricullui t adice(.r')'= r.
Fscemprccizareagi in acestcaz ch simetdcullui .r elementul,' trebuie sd apartintr
mulflmll M. Deci odati glsit .r', scesta trebule si fie in M. Dacd legea.* este
comulativa.alunci.r'C
M eslesimetlicul
luixdac6,
x+x - truur'*,:it.
"
CAndbgeaestenotatdmultiplicativ, vom spuneelernentinversabil
ln loc de sinretrizabil
1l
"uo
Dac! legeade compozitieestenotattradltiv, vom spuneopusul lui.x in toc de
$imctdculhri,ri oousullui .r scvAnotl cu -r,

.r M, definimpulereanegativax -", a =.| . prio

t
Enteclar cd x-' esleinverseentru I , (r,
: ,-, .
)Anrlog,dacalegeade compoziliepe /t-t.e\readitiri gi x M areun opus anrnci
-r

dcfinirn(-n)-r,n
) l, pri"lr;tr,),;ei;l

inversin loc desimetdc;inversullui .t ." u" notacu ,-l

fli element

26

Btteclarcd n(-r) esteunopusal luir?.r,- (nx1:n1 :t1.

2l

II
TrorGmI.Fio (M,*)o rtmctur!Elgobrtclalocls0vl ii cu GlGmant
'|Gutru.
Atunci:
gletnent
l) Dactr
lc r, ) M Buntrimctrizabile,
atuncicompusullui , cuy
08!csimctdzabil
Simaimult(.r,ry),= y,*.r'.
2) DacI elementulx.l!t estesimerizabil,simetriculstru,.rl este.de
88cmenea,
simeFizabil
ii (x)' = x.
3) Dactr, M esteEimetrizabil,iar y M nu estesimetrizabil,atunqi
t,ty,t*xeM nu suntsimetrizabile.
Domorntmfe.
1)lrrbuie
s! probtun
cn (* *,y),*(y,*.r')=(y * x,)* (.r* y) = a. avem
(folosirdasociativirabea
legii * ):
(r+ y)* (y * x')= x+(y* ,')r,c'= x*e i x,= x *r.=,,i aralog
(y'*.r')* (r * y) = y',*(.r\ t) * y = y'* e* y = y'*y = s .
Docl .rr,,este siroeaizabil
9i,.).*r,este unicul s[u eitrptric (vezi tedena
p$c.dcntI),

2) Rczulgdin definiliaelenentuluisimctric(observend
c[ .} ,i ,' au rol simeric ln
rccrrt! definitie)gidinunicitatea
sa.
3) Prcsupuncm
prin reducerla absurd,cd elenpntul z=.t*) estesimetrizabil.
Atuociti elelllenftl.r'r z (dela punctull)) e8tesimenizabil.
Dai avcmr\z=rl(r*y)=(r1.r)*y=e,ry =y, cee ce lnsar'nd
ctr) ar fi
simatrizabil,
Conhadictie.
Prinuroare** y nuestesirng&iz8bil.
Analogsearatecd *, rlu estesirhetlizabil.
r
'
Obrorvaltl.1) Alinnalia1) din leorem!spunec6 (u (M\,*\ esteo stmctur[algebrice,
adictr' estelegedecompozitie
indusnpeU(,f) delegeadecompozi$e
depeM.
2) Daci legea este noBttr multiplicativ.atunci aceasEafirmafie si transcrie
, .-| :y
(fyl

'r

'.

Dactrlegeaesrelor4ttraditiv,atunci-(r + y): (-y)+ (_.t).

DefirdFe.Fie (M,*)o openlie algebEidavand4 M elNnent
neuuula
stenga(ed M elemeftrcuru la dreapra)
ii , M .
Spunem
cd r'rM (x'deM) esteun rirnetrical lui.r la stanmOa
dreapta)
ln raportculegea* d.ct
r's* ta=es (t*x'd =ed).

Scmaispunectr r M esterlmedz,qbllls itdqr (lo dre{ptr) h rsport cu ,Ndactr

.xirttrr'r M (r'd M ) pcntrucarg,r'r*x=cs

28

z s. ddtnedetegsde coDpo?itie
x@J= rstulimpr4i,fl tui r +r h 6. Fie
::",3d"""
r {0. t,2.3. 4, t cZ. AIi.!S c.(n,e))
H
.eo s.ructurialeebrtc..DeterEtMgerenenrete
||m"H,rblle dh II tn raportcu(E
* .
& Tsblahcii e6re
da.aar,ruraL.
ol0 | 2 j 4 5
tlTr--r4urv I z r 4 5
*:3;T,:ff9:"1,"1.,,e8ijes,e.=0
P.nt$ a d..eminasi,'*nicur
r
u*: seurm'ftgepeodzolararui,eremmtur"iifj"=Tttr**
""J.r.*"i,
",:r,
Jr z : c s o
coloane
212
3 r50
I
r
F car ss.5.qre
? 4 rtpreandsi,1*lri""ii;
i: q'Td!.r

i**["f"trJ,i$:T5':]d;;,';ffiilil;;ii,1t**
; l; ; ; I I ;
.4_2,_5=

D.ci _o=o .t-5._2=4,_l_1.

::_Ty:-|ne!.I:"

il'f";"ff**g:t*
E

rco|en denrimresEa
decoDpoziFe
r _r =rr _3{rrr)_r2. ArltaF

comutrdvn'
ad'"iteer.,nertneu*u.srrbirirrermeDrr
simetrizabrre

Sc vdifica prin cdcul alociadvior!

, R

ti comu|ldviral3legii. pennu delf,minars elemennrtuineuiru

defidt,!
acesruia,..
= x.(vt,( n * *_ :k
1
.udti:drn
"
ir"{r-3)=
4(,_3).(v)xR.

* rz=1.]il;;^:'

D&I r+3 rzutl!. = 4, ptrrrur = 3 se vedficr imediat

egditaH 3 i 4 = 3 Atadsr P = 4 FPrezjnd
atam.ntulndtrv paru lcsea T ,
ll da.nninaD acun elerndEle siltErizjb e. Fie r R
9i x. R 3im.lricut tui x tn rqon cu T A!rm:

r*''=4<+.n,-3(.r+i)+12=a.$x(r_3)=3.t+8.
Dac!.rrr3, arucir,=I+ R

D.cloricc.r R, , * 3 admite
unsimehicr,= 1:!

*"1'*"
deco'pod(re
*Jri",-01,*11*n.oe,'=rs.r.Ar..rrc,
l-1,1-*
,.r..ite o sarucrort
olSebrtct

l|'
!.odrdvt conutadvn,
coetemeot
neuar|L
tharn nlti etemenrete
dlnIt h r'porr cuhsc{ ".
I!..rlrrMh
r.St oba.rvtun
cd, H e 5S,iz J-. _r s,- es r *,, _eJsr.

fuum !c srad ulor cd dac! x. y tt , abnci , I y e 11.

trtl lllcul svnificA alociativiraEa comukriviraF.
d
te$r.
!lanr!n|l!l .tt
Rprezim! .ternennl neuru i.

r.t - 6(x+4-42
=,.ivr,,a *

= 11,$1,1,l"f
"1,_er
Dtsl_.rt 6, arurci..= 7 H . i.r pentru
j =

""" dedI"--r',v'xe11

6 sevennc!egaltarea
6.7 = 6 . Deci. = 7 esreelemenol
I.|tru h mDorlculep.. oD.lsnrtn|macnrnirc simetizabite.
Fie rrr9j J. L erementul
sru sitrtric..Irebuieqdaven
||.I|!b.'* x,: 7 <+'e,_6(r+,,)+a2= ? e r,(,,6)= 6r,3s.
hll ,r r 6 , ahlrci,'=g+.
ElelimnliobliNtr rEbuiesi ul*1oarU a, ai"a 5
.7 ,
3q:I
6n
""u ""
l 15.?l
.
Dtaldn$ftI. ot6m!ni.oimerrizdile
sunar=5cend:.=5
9jj = 7 c,Id r,= ?.
r.tL tt-(o,oo)-{Un
ryrcadar*.y=rrn,.rn,.n*rrdcr
+ e.teo ler de compozitie
pe,'r,
lodrfvl conutdvt, ct|oterurr noucu.Dr.rrdnrdetelnl.l.
Ar*oAUr. J",rnr" _p."i.
_
" ".'

29

R. Drc! r > 0, i * l, ) > 0. y * I r I t > 0. x { ) a I , ce! @ tnseamndcu ,, N,, orrc log de

-|
Pnn calculs6 vedficdaeciarivirarca
t.gii. EtenenDlneuFu& M m pmpdellrea
tl comululrvrrstco
=,,(v
)
.
t
eM
. t N'r
s et nr ' rD ! :,,(v )x M < +tn x .l n /,= l n r, (V )rM < e
+l n a =l <+ v = eeM .
Obecnlfle. Candin structu! lgii figurca! ln *te iDdicats! norlm lemeniulndFu ;u aftn litera (aici
Sa drminAmacumelcbftEle sinErice. Fie r.,t4

,i x'M

simetri$l sau.Trcbui. se avem

Evidor .t'>0 ti r'+1 (&oarecedacn

,'=ta1"6i =1o l:u,
lnt

tnO.

D.i (V):! M estesinetriz.bil.

s.nemuftime{
a=p+

ilal ea,a2-sl? = r}c n qiop",{i"a"fi'lnutitre

peR. Arnrti

5d'J- rsidai rr.M.

'\a'-sb')\x
Cum MclR, id lmDltirca pe IResteasociativn
se.leducecn rnnaneo aeleati
9i comutativd
propriet4iri pesubruIimenl"r.
rie r-d+P\6cM,c(pq.c2
Spz- reremorut
neDtru.
tebuiesea\em:
xe: x,(v)xe M 4+ ar'+5'f+kp+,o).6:4+r\6,

(v)z.Dea.

- las+s,E:a . .
Daicirezurtd
${emur:
l"i ff_-|".o..t.O. ", sar- t.
P u n a n d=d l. r = 0inpf ir o*u a ti e R z u l d a - L
Din a doua@ualie.ezuld@n d- 0, candp:0.

oecie - t+0.6. v. h'z-s.02- r).

S! d e re rminim
elenenlele
s i trtri z a b i l eF.i e x = a + b .l \,o ,b e e .a2-st2= 1_56snsi m,' M

'

- --+-=

d ' ]).Jr

c'roperaria
deconpune'e'

f2 J1 J4
@npunmr tuncTnbresreNciaovd. D.i pe tf dnane Is fet.
,i
i
Jr J1 12 fz
*mutalvitaba bgn Ezdtn din t"tr+ *"*tn niro srtrrnca in rapon cu
diagonalaprincipau. Elemenh,reutru este .
f2
fr fa J3
i
Oh.nam ca pe fiecaE trnje . Bbtei apm eleoenrut neuEu lr.r
toale 13 J3 Ja h T2
o|ctrnretesuntsimEiabite {tunciitesunlinveAabiter
sraven;
f4
13 f2 Jl

rne a =lA.-e

t;) = f2,t{t = h. Jit: fa.

^.

[l
lo
r'
^a2&tli-=

. -t],".

o.,

sr searate
ci inn"ltireaDatri(tlor
depe
I i-""-rOi
I,^4@) induceo legede conpodli asoci{tivn,conetariyl cu etelnnrneurrupe
,i
ll. Crre sont
demcntle dmetrlzabiledin d ?
R. Si arntdmcdlnlnutireaestelegede corDpozirie
peri Fie.4b,4 e 1l g snp$brm c, Aa. e H .
4
.-.- - . !. a-r\lb b t) (cb ab t\

^"'"' +'u--[o

]lo , l- lo

eH wo",,ao.o*o'ot+0.

, l-

'
lnnulFreaMrricelor.sle
aociadrA.DecidmrLne
t, tet si peH. Cxm inmutl,Ramdricetor,
h genrEl,nu-i comutarird'nroktquna
rrebuiesr lrntnm cn,4a.ts = 4 . A",
lV)U. 4 e E .
Od awn Av 4 = A"b : Ars 4 .ab(pentru a douaegalitalean utilizat
conutativirsteainnutirii
l6n,ab = bo:1Olsim ln condnudeelemnnil neutruat legii. Fie acsl.
& // .
Trcbuiest avm,.1a.,4b:d , (:r)A" H 1+A", = A.,lv) A" e H .
C um,a,= 4 < +a , , dm aisusavema?=agideci
"=i( a+0) .
/r
^\.
eremnrurmuosc,
! {r
"]
-1
^rN de

t *^'"o,=lj fJ^"n"*
*'.'""*.*,"
alanEntneutD ln rapon cu tnmuttire3nErrjctor pe
fuclt lucru se puteaobtine rom@end cn pe ru 4 =

Ob6ensfie.cum I esreelemnr neum penru 1mDlfta din R. ie t- | I 0.J3, rV , anjnci(am

vdzrt la panestortici penlf,relementneutn) cd I esiede demeder elementneurru!i p mtlit@ M tn

=I-,

1.

Arrt8F d (Ir,tste strudurn atgebricnssoctativr,comtrtafv4 cu lement

rcuftL Strbititi

fa' :

d (M,, esteo shucturl algebrtc4 ssociativt conutlrtvr, cu eln|ntneutflL Detmtdali

.l.q.Dtpie simeirlz3bileditr M ln rapon o tDnulrir@
R,Si lrnrim cdlbmuldresp,tzesteri tegeceorp6aie.
Fje r -- a
) - c I dJ5. a,b,c,d( e. a2- sb2- t,.2 sd2- t.
-r\6,
Lve]m
,y=ac+5bd+(dd+rc)!6, undeac+sbd,ad+bc.e $i (ac+sbd)-s(an
+bc)2=

pcnnu
cm r, -l*.

49= l.7.r"_.
r r - - r ,7ar r r - -

i:ffiff;ff;315?'"{#J:*''
nloldeilna

j * ,'= .* elnr lnr ' = . < r l n ,rn ,,:t o r" ,' - -L * +

lnr
' .= " *.
Avemdevaificatc! r'M.

dcoar@ a,-, Q 9i a2 - s(-r)'? : I . in final orice elenent din ,r ate

simtriabil (invmab,l) tn
raponcui nmufl i rc&
Din t eM
sideciM qLeinf injr a.
- x2. , J. . . . . , n. . . . r . ( v) ,
6.Ee E ={!rJz,h,felcf,(R-{0})
clr oFrafs de coquner a tunctiitor,nide
/r(})=r,

";!!s, -.-615.De.i x -a-t-bt,[s| M,

a, _\ h.

hmuttir pe H.
llomdtDl Aa A etesirerriabild.ciexj$!,4d, I'

.M2(R). Deci rimene etementnflrru Si penrru

yJl|.ucte Aa.Aa,:4<+
4n\:At.

D odci aa - l * a -!L a*ot .

Atduone

4 ll aE snnericinarricea.41A.

fnft$i .n/.l ri n A t.A n _ I 2r cat 6cA, a?,esie. hidI n\ ebrm ahcer

A, .

30

3l

i L.o'ddor.

[t. o "l I
r ol;">ol
a=llo
o
I t ' .l I

,r' r cI lnmulCltrnu.dcelordln Mr(r) |nluccFreH

o h|. & d)m@Se osoctodvl. comutrtlvt, cu lementneutru'

el.meDtte sln trlztblle dn f, tn rapon cu ltrmuldrcr.
thr;flnhr
|{. flo vonfic! imcdiat ct (v),4",4en +A! Ab:A2obeH la,b>0+a'>0)
||||trlc!k'r ost! lntold.run aso.iadva,deci la fl rlrnene$ pe H
AvBm:h.4 = hah = 4 4.1v)An,4 e H .
f '.dru comutstivitate
<+A2d,:'{'(V)4t
lifomonrulncutru ,{H@ calitaL{ ce A" 4=A''(Y)AneH
_I
/L - 4 4 - , . de nai sus ftzrttA 2@- a qi a*i
"

at"*nfill

Imu{ira

.i

cun

neuEuP'nFu inmultires

^,uA-

11
oll2l
t1
:10
poH6stcmatri@,4r

(fi,.je.ta o shodu olgebrtctuodadvt, canutattrl, cu aenent neurru9t ortce

Orro*r."g
"r
a.nEn dh fl adn{.. on dmerrtc(lwrs)h repon @ opr4h dehnndthe.

I 01.

r 1 1o 1l
2)
12

Ob&rvlmca 13 careesteclcmentnutruln npon culnNttirea depc n4{R) nu apa4inlui ll ! Deci

nupo!!! fi vorbace 13sI fie elencntneutrupcntrulmultirer p' Il'
(ti ioverssbile,
carelc numrmalad&n /3 esteelmdt
Sl d.t rminrn a.:umclc@ttlsimctrizabil
npon cu lnrnultirca Fie '4s It $
ditr
t'
in
n6utruf!t! dc imnu\ir.a natricelordh ,M3(C))
s! aven:Ao 4=At++Az-'=At
s[u Atuncitrbuie
,4,'ry sinetdcul
u'=

t oa*n o t o. n

"i

D! aici 2d'=;rideci

pqtru ,4b H ,simticulsduesteA],

e.Fte,,N,,,>2,dat'r
"={r=[i

]]l'"."r"

osr.ucr'rr
=',].,r.nor (rr')ste
"l

rlsebrlcl, comuttltvl, cu elemea neuftL Caresunt lenntlrinetrit'rbile dtr I. ln nport cu

lnmulltre{ ?
R. Inmultireape tl este o

ol_
lege de @mpozitie."*,*.
101r,r."*-=[
fJlfr')-

=''
-'
-{;;J*"'"**""'
"
,',J:[;'J'*"""'
"=[{
"

Accat! ins$mndc! penuunatri*

t, P mt tlne{ Z sc donnqt lesead c'rpodde r8J = rcftul tnplrFdl lui

ts 6, ri
'}
E lO, l, 2t 3, a, 5l CZ, Arn{f d (fl,8)este o 6frc$In rlgebricl conurrdvr, cu etement
'
mltrle. D.&rniDd elenentelsrth d slDtrlzat|lletn rapo @,,6...
,. Pe mt||fn{ numerelorcomplxeC se dffnSteleges,,*.. prtn .r* z2 = zr + z2- zrz2. I..1a
H =C-(1). AiIilF cr,* " lndocepert o leged conp@itiealociadva,comut{dvlcu elendt
!a[tlu. Dt rr rili elenslrtdedntl dmrdz.bile ln mport cu lge{rretn
lPc n ddbin ls!! de colnpouitie
rTJ=3ry+6(xfJ)+10.Fie
tr=(-4-).
tunlti cr
(|I,T) est o sbuciod clgebrrd comorstiy4cu lementDeutrurt cr oric lemm. dtn It esr.
i||FtiroM nr ..port cu loger,, T ...
(t..1
a. r|t It={rRl.I=a-rJlo,o.re.a,-tor,=ll
d oprq$rde tnmotdnpe R.

, =

l'

01

[i

,J ""*""*

r ! suntsoruprleautin

D'i

'"--|

mollimcsH areln total 12 elenente.

Inmult'rcs rorricclor Ate lntoldsuba socistiv[
lnmullini .ste ti @mutltiva in acest@ (cume vcdeu6or)
El.mcnd n.utN.stc 12 (flobtinemPunendj=v=I rld{cindPentruz'=l)
2
lui 11
lnv$tr lui^ csrc en-l pcnrrucl I e'-l =,l tnvcmalui A2ott An tc Toateln"tol'

32

I n

t=(-Lr)cn$

aenc4tar*r=

i;+:. ArIed cr (n.+)6re o stmcturr arsebdcr

r+rJ
lod.{vt conntidvl, cudnenaneutnrtl ortceelen nt din U c!@stmetrtzrbtttn rrport cu ,, * ...
6,8. conddlrr lr=(0,oo)-Old apllcrfr rr1=15rnr. tuitati cr (r,')ete o strudu|r
dfirdcr .lodst'vl conuaadvl,cu l.nent neutrurt cI orictcmentdjn fl 3telimtdzabit ltr
nFi cu lege.a
&tr.
00
00
t, Coilldertm m gmer ile lLdce
t0
01
.. tntntr$E lhnonrtratt ci (Il,rei4 o srruct6I atsbrtcaalodrdyn, omuiatiyr, cu etc[tenr
lmlrr| d orlcoelehnt.I! ll ested|ned,lbil h rrport culnnultina.

i, n. fl = (0,1)rtapltcrdr r =
Arn4 cr (8,, sreo stsuctudalsebdcn
'"
,,/+l_---gG+r.
I.ddvl,

"

conutrdv{ cu dene

{"=[S,1

neutrs ti ortc. elemenidln E r4 sitDtrlzabtttn mpon @,, c...

*l]r."].*,*,.

*o* ci r"' ri*a mtrrceror

depe.^..{2.o)

Ind!.. p. fi o Lge de compod$.sodotlvt, corutadvl, cu elen n Deutrart odcc eletrlenrdtn It

ln rrpon cu rctllt l.ge.
th,ln|!td'rh

r,,,n. l),'=[; _11"."0-*

u=1,,r+al"e
n'r.
^=[_]

A Ll cr II'G prrte srrh|lr. hi ,{42(B)h rspo( cutnnuttha naffictor ri UGr.)= fl.

33

d.ardton gmnErdddmr$t.
Mlrde rurdrnddrtr Cermon
DsvtdHlb.rr (I86jll943t ! Igrtr sI
naolve(1E99)de o nnntrl $ttficrtosr d6dta problerDrc donudzad dorE rH nO d6;r.
Anmrlr.Is
orltrdtdl (1889)r fod l..ltirllt deErt.|rlddlnut trrlar G|lE;Doep![o OtS&r932)
(l dlorE). Teorh mifmihr a fo.t.dmdrsfi
d! n|rr.mrtdrlrut selltr.lr--z,cndo ffitr_rgfi:li
O orlorEJ,rdu!|| d Frdrata densttmettdnNt CermmFl'e['rd ([91.i965).
u. lu|[|I de eremprr {ptrlie pe ptrn mondt.t.Ernrrr.r. tut Erdtd sesttuerrl F tocutdot
iupl Btble.

I.4.STRUCTURIAI,(;}.]BRICE

Am vlzut c[ dacf,pe mullimconovidl M definimo legede compozilic*, atunci

cuplul(,u,*) l-&mnumitsistemalgcbric.
ln ianorrl, dacdM z o , ali.)ncinumimstructurtralgebrlc[ pe multimea orice
'. lunq
,egl
acestre
peM deunasaumaimultelegi decompoziFe.
lhlgtuttr dctcrminatd
una
de alta
(asociativitate,
fiind
legare
.
sau
),
comutativirale,
unor
condidi
NDuro
faF
de
alta).
(distribulivitaEs
compoifie
unei
legi
de
1.4.1.Monolzl
relatii
rnumite
Drln
tondlfilc la cari sull supuselegilece definesco sEucturdalgebricdti rel4iile de
Numtrlul
LrltuiN cc cxis!trtfi a;ste b! coastiruieaxiomeles$uquriirespeclive.
Defrdde.Clplul (M,*), u.de M * a 9i * esreo legcdecompozirie
pe
considerad.,
speci.destructurtr
camcterizeaztr
bab! dccompozi[eti axiomele
M,
senumegteEpnoiddtca hgea * satisfaceunntrtoarele
dou6axiome:
(numitesi sis@me
sunlteonl lPotelcNeoucove-rn
axiomahce)
Tooducsxiornatizate
M)
lrgea
*
este
ssodadvtr.
(axiomele)
expuse
sunt
primitive
cu! tlrocnii nedefnili (primitivi) 9i propoziiiile
dela lnceDu!.
orDllcitsi comDlct
Dacd, in plus,legra+ verificn9i axiom*
noincritete & se au ln vedcrcdespreansamblulde axiomefeaali din Ferenliile
ln
Ittlr)Legea* estecomutrtlvl,
cend
gl
{Atunci
adomelor
non
contradlc$o
auume:
;uDrs unciborii axiomatice,
rdom'lor
sa).
hdep.ndent!
propoziFe
negatia
atunci
cuplul(M ,*) snurDgtemonoll comutrdv,
pot
o
siEulra!
deriva
rtiun nu
9i
(nlcl una din axiometesistqlului rl nu poatafi dedusdln inleriorul sistemulur'
doarpc celelalt)fi complediudlneaaxlomelor(pretindeeatutreaga ;Drcd (M,r)
irdliz0ndu-te
estemonoid,atunci M, c M , M,- s pennu care [M',*) estemonoid ll
ln cad$l sistlmului).
deduce
sl
8e
taodo
Doaltr
jos-:
lirnd
sttbmoEoldul $onoidului (M,*) .
h oae sruir'rrilealgelriccpecarele vomstudlavornaveasilualisdemai dat6
;nu6im
cu o 8tructr, alg{tr^ d' M'*A,M'CM '
o rrultirrM * O-lrEEstmg
^tEnci
'rttemple cunoscute& monolzi
numimrtructurl lDdur! pe M' destucturalui M, sruchraalgebric[determinatlde
pe
M
skucfira
p
legile
care
dfinesc
bgllc induse M ' dec6tse
t!' MdttrF| rutnerelo,rnrtulaL N fl op.rath d aduar (I.sFcdv d. lDEuItr" rte ,nonold
ceo iaducepeo panea
structura
c! stucturadati peM prelungggte
Sicpuncoadcsoa
trfoutr-dv cucl.menrulneutlu0 (rcm) (r.lpccdv t (unu)).
1utM.
;, MutthEr nimcrclor lntr.st Z cu opciattr de artural! (r!p.cdv d! thnn dr) clie nonott
PIONIERIATMATEMATICII
D.ild SILBERT (166?.1943)
Mltell4dcbn g.nBn

EUCLTD(330?- !?s LC.)

E4nur.!? co erem.ntulmutru rcm (rclDccfvI (untt)),

UDbr|nltl|r|.r tt Z tonnrfl
[url.tile hrrcgt Inpo!. (norota22 + I ) cu opIott. d. tnllulfl!.
'In
tL un .ubmonotdal M (2,.)
I n x*@. Atrhct (p(x),u), ("(x),o)!o
comutad*,t,cu elen nt neuhu u ,l
'mnotd
fP.cdv x.
q$h
A(x)=(/:x -+x,/ bitcdvrlc r(x).
l. no x-ad
(B(x),deste monotd
MrtrdvcltclemrEuruadrc.frt\tendcnam
X,
ftjt X,tx, x --+X,tx@r=d,(vJae
rMEIl|Dr mtftelo. de ordtn ,t co elenE r. dtn O l4(Cl n ) 2, hpreonl cu oFrrdc de
3t ur mmld recoEutadv,ElnHrtulneuhu.st. rmirtcla udtst I,.

1 D&I (r{,.) st nonotdrmrtsptrcidv

rrrM, fixrr,rturct n,=p =},},,2,-,{,-.y

ar

hntrltlrta G!& lubo|onold sl lul ltt nudt srbDonotdul cictic seneral dG.r.

coNTx.IxuTtr

CONTRI'UFI

siEenizabile
in raportcu legs. , le nultlim elemnte6imet lzablle
{onentetg_x-e-11

U(M)* z, dcoarec-Elementul
niifr-?Fiffiire

gGonttfll'
Noti lftd(I. I o.tc, problsllu rxloln|{ztrtl lncep cu lucrlrflo lul luclld h dom'nlul
M.r.m
d.nllor |..o_luhl rl XIx{.r l rcvln lmrllul d. a elucld. r(er.ll proltl'ml Dlcclnd dc ls

34

35
,--*.

lui U(M;.

u(D={rl.
(N,+),lven U(N)! t0], l.r peniru(N,')avem
t, [.nhu momtdul
r.ht ru (2,+)rvetnU(z)=z,l.rpontru(2,, rvernu(z)={-r,l}.
t/(-r(,tt = 8(x).
.r,t nrll| (r(xt") avem
Aln vlzut ln pamgrafeleprecedenle(la elementneutru 9i la elementr simetric),
peM ceinse,anm,
tn 9i x-':(r-l)'.neN.
lronruo legemuttipticative
Anrlog tn cazullegii aditivearnprecizatce lnsanmdru ti rcspectiv(-nI) .
Pon[u monoidarc loc

n.fr.,"*on'"*nn.*

{".),rr{

:;p{"-**""'*"'"

=fli
,.o**"-,,
=,
*,"
::), *"."1.

l0 t 0 l
lllhd D=10 0 r|. rtuncrunete|lledtuM*,'}riea!!-bE+.E2.

ll 001
l)8l$.!at
ctle3teporresrsbitaItot,r.{3@)lDralorrcutDnulrtr.||D
hiclo!.
l, El i. rrrae cr {rr,.) es.enonoiil comntariv_

Tcorema.Fie [M..]moooidti x M . Atunci:

1)I

x n : l + n,(V )n ,n e N .
2) (r'1n = rM,(Y)71,,95.
Dactrr U(M), atunciegaftntih1),2)auloc (v)n,nL.
ratle.l) Avem/
fremonsr

xn:!r'x...

GtL Fit (PrL>0

=qri+r=rr+re-r,*.*, *r={
'tftlt !rh4=l 4
rF- n r\

xl (x r'.. x) (!!;71:'^'^

lr 0ll
l0 0 01.
u 02,

'

f4 o nril I
lo or o l*Nl

l4q

4+l

rrrraoo,u={rtlre-}."* ; ?l d apotcn(M,.) e{emomid.

^=l;
(r' o rJ
'

nl m

D4c[ r U(M ) , atuncisefacediscutialn cazurib:um<Q n2Qm<0,n<0' m20

caren- m .
cazuln.rn<o. Atunciexistem'./r'>0 penEu
Sdludmspreexemplu

t.tt'=x '.n'r

- n'
-: \ r t -l \'' l

i -l \u

/.-l \4 + -

I:f

:r
- -(-n)* r'

n\

-n+ n

Analogsetrateazd9i celelaltecazud.
7\ | ;n \m _ r n. r n.

L -. L n
. rn . tn I n
_ {n,

l|ln lnicrmediul llof,unn de glup se pot aplica acelearireorene ta mujlimi

diferirc
Illlrtrarc cu legi decompozidtdiferire.
Mtllle matemadcian
fradcezHeffi poincard{1g54_1912)
spuneain legitur, cu acest
luDloct:,,La malhmatique
est l.art de dorulerle mernenom'irOesctrosis a;d*enre.:.
A3!at aforismsubliDiaziun aspecteseDfialal (Iatema[iciisecoluluinosrru.

Deftdpe.
Fiec*a ei* o r"g"A;G;rititp"Z$i;i6i;

d a c A n.r??N .

nume9legrup dac! au loc urmEtoarele

axiome:
ur) l,egea* estersocistivd. adicA

canni penl m,neL.a

Ase ndtorcu 1) seuateazdcele].alte

r. Ib M =(',/1/ qxl 8nd(J)=' Nl. h .dti,M M sedff*tte lesraiteco''podf:

conNtariv.
('t,!)^ll,',d=ln+n,l 's), {vx',t), (',s)M. tuIte$cr (u,*) $emodold
I
t- rr
I
z 1 1 .M =lA = l : - ,1 .i'ttz)V -c =b tdl-

L \' "'
)
r) ArItoS cr (M,, s.emonol4ud,,. " estehtnoltire! uudl s mthelor.
r,
'-rl
2)a'rt,aflcI elen nteleAr =lr_r
;_;lM,lz,srntsimetd'rbll.
r. S. rldld a pe n h86't @lpodior.) = r! - s abt. a',l.
.rtt l lmli, (n,.).r tl. monold.

l'lJ, Grupuri

(x+y)* z = x * (y * z), (V)r,y,z e C.

OJ I-egea* areelementneutnl adicn(J)ee c astrelincar(V), c sI
A Y efi tr* e: e

*I :

r -

C, Ojice elementdin c estesimetrizabiltu rapoft cu * adici pentru

,
fiecarer G, existtr,t, G astrellncat

.r *r = ) *x, ( V) r ,y c

Sl !e dcremne {d.') Rz

36
,rI

atuncicuplu.l(C,*)senumettegrup comut|tiv (obelian).

uN nroNllll( Al, MAl lllMAIlCII

$tlm cA elcmentulneulrudrNilcxi,lil cslc unic.De
cstc
unic.
Iiomono&simeticulunuielemcnl
Ntels ABDL (1E02- 1829)
de conditiiCr, G2,Cr poftrtdnumelede
An$0mblul
rxlomelc Srupulul. Cet prive$teadjectivul abelian
cl d6riv[ de la numele celebrului matematlcian
roivorionNielsAbel(1802-1829)
'l'oorli grupurilor coost?iin a degaja dio aceas6
doflnltic toate consecintrle posibile. Se stabilesc
litfol tcorcmelela carc se poate face referirc de
flccsr. datdcandin cunul studiului se lntaheqte o
rlructurdde gup. Ilustdm rolul teorieigupurilor in
mltcmsticd pdn comparaliaumitoare: boala M se
mlnifesttrsubfotmaunei mul$mi defenomene
F = lFt, F2,-, F) . Printreacesteasuntunelecale

flunt determinante.adicl acelea ca@ srml $ficiente

pcnou a asiguraexistenlabolii Ml fie F':\F'r, F'2,...'F'r) multimea acestor

iimptome, careesteo submultimea lui F. Atunci card medicul a constatatprezenta
lor, el este in misurl sd afirme c5 celelalte manife$ari ale bolii (care aparFn
o medicamentalie
lui F'in I') vor apare$i in consecinlisestabileasch
complementarei
adccvat[,
Din defini$e se deduce cd un g p este un monoid ln care odce elerFnt este
oimetrizabii, altfel spus U(C) = G Reciproca nu este adevarati ((N'+) cand
U(N) = {0} ). PentruuqurinF prezenttuiiptulii teoreticeconsiderdmc5 legea * este
lnlocuitl cu ceadataidelnmutlire (candvorbim de grup multiplicativ) saude adunare
(cendgrupulil nundm adltiv)
llx0nplccunoscute
degropuri
de8ruPuriablem:
l. (;rupurinumcri.!-E emPle
. rruput li[itv al nmerelor rD.rgt{Z,f) ;
. rruput rdltlv rl Nnerelor ntional (Q,+) ;
. smpul !.ntia arnwrelor rde(R,+) )t
. srupulrdlilv al NmerelorconPlexe(4,+)i
. srupulmultlplcrttv d ruD'erelo.nlionale nenule(4.,J I
. 8rupulmultlpllcstlvd nunuelor realennde (R", )l
. 8rupulmultlprl(stlvd nrmerelmtol'ehre DeDukla',J.
(,r u" (t0mcri(U, ), ({0l,r l
. sruDurlnulllpltcorlvo
({*t,t}' )I
fl
. rn'pul nn'ltlDllorllv
'lot'Iol$|non$

llt

. truputnutrtplctrrtvcu
rr.ro"*.e

(tr.e,"rt,.)*a" e= -l+-i'6 .

r.Gnpuradl.rvcomurafv
srmatdcelor
dup (D,,'),(,,t,in/r(a),+).
J. &0de ile grupudnecoinurarive
. rrupul apn.s$tlorbdcdrEtoraporrcu oFrsli! decortrprnerc
{ftr4,4.
Oluput (B(,lt),.)el iDsqt ri mat ats dteenet6atcsubsrupu.itrUn re
srupuri de rrabformrrt
!o[!Onte.un pomr-de plecaft pe ru ioat rplc.tiile prrctie pocibileale teorieieruDB or. EsL
.r'c'e oc a InoForls iiprog.Mut de t! Edangd-, derertt ceteb.u,de Feli! Ktetn(is72l. csrea
grup

i:ffi!,:'d""*

de

der'D.tormrrr6 t'r penru

"t*G;;-n:;;;il;

;;,n ;

pttrr.ie de ordiD o coefrcius re{li ,i cU derermtnnrul trcnut,tror.r

?_3I-t!4 {ltrlc4td
"
lol,(r,t)..). Ac61grupsebmEte Bruputtidar compter
deordin, IpR.
. grupulcua&mionllor.
Multii!a C={r,ij,r,_1,_i,_j,_kl
cr opEFade tmulire
!.comutadrd {tst! * (-t)2
t, i2 = it = *2 = - r, ij = - ji = *, J* = -hj = i,ki = _tk = j,
= (-r'=
(v)"
ec d ar6nderementur
neutruPer.
-,
"(-4,

Defiulfie.UngrupG senrr-"9tegr"p nntt a-i

{i grup hfudl ln cazcontrar.

-otlimea?iGffi

Senume$te
ordinul grupului C, noar lcl, cardinalullui c (numerulde
Orupurilede la exemplul I de mai sussunt infnite (cu excepfiaultimelor t ei).
DrctrM esrelinittr. atuncigrupurilede ta exemplul2 de mai sussuntfinile.

l,Io rDulfima
nunerlu ftrnsr Z s.rettnqreapttcrltn r*y=asy_2.
SI se arlte cr
(r,*) .rta u srup conurldv.
lf.Drcl.f,yZ,evident
cf :+!=!+t-2eZ,.ee
cEamtn
d r esr.ol%edeconpozilieIE
Z.
V.dflcim axioEelegruputuicomutativ.
Ol)A$ciativnarea
legii . Trbuic
!rcbatce (r* J)* r =,* <r+ zt,(v\,,r,262.
'
(r+))fz={r+/
2)*z=(t+y 2)+z 2=t+!+z_4,
(t,
tl
r f{}* r): xr (/+z- 2)= x +lt+ z-2t-2= x+, + z 4, (2).
Dln(l) 9i (2)ralt! cr leser * Bte.sociativa.
alt ll.,tuntulneulruSi eltlm caexisra
e Z agtfel
tnctu, *e-ear= x,l/\reV,.
Itlnr',- r, (V)rz rczuld,
x + e-z= t sa\e=2ez.
Or) lllcnrnresinetriabilsFie ,2. Saarndnce existnr,Z
Djn
Frau cjrc ,*i,:r,*r=e.
,r r' 8. + t + t'-2=2 sldrr' = 4- x eZ,.D@i,': 4_iesresinerricultui
xtnraDortcu
*.

39

cU tr ) = )r r, (V)I,l e Z. llohlh dodomonshtse

Oi) ( Lnnfirrilirr.f lrrii . . Avcmdo domon|trut
2,(V\x,reL, coo0 cc este adevdmrdeo@e odunqrc!pc Z est
lnrcrli r+r-2=y+.r
oomut0tlvl(r+,= )+r). Agadar(2,4 cst 8ruPsbclian
r)lqcrutic. Alunci ctud ni se cre s! arlt[m c[ un grup este comutaiiv, dDpd aociaivilate se
domon r.ud omutativitatea legii doarecpcntrucelelalteaxiomescrimrelaliile mi sitrplu
. l)onmclcmcntneunnr*. = x, (Y)x e7, (sN e*x=
'.(v)'.v')
r'*r = e ).
. D!nt! .lcm.trtsimetricr*;':.(su
aPlicalia,T /- ry_5r-5, + 30. DtErmin!aceasti
num@lorrcaleR seconsiders
l. Pomultimee
l.g! po IR o strtlcturl de grup?Dar !e R - {5 I ?
R. Evldcnl splicatiaesteo legede compozilieP R Savedd dea severific{ anomelegrupului.
Or)A$ o i a t iv it ar eales iiT.A v e md e v e n fi c(rT
a tcyn)T z = rT ( 1Tz),(V )' ,r,rR
ceidoi membriqi glsimexpresiarrz 5{.ry+tz+tz)+25(1+:v+z)-120.
S6colc'rlcarn
lesii I. ftebuie s! avem r I ) = ] T a, (V)r. y lR . Es.litatease sne
Ct Coiluradvitarea
cm est! adeviral! dacn inem sma de
.ry-5(r+))+30=),r-5()+t)+30,(V)x,),R,
prcdusului
comutnivitate.
9isumipe lR (ry:)ft,t+]=]+t).
Esalitate* mi scrie
Or) ulcmenlncuiru.SI deterninlm elRpentrucar tTa=r,(V)rR
, r-5 (.r+.) + 30= r , ( v ) , R s a u ' (:!-5 )= 6 (r-5 ), (V), l R. D en r* s' aturci a: 6. Mai
ddncsrvrifichripntux=5eCalitdq rTe=i,adic! 5T6:5,ceacesteinEdiat
Snvealem
&cd oricerlR a{eun sibelric r' lR, pentrucareiT r'= 6
O4)Illcmcntesinetrizabile.
s ubt or m as
Rcsd i .mc s aliHr es

2a D el i ci r' -!+ de,

sau
' 1 r-5r= 5'
simelricPrintrllMe legeaT nu aeteminape R o structura
T delemini o sttudur, de SruP_dacn mi aratAm c[

5 rr ' r' -3 0 -6

.ti5. Atlde nu onc,R(r:5)@

do 8rup. Dar pe R- {5} lega

"-"
#
-+ 5,45*

.vldcno.Arada (R-{51.T) 6te giup.beli&.

.r.s. cotrctderrc =r- I,rr y' peG rplietia r*y

24+ t-} '

5 ' + 0 . e vi d. ) ti J-

. t r1 5 >r - \ + 5( { + r - 5r -5 ) | 3 o + 5 c { x -s Y }

- 4.

A..ri!l (C.') ste on srup lblian.

tl- Vdficim auomeleSrupuluiabuan.

Prcbdtnmi hdi cn ; esleo legedeconrrD/itietE G
rezul t
D i n t,)6
F i c I.l e C i
$ alnlnmc a r* J G . A v e m 1 O { + -1 < r< l < } l rl < l
A cum
qi dec i l' ) l < I < + - 1 < ,r < I , .d i c 6 d e ai ci 1+ ry> 0
l..l ,l yl <t
' * ),< Ge
+r - I < , * ) < I . Pentrupdm inegalitate:
1< ry.

-l cr* y<+ - t < p< + o< r r + r+ )+ 1 { + 0 < (r+ 1 )(r+ 1 ),e v i d e n t doarece
\+,'
P.ntru a dola incgalit t! svemechivaldtele:
I . y 4 t <+Iaa

< t <+t + / - I - ry < 0 .e, (r - l)(l - /) < 0 , adevlmi deod*

r.r<1

Dd lotor +

16i({h(lvi

F (l

40

hr "

. . pcn! ! or ice r . vcavem : , . y_y*, o12=t I ,

"4*s, u1

dloaEccadunmaqi lnmtrk a nuffietor Ralesunropeqij comurarive.

penru * . s6 dn tm cdenstn. c , penrrucare, * e = ,, (V), e C .
O!)ljlencnrneuLru
ruot, i -!9= '

(v)'ec <+r . r = x. : ! e+er t - . t 2) - 0. lv) , c( - l. lr

? - 0. EsLeclar cd

a 0 G 9i reprdinln bftrlDl neutrutn nport cu iesea * .

sinerizabiie.Snarn6n ci oric; rC areun simetricr,C asrfelincat r*r,:0.De
0, Elemente
ld

dl r-:
-0. adicd.{=-x. Md nbuiesdsr&nmca rer Ll) _l < _r<r el >x>
;;;:0
flldlntdcoarecr (,t,1).
{rdar (c,*) est! sup abctie.
a.E rdines

Rr=n-{1}

s. consitrl apllc!fra: t*!=2r!-2r-2r+c,ceE

Jbl]u ce v.lod ste lut c, cuptd (&,*) es.esrup abIad

l. C.rlnd ca legtn * s[ fia asociari\davem: (x * ]) * z = .r * (y * r),(V
)r, ). ? Xr sau

art.- 4(xy+ r.+ yz\+4'+4y+ 2(c- t)z- c:4ry2-4(D+ xz+rzr+2lc-r)r+ b +42-c,

(V)r,/,{ 8l saudup!idenrilicsr.
c- l:2, ldicnc = 3.

4rdlrlc8la * d.irc t* t=2x!-2x-2y+3.

ll t/ttlficlrn hF ct i $rc leged. conpozitieF ,! . ldicd sl arltamc! &.i r,) Jtl allnci.r*)&,
Irf P rcci sB [ vri fi cI mc! penr r l' 'I *t , J*1, +
r *] ! . 1
adic! 2xy- Zj- 2r +3*l+
ia (r-l)(y-l) * 0, vid.it.
Cohuiltivitd.a lcgii 3rc indiarl' Elemmht ncuru c sc determirn din .r*=.r. (V)iRr <+.

* 2.(t- l) = 3(.r- D c). =: &.

1..IrtI ugorcI oticor&rEunsim.tric r'il
t'-l;:;e&

utfel tnc{tr*'t'=1ap2y,(.t-l)=

(doslEceda.r x E I. arunci
o'ezurrs4.r-3:{r-l)

2,-:

g deai

impolibir).

{d6r (&,4 esesrup$.lian.

l. 8. codderrfurcdlLr:n-{0,1}-+ n -{o,r},i=fr acn*epan ,fic)=r,/lr=1,

t.

Ir(r)Er-r. la(r)=;-:,
/s(r)=;i,
t6{r= i:; . sr se t'rr,e cr pe mutdlnea
0 i {.fi,.f:'&'.&,.fs,-fc} compumns
tuncfllorrleten Dro st.ucroraitegtp necomutrriv.
Jz ls ft

f i lf f i + . Trc b u i .s l v o ri fi c n m c('d* r)+ z = ' *(r* z),(V Jj ,r,zec

^ \'e i , iiv ii,
jl2l1!!I-.
Bfocndndculculololn col dol ncmbl llrlm rccagi.x1'Esic:
'
l fxvrri l l l f

Cr)

Or)(i {r.,r,\,.r.,

h
/!
h
h
It

lr lz fi J+ fs J6
lzfr ldh
14 13
ltfqhfz
!6 fs
lt ls fs fa 12 lr
hla!+ h
fl J2
la Is lz fr fs f4

R.
hgn st
dar, a[turar.
^.rlTlbla
rurc 8!6F@E
a3ud.
Seconstlt! c6 lcge . esr. Icgcd6 ompozilic p c.

fitoaeauna
codunereatuiaiir"' *L
"i""i"ii"i
proprieta
spdlr{zt9i F c. Elemcntul
m.utru
.len tudincst itrvrsabil,
6t = 7r,g1 = 7",1;t = yr, lit = fa, fit = fs, Jil : lq.

CompuneFr nu
esle
13oJ2= t 4+ l2o 13= f 6.

4l

corueativn

Pe

deorc

6.&c.,dd."lmur
m.'d.m

a-l[t-r
'rc.' [r r

.' li'.u- []l.o""rrcr {o,1.,a8np

r_rn
r z l]

.ll.n,
ll. ArlUmmollntli ci lnmuli@p. C csr.l.8crtccompozlie.

lnmultica:,3*l= ,1, ,*' = 4,, (ot)-' = o ruo,anrnd

simetricr
in nporrcu diagon.ta
principald,
.stc
abclitu.
lrupul

l. sc conllderr
srsrenut
dc ecuaFi
l^iare Is,.J2r-,-J2=0
,.
'13'+lr-z=o
-, r" =l(al.a2'ai)lai
lr
z)
I
.
r,rrr' -[ '
o
*
o
0
,
,
^
,
c
.
r
y
.
a
u
r
ci
u
I
,
J
.
,
r
J
.
nurFnea
solutlllor
l resi de sbrerDutujrS), pr multhea s deffnln
^,
op{.sda de adunaft
(.r'a2,qt +tq,b2,h) = tarr
-4.a2 rr2.al _h ). Arnbttci (s._)edegruprbeti*.
da.a
r-y
:a.]
ua.,tur.a"o*""",
r, S. rcrolvasistnut9j
,ti;?'
,!,i!r\,)-n-,-r"ec
E{riDsoluliilcJ = lt _I.I.l,4IZ|.Msr in6i saobsenlmcAadsaftapc.,
^ ^,-[' r /
r\
o*. q=(q,o2,ai, D=( ,b.Ds, srmcirr 12
r+y-14,=;-rljrJ[,-ij
'\/
+ e s . se arat!cE q;s2
lj].:"_"
-**"tt".
vfdfc! fiecare
euatie.p.Dtrup.ina eruatieaea;te vrificareffi nc
\q+q-@aq'ayq1b)=O
r
r\/
,l
Ut (2q-d2+3a3]+Qh -b2+3h) = 0, adi.,I0 + 0 = 0. Asociadvira{q
c"',.U, r- j *,"rta
aduntriipeS se."*". io OnalA
"r-2r],*!.veriricamaiomeresrupurui.
taodariviBra
{'-tJ[r-UJ.osa.r,
aduneriiDeZ.
lafiEntul ndlEu6E datdc sotuljabed! rO 0, 0) cm ulor s. \cnfic{
Or) Asociarivitateainmuuni . IimDltira maEicclorln M2(R) staroci.tivd qi deai rnmaneb f.l pe o
Ded r _ (41.4t.41Ie S . aiunci
rubnullm. O a se
(-al, *a2,-d3) ,t , .um uqorsevcrificd.
-, O,('onrtativiltealnmulti.ii.Ft,4,,4G.Atunci 4.Ar=Ar+r-2,y=Ay+F2r,=Ar.A,,.eEa
ce
peS fiind comurativt,
Adunarca
gnpul (J,+) esreabelian.

-* ,

.t.tl cl lnmultir.a nsiricclor esoecomuhiird p C.

Ot flcrMt neurru. Enst! ,4! C altfl incer ,4r.4 =,4,, (V)4, e G sav A,+e-2xe= A,,

(V),{, C . Sc vdc cr dour manic. ,4r, ,! suot egale A, = A, a, r = y (deci dac.!iDdicii malicetor
colmld).Din r.lalia d! mai susdeducemi+e-2re=x,iede4ici

e:0.

Agdar elenenrdnonu

lr ol
.n ! ro = [ 0
rJ=12.
O, IllcmentesiDlctrizabile.Fic ,4rec.

Sl ar66m c! xisd siDeti@l ,{r,c

pentru care

= rb. D. aici:
d,i
4.A,'= l9r+A,+,,-28,
'+.r,,2u'=0 ri
',=;:*;.'*+.
6l.rn nt ArG

Dect
orice

est. inv.Babil (p ru c!,40=/2) ln.apon cu operaliade inftltire obiinuit6a

mltrlccloi ln tinal, (c,) .sG Srupab.lie.

l0 I 0l
?.IlImd.eal=l o o -rl*-'rt*"

t*r o oJ

o-{A,1,|f }.Ar af cr (c,.)ests.uplbdtltt,

^{oorl
putcrilc
l(. CElcullm
lui A ri sEsiDez:ll
0 0

]ei

Otupurl remarcabile
l) Grupurlde matrtce
tlul tEcutaft vdzrtc! multimea
manicelor
detip (zqn)cuelemente
din R , -14^, tR) ,
lO oprallade adunarEformer?,tr
grup abIar (48.A44n(R)+A+Be.t
l1.l,rml);
fhnentrl neufirresreOm., - rnatricea
_O:(-q)
rul6;
esteopusutlui O=(r,,)),
: n aresens
oricercr
rnaFice
nrodusul
A.Be.tvhlR).
ffotu.n
rubirba
lb
demaEicepauatice
deordinn cuelemenle
reale,i cudeErminant
nenul,
Von notaaceasumuttirne
prin cr{n,R): lA ,44{R};0",o, * O[i"""rii""*
qLralta defimutFre pe ,A4CR).
At loc ufi!trtoarea:

Ar=1r.

lo -r oJ

,,2

D.ci mullinE!G e doa.tli elcme distidcrec={r3,.4,,{z}.

Toblt lcgii F G, {tad aEturat, aratl ci lhmultirca pe c sre tege de
conpozllic. lnbtdclum lnmultira mnricclor pel,b(R) ) e$e asociativ[.
D.cl rlnlnc h f.l i pc nultin a c c 1,6(R) .
Elcmontul nculru .stc /3. Oricc lcmcmdin c cstc irversabil ln rapon cu

42

A t2
t2

A2 ll

Dmorslratie-.Sdobsendnmaitutaic6innultirea
derelminlpe Gr(r,lR) o lgede

din,4,8Gr(r,R)sd
ardtam
ceA, cr(|,,tR),
aail sa

Y,Mg".
ry.e** 0,
|t|$m
cI det(AA)
ceeace esteadeviratdeoarcceaetfefl = j"<ai . aetffi
.
Vorificamaxiomete
grupului.

43

arc h0 trloltlolunape
Ot) Amclrtlvltoteatnmultlrll rc krc pc CL(rl,R), deoarece

M ,(R ).

Vom scriein loc de d oI simDluor . Are loc urmltoarea:

(arc det(I, ) = I :' 0)

Or) u.mentul neutru estematriceaunitate In 6'(n,lR)
GL(t'lR)
Or) Orlce mltrlce AGr(tr'lR)oro o lnverstr(simetric)notatt A-r

Teoremtr. Cuplul (S,,.)este un grup finit de ordin r!, numit grupul

slmetric de gmd r.

pontrucarc AA ' = A -A: ln.

* 0 (A este
Alcl A- I cstechiar inversamatnceiA. $tim cdA arinve$l dacl de(A)

Demonsfratie.Verificlm axionrle g.upului.

Bstc clar ca dacb o,T S,?, atuncio,r Sp adicd legea de compuner.e a
Pcrmutirilor est o legede compozi{iepe Sr.
Trcbuieobservatastfelctrsepot compunepermutllrl de acelaqigrad.
0r) Asociativitate compunodi pe S, rezulH din faptul ct aceast[ Iege esr
[ociativtr pe multimeafuncliilor f(M).
0t Elernentul neutru esteaplicafiaidentictra mulfimii M, pe carco notamcu ? $i aie

A A-l:/n
o m0trice nesingulad).Evident A-l GL(n.lR) cleoarecedjn

si

I = r *-ra a"L(e-I * o.
oor(a.e- | ) = a"t1e1.6"1(e)
)
ln nnd (cL(n,R), ') esiogruPinfinit.r
2) Gnrputt dc Pmuttrrl d ordln
',
peotrunoi far4
Fb M multimefrnitEcu n clementeNaturaaceslorelemerteliind
eslecomodsi bamM= { 1.2' ' t}
lmDortsnt!,
a runcFrtor
decompunere
cuopera$a
Am vazuicl F(M)=lf tM +Ml lmpreuna
a lui f (M)'B(M) formatedin spllca$t
considerlmo submul$me
o0rcun monoial.
c6ciatunci/este
bucdvc(defaptestedestuls[ c6rmcalsl lie injertivx(surjectivd)
b{icclivll)
Unclcmcntdin B(M) fl numid Permutrredegr'dul n'
prin litremici 4lealfabtuluigreco, p, Y' D" '
lui B(M)le desemnlm
Elcmcntela
ln locdc B(M) vomfolosinot4ias''
pnn
Sub o forml dezvoltatf,9i sugestivdperinutarEaaiM + M o reprezdntdm
( |
n)+ domeniuldedefinilie
2 ,.
",,,,^-, "-lo0)
o(2) .., o(nr_ mulimesdevalori,
undascindictrln extenrotoatcimaginilei
t2 ...n

or J

o(1) o(2) ... o(n)

ln altl ordine
a(kt, k =f,i suntsimbolulile1,2,... , & eventual
operatiade
de $ad n am defmii' anulprcedent'
Pc multimcaSn a permutErilor
pemutdrilor'
compunere
-l"il,', (sauprodus)a
obi$truiaa tuncliilor)pdn:
lcompunerea
J,i*r o ' t e s, soaefineqte
ii"
o" t(/<)= o(r(,c)),t = ii

44

2 '1.
tor,nu,
"=[1
11 2 ... n)

qt) Ofice elment oS,, are un lnvers (simetric)notat o

tPlicafiainvenea lui o) pentrucareoo- I = o- 1o= e.

Ja (d

2 3 o 5l .u* n" i
2
o*a o :l l
Dcexem
o '=[l
' ptu.
| | 345t2)
l 4s

JI

| {o

' este

'este

funcfia care ,,ac{ioneazd"inve$ decat 6; prin o, I este dus ln 3; invers, prin

o-lelementul 3 este dus ln I etc.). Dactr o=

(r2 3\
rr23\
t= lr
D eci
ot+!d'
,lu ' "o=1, , 2J
'
Apdar (S", n 3, estegrup necomutativ.

" ), )
ql determintrmordinul grupului, Fie o Sn un elementoa&caredin grup. Pdn o
alomentul1 este dus ln o(1) care poateIi oricare din elementele1,2, ... , n. Deci
pozilia o(1) sepo.te completaln r moduri.Elementulo(2) sepoatecompletain (n 1) moduri cu cele n - 1 elementedmase dupdcompletarealui 6(1). ln fine ultima
tozifie se poate completa intr-un singur mod cu ultimul element rdmas dupl
0onpleta&apoziliilor o(1),o(2),...,o(n - l). A$adarnumdml de astfel de permutdri
O esteegalcu n.(n-l'l..2.1= nl (regulaFodusuluide la combinatoricd)
gi acesra
glupului
S, .r
a.tt ordinul
Orupurilede permut6rijoacl un rol fundamentalin studiul grupurilor (vezi trcursi.a
maenaticd de l^ sfers,itlul
acestuicapitol).

l) (lrupul clarelor de reeturl modulo r, Z,

il! Z nullimca numerelorintrcgi gi r N' un numtufixat. Pemulfimea z dcfinim
tttlrlkrnrla rclelie: pentru r, y Z spunemc[ r estocongruent cu ] modulo n dactr
fl nun$l dscl r - y sedivide prin r.
r=1(modr)<+r-yln.(citim:
r-] sedivideprinr).
Ago! [ rclaliesenoleaztrprin:
Itiptul 0[ ,*y:n esie echivalentcu r, y dau acela$ircst la lmptxlireaprin''

(dmonsmF
l).
proprietdti:
RohlhdcconguenlipeZ areulmdtoarele
l)r 6stcrefte)dvtr,
adicex=z(modz),(V)xeV,,d@af.ex- x:1in.
2) r csteslmedctr,adicl dacdr = y (modn)=+) = ,(rnodr) , ceeaceesteimediat
d.oufacdacdx-):n, atunci
ti y-x:-(J'--y)ln.
3) = cste tranzldvtr,adice dacl x=y(modn) $i t=z(modn), atunci
din r-yiz $i )-zin rezultt
,r!(modn), ceeace se verifictrusordeoarcce
x- z = (x - t ) + ( t - z ) i n.
Rcl0lia = (de conglunldmodulo cu proprietefle1), 2), 3) esteo relalie de
'l)
|chlvalent[.
Dou! numerelntregir, y pentrucare,= )(modr) spunemcd suntechivalentein
flgort curelalia= .
Clrrc deechtvalenP9tmultimecet
Pontruun numdrlntreg rZdefinim cla6asa de echlvslenttrin raportcu =
lntregi echivalente
cu r fali de
mulimeanotattrC(x) (sau i) a tuturornumerelor
rolaiia=. Apdar C(r) = i={t ez$ = \nodn)} .
Proprlettrflaleclarelordechlvale4{
l) Daclr, ), C(4), aruncix= y(rdn) (doul elernenbaparfnetrdacleisticlosede
lchlvelenFsuntchlv.lentelfi ele),lffi-adeverdacexC(d) +,=4(nndr)
$i
dac l] C(a ) + ] = a { m o d r),
relafiei= ).
Din .r= a(nndn)9ia = l(rnodn)+,r = y (modr) (amaplicataanzitivitatea
2) Dac[ , = ](modn)+ i = ! GauC(r) = C(t), adici clrreledeechlvslentda doutr
Gl0m6nteechlvrl.nte colrcld - penru denonstsatieutilizaii dubla incluziune
. t ci , ic t ).
ftr
3) in9*o+
i=i (Doutrclasedeechlvalenfl,
crr au c.l puin un elemnt
comunBuntegde).

lnr-adevdrdac[ .r(;.lr]r, aruncidi $i aj.

a = y(modl), adicd.r= y(modn).CoDIorm
cu 2t + i

De aici a=r(modn) 9i
- i .
fueastArelafiedeechivalenltpe Z . determido partjlea sain sensulcareurmeazA:
, ae a(rie ca o reuniune de Bubmultimi nevide ale sale, disJutrctede doutr c6te

doutr,

Mai precis.multimeaclaselorde echivalenlA

determinate
de relariade concruen$t
modulo
n pe Z senurnegle
multlmecet a lui Z ln raponcu =, Si ,. nor"ura
,t = sanl\c6z-.
"u
Dsc6.x eZ, atuncidin teorema
impf,4iniW Z, (=)kteZ,O</<r
astfelincar
=
n&
I
+ r , relatiepecareo maiscriemsubfonna x- r:nk,Deci x*ln aitjc|
,r= r(modn)9idecii:i,unde r {0,l, ...,,,* U.
8l retineEdeci:clasaodctrruir Z estdefaptunadinclaselei, r : 0, 1,...n _ 1.
ltln m::arerel4iadecongrueng
rnodulo
l1peZ det.min!
mulfirnea
cat4 :{0 i ...,fiq
numi6mulflmeaclaselorde resfurimodulon (denumirc
justificare
de faorulcA
numerele
0. l. .... n - | reprezinta
resrudle
la impe4ire
prin; u num.r.lo.iit .gJ.
gmseexDucrt
acestea
sunt:
notatie
0= { } Zl.r - - o( modnl t:l nhl htz l nZ
l={ r Zl"r = I{ modtl:l) lnhT tl hez l - - nz | 1,
6-l: lx6V,tx=n-t(nl,Idn)l:lnh+n-Ilh Zl = nZ+ n_t.
Numerele
0, I, ..., n - 1prin carcam definitclasele6, i,,,.,ili

se vor numi

Ittprezentantiicanonicl ai acestorclase.
PontsuZ avempartitiadatdde Za.

Z=Ouiu...ui'll $i evident
(demaisus)ini:a
drc[i- j.
Pcnrua = 5, Z,= t6,i,2,3,41,
daci dorims6 vedem
0&i claseli apa4ineun numdrinheg ,Zse
rfcctueazd
impi4irealui .xprin 5 $i se ia restulacestei
lmp64irir. Atunci .r i . ln Fig. 2 penEufiecarcclas6
luntdarccgtevaelemente.
Doexemplu
r = 19peDtru
caleavemi19=S.3-1-4,1
tlccir:4. hin rmsre 194.Analog
dac!, = -23,
ftunci-23=5(-5)+2 sideci-232.

z= s,z= 6 u i u i u !u i
Fig.2
46

47

Saafvffc, SI ffrnstcni la scrlaror

clrfolormodulo
r,.Deexcmplu,te?a,6eV,3
(dcsgrlott.lc).
lU ttDndnal aceeatlmul$mo
Fentrua ne feri de confuzllrc Dodie
r r 03e2 3 9 i 6 5 e 2 5 , sa u 2 3 =1 6 ,i ,i 1 , i a r Z5=qo,T.Z.r ,11.O ecr ier e
af|Dadlolrf!pdateconduc
e greqltta 23 c Zs I
h tultlmm Zn a claselorderesturimodulon definimdoui oDeratii:

',t-

6 rabl6l.opon$llord. rdutwr 9iinmulii.r!sunt

0ii3a3
0 000
I
2
3
'4

+ t Z nxZn+Zn

ld,bl-a+b=a+b.

numitaadunaEacl$elor (sUII)a
claseloresre

clsrasufiei).Cla6aa+, seobtineadunend
a cu, si hand apoiclasa
rcstuluidela lmp[dtuea
lDia + b Din n.
fl
, i Z n xZn - V,n
/^.\
numiti prodosal cbsdor {produsulclaslorest
\4,01-a.b=a.b,
prin defltritie clasaFodusului).
Clssa d., se obline lnraullind a cu D gi lu6nd apoi clasarestului de la
tnp[rtires tui a', prin ,.
Trobulc s[ lJ[ttrm ctr aplicatiile ,,{. qi ,,. ,, sunt corectdefilrite,ln sensulcd fiecirui

auplu(A,6)eZ,xz, ti corcspurde
un unicelement

006
343

ti2
? ) 2 4 024
036 363
6 4 2 042
054
3ii

loc unnltoareri
T.ortml a) (Zn,+) esteun grupabeliaa:runitgupul rqdv sl clrsdor
de rstudmodulo
'r monoid
b) (2,t,.) est un
comutativ,lrl care grupul elenrentclor
itrvrsabite
esreU(zn)= tf eZnli*,n)=tlt) Scverifrctrsxiomclegrupuluiabelian.

Asdrdeter adruldl Avemii(i+A =i+il=rTo

i+ y+ i= ( i+ i)+t, (v)i ,j ,zez,.

+-;)=6;tTz

ln a teia ega.litatc
deasociativitatea
linut scama
adunlriipe Z ).
Elerne ul neutru. ClasaoeZoesrc ele4entulneutu ln raportcu adunata

, +6:0+t: r, (v)r2,.

a + b e V,n, gircsrf'4[,,t
a, b ezn.
Plo:d=,i' ti d:ti'Gig..tr. Aruncin+i:A,-i,,
d!ocrlce
dln 6 = 6' =r a =a'(modn)+ a - a,in, 1t1
n)+b-b,tn,e\.
;t Onii=ii'=+A= a'(rnoa
Ac!m,adunend
(1) cu (2)rezultda+b-(a,+b)..n,

\?

.>

{"*\

la*' ,

b,./

&l(ia+b=a'+b'.
deresturi
Anrlog sc arat[ cd lildultirea claselo!este bine Contururilclnchise=clase
f i& 3
daflnit!.

Dlementeopose.Odceclas, ieL.n arecaeleuentsimetdc(opu$)olasanoa6

precisavem:-6:0
-1= n - l

( n- l +l =n- 1+1=0)

-2 = n - 2
-k = n - k
-(t - l ) = 1 .

48

49

Comutrdvltst!| tdunlrll.
0.)
9d L'omutldv'|atlr
rdunlrll.

Adunurr clasclor orto comuhdvl dooarccr

(V)f,rez, ovcm:
l+9=ral-fi-

j+i (anfolosit
tn a douroialiialc

$nu||dvlt8tle adunlriipcZ). ,
l rolor amaretatcu (Zr,+) cstcg.upabcliar
ll Atomlnltor Bvelificl asociarivitatea,
comurarivitalinmu.ltiriicjaslor.Clasa
I|Z, o c clstEntulneufu.
|rm

utorcI (u(2,),.) esreur grupabelian.

ll Sl|lm acumclcmcntele
irv$abiledin acestdonoid,Mai Ee.is ar[t]m c[ avem:

pccoloanclc
carc.lconlnp i glslminvcrselci-t = i,3-t = 3.
PoZ,l nucxiot!rolafladcordlncsimilarArelaiiei < depe Z .
idcntificatelcm.niclclui Z cupunctelg
lntlegidepe&eaptareall careseextind
la sterga9ila dreapta
(Fig.4).

* C r'rr8 1 3 1 .

I ev(zr)+ (t,r'l=t .

hn[u r . I avcmZt = {0}= U(Zl), cend(0,l) = I ti erhivalnt!areloc.

Florcumr>2.

DanbnrE[ninplicolia,,+ ". PtEsupunem

i U(2,,) ti sI arE6mcI avem(& ,) = l.

Dln teu@ r+(J)i,ezn astertuet i. b=i+6=i++ rp=l(mddz)<+.

Itg.4
Z, avemTtschin$ utr fel de ordlne clctci, replezentattr
printr-omultirnede
depecrrc cu o anumit!rgularitatc,
Din acstmotivaritmeticdpe Zn aefiu
rrltnedd moddar! sauadhnedci cerculul.

* hp-lin+ lq-l=nq, qeZ.F.rerFtnt

d = (k,n) e N* .De,c,i
dltp-nC, adia6
dl l+d = l. A $ d a r ( & , ) =1 .
D6fllonstrdm
a.urnctrdacl (L n) = L atuncii U(Zr).
$ lc c[ dacl (,L n) = t, atunsiexist! p,q ezasfieLlncet *?r+n4=lsau
$t-l=nq+fu-1..n, adicl fo=l(modn) sautn final tp=t.b=i, uott
"e
twm [.EU(ZnJ..
oltieryatii. 1) GrupulU(Zr) areodinul g(rl) = numirulnurnerelor
naturalecelmult
clrlc cun rclativpdrrecun.
Funcliag: N* --+ll*, n --+e(r) senumsgie
tndlcatorullul Euler.

owr n=plrpl2.....pf;k,mnci
q"1=pft-tq -ln!2-t(n-t).....pf;*-t62-r1
DacAn= p,p pd{L atuncig(p) = p -1. Seamtt cd e(d)=
n.
I
Pontlrr = 6, aveme(6):2 certdU(Zd: ti,3l .
'r
2) Din trblelecolordoudlegi,ln cazulrt = 6, seconstatictracestea
suntsinetriceln
raponcudiegonala
pdncipala,Decilegilesuntcoinutarive.
Din tablalnmutirii sevedectrdoarpliniile claselori 9i 3 apareelementuli , ceeace
lnScfinnd
c[ doaracestrclascauinvelse.

50

(facultativ)
prezefitare
o teorlzlcodrrllor
de chsa a XI-a ampreventatdou.daplicalii legatealeacestsubiect:
cod.uldz bare aplicat pe diferite produseti 2) codul ISBN\sociat anei cd4i (din
s-a trecutde la codalde 10 cife Ia cel de li cdre - ca unmre a MifiNdii celar
osoc@ UCC(din CMada gi S.U.A.)6i A.EN. (din restulldilor)).
vdzutcd th anbele aplicalii intewinenofiunedde congruznld.
infomalic transnisdpin difetue catale (satelili etc.) ti stocatdlh calculator
CD etc.) este ery'rimatdltrtr-ut anunu cod, Ca um&re a mar facbrt diferili
r i, echipanAnteetc.) mesajele receplionatepot conlina erori la recepfe,
ti cofectarea etuilor rcple4intd scopwile frodrngntale ale teoriei
teoria codulilor binare, elementelesunt Ain 22, pe care le notdrr sillptu 0, j.
tr1hea[0, lJ o numimatfabet UnM. Un bit esteun ebnBnt al. alfabetului binar,
w cawAnt6au blac) esteun tir de bi1i, undetoatecuvinteledin mesajau a4eeati
glmcl= n ndnl dc bili).
cuv^ft dc 2 biti estcun elennt din Z,zxV,2 pe care iI reprezemamsubfonna ab
nu (a,b), cu a,b e{0,11. Aralog, pentru cuvintede 3 biti,4 biti etc.

JI

Cuvlntele
din trei blli sunr(2r : 8).
000 010 001 011
t00
110 10t 111.
A$a cum am spur,tn tinpul transmiteriiunui mesajcottinAnd curihte dz k bili, unul
xaumal mulli bili sepot receplionaincorect.Esteimportantca eroril.esdle dc@ctate
pc cAtposibil corijate.
Schenagenetuldde trantutiterea unuinasaj codifcat ette:

Cele mai multe coilui nzcesitdaddugareaurwr bili la fiecare cuvAft dil k bili
obfinAndu-se
cuvintede n b$t
Eftmpl (controlul loriti$i). Fie un cuvAfi din 3 bili, abc. khzfia da codificare
ducecuvdntulabctn abcd mde d=a+b+c(rmd2),
Dacdd = 0, cuvdntulabc ettepar, iar da4dd =l , cuvantulabc esteinwL
cwAdt

0@

codificare
d=a+b+c(trodz\
0

010
001
0
]M
110
101
111

cwaflt
codifr4t

0000
0101
0011
0110
1001
1100
1010

1l11

I
I

0
I
0

Evidrnt,fecare cwAt de 4 bi|i

palr. In felul acesta
paritdlii pe cuv4htuI
dztectea4dnunai eroafe

d.eun bit,
De eranph
da.d s-a. primit
a@
Esajul:
10
1011 1010 t10I
pi
atunci pimul
$i ubimuL carAnt
cel pulin o eroare, dar nu
de, Pentru clarifcare se
Jtim und.e
solicita rrel
etransmiterea fi asajuhti.

Erorik m Ltiplepotfr datectaE,dar ucorectateut izandschena:

a1a2... ak

codificare
4
a1a2, ..akaq2...ak

tn care un cuvAnlde k bili este4plicat in

unul de 2k bili.
De exetnpl , dacd penttu k = 3, se obline mesajul:
101101 100101 110111 001001,
Atunci tn cu|intelc aI dailea ti aI treika avem erori.
Dacd la o no d relrdn'mitere awm mesajul:

tqt tot

t@ t(x) l t0 u0

00t 00t,
52

ttrtrci dupddccodlflcsrc!. obline:

100 t10 001.
l0l
Aaastultim exentplune $/gerea4dtntebarea: care esteprobdbilitatca ca o ercarc sd
ta producdtn uaul saumai mulli bili al wui cwAfi de n bili?
8a adnite cd: I) probobilitdteaca un singur bit sdfe ttunsmisin orcct estep fi 2)
Plobdbilitaha ca un singw bit sdle tlanrmis incorectsau corect esteindependent
h prcbabilbdteaca un ah bit sdfe transmlsincorectsoucorect.
CBocesteobsemaliisuntefi tn cazulschemeilui Bemoulli. Deci probabilitateaca un
tltgur bi, sdfre ,rcrumis incorect esteClnp(l- p)''l ,
ln celede nai jos vomcowidetu tt olte congtucnlediferite de 2 (cu etemenkdin Zn,
ri2 ).
Mulre companii utilizeazd c{ra .le control pe ru secuitatea itfomtaliilor sau
htccmrca erorilor, De exemplu,a jaseo ciftd se adaugdIa n ntrul de idantilcore
tbmat dih cinci cifrc Siseobliru un nuttdr ahtate cilte defonta:
qa7qe4a1cundec secalculeazA
dupdformula:a1a2a3a4a5
= c(modn),
utilizdn
congrlrenlamodulo 7, atunci pentm numdrul de identtfrcarc21346,
Dacd
da
contrcl
este3, deoarcce21346=3(mod?). Deci flwdrul completeste
#a
213463.Dacd tr bc dz nuntrul 21346s-drf tanstuir 22 , atun i qaft detectatdo
atoare.letronimitere,deoarece22346/ 3(rtodi) ( 2na6 = z(rlLodi) ).
Pmtr], deterlnirareacifrei da control se utilizeazdsche e n^i complicate(atd cum
tttt vdzut,anul trecut,lo codul de barc al produselor,fiumdrulpafaportului, codul de
ldotiftcaredepe cama dz identitate
a uiei pe\oarc).
Atf.l, ut fldrul asocid wui arti.ol 4x2,'Ln sescriesubfotmd de vector ln,n*"r")
,l t ttwubette scalar ctr un vector, nvmlt vector de porrderl (yt,yz_,.,yn), i",
n&Iatul re ia nodulo tor numdrp tlst, Aceasraestecifra ile contrcl, cdre se adaugd
ltdcolului.Deci, tt'l+ t2y2+...+,n!n = c(modp).
0a .x.tfipla nr.wftb deid4ntifcfie pentruaawtite bdnciau optcifte 4,x2_-,xg, iar a

ttuucW ,t9 Gifude cMtol) estedafn dpnn

(q,,2,...,q) (i.s,s,r.:,9,7,3)
= xe(mo<ll0),
ln accstcaz.vcctorulileponderieste:(7, 3, g,
7,3,9,7, .

.*\1 "7"'*
xo)
v'X 1\L
Ffi /rX.

2, Cor.gruutprdcrtptogafro
Anrprezentat,
attultcc t, o scartdintroduaere
lt cipto8rufre(te ocupdcu studiultehnicilor
$lliut. pentrua codiffcaun tert inteligibil),
\
lrnrplezrntdtaturti doudtehnicidacodife$E \L )<
a mesajelot:clfrul lui luliu Caet (cate
\ol

>-+
EY %7:r
\

53

;J:

,A

n{\ly

'6h -l-l\',t
o \F )

,,

.ontta lfir-o d.colot. o olfa}{/lululcu t'rl poatll) tl pdtr^tul htl Polybtllbodnl

llLn I ta stoclqw nundrdc doudclfrc), Vomabordaaccsteprcblcm.lnt'"uncddtu
tL crlptogr&4 est. dife td d. t.orla
)ml Aana'?,l,utlllzAndcongruatla
',odulo
gl areaarca ero lar din fiesdie,tn tlmpce
odrtllor, Wdfia s. oc@ dc dcucmtca
a tnesqielorfald da
Dtltltd tludldzdprolectar.a codurllors^crete(ile ctscwtderc
'larr.,{ld,h
ncoutor6dt.). Clfrul lui Cacsat estc r?pr%.ntal prin doul inzle
aorcalrlc., fecare din eb conlinAnl lntreg dtrabetul(Ji8urualdtufttd). Inelul
Ertul
lshrlat, rcprczintdEm/l hteliSibil(cldr),.stefrxot. Cel efierior, rcprezintA,
(ten
pereche
d.
litere
O
ru4t4
Cele
doud
incle
.tt
nobll.
clftatt
4falul'
foftnedzd
cheid
dc
Ac.arta
este
deciptare.
toafi
schena
de
ctrat)
dcterrnirv
ctarhaxt
(a,
D)
l
rncrqj,
De
aettpfu
o oricdn
drcodlfrcorc
alfabetului
celor n litere
D,{lcria|ranat ndc, 4 clfralut Mucen. Asociern
^le
cottsiderdm
A=
-ll
f nclia
htltag 0, l, .,., n - 1. Notdm c!
Ei
{0,1--,tr
undek.ste chei4hwndfllui de puilie de la
ltAaA,f(t)=x+k(modn),
owatul cl4r 14alfabetulcifrar PeMnSdliterele lfabetiui dela a la z sedda gd Ei
blanlul(=spaliulliber),Dcci:

Alfab.M:
A:

.b

c.

..,

0 1 2 3 .,,23

Y
24

z
25

"blank"
26

k = 5, textclq ,,alacfutui" setaniontld futuncifrdt:FYFHENSEnWMel:

Penttr.
ol^c brzori Setruduae
StA

/Gl=-dl$ne4p)
satradue
# + F Y F HE

0190226813

262514 178

5 24 s 7 4 t3 18 4 3 ts22 li
N s EDTVN

Apttcatia f tAa A, f(r) = r+ t(modt) este bijectivd ti lwenL ei estc

Aplicaliainversdse utilizeazlpentrua
f-l:A-A,;-11,r1=r-t(modr).
d.sclfu rcnut ciftat.

Mal generulrc poateconsidera

fihclio f I A a A, f (t) = @t+ blttadnl ' undea'b
tunt t:ntrcgllxall (fr1ttqlhqflnd),Percchzaotdonatd(a,b)estecheh acestaicif,tu'

Dacda = 1, ae.m clfra trontlafc, iar dacdb = 0 t. oblht clfu mufulballv,

Funclta
f ore lnverso f-t:A-A, docd @n\=1,cdnd f-11x1:a'7-6'1o6"1'
lnde aa'=l(r'odn) cu O< a' < n $i ,' = -a', (modll).
t, Pbntela Wne ti congfl.nla

Prlnpbml lalin de onlin n se tnlelegeun tabelpdtratic nx n, tn carefiecare din cele

tlnbolui apareo d4td tnliecare linie ti odatdtnfrcare coloand.
erentplu,ln agriNulturdse testeazl5 tipuri de lngrdldmintepe un tere th fotna
,dicA, Se bnparteacestpdtrat tn 25 p&filele nai mki (u p rat cu 5 linii li 5
), Se dorelte, pentru a evidenliamai bine efcienla tngrdrdminElor, ca pe
re coloanAti pe fiecate linie un tngfitdnafi sd apard o singud dafi dlrpd
(A, B, C, D, E sunttipuile da ingrdjdnanr).
cd acestacsteunpdtrat latin de ordin 5,
pdttutul
L
loti^ Atutlci L(i, j) reprezintdeknEntul de A B c D E
B c A E D
linia i ti coloanaj, In celece unneazd, i, j. Lt i, j\ Z n.
B
c D E
itabilette utor cd Vn>z pdtratul nxn, definit pfin
i)=i + i, i,i ez'n,esteunpdtratlatinAW spus,tabla D E B C A
A D B C
de adunare pentru Zn este un pAtat latin.
aratd cd distd thtotdeawwcel pulin un P&rat
hlht dc o ce orditt, Sepot oblire pdtrale latineprin tncercdtl
Oproblend rwi difcild esteile a gdsiperechid.epdtrute latine de acela{i ordin, care
wt, futtf-un anune sens,cat nai dikite posibil.
fiunen cd dod pdtmte lanne Ia, Ia aleocew ordin suntonogon6h dacdpenlru
Oflceperccheordonatddc sinbolui (k,k) eristd o sirquld pozilie (i, i) pentru care
\(i, j): k $i ta1, :k'.
W ercmph\pdtntele de nai jos:

D C B
B A D

B A D C
c D
B
D
B

D
B

A B

tw$ ortoSonaledzoarecefiecare din ceb 16 perechi (,4,A),(A,B),...(D,D)se

t alizeazdtn na din cele16pozifL

))

& ), z v.riflor rc...tl .cuidc. Auei iv.ml

hoblama rrtolvelr
l, ll r rdoh.ln z? .lrhn6lc

J+i'-sr=0 y'+t-rr=0/-i:-E=0.

aresorqic

- 2 , 4 = i, 4 - \ .

sisrmului
sultl(i,i,a), 42,4),(4,4;i).

ll ,. ntolfth

[r+r+z =0
o l r'+v 2+r2=i
=i.
[r! +r3+.3

[r=i +A '
st^

.
t:
^ " =6
l2'+3(1+4r)
l0.x=J
irtu
urnaresitt dul dat.st inposibil
OrtuldmNc$aticcsliryosi.bi$=
Allftl. Solnhultsgt primaxuriccu i $ dinmcmbriidrcPtiai clordou!cualitrezuld 3 6 ' fals
Propri'r'tile deErmimnfilor' da' inand

A=A esleitrvcnabil ltr Z 5 (4,5) = 1) 9i 4- ' = 4

rorlna d. ola&tiil !. Z5) Sr obwimc!
cand
Dcd r. poaD aplic! rcg$la lui (}anEr ar rtuolle Glsitn A,=4'A'=3'Az=i'

r=ii=3
.t=a,.A-1=4i:i, y=a" t;-t =6.4:L z= d".t
d) Obs.dtm d sisr.rul es|f aitrtic tn r ,. z
Vom r.zolv! shtemulutjliztlndcueriade gadul Eei
Noilm Sr =.t+ y+ z = 6, 52:r!+
tr, $:
'z+

epalf <ii'il estemtutia

rtz. Seidicn prina cuatieh pnlat 9i rezuH

pet / 4
arcarn(||lcini
d.cit a+tz+u=i.
&adar52=i Scdd.auatisdgadul'l treileacate
sau
cunorclnrlsunolcsimcnic!tufftlncntle SI,S2,S3 Actastaest"' /-qr2+s2r-s3=o

56

ot

16r+3r+22=3
| ^
^
b) lr+2r+r=6

[3r+ir+iz=ii

l i r3 l

.) Iht fminrnlrlststonulut
A- li 3 il = i ,
mram cstoInvc$abll
ln rapotculnmultlrcr
tn
""*,

F'II

d d.cl nu..dsl pollplicrformuLloftil Cri crln nzolvaroalistomului.

dto m!!o& (miodasubtilud.i .r|l mcrodrruduccdi)
h rcrolv.l!! ristcnulul.Sclzlnddln (2)

(3)rc ob$no3y-6. AcoudccnderJ6ln zl2 rotugil

n =i )r =6, ys=O, An"lirL

l,+32 -0
lt=-32
l, =9
rrui^ ^
1^
^
^rauj
^
l4.t+. = 9
[4(-3r)+!=9
[.-9
o.olulioa sisimuluidarcs!.x=0,y=2,2=0.
y = 3 , ,cric'ortrenl'.t to.rut dinocuatiilc(l ) 9i(2):

r = l, t = 6, z : 9 , cslc d. asmen.!o solutica siNtemului.

seobtin si$.mul(ditr(1)ei (2)):

in., da.n /
-ib

r +'"'-l
3 2 = icu.or,s,
r=3,z=i.
+z : 5

grsini('r+x+'z):4
x2+ y2+22+i(r!+yz+n;=d. Aia 6namse,* oeecu4ha doua

r3 + ir-s"= d .

p+iy+z=i

(D
(2)

), - i, ..uagll60) gi(2)dru sbblnulr

liid
*tie
c) Dot.rminln$l sist tr lui esr. o: l: i il: i o.
",
14431

Zuddemde:

lx + 2 J + k = 4
t. ^
^
3) l4r+5t+.=7

& rezolvar'
& Lrolv.&q sist n lor fil cl.r. dc r!3$d Zr d! r.gru' ltilizcazl "clcati fftodo
pe Z' (de
prmisc
CmrEr.&.) dsr$nendse{Inldeopenliil
l|||norcut!d. po C (rcducsrii,subslilutici,
shtllnului
undc a= detcrminantul
! dr c$lla lui cnmtr s scric :=A" A-l' )=Av A_l"
i$d. .l flo cldu.ntinvcnabilln Zr ln rrponc1lttnulir.3)
= 0'
a) Di.r !&nrm .cu4iilc' mcrr$.uor m.mblu,ftzulg ) - i (s-arcdust) Din pritu ecua$c't
Dxt roMroc& (6,i).
succciv
l) 86poncudltzsm.rodssuhdn4iciscriindstutcmul

f":i+i ,

d'rut dauy'+t'+y'-it*-y-"1-\-0.
"ai"e

s !!ia ocustic
s etstr(nutui,
3s3 i ri dcis3 = i. rruafa r3+1r-i=6
-

=i

. fi rttr
..
[3r+r=i
Dri^
tlt.
"
^
^ ^
l l}+2J=a
l2r+3r=6
h l, drt nd.:
['+r *.=i
ct]i'+3 y+z=i
=i
[i' +ir +iz

"*

ln concluzie,
si'ienulda.lre sohfnc:d,i,O),(i6,0),(3,i4,4).
Apliclm llEtodi substitutioiln rczolvara..$tui sisten. Dn ecurtia r douas cxprinl ti apoi se
'
ln ccuqiile unu 9i trei. s obtitrsistcnd:

f':3+iby+ii:
["-6+iby+iru
*u
l6z+3y+?"=3 13r+62=3 o)
16r+42+6r+12=ii
[3x+62=ii

vl. l. rlrtomulformotdln ulltm.l6 doui.otr{lll dln (*) tl e! rczolvdprln Dori)darnl0r.rll tnmulllnd

fi|lrlh r dou| cu3, obti nrt6lo1.mutl
llY +82- J
l ' = /+ o I

U=7+62

tlnrrrllrir-6arc tn v.t2 sotufiile

zt=3,.2=i, c g td )l = i

dat
ti y2=i. solutiilelistemului

,,,,,',(i,i,i,d,i,o),
I EI |. nmlie sllimul matrlcdr

ll
I,.liil"=11
,
I

t2 4t

L -. -.

)" ^1tnz s.

l t23J

r] siseGs.ric
sutt*,
'l.v={' 1 .
',sromut
lc d)
"j'

ll.Lulrn x =['

r - t ] ti il
3, I ii il [t .+j.
h , u | ! ',
-az d-rr.a,) E ,)
ll" d) li,-A" iy+.4,1[j i] s a ujll"-t,
/

t,

"
l("-t -' a"-3r-,1_
[0 il

^
^
^
^il.
11_[0
l[,-ia L+3a]_1,

[h+ ia 1'+3a l ' , l t ) 0 ]

[ ' - r d - . 4 .-ia + r .]ii d l

o+32=i

Aa+3r+ y =i

Teoreml Cuplul(R4,o) esteungnrpabelian,numitgrupulrbell-an*ai

rotoflllor decentruO dln pl.nul P.

Teorml. Cuplul (?b,") esteglup abtan,numitgrupul omotedllor

docentruO atepla[ulul ? .

f u+ i a+ "= 6
cu $olulia, = 0, )' = I,

i l . .=t.1 61 l
r
^t

DrcdO estEunpunctfix al planului?, iar o areun unghiorientatdirl acelatiplan,

dunciae numitrotrFe de ce ruO 9iurghl (t, aplicatiaSpap
defrrntn|'itn
q, Am numitpunctulo centrulrotlfel, (t unghiul
E(0 = l,', ol: Ol',;A':
dGrotrFe, iar A'est lmrgircr lul ,4 prin rota$e.Am notat cu ROrnultllne!
lotrfllor decetrhuO dinplanulP. ArElocumfitorulrczultat:

OA':lkloA (sauin liJnbaj

vectorial,
OA : I. AI ). pun(utO senumegre
cntrude
omotede,iar k esterrpoftrl de omotetiqpunctulA,esteomotedcullul A. Am notat
prtui7fo mu$irnea
omotetiilotdecenruO dinplanulP. Ai locurmtrloarea:

d +2 r+4 u =2

t?

grup A

In fine,o ultird tansfqmaregeorFficdirportanttrin plalra fostornotetladecentruO

(punct
Ex)tf rrport keR*,hfi:p-p, t$teVe',4t'ee. O,dA,coliniare
gi

"+2,+i"=i'

Solutiasbtemuluieste: x:

Teorrml. Crrplul (7,o) esle un gup abetia1l,;fint

trarshdtlor planuluiP .

t3 2l

ll
l"ll11."=ll
l r oJ

lur dc aici seobline sistemul:

Am v[zut cAdsctri cotcun vcctordat,aturci translatlade vector i estefunctia

fi ff' - ;.
\tP - P,\lMl:M ',M ,M 'eP
^.teti nc gr
PuncmlM' senulnetlctrrDdatul lul M devectori .
Amnotatcu 7 mulftmeahansleffllorplanulul p. Atuncialeloc umdtoarea:

^l

4)t Gntpurl de lransforrniri geomtrlce

sa]do
Rea$intim ce P estemu{imeapunctelordin plan, atllncio tun4ie f tP
-P
geometdca.
hint
rcstrictie a unei asemeneafirnciii se nunegte transformate
studiatin anii Fecedenliaufo6l tmnsl4ia,rctalia9i omotetia.
trunsfonnldlegeometrice
vcdea
cd
aceste
tmrsformtrri lmpreunil cu oper4ia de compunercpot fi
Vom
c[ Srupuri.
orgdnizatc

5ll

O apficatie
blfecfild gtP--+P *, nunErtetuometdeda;6d(q/..q,(i..ry)=d(A,B),
unded(A,B) inseamnd
distanFdinueA $i.d.Mai simpluscrisq(A\q@) AB.
DactrtrotimcuIzom(? ) multimeaizometdilotplanului,atunciareloc unnatoarca:
Teortml. Cuplul (lzoti(P)f\

este gup, numit grupul

planulut ?.

59

!. corldcrrO=(-[r)p. c.r. dflDlln

aplcrsr r.J=ff.,r"Ui"r
l. 1) Arltd cl lt.or. dln unltorr.l.
.rb 3ruPr
1) l.,zl
2) l.d,bl

(C,., eltegrup

||t||lfln (r| 1.8.sd. coDpod$ datl iI. bbl.L & ttd lG

tr tnd$I||cr n !e ddrtette oDr.fs I r ) =.r +,J, r,, R. D.tennhrf.r,,

3 ){ i,qd} ,d+o+ l= o

pentm c.rr

rta Srup
n O=(r,oo)ttp. n|3e{rtoconDodle
,.r=xr+s+br+cd,b,cR.Ihr$ndnrd
n dld (G,.) e!.e gmp.

d [[|!atdr.r drlthr. rtenn ft c =(91,82,$,aa),rlde &:R-(0,+r)-+R-{q+D,

l) lhd (llt,) &nng

p, M.lq

=',s19=I;],sr(,y=-j,

b, c,dl,.turd edl|I ur lldgur modde3 conplelr trb.ftd!

,,ft:ll.,,.a,r.r'.],

tt
2.P. Z r.d.6!qt .pLr$r r.r
r.|)-l. fult|f d (Za.)..b 3rup.bdha
3.n O= (-l,o) tl ellc.dr p.O,r., : r +, + rr. SI t. ftra cl (6't.!a. in p rb6llrn
4.P. n da6.lDl!3aa& coroladtarit=t+J-ry,8l
t urt cI f,l=n-{U..|! o prrt
.trHll.ld lbr.lorlcuf4!| * d (Rl,,r).!tgll}rbdLn.
5.P.d Sm.rlunordor!.!otrd! Q a. ddlnqbL8.. dt corD@d.rTJ=t+r-+.SI.e
|rrad 02=Q-(ri..t p.rL drull.lul Q ltrr.portcu T rl (02,D;l3rup comutr{%

?)|,,,.o,.'*o"o]'
. 2tr

I|t-

ArItrF cI

I r. flr midd
aplc.Sr r r r =.(" *r')+zu+:("'l-l).
C={-LoC p. cir,. * conditerr
+2J +,' -I, o,,t n h.m I|S4 n lenhu c.re (G'T) e6laSrupsbelbn.

II

,r'lF=o/'rll

-";J

*o|,
flrr".*,"',

n,{["I" -*o]lo.
to,r'i,
coa
ttdDa

JEI

;-N1....],
"[a_:,
It" ut.

8)117'
.l!ea."-t*=tlr

It,

-il,t-i
euzrnl,,,.r=r);
_]r;
1,t_l_l]
''ft l,[ il,1:

:h(e-ll

l(1.P. lrt rvotul (n,6) !G corrtrlcll gpltcrlh r*y=tr-n(x+r)+r!z+D.

((I',o)'rcat gup conutrur.

. r*rl

t*

dlt nnlrl o st ctud

-- +1 delendd o
7. srr! clrt! cr p. nuldE r c=(l,oo)-{2} sdlc4lr r+J=(r-r)l
,tlucturl d&bdcr & grupcomulid%
8. Sl r. d.brnhe d Z $d.l hda Z @rd!
dn un gnrp
cu splcila r.J=.r+J-ar}
rbdhD.
9..) Sl ,. d.t !E|r. c.r nd mlcl ydoor..ld
,,n penrrucr!! haffvslul (1') 8tGprt
pe
.bll iH trhlrpo cuLgcrdccoeporllhd.
R't*r=ry-r-ytl.
(C,t) .st trup rbe[tn, unde
b) P.Dtn t tteh tunctula),crldir$ rr=.r*r,i.-,r,.rd.rrirdcr

60

s'rpnurrco 0!.116.iL compun

!aa{ Snrpcomutadv,
/l irf cl umlto.Ele mrl$ni dGtnrtrlc. pltrrdc. de odln dol lud gnrpud $nprturtr cu
tlelnmuuttl

6. sr r. d.moDrtsr. c! F nr Sncr (0,oo)-O) .pllcrd. r T t = /h'

d. gnrpshltr|L

rr'l=$,

ll r. .nb cl m dn o mlirlcelor

Ifr"rl

"=[1; ii''""I*"

Brup rn mport cu

lr|Elc.Ior

=
= 'i'Xll**.,
*.r, ='].* *
rtr.po
"*" * o*iesr.'p
" {""
^'r"

hmdlt|tr mtrrcdor.
tto ccuF r'+ai3+rri+d+d=0.
Detrn{|lof rirD.rele rEaled, }, c, d r.t|et lncdt
toifrr drso|.of e cott|pLrcoL.cuaitet dfi.! 1) Smptn rrportcurdunrraauzulEi
Dup ln lrpori cubDug!.. [lurll

6t

Il

I'o"l
Il
i
.zt.

t0. n o-lM(!)=l-d

1 -Tll,ul.8l

[0 0 lJ

'rrt

d G .|tc rruprb.ltlnh rrponcu

[r-' 0 , 1,
tr ol-tr

..,1

!r.t)t co td.dm' im!.,o=]rt'r=l o o o ll,en-lf[[.rrrtadcrctornnrzr

[t ool loro]
{o ro) Ioo r) toort
i-10 0 rl,4=lr o ol,4=loo rl,p.=lo
r ol,a=[ o ol.
\o,
[oro,
too4
tu
oU
ttooJ
u
00J
{rod-[orol
u
00,
[0 t0 l
ca C ={13'4,4,-,4}

hlu$raa mtrtc.lor. Crlcohf ,1J(.) .

l, Oftttc. trrrrl||i||t) O .dT iL ndrlc. r. ob{!. dln n trtcoounftat ,, prh

tni.n t mt6r6r
Id[|,I odrtl.|u & nul eutt od (Fn
rt d. IdD. r.nt|u , = ! .v.m E i cch:

'-'l

.rrotr[p culDl[utin hrrrtcclor.

*,=[.-;1,,=[;
-;]
lJ,,=[
;],,=Ll
-l),"=[1

14, e ={t2,e,,i,/r3,s. c,o,r}ate gup cuopcngad. tunutlll.. nrhtc.lo!.

scrtctl

DJd.dv l. opcr.$ d.trnul$re. nrdcdor tl cdctt|-f .{'(r).

t) n. c muune.n$rlc.lordetonni:Mb)=+l-a

Ir -r

o l
0

ld(-r.r).8I se

{ r - , ' to o .,[:F J

f f i, 4
I
* !..r.r.
ci.,* "=ll,
; ;Jr.,,".,,l
l prcu

co lnlrultr!|

oblttrdtl a

art grup.Clta alanant4araacertgrup?

fiala car
.) (Or) ette8mp abIlq
b) d.cl a (-1,1) , rtud pcnhu ortce,| N' edrtl ur udc lemni r'r (-1,1) c.lrFoprletltea

a'Lf cr
r
orop.r.frdeb,oursrc
obr,Dunr
r
-orrn "=ffi ?ltarrr1 ftryru,or

M(o,l=(M(a\lr;
c) I|! z, = *, va (-r,1) -{o}.

[ {" ' - r l
r)n. /t1=lA(i)=101 2:
I

t00 'J

.) ,t(r)=A(J)<+r=rt
l(1),t(2)..J(').

lirerl.slsdatecI,

b) r(r).40)=l(r+t)tc)

[ooorl
22.rh nnrder r=ll 9 i il
turuul

llt+ A + rR +.Clt,t,z eZ:Dl.

cr (c,) ..t grupildt.r.

]
(M')

3tesrup lbdtfni d) CalcDl.f

d (G,.) e.tcArup.httrh.

Arlhl d drcl rX=ry,rn|!d X =y,

Lrolv.f cc!.fh ,t{ = AX .

o={r'lzN'}. Aritrtlcr (c,.) G!t!srupsb.lhn.cer!

loo r o j
aLrDrb ar. G ?
23.Sl a. donoD!h.!. cI penultne. C = (1,oo)x (2,) .pllcrfrl
("'J) T (r"J')= (rt'- t - x'+ 2, !r'-2t - 2t'+ 6,
dd.nrhl o .trucNl dr trup comutriv.
24.1)n Dul$In o d. Ertdc. rb ofilhul dol:

8a r.!.i6

* o=[i 'J.rt,rr, u
c=1,r,1,en1.
'uq,o.,

:],[9]
;J,tj,
il,tT
"-ftl'ff jJ'ttffi ;J,(l

lI .. nrolv. dtr.Ddc:

[3 ' + y+ l= i
[r + y+ 3 r = i
[' + i r + i r = i
n
251
z1
p .l - y+ z= i h zsr 3 ]a
) r - r + i != i ttr z!r
l+ ) y+ i= i
+it
+z=)
=i
+iy
I2x
[i'
[i+iy+3r =s
i ,+ fty+ r = i

["+ r + "= 6
b 2 1 1 ;cl
l 3 r - i y+ r = i r r 2 1 1 ;
'+3r=i
iD'+ir +ir =i
[3:+3y+ir=i

cl O hnpra,r culnmu$ rn tdc.lot to]m.!rl un 81uPnecomut.dv.

62

63

FFtJ, 8l ..rMlv.

p'+r+i'=i

['+ir+&-6

[ i' + iy + 3 r - !

[' +3r+ir=!
li'-i!-Az=i

l2r

r l lr+ 1 y + ! r = 3 t n2 6 t0 ]i r+J+r-i

Fr+3r+i"=i
[ir *ir+, =3
[6r+3r+k=2

n , ' = 1 ;:i:1 ,":;lJ.

r = [l

= 3 ln 26r
l n 2 6 re ) +^2,+^32

r,l,ot.c ecu'fa
".mrvc c="",*".=tl :i:;]

l.r+3)+4.=r
k+ 5!+ 72= 10

t-

r0lli: +ir +32=i h 26r rrt {r+3y+ir =i ln zlntrz) l3r+22=9^

t^^ - ^- t ^" ^^
t^^^
[3r+dJ+2z=r

b Zt2i

Reguli de calcul lntr-un grup

[ r+ 7 r+ 3 2 = 4

nFnoizianumireposibihEfide efectuare
a unorcalculealgebrice.
l1v11ur nenuueste
monoid.sinletepe
cd
toaLe
regutite
de
catculvatabiljpennu
IT_,".r.lce
ry!
[Dnorztsepesreazl
$ipentrug puri.In pluspentrugnrpuriexisEregulicareL sunr
tptcifice(ti tin dcexisrenppentrufiecareilement
a iDve$uluit.

[ r+ t + "= 2
[" +r+" =i
r!) lry+yu = A h zs i ur ]r: +r2+22=i ln z5;
-s
[ * =3
['r+r]+2 3 =i

['+t+"=i
1 5 ) | r y+ r z+ Jr =^
.

Teormt.(Regutta"

I'."={l
;lhZ s .
b!Zstrol
),

1,2s"+a2"+,y"2=i

[,

."=[

.c!.llhr

arbihat.Au loc echivalenFle:

1) ?, = ? <+.!= ).(,,simplilicare..la,sgnga),
zC,
, la dreapE),
2) x=yzet:
y (,,simplificarE
iG.

^i

;l

r0. Arltoi cI mhtcd. (X,v) surt o solufcp[tm ficrrdh stuLnle:

il,
l*ll ?l*"=ll

nl,^ti^,3J
",rrr,
,"t1,iJ,"

ll?0,
ll*."11
?l=lill
{J
t0
u 13

Ltl

r=[|

'

prmonstralte. 1) ,,+., Fie 31 = 4y. prin lnmultire ta stlnga cu z-l rezultA

irl(2") = z-la o (.-lz)y e ex= eyc t= y.
c[ x = ). SolrululFgrela srrngacuz gjavemzr = a,.
r tn ' Prt"supunem

;],"=[]

B[mr"a-1ii,t; Oacftge. est dar! aditivatunciteorema

sesclic;

l) ? + r =.+ y ,,r = t;
2 )x + z = y+ z+ r = y,

l'19il.ll
il"=liil
lt,^al^.

il,'=[i
:l
li 11",,,'=f9
2r
',II'll!: :l
13
to
U
ll-'ll :l=llil

prinrr-unnumArrealnenulrEzuhidin aceasd
!f hop-riclaq aea tp64i o egalirate
Iollml. la fcl, prcprierlrcade a rcducatcnnoniiegalijituali f" ln"rnUnaiii",fi
l|a d dcsici.

12 1 , t5 1'

l(20,

ot {i il
{,.t0
il ,.fi
lrl^
l^
^l+r

^l=1" "l

,l-!:ll f il !lil'",, "=[:l."=fi

1.
4r
2r
t2
t3
l'l?9l-"llll=llll
lu3,

l o 3 , t6 6,

r L Alcltulf trNo l8lldc conp|llterer !.r'nuiatllor pe 53 .

.r2.Ar{trl cI mul$mecdeperflutld S = [r,ol,d2,o3] odet
'
lr234s6)
ll 234s61
h234561

'=[r r r l s o fe =[c l 2 s 3 rJ '.'2=hs l r z

lnpr.uDl c,uop.ri& deconpuncrcr p.rmutlrllor formqtl un 8np.

64

Ir 2315
c l' o t = [ c3524

.1,
rJ

Dc|nonqrralie.Analog6cclei de la rnonoizi,I
Obr(rl:rfie. Dact grupulG esrcadiliv, atunciEzult telc din teorcntr
lUtorm&
l\M+trr=(n+m\x,
2\ n(nx)=(rxtla N\n,neL.

UrmitorulrazulBtsirnplupcntruclcmontclcunui gruppoatest0bllldncllncostaeste
comutstiv.Mai Drecisarc loc

*11".r].
, **o=f[1
Ul
tt'

Teorerna.Dacdln gupul (G,) avem

estesbellrn.

;t;F;.*;;;;"';--l

I)cmonstratie.Fie ,, ) G , arbit&rc.S[ probimc! O,= rr.

=
Dinr,]C rezultlryctide{i } = s,y2=
",1ry12 ".
Scriemegalitatea
asdel:
1ry12= c succesiv
(ry)@i: x2y2 + x(yx)y= (xl.)y + yx: tf (duptsimplificare
la stAnga
cu, ti la
dreapta
cu)). r

1)Arltofl c! (G,, er.egup obIan

t,a"r",=ll

11.*-*
( oU

1,4,3.Subgmpuri
hintre sutmultimilenevidealeunuiglupC, exist[ulele carcfonneaztr
gruprelarivla
operaliadepG.Asdeldesubmulfirne
senumeqte
subgrup
a llli G.
Dellnge. Fie 6 un grup.O submultime
nevidi7 a luiZ sJluGG
grupului
al
c
dacd
legea
de
cohpozilie
din c inducepe I/ o
$bgrup pozitie
de co

r. n (O,.)un glop cu d.n nt |t.ok|r ,. tuItrd c! (d,) .!te gmp lb.Irr dad .3t rdevllrt! unN
dr co&r$ncd. nd Jo8t
r) t3 =c,YteG,?f =t212,v*,yc;

2) 13=.' Vrc, (rr)' = (rr)2,V:,r ec r

!).*LtlN'red.I
hctt !e tu orlcer,tc ov.m:(ry)t = rtJ'n,(ry)t+l= r'+r)t+l tl
(ry)o+2= rn-'yo+r, vr,y ec.
2. 8t cotdderl (G,, un il||p rb.ltr|| cu r elemenb.
SI 3. .rate cI rt = !, Vr C , unde. erte
aLnernrln utrurl grofxlul,
3.n (C,,)f ptl r,J C, |'del lncit 1) x' = t4 =c ; 2, ry = yr3. lrltrfl cl: p = r2r d
4.lt (G', ur grupcudlE trt louuu . Ar ,rdcl (G,.)eNhirup .bellrnd.cl esteo&vlril un.
r r condllU.denr! Jo!:
l) , = r-r, Vr C i 2) (rJ)-l= r-ry-l, vry eC i !) ry-l = yr-l,Vr,y eG -{c).
5.ne(O,)gruptl .r,rO,isfclhctt12=y2=13y)2.Slrcaratectr
rd = r4 =..
6.P. C = C- {t} .c codd. rdlcrth }. r = r + r + bJ, Vr,r C .
r)Arlt S cl (C,i) ortcgrupcotnrtdv.
,) Crfodrs(-r)3,(r + t2, r r ,, N' , n> 2 .
7.PeG=(3,@)!. codd.rl splcrlL r * , = rJ - 3r - 3J+ 12,r,J d.
l)Adtrd d (C,*)!d trup rhIrD.
2)Arltr$cts..*...*r=(a-3)'+3,VrC,nN,n>2,

66

A2tt),
A!\-3,.AtdtA(b,.
Anta),
atar+a2r.\+..+
Antdt.

lmDleuntrcu caleIl cste

Exemde.r) (2,+) 3tarubsruprl grupdut (Q,+)

,) (R,+) e.tssuber|rpal Sruptdd (C,+) .
3) (t,,.) stesubrupol $up'!tul (C',r.

Urm[toarea
aJirmalie
vinesdprecizeze
ln cecondiliio submultinE
H unuigrupC este
undubgrup.

Teoremtr.
O Eubmuhime
ll a unutgrupfmuttficatigZiG suUffi
grupuluiC dacd9inlmai dacdsuntlndeplinitecondifiilo:
1) (V)x,)Il =+.rJ

'l,
2) (V)r ri +'t I n.

Dmonstrafi,
hesupurcmctrI1e3tesubgmpal lui C. Atuncidin dcfinilirezulttrctr
l.gca de compozide
din G induceo legedc compoziti.pc A adici sc vcrifici 1),
lrgEa indus! posed!elernen!neuEu,II, aldel lncet oricarear firIt,
I,x= xu = x . In panicular,x,l = r gi din uniciEreslui u rcatlti,u= uu-l =e. pin
urnaleH conlineelementul
nrum din G, Cumfl este8ubgrup,
oriceelenEnt.r II
lrtc inversabilln H li inve(sullui , ln Il coitrcidecu invelsullui .i lD Gi rleoarecc
Inver$iesteunic,adictrxE +r-l H qi2) areloc.
Rcciproc.
presupumm
verificare
condi$iile
1) 9i 2). Dio I) rezultdlegealui G induceo
lcgepe It careesreasociadva.deoarecelegeadin G esteasociativl:Dn 2) se dlduce
ctrpentrufiecare,eH=+x-leH
deri *-l=eeH.
Cu aclasfaII lmDreun[cu
legeaindusdesregrup.adjcesubgupal luj C.r

67

| ) rtl.,)r. r(xiu sub

ol'\.r !^lii. l) D{cI lcgclirr(; cstctu]lrllll
lrdiliv,atuncicondi{iilc

-l

-t

-l l
I
I-t

-t

-l

1') ( V) r ,) H +.r lr.,/,

2') ( V) n H+--rH.
2) Str relinem cA un subgrupH al gfupului G esteo submutlimea sa careodattrcu
li conline$iinversul(2))
contine$ipodusul1or0)),iar odalacu unelernent
doutrelemente
'lcoremaprecedent[sepoatercformula$i subforrna:
Teorerntr.O submullimenevid' l{ a unui grup G estesubgrupal lui G' daca
$i nurnaidaci estelndeplinitl condilia:

)r,] H +ry-r 1 1
l)cl$rtstru{ie. Fie F1 subgrupal lui G Atunci, condifia este indeplinita conform
precedente,
din .:r,) I1+ x, )-' 11$ideci ry-' H '
deoarece
teoremei
l-" -l e rl a d iL ds e
Din c.rH
da ca xH-xx-l:eeH.
Re c i p ro c.
-" "
ve fictr 2) allnteorcmaprccedentd.
adicnate loc ai 1) din
Dactrr,)eH+x,)-1H
9i deci x(y-l)-l=r1'eri'
teoremaprecedent5.a
()hscrva(ie,1)DacdC esteaditiv,atunciconditiadin teoremd
sescrie
}C
{V )i,}G+t2) Dac[ Ii estesubgup al lui 6, atuncinotxm H < 6 .

-l

S. co'ul.dd {V)r,JI' + ry L.ln pl|l0'l-r = 1 ry,

l -l
l -l

-i i

-l e{, (-l)-r = i n. Decr(n,.) 6te

sulfnp d rui {c',.) . Derrpq Il = U! , grupulmdltpllcatlv al
(-r)-r = -r e r, r-t

rldftIrllor deor{lD 4 rle unltllll

n. EubD'dfrncrlt={0,i46} esiesub8ruptlnlt al srupul (Zs,+). TrNa

oo.rrdd pc,t te dru dltunt
Ohrlvlttr d (V)r,J r =f r + J It . Slnetrlcd llecnld elementdln |? ste

0246

tor rn H, -d=0e H,-i=ie u, -'q=ZeA,-i= ie ,'.,t"*'rorto"

4 602

Fobd cr tt = {i, i A} e.te!'lbcntDd 8rupdul (2i,.),

0 246
460

024

/. Fla ,t={i,i,e,e}gz$,
udldflt r.bh olcra$etc! ll|nulSler ftrta$ ct (I1,.) este$up.
Z1ncutImul$rernr $r. erdp.
Totd, (H,.) nuste obgnrpd lut Zp , deorrece
li lhcl C ede utl stun smd| r) Z(G) = tt Cl.8 = ,t, Vc G) sr llt|Ine$i!.enl rll $sl rrlli G
o. Ir.d sG,etowl
(delne$d srupulut qr. corutt cu s) stesobg.up tl
C(s)=l'rqq=8rl
ld O (nurdtcdr r"iiaro' ul hi 8 i" G). c"tle.tc rcIrd. i tt ac.slesubgrupld d Z(C)?

unuiSrupfaF de
subgrupudlor
UttnltoaEateorernd
di info.maliidesprecomportarea
opor4iadeintolsec$e
a mul$nilor.Maiprecisarelocr
Teormr, Fi6 o {Hi} fahilie de subgrupuriale lui

numite
G tl {t} slelul6 suntsubgrupur|,
neuiru.
SubmDldrdle
I HeG unSrupd , G elemDtul
jtd

}-olrr,'
."l|lrfl,r,udi',trl'lniLOrlccsubglupHallulG.dltrltdeG
{.,3enumc$""
(fi.",.)
(ll-r),le3tc
.1.Grupul
aub8ruprl lul
3ub$up5l lul
\.N16nL=lnklk eZl,t<z, tubnulsmet Srupulul(2,+). AioDcl(nz'+)
'Et
(v)ntl,rr2 tZ rzulu
z, dcoore.e
rJ t'\ + nkl= t'l\ + kr) e z tl

a -ak = nt-k\ e ,z .
hfft t d lul rC'.1 do tce lg&vfl+{v-rH
! submuldnoarr=kdld=llEteun EubSrup
.l"l
hl r
pe ruc! rr-r =lf =lif =i=t loartecu! H +"r H.(v),' z.
,
,tJ
lrl I
s Srbmulsmeott={l-r,i,-l}

estesubsrupflntt al grupulut {C'r). Pennu aceo*a

orulderr|n tabh operafli.

6ll

nHi esteunsubgrupal lui G.

llr.ruNtratic. Curllelemenhrl
neuftue al gupului apa4inefiecdtuisubSruplti se
doducc
cd . nHi, adiclltui*a,
rczuhtcd ,r--lc Hi.
Drcr ryeffi, atuncix.)Hi.(d)i, CumHi eslesubgrup
al lui O, r
(V)i 9ideci .r}-l nlli, ceeacealattrc[ f']IIi estesubgrup

lltrn,r'lu.SI !. rrctecI 22n32=62.

lr E3dl!lt!! d! multimis! prDb.sz!pdndublaincluziunc.
sdivide
F. :22Tl3z.Dc.tcn$I t,t Z $tf.l lltAt 't = 2t = 3r, . Dccir sedilidedn 2 $ 3,odicd
(1).
!
Din
r62=)
D.
sici
2Zn3ZE6z,
t$e!ns! r 6n.tt Z + .r 62 .
dn 6. uc
..r-6p.p2. c\rn r=2(3p)22ri ,=3(2p)ez,deduccm
l2zn3z<62,(?) Din(l) $ (2)

69

Unnltoorcopropoziticpt.{.iLcnzJcA o rubmulfne llDlti a unul grrl C dcvine

oubSrup
cuopcraliaindustrd. pcC. Maiprccisarcloc
TcoEma.Fie (c,, ungup {i /j o 4|bmulfltneftftI a lui C. Unndtoarele
alinnatiisunte.hivalcnic:
1) fl .stesubgrupal lui C;
f)(nronstrafi.VomdcnDnstta
dublairnplicalie1)+ 2) qi 2) +L)
l)=+2)cst adevdratIdroatre din It subgrupal lui G avemcI (V).{,),fi=)
+ xt e H , crca cEd tActrfi estepafie stabili fati d9 operaliadin C.
2) + l) Prsupunem
cEH estep&te stabiEfq! dc opeqia din C. adicl (v)x. y e H +

+ ry eH ,
PicH = {4,x2,t3--xo}. Maiavemdeverficata douacondirie
caIl s! fie subgup,
(V)x fl r- t t{.
8dictr
'+
Fic .x It uneloment
arbirarlixat.Atuncielerpnlele(conformcu2))
xx1,xt2,,..,,n"
e H . (l)
Mai rnull elesumdistinqcdou! celedouA.Int-adevtu.dac! prin abeurdxxi : xx;,
(lil G) rczultl ri =rj, fals deoa!ce
t* j, atudcisirnplificgnd
h stAnga
elerneotele
dinH suntdi6tinct!dorAcetrdoutr.AFdar ll conlirccele/' cldbentedin (l). Cum11
arccxact'rolc.rtlgntq
rczulttrc[ elementd
din (l) suntchiar i.1,i42,.,.,xn
eve nalln
prin.r(in
alt! otdine,Dcli cxisd 1<i<n pcnrucar..xrt=r, De aicisimplificgnd
G) s. oblrnat=eeH. ln fincexist!l<J<rpcntru car3x.ici=e, iat de
^rci
'J = {t e H ' t

Itxentplc.l Suballlorl. tlrlt .|r n cLnrdte.h itlpulul (C',.) rolt 8ropurllod. rldtalnl sL
unft4t U,/ef.
Arlt d cr d|{o!.h pl4l firdts d. hld,.tlblte
trtl rt lnmulthe luni
Ur,rllf,

Sc Ir rItrl

.. c.lcuLrrlrq,-,sr

tl, crre aml chL. r1,r2!-r,

ordln. Dtu(rq Xrr2).-(jr,r= ttr.-tn + t" =1+ | eA n, M

s,,(ln.lal',f,fle + fl =An.
?. crJpul (l',.)

E CAr. C\| trtl

ln stt!
Ur.u

.tt! Inllrr Dat .rrtrs$ o rubmolfnc a lul A' cire elle Derleclrblll trl! de
pmtrucrre r-r = l g,
lnmut rqdirdut nrbcrupd ld (n',.).Sel. p=(r>tl

PonlrurBulidecalculfirtr-ungrupscadaugil.
Teorema.Fie (C. r un glup $i IJ un subgrupal lui c. H C .
Da c l, r 1J ,) c - H ,
arunci ,yxG- H .

I l(,nxlnsfra(ie.
Fiez = r), Preeupunem,
prinabsrjrdcd z Ii.
Dlnr = rt rezulttr) = r-lu. Cumx,a EH, rclzullit H, fals.
seprobead
Anolog
ce yxeo-H..
{r(nplu. (Q,+)e're
sutsupal ld(n,+). Dacrlurmr=3e d ,=J3-n-e, duo4
(,onlorrnrcorenel)
r+/ =3+ t6 R-Q.
llulm
r,JR-Q,stund
D
r+) poatcll rtit ln Qc0att n-Q, |tlrptclm.roat danpt.L

a.nLflo!:r =r +v 6,J =r - J tR - e tt
'+r =2eet
r = 16,y =.,!i ,a,yap - Q r t'+/=J t+i ?R - e.
[romplcrernarcabile
desubgrupuri

l) gubgrupurtlegupulul adltlv ale numerelorhtregl

grupul aditiv al numerelotlntreg. (2,+). Dorim st determiidrh
ll conoiderdm
llbFupurileacrstuigup. Rezulratul
eslefumizatdeurnitoarea:
TeorNtrl.
Fie/l o submultime
nevidtra lui Z. AtunciIi cst' snbgrupal
lui Z, dac!9inumaidactexist5, N asdellncetH=rZ,

lfinxnNtra(ie.Am vizut mai susc6 alac!H:nV,={fiklkeLl, atunciIt este

al lui Z.
lubgrup
lrofproc, dacf 1{ erte subgupal lui Z st probrm.xitbr\r lui N pcntrncarc
''
H
- nZ. doudcazuri:
Anlllzf,m
f) Drc6tI= {0},atuncievident
n = 0,cendH=02,=l'l,
i) DaclI1 ;e{0},atunciexist!ln Il elemenie
nenule.
H,
n*0,
Aane
Cumtl estesubgrup,
qi 4neH.Dt m,-meL gi srnt
atunci
mnulo,Dacicelpulifl unulestEnumfunaturalnetrul.Fidr, cl maimic numlrllatural
ianul 0pa4in6ndlui 11.SI ardtlm c6 atrunaiH=ttZ. Vom procedapdn dubla
lnoluzlunc,
na dccl xenV,. Attrncix=nk.kZsan x:t|+h+,.,+ne E deoarsae
neE .

k
Alad$nv,cH , (t).
llo scum.(
It. Conformteoremeilmptr4irii d restW Z, exiatAq,t eZ astf.l
hcllr - r .,/+ ,",0<r <n. Dc r'icir:x-nqeHpenfiicl t,fiqeH. Cumn a fosr

70

1l

(lin/r, iuroSr<n,rIt, ntunci cllDtlfnt

ccl mlli mic numdrnatural
Dc,rul
r=0,
=
rdicd .r n4$i deci ,r nZ.
lrrfincpentnrtH,afiE6s.jtre nn, adic|HCnV,, (2\.
l)ir (l) si (2) rezultl H = rZ .r
( llrr' \lrk. Deducelideaicicdsingurulsub$upfinit al lui (2,+) estell: {0}.
2) SubSrup generat de un element. Grup cidic
I'lc (d. ) un grup$i .r c.
SubSrupulgenemtde .t se noteazl < r > $i are ca elcmenteputerile lntregi ale lui x
...,r-2,r-1, =*0,r,12,... gi estenumitgrup clcllcgenerotde.r,A$rdor
"

I Flo (C")

snpul mulrlpllcrilr al nunerelo. complexencnule, o rddltnl

r e.trnlie

a"ao6
i i 1' ={1, e, e21.
"e:
.)H3te subsrupat srupulul (Cr,.)
rl + r+ 1= 0

h)O csubgrupet ei lemDte.lgrupului (C"r) colncldecu tL

R.u) $tirnca fl c C* esresubgru!al lui (C+,)dactl
l ,(r' Jr,vIt-rvH:
2t \ d xeH =x I eH.
l)ln e2++l=0

plin iimullirecu e-l

arhd 3=l

l )h tabun2ul ri ca
i I r ! e ver if ici.i dr nI I - Lr |

9i avemt0bl0legiipe l{.
I-
seuer if icd
. 2, ( c2J

e2

rl2).
Deflnl{e. CrupulG se nume$I
clclicdacdestegenerat
de un elemenlal
stru.Aceslelementsenuftestegeneratoral sruDului.
( f bi |r r!ii. l) DacdC esteun grup odldv .r G, atirncii < r > :
lkxlk e V,I .
ii
2) Orice grup ciclic este abelian penmr c[ orice dou[ puteri tnftgi ale unui elehent
comutt. Reciprccaestefalsd (vezi gupul lui Kleil cals esteabeliandar nu esteciclic).

I Elmentelc
-r,tZ (cagruprdidvr.Arunci<-r >={*{-lrll Ztrlt4

.'lkczl=z,

< I >= {l.llt Z}= Z, cea.t arsttrcl grupuladltlvd nomerelor

lntreglesteun grup cidic
8noratde elementul-l saul. Obssrvlm ct sccstgrup estelnflnlt.
' Gmpul (U,,t al rtdldnllor de ordlnul n rle unl$tll este

,, = ="*3r*'","*,- =fi=}
{"*l"o
Erenentut
r, = cosSl+ tsrn?t
cl u, = 1zf = O,*t1,
l*

"""

=rr,t=l,r-1,
p-p.r"t're"
"l "l=r,rf

ceeaceamti

aakl s.egrup clcllc flnlt de ordln n, generstde .1 ,

.r' DscI lulm grupul (Cr,, atunl<i>={lrl}Z}={-i,i,lj-l)

esleun sub$up cicJlcde
ordln 4, genr$tde unttater Ineglnorn,
' Grupolclacelorde resturlmoduto, cu Ndun$earzi.+r esteclcllcdeoNFcrZ, =< i >= t*.ilr Z). Md nult steun Srupclcllcflnlt, deordinn. Artrtatict pentrugrupnl {26,+),
evomzo =<i>=<!>.
Grupolcueto.nlonllor
(c = 1+t,11,9;,a*,,.)
nusteclcltc,
drr aresubgrupul
ciclic

h)Flclt'= {l,a,r} subsrup

cutreielemDle
al srupului1C+,).Aven o2,.1(ce"iatr"t n = t, totr,iD2=lsauD2=-1, Daca,2=1, aNflci, = +tliH'= l- L l) arEdoardou
rlrcla=-1, arunci
Lafela2+d
iarpentob2:-lrezultd b=+i c6nda ={+1,+i} aE pamelemente).
al.mGnt,
lrmln. D=a2si ,3=l.D""i tt =0,o,o21
r P. mulfner msaiclor lar@) seconsldernopersftsdeadumre snbmututns
f/r- rrr
l
,t ll- :,lb,b,. d e zl. sr $ !'at cr tt sr subsruprl gruputuir,^42(z),+,.
- ttk 5',
)
tt Av.mdevnficatpenrruH qiopeiatiadeadunare
celedou!lrop.ierdli:
t)(v)A,BeH.+A+BeH i
rr (V)^fl +-4a .

,h r r us d e m onsra ,-[Il I,)"-ff;'*,]

', '.

Irla,+a,l rla,+a.ll
arr ar '4- b2n- a'4+d2ez ti
- l.ti.;;; r ( , r ';l ' r ' deodee
/rt-,,I rt-a,tl
penr r uc d 4 t - '\ez
n- [or - ,,j
'
t1- r ,'J - n
ol .o=l o
oi . In', - r )
, r r m nr r cer
c=l
c- l/'2A'a'cl'
r , -el r
'l
.r
['
- {0 ri
;l$murlrnea
ir 0J tu -rl
| | Arltri

cI G cu operafa de innultlre a matrlclor sielubgrup al lui (,,!42(R),,

l) llsl.mlDaF subsrupurilesrupurui (G, ) .

r r ) 'rnhbbgiiesleda$mi jos

ABC
B

V.r lft(ltm cclc dot! prcp.ietiti ale subgnpDllj:

il (V),(, lr c C.+ AE C (diDrabla opqatjei aceaqttprcpriet te se veriiicl).

nt (\tl\, c >A r, (;

12

A ,un.,
,+/,"r,.",.0,uu

u",n/tr-1,,'t

t-A.Lt-B.C

) C.

2) D n l +nt l c I A 2: 82- c 2 = l rrl

A L -(,l l (' A ,C A = R

deduemc! subS rul ,u' hrl

l l . (; sunt

Uzl,U2,A:1,
lI2,Bl,lh,cl ri lt2,^, B,cl.
(O,,)
.|. Fl.
rrup
r) 8f r. .r.i4 cr nnt$n { z(Ct=la ecls = tu'lv)r c} nundtl centrulsrupulul 6 esieun
rrbgup.l lul G
2)El t. .r.i. cr Z(O c8rarbell$L
l)lrd r,r G,.ddlr.& xrezG\,atutrirr=w
0 lh.r (G").r..bdLa clt .d Z(G)?
R.|) S! srftln d dt l ,., Z(C). atm.iab<Z(G)
Dln a,beZ(O\+ N- n,by= yb,(V)r,yeG. Atunciavm:tub)x: alb'): a(xb)=
= xl.bt li .bi dbeZ(G).
- lulb
FL aaZG\ ti 3t arlom c^ a-teZ(GJ. PnlroreC a$ilraravem:u-'-t'a'+
,
/ ..-l
arruiG
subsruP
+{ar-f--l =(tl4] + n- t = a-' r . sacza- t z{o. Prinunm zcr e51e
}
x=bezlG) rczlttbab=ba
2)FLa,beZ(G).t ri at=u. (V)' eC - ln Panicular?ettrt

3rr|cz-,re z(cr.
r=' L * r:('-tz),='-r(.,):'
^i\i.i
=

t(tzr=z:r^

t) rb (A+) Sruputlnutsltor, rr.r.lnjmd o rrbmrtf,n. ! lut Z, pirr. lbbfll h nport c!

ad|rn|.q d.r c!.. nusie.ub8oprtft Z.

* r,=fI i)v*1,,,=rrf"*lv
r.n,,,rn
n.*1.",=ft?"j"
*.4
l,tlttl.t

EL,Il2,Es

nt rubgupoi .L lut (i,t(Z),+),

.. r) 8r * 6'rr! cr nurfne. ={r" =[|

i]k."]."
"

*."**n

"

r"*-m.fh ,r,r26j
, r-,rp,."r""ol o6npi Fru ,ndl',re,
n=ft }p .*
-1,

ll,ti-i1,{i
-:)'L:
-i),t-i
",'ft;)i,,.1,*={"'Ll
il}
o)l-r o)f-r oll
.'-ftll,(;
-t],t-;
t],[
I,t-;-t}},""={{;
-rj'[ o rl'[ o -rJf
l) n. trupul (c = lt e t"6tcllaa(.+l-o], ,). e'nrg

hfiulfn

nilrlcelor ln ciru.||e:

"l

ncc

cl14,ubs.up
rn rporrcu

4) Din ccL d. nlais! ZG) G

t)4r y)
)"," =lLj)t,,'o|***u.or',,**,
"r,t z tl

0. Atrbf cI fl .i! ,ubruptl lut G ln reportcu oP$tla * ' undel

turi.fcr 0r,*),t 8nrp

[.com""o",
*

=26,.=.+
b,H={6,i,a}s
'
',
a ' a = ff,,e zj.c= o .' = + ,
c,E=! k + t i\ , beL l , c = z i ) , . = + r
=+
t )H= { " + b Jw'eba } ' G
.t H={ t { la, nz I, c = t , ' = . t
- IR,* i
=e,*=' I
ca),c= R,+=
r I h)Ir =Ii'1(ezI'G
o n =la+*li +c44p,t
o},c=otxl,*=+r
Du =b+uJrla,tezj,c=c,*=+, J)fl ={, qxll./(16)=
E ={{bezl,c=C+l=.t

rl rl ={a+rJtl..r4,"-u! = r}.c=q'. -= ,

=
- *a=r]s=n\at'.=
'r" i[i i]"',.o,,'

"'={[i

f]F*o] .o"-*-,

[ ax b+atl
lc+&, dt l

",,,.

t. n. nufffl|flenr=geU,Oll, e= U,It2=lAe]/r,lrl(;rlt
A=-e), Arnodca (rrr,+),
(nr,+)nlnasubSEpur.t,le
hr (,t4(Ct+),

i n o=r.,q.ob.arlur&.=[l
; : :j''=[j,,i,J,*=Ei: :]
; i ;l
cI opmflade conpuner(tnmutdri) a perr rldlor der.mdDt F C o-{
ltructurt ,ta g|r|p
Stabud |uhgntpudl!
rbdhn,
^iltl

srupututc
t, lT. Sf gruDbl p.rmuttrltor mrlsrdt (1t2,3,41 tt O. fiCS4 motftnes formlt! dh
Fmutlrlle c.lt I t|.chtr rrt elcnonarl4.tuItal cI tr es&sobrrupal t|tt (Jr,.),
i. n. .flt cI d|cr lulglput Itrl |rd SacoDdre
rr.hlpotdth (l,), (13),(14),rtud n = Sr.
e.n lt||r$,f r l -+ n, ql prqr.td.t eci.ddp n,, > 0 dd hc&,(r+/) =/(.rI(V,), n.
lotln P={p'nu(r+p')=.f(r),(V)rR}, Sr..rate d pcnesle |l[ subgrup
at tul

(l,+).

(4"r.
r.r)ArU.fd a={zcllzl=1}ccesteus'$eruedrul
nDne
degrupurlor:(--'l'(.tt'F
D D.r.rdrd r$8'opurne
'1.
2.l) Sl .. rlri! d rubnu$dle dnumerelntftgl
Hr = l&r + 6t4l/ntk, ell, H 2 = 134+ r'k2lk\'k2ez] lnpr@nt
f,$grupud rl. lDl (2,+) .

nr.r.rce
srupnrur

adunar@ romen

f 0 -ll . 6 f t rt a cn za \ 3 Z n 4 Z = l 2 Z i D & n 6 2 = t 2 Z t . )
n7naZ=In,BlZ, lltld
In,r1- c,11.11.r*,1",rr.
l|. 8l .. |Irr4 d drct! C(t)=[/:t-+tl,f
condtrur]tp8)=tt.n_]lt,.prlntdvc]
dond' (c(r),+),(p(n),+)s{,{ subsupud
areft (r(nt+).

't5

I J ltnttu trupurll comldorsto it-lblllll .trbttultrrll'

cl'llco Indlc8(o!

<3>; o ( z!, ) ,< i> <!> r

,r 3r- t ri, *r t , . 1 , t. > , . -t >,< i > i b )(2 1 6 ,+),

,=[i
,rl(o-{.4l4Gldcr(r)+o}'
),<e>unac
N,.^t -" '=[i iJ'

+),
<1>'*."" =tiI u"**'",n=[l I
.r((,- ^,,ra(z!),
I r. rb (Cr) ur CnU comutrttYrt /t =U eCl(l)i e Z, .it =')'

Arrtai cI It estesubgrupal lul

<1,
|l Fl. (G't un 8mp sD.ltm d ltl'It2dool subgnpud alehl O
al lul G'
Sr .. lrrtc cI tnulslneaH = H{ H? = l\h|lt\ e Hr' ht e }t2} !t' sub$up
ctr mulflna
r' It Il ur sub{rup sl grupulul G d dGun elemento'rcan' S' ae arrte
.frd-t=tdia-flit ) et!utrsubs pdldc.lnccs'aHa-r=H2
pormutrrllor palt d r
16 .l'1. s" Srwrl ptrmutldlo. do r elclndntd dd Csrmulfl ra
.l.m.rro.Ih.rntr'rlt Z(4) trl Fntru r>3 lrltad ci Z(Si)={'}'
subgrup
cl Il U tr
| ? ne G un Srup$l fl, X dout sobgrupudde lul C' Sl sedemonttr"
"ie
drcl rt [uinrl d.cl IJCI( lsu r(CI'.
pertlt frrc$omd
ir- r. c = to,r) Odttt* togo rtconDod$er | ) = {r + r}, uDde{4} rep&rlntl
r numlrulul red u. SI $ arrte .l:
.) (C,+)e.t. gruPabellrni
r
r . " , .) I

r ['.=l.,i,i,i,il'J "tesubemparrurG.

lhotr ordinulSnrpulrri
csk..l,?,cstcelementul
unitareIl silu ilrr q 3.' , atunci
r'onsul! u$orc?t g2 r g Si 32 ;- e, de aceeaC = {e, .g,/,) cu 1l2= r. La ttl de
ilnrplusearatEcl g,/l= e_Tablalui Cayleyareforma:
, Din tabla grupului se poate dducecomutativitatea lui (dacatabla
j--11!
estesimericain rapon(u diaponala
principajir:se poatedetermina
/I
I
elementul
uDllate.
inrersul
penlru
fiecsre elemeDtal grupului.
''
I ,l e Existenta unul izomor{lsm intre doui grupuri (agacum aparela
,l u s izomorfismede gnrpud) inseamni ctr (abstractiefecendde notatiile
" elemenlelor)
tableleCayteycoEspunzdloaielor coincid.Tablele
{ irylcypol fi scriseefecri!doarpenrueruDuricu ordinulmic.
h cazulgrupuluimultipticati;finitc; a etemenle.
U -trt.-r2.....xrlintabtaleg
l(lyley) p liecare linie sau coloani, ficare element al lui G aparc o dati ii
llumal o singortr dati.
lrrtr'rrdevar
fie "rr O, fixat ielt,2,...,nl. in linia lui ri alinrabtaopemtieisegases
llcntentele:
.t 11.x;.r2.....r;,rr.

Ikfifru t = I avem 4rk = xixl . in caz contrar din xixp x;y1 prin compunerela
tl0rrga
cu .ri-l arrezultarl : xr, fals.
Al|l(|u elementele
tixbxix|,-,xixn suntdistinctedouacetedouaSiln plussuntin G.
(\frn C areexactn elemente
inseanniica G = $ix1,x;x2,-.t1xnl, altfelspusaceste
alonrcnte
suntchiar xl , .I2,.,.,x, eventual
in altAofdine,
| (!rt,la

.cDrtlr'fr!l)iic,Ji: g r)1 ri .iiriiie

F'I RI I] NITE
X.S {;TTT

l)(;rupul

Tabla opera$ei

lrlc x e N'$i U, - lz e Clz' l) mullimea

r,idecinilor
de ordjnuln ateunitilji.Se
I

tablei
Un glup finit G, fomat din elementele8r,82'-.8, poatefi descliscu ajutolul
8e
lui Cayley.Aceastaesteo tabel[ ptrrratdln careIa interseclialiniei i cu coloanai
grupul
este
fotmat
afll elementulg;g;. De exemplu,dacdordinul gupului este2 $i
(in
conFar
e (unilatea)
5i 8 * P, atunci92 poarefi ega!doarcu e caz
din elementele
e8
tablalui Cayleyareformai
g2 :8 + 8 = e!). De aceea
e8

tllr c[ rcesleasuntdatede relaliax1r: s6s?!! +;sin ?!1, I :0, t,...,, t.

rtrdtrcinilor d ordin r ale unittrFi

r(l l/r considertrm

opemriadeinmulliredepe C.
Arcl(lj ormitoarea:
t-=---"-'
l$rcmi. Cuplul tun..l e.regrupabetianfrnil numirgupul ridicinilor
I
I dr ordh, ateunitiitii.
Ih.nrtrr\rr r,!r( veritictrm axiomelegrupului.

(|l) Inmullireade pe C oslc lcgr dt compozlflepe U,, adicil sn nrlllnnrctr

( Y) t 6 z 1 eUn= +2/ z1 eUn
hvcnt(4,21)n: al al =1 1:1.
lnmullrreape C esteasociafiva'
(lr) Aaochdvltltea lnmul$ l areloc, deoarece
pentnr lnmultirea de pe C $i
neutru
Or) Elcmentul neutru Cum 1 este element
I e t/n (pentru & = 0, ?0= l) se deducecA I esteelementunitate$i fa16de inmullirea
dc pc Un.
Pentru tUn,
O) Elementelnrerse (simetrizabile).
rr' - l = r ' . x .

p e aici .r'=]cU,r o*-...

.^

lIl" - *
lrl

'n

exis6 r'Unastfel incat

i-'
t '

c e e ac e a l-a uc z l

2 \ \ : P ' P , Mt \ ,r t
'M'(r, )) = sirneEicul
lui M ln mpon cu Or (Fig. 6),
rr((,r,))): Lr. -)). snestesimefiiain rapon
a! Ox.
f) sy.P +P, M(r,r, + M "(-x,y)

- - - - - . M ( x .t )

xt((r,y))=(-t,)),tJ este simetnaln rapo(

c\rOy,
4) so:P - P. M (x.y\ - M "( -x.- J\ rd{{x.)1,=( .r, }1.r, este simelriain
x'ig.6
raportcu O.
Nottrmprin tr: {i, sI, r}, so} ti consider6moperaliade compunerca firncliilor peI
Atunciareloc urmelorulrezultat:

invcrsullui r din Un (adicd:) semenlineln Un

numitgrupullui Klein.
esteungrupabelian,

pe
Ct) Comut!flvltataa lnmullirii areloc pe U,l deoareceinmullirca estecomutattva

c.

in plan varfurileunul
()bsorva(ie.Elementele
lui Un au ca imagini geometdce
poligonregulatcu n latuli inscdsin cerculunitate
ln Fig. 5 avemilustratecaztile n = 3. n = 4.

l)rnnnstratie. Tablaoperatieiestedatii al?iturat,

Vcrific6maxiomelegupului cornutativ.
i
J- s. ,
O) Asociativitatcr compunerli. ldotdeaunacompunerea
llocfiilor esie asociatilt, deci este la fel ti in acestcaz
pmicular.
s.. s^ i
02) nhmentul neutru estefunctiaidentic6a planului,i.
"v
(lr) Eleme e lnversablle.Avem imediat(din tablalegii)
|

lo4 Lr1dutdi

4nihtetrl

Fig' 5
Fig.

2) Grupul lul Kleln

Fic planul P = R x R. in care avemrepelul crrlgzianloy' Considerdmumdtoareie
aleplanului
tronsformln Seometrice
(
r
,
y\
M (\Y )
M
i
:
P
t)
- P,
aplan lui.
t((,r,))) = (,t.)), l'plictlit idcnlictr
7ti

_:trsx

:sr r J! - =Jr , so

: so,

Oa)Comutativitate{ compunerll rezult6din faptul ca tabla legii estesimetricdfat,

dc diagonalaprincipald.
Agadarcuplul (rc,.) esteun grupabelian,av6ndordinul 4.
I )hscrvtrtii. 1) Mai gneralconsiderrmmullimea( = le, a, b, cl
ecb
pc carcdefinim o opemfiemultiplicativl datede bbla al6turat6Atunci ((,.) estegnrpullui Klein. Observtrmce lntr-un asfel de b b
bae
grrpur" , o2=P ="2:e,ab:fu=c,ac=ca=b,bc:&=a.
2) DacI se considerdC = {e, a, b, c} lmpieuntr cu o lege
ultiplicativd dat6 de tabla aldturatitatunci se constatac[ (G, )
bc
cstc un grup tot de o.din 4. Numarcl ln acestcaz observtrmcI
b
u2 = b, a3 = c gi o4 = e , adic6 elementeleacesnngnrp suft
b b
gcDcmle
deelerncnsia

'79

DlcclC = {.,a,a2,a3
) 9i scnumcftogrup clcllcgeneratdeelemeniil4.
t) Sopoatcdcmonstra
c[ nu o.l6t[ dccAtdou[ grupuridiferttedeordin4. Alfel spus,
nuoxlstddccetdou!moduridea aBnjacclcpattuelemente
e, 4 4 c l! teblalegii ,,.,,
mtfcl lncit (C,) s[ fie grup.himul modgenereaztr
gmpul lui Klein, iar cel de-al
dollcamoddin2) fumizeaz6
grupulciclicdeordin4.
Dotcnnino$
C(g),
K.
e
I
'f)
3) Grupul de slmetril al trtunghiului chilateral
Prtntr-onrttc[e .igid[ a tiunghiuluilnFlegemo bijeciiede la multimeapunctelor
tdunghiului(depe celetrei laturi ale sale)pe eahsrii careidsreazi distanFlntre
odccdoudpunctealesa.le.
O arfel demiFarehebuieseduci un verfpeun alr varfal
triunShiului$i'lntredgaaplicaFeastedeterininatd
de imaginileverturilciiA, A, C.
Accstemi9clri rigidese numescsimetrll, careimFeuqi cu ope.4fiade compuner
fomeaz,gn!p.
Flc llulfimea E:{A,B,C| a v6rfirilor unui fiiunghi echilateralABC Notlm cu
,l,12, 13mediatdalele
latudloraiunghiuiuiechilateml
careftr prin A; i ii respctiv
punctul
(Fig.
C Aicu O
deifirscfieal mediatoarelot ?).

. f?!A)-C,

A, f2G)= E ( f2 eslerorads
deunshiZ0o tn sensnisono_

nrctricin juul!?\B!lui O)i

o ft(A) = A, fi(D) = C, fzQ) = n(fS egbsimfia tr rport cunediaroarsa
4 );
t f!(At = c-' f4@t = B, /+(c) = A (,f+ esteslrnetria
ln laporrcumediaroarca
12);
. /5(/) = r, /5 (r) = A, fsG)= C (fs estesimeriato rapotrcurnediatoarea
li);.
CoEpunedd
elemeDtele
dou[cetedoudobtinemtabl&

lr f2
lo

fr

J2

-.

ls
ls

f2 lo
13
Io lr ls
ls
lo !2 Ir
Is Jr lo !2
14
ll fo

nc.E

Iomtratle. Verificdmaxiomele
rruDului.

;ffi"l;]ff

-.P*er

oi ldcdeoarece
tnlordeeuna
compunerEa
tuncliiJor

Elerrentulneutruesrcaplicaiiaidenrica/0.

Elemen@frvcnc.
Avem
7;L=70,6t=1a,6r=fi,8 =fg,[, =to,tt, =t
rrtii' 1)Grupulnucsteabelia!d..arce;.de
exempluf26f|=|,4-fso fZ,=h.

Se poatr asocia,ln acelagieod, un grup D,r, nudjt grup dlcdnl. la fiecar

tlgon rrgulat cu r latud; sddeuronstreazicd el areordinul 2n,

lot4r cAH =lfo,h,f2I estc$ubgrup

(J,r, iar S={n,A,fl,n,
algrupului
. Ji,,f:.,ff), uftimef.
neietemenle
avardordjnu
12,it J1,frzauorainut
3.De

Ftc.7
Considedm
multinE!:S= [fn,fi,.f.. fz,f1'.fsl,Ii t E
i:63.,
-8.
lrfel:

./o(A)=A,/o(s)=B,fo1c)=
b

b,Jectii
definire

.'

( /0 aplicaliaidenticda lui E lasdpunctele

neschimbate);
.r(/)=B,t(8)=C.
in senstrjgonofitc\= 1'17, esteroEfiade unghi1200
jurul
motricln
lui O)i

80

S seDot azdcu 4 li senume$tegupul dledtd cu 6 eletuenle.

DacIA, ,, C le idcntificdoprin l, 2, 3, aftnci asocialifiecdreitunqii o permutare

ns3.Dcexenpru:
r"-"=[i:
- 12 3
iJ,r-"=[l
I lJ
1J'
\t 2 3)",
L.

f) Asociagp[tntului de vArturil, 2, 3, 4 $i axede simehie dr, d2,4, t2

lflte. g)
(""*t gruputocdc)9iiealizaf abla operaliei.Scri4i stm"ri
e cu
I!L*
:1r"S

din S4.
Pormuttrri

8l

Arltrf cl grupuloctlcoa-{l,n,n2

tarfaprul
ctrrAmene
invariant
fetidcrolstii
conducs
t0
fi"X_iillfr,,1,ftfij]"r

undet oot6rpllcaFa
,n3,s,ns,n2s,n3s],

tdrndci,n ostarct4iadc unght90u, lrl Scrb sirFtriafaF

Tr.nsfontqrilcRrS auordinul
.4Ca pdnan{ui,
d! dtaSonala
2 tl lunt simctriitl r&portcu ,disrnohcle"ce tlec pritr
p[tratului d1,d2)
vldudlc poligonului(aici diagonalele
Veriflcaficd
laturilor(11,12).
tauln raportcumediatoarele

finile.de rotafii ale spaliuluisuntlegatede poliedrele

:l1s1cj-f tll,-ql
^C,lpy antichirare..
din.care'cauzl
sematiumercai corpur
'

{:"n::::

il#;
lj ,,lecali poliedru
_resul" ,u li """.p-*,0.*
;;jH'
; potied;rui
"]io'ffi ,i
O."ritte

"1IlSq,ryli:g"t:.,,Reeulalitatea
aremulrc
potiedruregular
ti i.t u.o"iu,ii-aJilii.'"i'*i
.simenii.
.piectuui

original.
Evidenr.
poriedrut
a"a ar"-.J"ii
:Y ":.lTj_tr.J:'"fgtiedrului
Tetraedrul
esre
iuroduat,
*dl;;;;;;;;i;;
1y,:-",iry*q'ut.t
dlrl ,:9r*d.d jn acesrfel seobfin nei grupurialepotiearetor
T-:1
: cl:l!eg*$ui(nojaj
cuT),celatocraedrului
(rt $i;;i; i"dd;;
6

R4= s2 = l, tfi =n3s.

Fig' 9
Apllcaflt ln dlversedomenlt
lio$unca de g.up . ap6rut mai htai sub forma noliunii de grup -de permurari
(hansformfui)ti lot lrr acedstiforgll selnt6lne$teaproapei otdeaunafu matematlcd
il ln lizica matematic[.Transformdtilebijoctive ale spaliului euclidia! ce plsEeaztr
distanfahfte punctefonneazl gtupul izomeuiilor spaliului. Dac[ ioate pd'streaztfix
un acela$ipunct al speliului, atunciavemde-aface cu gupul transformtuiloroItogonatc. Criput fonuai On tansfqtrnllile ce pdstreazi (invariazt) un obielt poate fi
lnrcrpretai ca fiitrd gupul simeriilor sale FaPtul c6 un riunghi esle neisoscel
se poale,,masura"
sauesleechilateral.
(oa&care),
esteisoscel$i ou esteechilateral,
primul
acestgrup este
ID
caz
prin gupul izometriilor planuluic invariazatriunghiul.
faP de o
o
simeuie
iormir doar Ain ransformareaidendcd.ln al doilea caz apareti
din
grupll
lonnat
este
drcaptn(ar(ade simetde a niunghiului). iar ln al treilea caz
jurul
urmiroarclegasetraasfonniri: ca idendc6,rotafiile de unghi 120'sau 240" in
contsuluio al uiunghiului. li simetsiileln raponcu cle trei axe (celettei riredialoare

c'tre
lrl: 12,lol=u,lyl= 60.

poliedrelor regulate se lntllltesc h nalurb ca grupuri

de simetrie ale
Da exenplugupul de sirnettieal moleculeid3c'recr3' (Fig.
lo.a))
guprx rouFttorin JurulUnuipunctcu unghiuri

,i

.lo triunghiului).
Prin slmede a unel molecule se lnlelege o aanrformatea spatiului ce transformi
fleprc atomal moleculeiintr-un atoE de acelati tip, pdstrardtotodatl valenJeletuFe
atomi.Astfel o molecultrdefosfor estefonnatl din Pacruatomi.repaniTatln verf urile
unui tetraedruregulat.iar gupul simetriilor ei coincidecu gropul rimetriilor tetraednlui regulat,
GruDul slmetrlllor unul crlstal este una dintre caraclensticile impoftanE ale
cristalului. Aici prin simeue selnlelegeo transformarea spaFului.lncat se pAstreazl
pozitia atomilorcristaluluiprscumti legltudle lntre atomi (deci transfoflnandfiecale
ltom lntr-unul de acelaqitip).
Sirnptdileintsrvin uneoli ii in fenomeneltdce. De exemplu,co.fom unei Goremea
lui E. Noether,d8c[ un sistemdinamicX estedescdsde fun4ia lui LagraogeI ce are
ca grup de simetrii un glup de transfonntrri dpinzind de un paraneru' atuncr
rlsdmul areo integrali caresedescdesimplu Asdel,ln cazulmiitcllii ribui sistemde
pungt! matcrisle,faptul c[ rimgne invalia. fatl de translalii conducla legpa de

H
,O
b)
Fi& 10

a)

de simetdeal moleculeiCrd6 Gig. lo.b)) estegrupul hiuiEhirilui

echilateral.

de.lD:jT c_l11
Gjg. I0.;)) eslgruputT iammuti seaflain cenuli
I:lry]llet
iar atomii ll
lD verfrlri).

de
atemotecurelor
nu qontinEanslaIi.
"'"""
-- simerie
dcff:*:"::3:._Tlgle
mainumesc
eru;unp'un-; ;
de simetrie^apar
9i in muzictrsaudaru.rirmulfiiod o repBrela inlervaleegale
aleteorieigrupurilorle lndldm la omamente,ln clasificareajcodhelor.
erc,

e,t

83
j--

Ordlndl unul lement

do8rup,atuncl/l
1tc.Dacl (o,') or!! 8rup,lar If g c at (IJ, ) araotruotur{

nunottcsubgrupd lul C fi sonolrazdlI S C .

(c,t unsrupqi lEci cel;;A;;ffiatufi

dcucallul6
subgttp
allui o qtarurcsuligrupul
ouuldr maisur<r> os@

,ely'ncu proprietateax, =e se numesteordlnul elementuluir ln

glupul G Dacdpentruodce ne N*, { e e, atuncise spune
ce ordinul
elerlentului'r este oo.

DacS
n esteodinr.tlelernendui.r,
atuncinotamacesrlucrupdnord(r)= n
Io.lfle.
(rb6ervafle.
U oncegrupordinulunuielement
esteegalcuordjiulinversului
acestui
clc-ent(rr="<+*-t =
").
-t arc oriunul 2 rtornce(-l)2 = l. Assdar

ort(-l) r 2,Atr togord(0= ord(d E4.Alurct lm=ra501+2={ta)$l.12=_r.

2.lDsntp'd{2i..} rwm ororir= 4 pencucl i. =i . orarst= 4 r3a= it, o" aut= z. i2 =i1.

Fo'rrur crtcdriry uflrzrmia=i, cnna

rveniry = (lt;rt*. =(l)*'.;,
lolo||i tmrtrnr lrrplrflrtt cu rE6lpedru 2fl)7 d 4 2l)07= 4. Sot+ 3 ).

= i.:=i r,,o

3,it supullutxletnr={i,rt,ryso} oln r?=r?=10=t rerulr,ord(r})=

-ord(ro)=2.

4.Fles3grupul
Frm'|trrl*a.g*aI d oes3,o=[l

lontlu crlculut perrDufirll cm,

lnen scrnu de o3=a t 2008=3.669+1,dnd avem

ox[s = o]66e+l-(o3)@,ot ="c=c.

Fic (6,) ungrup9i ie G. Atunci

cuotrreralia
grup,cum
,,.,iesoe
{rtltuz}Y..t,
ugo!severifrcl(numitgrupdcllc geDerst
de ] ). Dacdgrupulesteadiriv.(G.+ ) , atunci
< x >: {kxlk v,}.
rrxsld..r.psntru
(2i,.),
<i>=ti,2,?,13t=t\\3, il, i- <i>=ri,ir.

{frf ez}=6,i,iet.

J.Poniru
(2,+),<t>=<*l >=2.

84

cuo!d(.t)'n.t
Tcorrma alirmtr s! dggl .'Ccsto un clcmont dc ordln rt, atunsi

.1.

2rl 1r231 .
i ;)[] r :J= [: s r J' o - = o -o =

, ,, *..,.,=[j

ct {.,r,...,.f-l}c<, >i (1).

lmpl4lriicurcotPV, cxistlq,zeV,,
rcumI << .r>, t e Z . Atuncldintcorcms
=
r
{+
f,0
<
r Sr - 1 .
t n c gI t
.rr =a,.rt= xf e{e,r,,.,,.rn-l}.
vh= ane+r
-6t7e
egalltatoa.
ht! clu c[ clamcntele
<x>c{a*,...,,r1-l}(2).Din(1)9i(2)rcuultr
clcialtfelI = rJ arda .rJ-i = c al J* i < t, tn
aistincte,
,/,t<l <JSn-t Eunt
clcllcganrrstdex erl tot oldlnuln.

I 2l

-tj; iltli J=[i

i :]=.^"*"*.,=,

z.rmm(26,+),<
i>=

dooromn.
oo
6 uncrcmc
clQmcnt
Cuplul(C,) cs!! ungrupd rt e o
x2,,..,ri-11
A,tonqi
41)'= 1a,,r,
9i ord(<x>)=n,
Egalitatordc mul$mio vom drmons&eprin dublainaluziune.Esic

Dxenple, l. h gruput (!-r,i,-t,rekNnertul

crrcurrrD
prre, ,

dct oste<.t>-{l l[ z].

ciclicgencrat
vlzutc! pcfiu unolomcot.t G subgrupul
grup
linit?
d.cd
r
ate
ordh
ostqfoma accatuisub
estedarde:

ka*rrnhlnF

crL Falrntrt

la ordhul ulul dairt' .

fubtrtlul ld,r,l,-r) .! lol (C',)

r = -i, ord(-t)= I d rlc,cl
< -i >= {rr-l(-if ,1-1111=
1t,-t,-1,4.
r

I, od(i) E 4 clrit q I >'= 1t l,t2,tl}. 1r,t,-r,-l), PlDrtu: = -1, ord(-r). t .!nd

q-1y= 111-t)ry=11-11.
lhrnrpul (2i,.)evtrnr

cd(i)-. dd.ct<i>-ti,I, ir, irt=ti, i i3l I

<a>.di),
$d(b-r cA|d
,,OruunldIOdr rc={l!}ttlro)
r rr' ord(!r)= , d .v.n < t] >E {r,tr}.
'stlu r-!r,od(rr)E2 dod<rJ >-{lrrr}
lnhr
!tlD|r-r,,ord(ro)= t da<ro >=tl,ro).

quDul
<o>={r,o,cl}.
srrlos.,q=Jl ? ll cuoratol=r,rwmr
a.trohu
ta

i\

tCorolar.I.i.' l(;. ) rtut)lhit le otdinn. Atunci

(rcnc"r"h,r,,
mordrDur
, r*irdercrn
l"=IlI ilku,*I.Io,^*'.
- Ii :1''--0",
rI
rt
to

ll

lt o

i tn gruput(212,+).
doelemeDtul
subsrupul
scD.al
' n)Sl flcdeternlne
h) sl rc dctem'inerubsrupulseDratd. elemerlulI tn grupul (U4r)

lron

straie. Fie xGcu ord(x) = k diviaoraI lui n. Deci n:kp, p..N'canl

,{' =(,k)P ="p :"..

=,].n.,,ut'
, o = fo=[' 1]Lo.,o
"0,
I
""
L t. 4j
!) (c,, esiesrspi b) {r|cr ,=[l

r' : e,(v);rec

?],r=[-',

l],

**"'

""u,r,

= 4, ord(s)= 6 si

r20o8.
ord(^r)= oo. calcdaFA2oo7,
pntru necarocaz tn paltc; l) ord(o)=3'
ordlnele
elcnlenielor
SI
se
vcrlflce
L

unde

"=[i I iJo "'",=,,s={l: ;],c't""r"r

"00?'s'l008t

lnde
2)ord(4)=2,
o={;; ll,*"o,=,,**",=ll; il,* *-'u*,,".o""-,
lo lo j
[o roJ

__
I

CorclaL Orice Brup de ordin un numdrfnn e\k cidi..

;
t
tt.rttonstrqie. Fie lG,) grup cu ord(G) = p, p numdr prim Cuxr p/2 se poate alegz
I t, C , t- e . Subgrupulcblit generatde x, <r> are ord(<,r>):i >2 (ae <r>)
Itln teorema I i IABrunge k divide pe p. Cun p este prim reaultatk = p. A$adar
<.t>= C, ceedce aratd cd G esteciclic. .
PIONIDRI AI MATEMATICII

L. ErJl ER (1707-1783)

J.L.LACRANCE
073G1813)
Mrre@fi.bn A.n@

cntculofefl07,rjru,

lfacultativ)
Teoromalul Laglang, Conseclnte,Aplicatii
L/rmdtorul rczull\t fundamentalpentru Srupuile finite re rcferd Ia relalia dintre
ordinul oricdrui subgtupal sduti ordhl I grupului,Mai precis 4rc loc

cofolaf. Intr-un gtup Jmtt, .

divizoral ordinuluigrupului.

oticdrui clemente e lntl $I esteun

coNtRTBUTrl

CONTRIBIJTII
. hde Aone

lltndtoarele doud rezaLtateau aplicalii importante in teoria numetuIor.

a L, ( a, n

x apoate
!)rn,,rj:ttt!rj.. Fie (G,) un gnp.le otdinn qi x eG. Ordinulelcmenlului
.fI turtnh,(leoarecesubTruPI ciclic Eenetatile eI < t > ar awa oldinul hfrnit, absurd
'Dentru
cd < x > estesubgrupal urtui grupfnit' Deci ord()c)- k Atunci s-a rdzut 'Ll
< x > aft or(Inultot It lar illn teorcmalui L6|runqek diridepe n a

litr

ile na!.noti.ii

unfu I esteindic.t orul lui Eulel

tt7

i a''xt'11"din.
r', ,, .,. i;.! *'ie Stul)ul t'ttllt'llt tn llll'n) al elementek)r
nan
ti1o liutltxr{ultit llctu q(n)(=n miruldet nterc
(V,n,).Amvdzttt
nrt,noklul
(v'
Atuncis'a vazatca orice
tt rl dtcatn, pritw cu n) Dh kt n) - t ntuht\ i t' U
'
gr
coincidccu elementl unhateal
lbrrdl dintr-un
|tup init la pureru oxlinul Pului
:
i?q(') i4+aa(n)=l(modn) r
Nnt,ului.ln cazulnostruaa(i) 1<+
tl constiluie:
( !?,particularaI acesteiteoreme

Teorcmalul Fcrrnal.Fie p>O un numfuprin

Atunci

= l(mooPJ

a/

qi

"i,'i,i6,ii:i.'

l
ll

= p'l $i tuntemt/t condiliilelearcmei

' , ',i, , ,r.i r,' Dacdp esteprhtt atunci9(p)
I
lutEuter,Decia$(i) = 1(modp),arr4p-r=l(modp).

1 . , / i,lri( rf . ' i ' ! i 1 . l l , \ i

iri/|rl,itri r,,li,, I

!y .F-(g:gl):,
"c:!.'!19.14
-u-11

()l-.5rfr,rr:i,0) Schernatic,
aciiunea
morfismului/este
redar6maijos (Fig.

'al(r*:r,):

{r*i.rrr

-'b "f (J)

(Gn)

ns.t1
. AcestaestedeJapt gupal lai Klein'

f)"L

"1

f::!.'il:;:,::,
IaxraBzl

*kL,,

ln cazurilecind G, G,suntfinite, avemreprezenrarear

ei
4: stuputciclicsenet deu etemet't
deBtupuide ordinul
.ui
"urt
to sinsur tip tvezi ul'inut corctat at teorunci
cu tni elcment...existd

.le CNP $i 41um, t't ct'It

f (ai): bi
8li

.1 il

nume$temorflsm (sauomomorflsm)de grupuri

dac6areloc conditia:
(, {,y) :,r(.r). (}), (v)j,, c.
"f
"f
Mulfimeamorfi$nelor de la C la d
i::1-t:f1,*".::5:T,:.99,1l

!:;#i :;, *'. "**,

"i

erg de ordirlul 4, Dacd etistd u el

ln tu contat penmt otic' aea'a'e
<a>=4 i deciG=<.>, MicdG etu ua g p ciclh
divideo tnutsnpuluit R?zuhd
inul iilementltlui
=t A^ n"," alliWrcnseo
"-1".'"*ri,
= d,(v)r c ti de.isn'palC estedbetian'
'2
G = !e'a'b'ab\
' GtuputG
Da.h;c.a:..,atutlci H=<a>=lc,ot Da'dbeG-H 'atunci
=e'ab=tn' iar tablostde muhipu'arc
eltedeluit de genemtoia ib;i rchliile a2=e'b2

ir

Existenlaunui morfismlntre dou6grupuri,poaLe

dezvdui infornulii impon2n11.
91
la
grupurilor.
Un
morr|sm
..conrerva..
Tl{":
operatid
grup
i*:.:1":"
de
"r-ucrura
uouaconseoihF
aleacestei
conditiisunr:
l) elemenleie
neuEesecorespund
prin morfism;
4 srmeElcul
unuielement.
seaplicdin simetriculimaginiielementului.

btdn o = I?' ! = n''!t7'!3t = I sl'

sd aft|r.ttul l''pttdtii t t tTrt'prl't73
'r '
. If hod 73).22hod 73t. D.cneltul
.,;;k,;; ,-;^;i '. i;;, :; t^ii iij, u, a" .t"t ir"
**":#":;i::,it;
cu un numal
sapu-rito.t
datddetuten'inarcd
tui t'sruM. cst'Q
d"n,-tnd^;'ann"TL't:ii;
* pmpu,e^
ni tiii'-il- eit"",,..i
-Fte G un

I ,

8g

l1).

rI I t lrrruorlisurde gn\nrridc |' rr) I rDh !:l iDsu$isenunreste

endornor,lsltr
lrl rlcclui
senotelztrcu ljlxl(C)
l)ontNgr'upulG rnullirrlcrIulur1nlxtdonrorfismelor
l{l1rl).
)r lIu morlisrnde grupuri /:c
numeitemorffsm i\iectiv (sau
'G'se
fix,Nnnorllsm)dac!aplicaliatesleinjecliv!
morfisms$rjectiv(sauepimorfism)
I l|l morfismde grupuri/ : G -' G' senumeqte
suiectjv6.
drcltaplicalia/este
tr orice grup fiind faF de aceea$i
lege 9i monoid,din definilierezuld ce orice
[xrrfismdegrupurieste9imorfismdemonolzr'
I l\.n,t'lt .unos.utedemorlEmedegrupuri
rl erupulutZ
Rtc endomortisn
I lunctfa/,t:(2,+)-+{2,+),aeZ, frrat fhQ)=M'xeZ
'
d&6r$! Jtr(r+ ])='('+ r\= B + nr = !nQ) + J|OI (v)r,r z.
l. luncflo /:(R,+) +(R*,t,/{r):dr
estemornsndcEnlpurlpentruci
+ r)=er+t =ct .et - /(r). /(r), (v)r,r R.
^!
r' fimctls / : (R1,) --t (R,+! (,) losat' a > 0' 4 * 1' dtemorlismdesrupuri deoarce:
"f /(' ]) = lo&(ry)- lo& +losdJ = /(x)+ /(J), (v)r,r R
'
11.6= oemuterrDlri
.st" monNmoe srupul
r. Funcdo's,.) ,({t.-tl.t.(6)
f,.o o"-u"r",.0,.n
p.ntrucn (or)= (6)(r),
{V)o,t Sn.
5 Functis /:(Z'+)-+(G,'),f\fl)-at,aG,
fixst ste morffsm de sruporl deo ce
l Ot+ n) = di+h = ot.an = !(bJ|tui, \Y),a ez.
6 Fu clia ,f:(2,+)-+(<z>,r,{<u

> sup cicli.lrnniJi)J@)=an este(camii sli9 horfism

pentrugrupurilccrrc lrl)ur,dltctrnu se f|cc o

VomutilizadiDnour)olrliunlultiplicativd
[lt! precizare.

Teoremtr.
Compunereaa doutrmorfismede grupuri estetot un morfism
degrupuri.
f)(anonstratie.
Fie f :G+G',g:G'+G" morfismc
degl.uputi.
Atunci g./|6+C"
estedeasemenea
un morfismpentruci

= 8("i(r))s(/())= (so/XrX8.l Xr).

Qt" f)(xr): c$@r)r: s("f(r)"f(.}))
( V ) " r
, /c . r
Teoremd.Fie / l(G,) + (G',, un moffismde
elementeleneutredin grupurilC $i respectivC,
1) f(e) = e'i

2)/(r-r) = (/(r))-r,(v).rec;
3) I lxn) : rf ta))n,

n2.

l,(,trronstratie.
(Fig. 12):
Mai intnirefoffiul[m1ncuvinteceri{eletoremei
l) morlismulduceelementulneutrual 0nui 81upln elementulneutrua1cel0ilalt gnrpi
,) lmagineasirnetriculuiunui ele|rlentpdntr"un morfistn d gupuri (-f(x-l)) estc
rlmriculimaginiiaceluielement((/(r)) l);
puteriiunuielementprintr-unhorfism de grupuriU(r'))
,) lmaginea

,/{

o ) {r ollv o\
i, , , ,lrv
l ; ;l l . , lli , l- r , , ' r , ' . ( v r x ,c B -.

x,

osteputeLe

((/(r))z).
lmaginiielementului
ll Aveft f (e\: f (e.e)= /()/ (e).Prlnsilnpliflcarc
cufte) rez,1t1t6
e' =J\er.

ul.** .- n - nd c
p r.n
,.u:
'r* (r" r, ( R', . '- l l l lo l
sr u p u
r r cr
1
,
'
'
=
l
l
1
.
r o xr
t l t u ' t ' . o ' i |. )
lil srupululG
estendornorlism
,r runctls /:(6,1-+(Gr) G srup omutatlY, /(x)=J-r
d.o!ruo: /(xJ) = (rr)-r = I 1' I =.t-rr-r = -f(r)"f (,I (v)",r d.
t,. r'unclltr/ : (Gr(/,R),, -r (R',t, /(,1) = detA sremo{ismdesrupurlpentruci:
./ (^rr) = d(r(,4/)= dei(a)dc(8)= J(a)/(r), (v),4,dcr(,,,B.).
noulNal lui C qe numell''
!,' linr(llu /.r(;.xr ,rG.o,.frr' . . trndrr'estc .lemenrul
rn,,ii,nn,f
.!',srrrl,ri f.rt Jt!!)..e' =e'ae' IIx)"/(i),(v)x,Jc.
()h rvtrlk.Mor snrtd(hI i/ + ll),2,3.5,6,?,li suntlqicclive,
dla I ipentfu
iar morfismele

Dacll e, s' sunt

'):{rr"r)
'
, /(r)

r)1/o)i
G

G'

Fig. 12

! | ), J,4 ,6.7 ' n Btrrl n' { r |r enr t t r ' J t d|le.

9t

aicll0 $en8lcu (/('t))-l li

2) Avom:.' = /(.) - /1xr-l; - .1trt./{t-l) , lnmulllm
ov6m(/(.{))-l = /(x-l) .
3) Dac[|t .0 sevoriflc[ l).
Dac[ tt N* , atunci/(/

) = / (&j) - ./(r)-,/(;r) - (,f (r))n

Dac[ tr<0, aNnci punem n=--n',n'eN $t docl /(rt) = /(,r4r') = /((]= U(r-lDn'= (/(rD-n') * (/(')-r'= (/(.r))i. r
( )lls'irvatie, Reformuhti teoremoln carul grupurilotoditivc.

l)n') =

dcducecA existtrrt,,r2 F1 pentrucaref (t\):yt,

= /(.rr )0(x2))-r : /({ )f (ir,

= ).

A$adar din

Din )1,)2l(H)se
Atunci 1,vf r:
f (xt:y2,
deoarecedin 4x2 e H -estesubgrupal hi 6.

ldcea fundaftental2icare std in ,,spatele"cuvan0lui izomodism este umdroarea

Srupurilecare sunt izomorfe au aceeEi stmcfir[ telativ la operatiiterespectiveale
Erupurilor.Grupurile sunt din punct de vederealgebricaceleaSi,desi elernentelelor
lot diferi saulegile sdfie diferite.
Dcoareceizomorfismulconservi operatiilelntre douegrupufi, atunci estede a$teprll
ca elementeleneuhedin cele doutrgupuri sd se conserve,imagineainversuluisd fic
InveNulimaginii,ordirul unuielemenlsbfie egalcu ordinulimaginiiaceluielernent,etc.
Mai Drecis.folmullim urm[toarea:
DeIidFe. Fie (C,*) Si(c',t douhgupuri. O aplicafie/;c+6'
nume$teizomorllsm de grupuri dacd:
l)/este mortl8m de grupuri;
2)/esto biiectle.

s.Morflrnolt ! (6r('t,n),t-+ (nr,t, /(t) = do(r) 0n Ror"f= sr(''Rt In/ = n'.

6.Mortlrh|ll J: (&*)-+(Cf,.L(t) =.d2rE+ldnrfit sretftr/ = t $ hn/={.Ctll4=4.

Atuncir
degrupuri.
Teorcm[,Fie t r(6,) "-a(C',lun morfism
grupului
al
6i
l) Ker/ estcunsubgrup
2)/esteiqjectiv(morcmorflsm)<+Ker/ = {e}i
unui
al lui 6 (lmaginea
6i lui 6.+f(HJ subgrup
3) (V)rt subgrup
(c)
particrlar
lrn/-f
subgiuppdnu-unmorfismastcun subgtup);ln

se

Dac[intredouegupuriG,6'existacelpulin un izomorfismspunemce
grupurilesuntizomorfeti scriemG= G'

esteun submrp8l

Din

egetilatea
a veritics
A a tac[ 11-l e Kerl ln$qnme
114,-ly=,'. ori avcrn/(ry-l):/(r)/()-\=/(rx/1y1;-l :erlefi =a'.
92

= f (\xzl \ f(ri),

+.1141 H (A fiind subgrup).in final deducemcdil,

Dac[ /1 = G, rezultnio = IJn/este subgup al lui C .r

Obscrvalie. Ker ,f ia A pontt! cl d Kor/ (/(e) = c') .

1.Mo.ll|blllconitrnt,f0
I,lxcmple.
r(z,+)-+(2,+),,fo(r)=0, ire l(er"ll= Z d Imt. tol
2 Morfiii rl t | (n,{-)-+ (nl,r), ,f(*)=.r crif.rtr{0}tt Im"f=(0,oo)'
l. Motf, nul !l(sir)-+({-r'1}'r'r nhd hlnEh semnpent Prnutlrlnie Kera=,/ln
(Srupul
droth)d lh.={-1,1},
Brt xe./ =tl'tf z}!t
1. Mont|m|)l J r(r!+)-+(<. >t.), ord(<a>)={'t(r.)5.6

.r,)lcr/ ?/(r)=/())=.'.

udic! ry-r : e sau (lnmultind la dreapta cu ))

!(x)= fO\+ x: y, ceeace amthc[/este injectiv.
3) Ttebuieprobatce pntluI,)2l(d).+t?;tef@r.

lui
DGfirdde.Fie f r(6,) "-+(G',) un norfismde 8rupuri.Submullimos
se numelte nucleul
G dcfinlt[ prin Ker/*{r61/(r)*e'}
morfismuluiI
se numelte
lul G definiti prin tm/=t/(r)lt6)
Submubimea

l)(rnr,nstfxtir. 1) Trebuiedovedit c{ (V)r,ye Ket/"+.ry-r Ker/,

2) Presupunem
cll./crrr ilicctiv $i |}roblmcd Ker/= {?}.
F'ie rKer/. Dcci /(,r) = e' = Ie). Cumf este injectiv rezulter = e. Dcci
Ker/ c {dl. Cumcvident{"1C Ker/ rezult[egalitatea
Ker/= {e}.
Reciproc,
fie Ker/= {e} $i sAardtdmc5/esteinjectiv.
Fiedci /(,r):/Cy), a,G. De aici /(.rl/(y)-l :e'<+/(r) l):e'<+.)y lf's/={e),

( )hserv:r(ii.1) Un izomorfismde gupud esteun izomorfismde monoizi.

l) Un izomodismde grupuri /:G*C
se numetteautohorfism al lui G. Alrfel
tpus, un endomorfismbijectiv al lui C se Dumeiteautomorfismal lui G. Multimcr
Itrtumrautomorfismelor
lui G senoteaztr
cu Aut (G).Ardtaficn (Aut(G),.) estegrup.
o
"
llnde,, esteoperafiadecompunerea funcfiilor.
l) Dach/:G+G' esteizomorfism
de grupud,atunci$i /-l:G'+6are
accca
([litote(demonstrafi
!).

9-l

lh$mDfucun$autedc lr.omorllfl c dc lrulurl

e3te komornNmde gupurl' d'cl lde un
l. ADllcrir ldondcl krc-+(',ro(r)=r
aulonorlhm d lul G.
t. Apllc.fs "f |(8,+)-+(Ri,t"f(r)=,'esltlzomorflsmddgrupud'deo'reeamvtrzutla
norlt|mG dc Srupurl cl lceastl spllcrde estemor{sn 9l ln plus h bdectlv'
grup ctcltc lnfin$ t(')=areste l'omorfism'
!, Modf.mul I t(2,+r'+(<a>,'\<a>
izomorf cu g'upul
d$ar.co oce{stl ryllcrfe steb[ecdvl. AFdrr ortceglup dclic hnnir este
adlllv .l Nmerelor iotrcgl.
8lel|rl Z (li
= -r suntduiomorflrroc
4.Apllc!${. i',f-r:(a+r'+(Z'+r,
h?r=t,la(r)
.|rnt lln8urle !).

suntdoudgrupuri
DacI (6,*),(d',o),O- lag...,anl,G'= 1b1,..,,bo)
dacd$i
izomode,
aluncif tG-G',1\ai\=bi,i=l--z esteizomorfism
numai dacb pentru o!ice1si,j<n, irnagineaprin / a elernentului
ai raj de la intersectialiniei lui a; cu coloaualui ajdir tabla operatiei
lui C coincide cu elefirentul bi.bjda

la interseclia liniei lui

4 = /(ai) cu coloanaluirj = /(dj ) din tablaoperaticilui G:

dtcn
dctrnttr
blne
{este
o=
r,rtit= d. unae
5.Apr.sd!
J:@r,+)-)rud,
"*[tJ-'*t*J
cum tli+b=tttil=&n =
dt Srupurl,
izomornsm
urcr !=f +,rtil=ftit) Qste
rc'ultrfcst morftln
=of .d =rtilftir
lui o) ti cele doul
D6 sstnenea,fettc aurJectiv(elenentelel Ur sont pdert lntrgl 'le
bll!'tivl' Decl 'f ste
mulflIllt- Zr tl Ur au acel.gl numtrr de elementertuftl .f e5&
komo lfii,
sunt
orxovstie. Seposte arlts upr ctr orlc dou! grupurl clcllc' fdt ovend rcelotl ordln
lzomode.
pmprletlli sl*01""-9n
I"omorfe,aluDclelesebucurr de
i"* i*r
'cele{$
"*,
|a fd e3& $ cemoft'
ctcllc'
uoul
ete
dacl
anrocl tt ceulslt e3teIt feli
-ro*l
unut eoir comutatlv,
tl'Eror aceslor
lel
cltss
k
se
comporr!
tfirc
ele
Prln uturrt toaaegrupudlt immort
tipul
melte
SrupuluL
ffuDud formetrdceei cse
scstor s purt 5 dese u l dintre el' No$unth de "grupurl
i"i,*-"irarJ"rg"t'r"
utrul"lgrup" sunt analogecu nodunlle & "mul$mi eotpotene",(aous
lzonorfd'tt
"tlpul
b{ectlr{ t : .4 -+
tl
dacneistl o
nunrtc
echlpoaente
A,
I
se
muldn
' ' "(lmnarut
'pltcafle
cu '{) dln
echlpotente
muunllor
tuturor
este
clssa
(crrdlntlul
multiml,'t
unel
unoimullnrt"
teorla mullld lor.
reprezentant
6" o".pfli, t""t" g-p""fb dclice dordln t cofft|nie ul tip de grupuri lar un
al rcauldp erte{Zr,+r s&u(U,,'1.
Crupul (2,+) esteun reprtzntantpntru toategrupurtl dcltci lnit'
poale [i dedus
ln cazul a doui gupun finite. de acela$iordin izomorfismulintre ele
adica un
utilizand ublele opemiiilor' DacE cele doua table sunt la fel organiTate
ocupe in cele
element dintr-un grup gi iinaginea sa ln cel5lalt glllp prin izomorfism s[

doudtableaceleagiPozilii.

mairapidtra tablelotest!lumizatdeumatoareal
clcmentajutdtorpntruaralljarea
Toreml.Fie (q,.), (62,) doudgrupurifinite,iar / rq +c2 un
izomorfism
degrupuri,
Dac!{ Gl 9i.r2=/(x1)e62,arunci:
ord(11):oraf(11)'
Ordinulunui eleEentesleegalcu ordinulimaginiiacestuiaprintr-un'
izohorfism de gnpuri finite,
datefrind do!6 gnrpuri finite se determin[ oldinele elementelotdin cele dou[
IT4morfismulde construitirtre ele aebuiese ducdun element.r?.din gupul

incetod(r*;:o.a(f ('*)) si f (q)-q,

tnlnaglnea
/(x1) din c2, asdel
neutredin celedouagrupua.
aceastdschernEpentJu a demonst$ cd grupul (G:{1.-1,i,-i},

cugrupul(Za,+).Derrnim
f rc +2,a, prir f (tl:6, ft-t.l:i,f

q,"z
J este

<il:i,

.f(-l) = 3. Evident/este biiectivd.Pentrua arniaceleste izomorfismde la G la 24,

utiliza tablaoperaliilorpe G qi 24 . Fiec&ui elenent x C fi consfiuimimagi.ea
dir V,a. Deoarecetabla rezultat[ astfel este chiar tabla aduntrdi pe 24,
f(tl

94

95

dgduccmctr arc loc ogqlltatoa/(ry)= /(r)+/(y), (V)r,)c. Deci/ cste

lzomorfismdcSnrpuri,G: 24 .

r -l
I
I
-l
-t

I
I

-t

-l

-l

l.

0 i23

0 10i

,,4

30
01

Aldel, penm evidenliereaizomorfisEului str observim c[

ord(i)=ord(i)=4 $idecipubm
pune/(r) = i. Analo&
ord(- 1)=

|m narcat elementdle. ti 0 cu roru tn cotedou! rlbt _

ri lui a din pdln1 rqbt! elemetul
I ditr ! dola l!bu), ceeace ardr cI ele dou, grupuri
sunrrzormrfe.
Ars't lnce grup de odjnut doi esreizomorf cu
{22.+) qj dci roategrupurile de

=ord(2)= 2 $i avem/(-U=2.

b) se considerf
slupultuultipncjriv(c=l",o,bl,.),i

ord(-t)= ord(3): 4 ii
Tabla lui f(xtt
PUDem,f(-D: 3,iar/(l): d.
$ trne.

Tabl.lui C

Altfel,

ugordaceobservam
* o=<i>={rtll=0,:}.

izomodismul ll realidm

oeci f tG'aZ4

estg dat &

/l rl :* , f t = 0, 3.
Alteoli, ce utilizeari aganumitul ,,Tra4sportde sauctur[.,pnEurealizarede
lzomorfis&o
degrupuri.Maiprecisarcloc urmatoarca:
Teoreml.Fie (c,* un grup $i 1l o dultime asdl lncet existi
/:G+H bijective.
Aftnci:1) (II,o)esre
srup,under" y=/(/*\r)*

/-ltrl), (v)",r ea;

2)(c,*)=(H,tpi,nf rc-H.
Evidcrj eoH elementneutru,
e* fiind elemeffrlleufit din 6;
".=I("-),
sinrtricullui r It e6re,^ = f/f- I [,'
" , under. estesimetlicullui x G .
, r* /J
- \
AcesstdteoreEdne arat! cualputcmlnzeshao multimeIl cu o struchrrdalgebricl
dlotr avemdat (estecurcdcuoun grup (C,*) si o aplicaliebijectivd/:C+It.
tutrtalici/esre $ Eorfise.
LSl lc_denomtFz. cl: sJ aooregnrpurflc de ord! trol sunr t oDodei b) rmre g.upudte .le ordttrul
R.!)Fte (C,) grupff doul elcm.nrec={.,a}.Tablalsiiqr:

96

Coiltd.r&Delm (22.+) 8nFl| aditivalclaseldde

lcsorntrFdrrodoi.Tablabgnsrq
Ot6.rv6'nc, dac! no$n t : G Z
=
- z. I r" t 6. I O t = i .arunciete dou6tabtesunrt!
ftl d6stucluEte(pozitiilorocupaEde, h priin labh Ic
corsponde
6 ttr . dourtabiE_

srupuladitiv l%,+). Fie f :G-24,

l@=6,l@=|l(A=2.
TabtagruE ui c ii cra rezullsirinlocuind
fie,r clement,G @
.l6mattul /(r) e 23 sunrdal! maijG.

'"1" . t
Trblalui C

+to | 2
."-+---_
f d 16 i i
I lr 2 i\

,12 6 i

obirvem c! tabta rezuliad (l(,1)) asie chid rabja pcntu!

adunr@ pe Zl. Deci/ esremorfism.Cxm/sr
ri buste,
deducemct fsre izomrfism

T6blabif(_rr)

Scconstadc{ celedourllbl sj h fet sbuc$rat (poziriilor

lui e dh Eimarabute .orespunde
O ln a
dou.rabu.pontiitortui a dh primarlb* recore'pude
i din a douaru,* er.)..ea
Elp c! triclehenr.sei?rmorfcu 123,.1_y
. rjaca, toategnpur" *
".;.
",- '.,'";.;
".ut" "ii"""ii^."i.
obsenadeGrupur(o=ln h,hl,4 udc
Ji:R\ {qlt-.R\ l0r}., 1,1=r 1r1,s=J_. 1,1,,_!:)
-'
l-r
ast izomorfcu
{Z!,+,.
2, ne gulrd (Z+) . Sr e !l.rr .r:
,)Fo,,f4t la tz--+z, fr(r) = ,n .!n.norf$n
dgnpi
2) Odcc eDdono .tr il tut Z .!a. ite.cetl|t dD:
a) sI Bedcierrdtr lltonorftE"lc
Srupdj (Z',+r,
R. l) A spoE cn
$e .|donofirm,t
lui Z rcvin Ia a,rala cn fhe+
r\= fni\ + fnb),
''
lv)r,rez.
Avcm: /ar, + )) =
w _ rty= lnt| + Jntr,.
'(r+ )t=
' z, voh coBtrlli efecdvur nlorEsm srerrmc.{esr. un
,j
/, .
Tin6ms.5mr d fryrut c! (2.+) el. un grupcictic general(|e | (de
exemptul.
n 9:z-Z
c! pll) =, beZ. Aor ci
912) =e{_t ) =o{l) +et t ) _2qt ) =2I 0.
Din apr oape
ln altro.F aven q(n) = ,t. ,h . Ace{srr xpril|.aiE
ai toc psrtru oice n tV* (se arad pdn induclie).
h
OG+ y)= 9 1, ; *t b) , ( V) x, yaV
r zuf t apnnu . r =) =0, q( 0) =0.
D aici
= 0 = p(, - r) = pG)
_
adici
=
9(_rr
.
q{,r,
x
Q(_.y)

z
.
_9(9)
EltindcD d.finitia lui I ta ,umcrelbdsi n;i!r.
Flo r=-n,aN..Abnci
p(,):e(-,) = _e(,) = (*zr&r.

i'f,toor)'
c! do4l 9[hd(Z),.Oncl oxlsu ,oN ,ltfel lnclt qd r
Al3ldr,pui.mconchid.
'!t
(v)''z. Dcie= /io
adicu
l-'ut(Z) '
suntizomo!fitm.,
3)tunqlloi(r)=;r,/,1(j)=-r
deoarele
u ++l nusuntsudctive'
^'l-l fn(z)= htLcz
Modlfn$lcl'(r)=,ri.d
o stru-ctuIde
dtr4.tlrit
.i
T
pe
aplcos4
d=(2'oo)
:l ,trlt|f cI: t) mdflrne-a
t=tJ-2t-2f+6
$trp atrarni
iitit"rfgnr; c'=t3,-l adtcafrr*J =.rJ-3:-3J+12 iltermbnos[ucarrrrtegrupibdtni
!) 8l. orrtI cI tntr. sup'n + h 1) F crupulde la 2) etdlg ur l,onor{sD 'f :(2'oo) --iF oo) de
hmu /(x)=r+o.
t(r)="i+'
'
4)ArltlScI (R1,.) eslelzotmcu (6',*) prlntr'unl'onmrnEm'tero|lna
,
cnceb dou{shcturi algebdc.(G''T)'(d"*) suntgupuri
64PobezE
R l)"2) Ldrnrntu ssm citiborului
Bhu e{E .=lc
prirul g p c! elemenor
penEu
R.dncm

x> 2r'
Pmulral doileagrupgdsim. - 4 sr r -::--:

qi t'=41

^ i

(s'aadc! x'> 2 dat

(> J,

neotrD celur
3) Dacat 6(e molfsmderluDui,aoncide eiemennlnquualpdmLtuigflip in elmentul
'l
a,
=
+
I
=
r
=
adica
r
I
Dai
,
4
de.i
l
a
rlr) dc-ald;tea erup,adicafi
ti
tu !mclJesre morfi'mdeerup,rd,adic! /(r T ,) = J(t) * t(l). (V),' I e G .
A v m/(' T r ) s ' , ly + I - ,! -2 x - 2 , + 7 $ " f(,)* .f()): (' + 1)* (v+ 1) = (r+ l )(,+ 1)
-3(r +l)-3() -1)+12= t,- 2'_21+?,9j ceidoi membrisunte8ali.
Mai rebuieprob.rcd/qte bii4tivt.
Functiai;te inietdv! d@3t"redin /(1) = /(lv), r,/ G + r+1= ) +1'.dic5 r: v
Funclir st ti surjecliv6pentrud (v)Jc , (l)aG asfel iicat /(,=y Avem
r) - l > 2- ] ' r , a d e l a ra r'
Cun/csle bijativi 9i morfisr! sededuce/ i?onrorfismde SruPun.
4)Cum/sre morfirmdeerupuni I ) -4. adican I n =4. (l)
* o b ti n .d i n e n n F c a 1 5 i 6 mom' m adi ca /rD " - /' )rrl r\)
A d o ; . uie p** o
'i
- 6a+12' (V)x,v > O. De aipi rezultr
(V)r,) > 0<+ n, + = m2 + b1!-3n)x+(t-3hv)+n2
'
'r
nu estebD n'
val oat5
c d s i n m r= o ' b 2 = l
m=m2 ,n n 3m : 0. n2- 6 r+ 1 2 :t.
-=
0'
nrrcria
c'uta6 este
Asad0r
cald ,:3
nu este injectivt"Ramaned-!,
dco0receJ('):u
rcalri
(V)r/>0'
.f(r)=1+3. Faptulcr/este morfismde 8rupuii,adicn t(ry) + ,f(')*.f(t),
pe$r'r
din
ci
esle
injectivl,
parrnEtrii
n,
,.
in
c@
am
deteminat
din modDl
lunqia /
r-)
r
llr
+
l/L :'=J(r ' =
Avem
pentru cN l(,):}'
Functia/ esr,eei sujc.tivl deodee (V))c',(:)x{0,e)
x+!-y r- l- J \ 0

de8rupun.
i z o morfi sn
d e o e c e v > 1 . A ta d e /e s te

r. rr"
c=]lr 'll'.zl.sa'"""""".,
-,,r,r-". [ 10r l
J

s) G tonmari 8rupcotmtadvlnnpoit cuopratladeln|In Srca nridcdoE b) (G")'(Z'+) '

98

l)o*"'*"-,',"=[l
".")"'".0,=[;
f[;l=l;'l'

= A*m,

^,n

e Z , caca(.

0nt! cdlnmu\iEA p. G estelegede compozifie.

SI obsnnmcdlh = r{, e r : n.
tnmultirea mdricclor lntotd.aunaestedraciar'rd, d*i qi ltr eest cazpaniculd. Din AoA,n=At+^=
A-+"= A.A" rcr nc[ hnulrirea estecrndantd pe G.
sau 4r'=4<+
dtrel idcat 4 4=4,\v)A"eG
Eb/ii,att .aa. S! allr.lm ci exist! 4G
- l Er . '4, .
#o-c= a.l v)a. 2.
De aici , =0. A{ads elem eniiln. ur u e{e , ab=/ r =10

0
, hl,rffzril". Fiird vorba d lomu[ir& objFuitn qi culn fieaarcelement .4{ din G are de{,t):l+
rlzuld cI fiecarc ,4, est inversabih. Ritrngned artrtatci 9i invetsa lui ,4, este tot in G. Din
A " ..ar,= ,a0 rer uhnA"+n,= AO ,sn1s6, +r '=0
9i deci n'=- neL. AVd?t ( A^) '=L"eG .
(C,.,
esregrupabelie.
Uti
intrade\&/*e nari,n dp
&plicqia(tr realiaazt
b) Definim /rZ-C./(r)=.a,
'zonorfismul.
A"+^: A" A- = I l"\ f ( nJ, \ v) n, m ez.
,rheuri p rucd / ( r +n) :
(r, J\n)=t h = 4n.+ 4: d.
&DcFatql rhjectiui deoarcqedln f
Fun4ia/ 6te slrrJatld deo@@ (V),{,G, existl .Z pentrucre ,f(n)='4'. Dci/ esteti
ln corcluzie/este iaborfism de snpun.
-bU.ctiva.
P'
ScorBftlell nuldnlle

1]1",.*'.'

t,OFk ealz= d +bil n,be t[, a2+ 12= t]

' l) ArIbS d (qr) tl (c2,') sur srupui i'omorre

fJ3 t

t;;
,r) Cdcula$
l1 J 3

l-a 2

l, l) Nu vom insisb asupraverifclrilor necsar.E.pentm

a ptobacd@tedosasrnicturi$nt gruPuri

rFnncdsf tGr-G2.1@-b,,=[_,

rl

calesrc
Ardrdm
realia&d
'omorfi\mul
"J
ir,tfistudestuputi,aAicd,
l(44J: fi)fQ),(v)zt,z2 e cn.
A. 4 : at +i4,.2 = a2+ ibz. At!ltci zrz2: op2 4b2+i(atb2+ a214\$ deci:
qh+a24'|-lq
aP2 hh
h\In' h"
fi,,,^,-l
r'ttr"'

"''"

*" t

""0" "*

qa, hh) \-4 ,ll la .r11-\ap2-42b1\

i,r'..r'dde,@c
*" f f
Functia/esie

"r,:

f.r,=

t;)7:.
[';

& l cl 4:22.
Frncga / est sutje.nvd dff,,c.cE

1v 1^=['

D l ,ot
+a,: r . * i ,,a

99

::)= ^

=,

e i4 = h ,

Cum/.rt! mortlm buocdv!. dcdoc.ctl orr! ltomo|.firm.

(9'.t;1":'J
P.ntu ! crlculs n' udtizlm izomrfismul de mai sus.

(.-

.,1

D. c r. :1 r r=l l 9 - + ll= ill*,^l l-il[" *r ,i,i"r]'l-rl-,,^,i,i",nl_

66
65

6. r) SI !e ar&r.cI F nuld'nuaq =1'+y.61",y 6q, ,2 -sy2 =ll tnmottiwretertitnn o

:iffiJ;i

^,r=[i,

C2'.xl|tt

f,. i) Drd gruFril lunt lzonnrfc,0nnci clc sI rbui s[ aib! sclc$iploprjdqi. Cun Z rsrc grup
flalic C.tr.rrr d. l), isr Q 0u.st cicliclra ! c! cst do!.[grupuritlu 6ljnrimlnorf.
b) Mul$tdl6 Q, R nu $nroolipot Nr,diol [u exisdo bijccli. /:Q{R.Muttitner
e o$ie
lltrnltlbiutn dnp ca n .stnctrunt!bit!.
$ nfi..a'i""'c raauu.t nouluncmctr.xkdunirrnlorfism"f : (4.+) + (e!,.) ,

cll .r(0)= l

= t rt = r[1 i) : r[+]ri+l lr [+l]' *

!r! aesn"t'ncrr
/(a)=2.A!,nci..
\.) - \ \.
","
\z t
I.t

de gmp.

.diqicdco!.!.!JJEo r",i'op* rlileol.

.rl:l=Jt.co

hmulliEs matrlcetordetomirt o shncaurldSrup

(x
c)tuItt' cr t:q-+c2,/(r+yrEr=15"
l:

zvl
les&uniadorfi.mdesruDurt.
rl

t2
l
R, L|8Im ln samacititorului vrificareaponcielora), b).
c) AldrnJric^lesre M6tn d. 8tupu.i. A\em:

,r({ + n16X'2+ D\/.t) = l(\x2 + 5r\r2+ \[t e.\y2+, zyi:):

Irxtr2-xz\)f rr 2r1lJ
x, 2r]l
[ \,2+sr\t2
I
Iq-s

/{ !
,
t;(rr r+ rn) 4r 2 + s yJy 2I r n n J l l _ r._ l_
(vh + rr$' ,z+ vzGeq
Fun4i. / eioe i4i.ctivd doaf..edin /(,1+ r\6):

l'2
=t5

"n* ""t""

!-r+ ]16 q p.liru car/(z)=lr.l,.

ht fr corcluziomc!/.src izortrorfiimdgrupuri.
t. Sl.c rtlae cI ormltosrde pcrrchldc 8lupod m.ur{ komo b!

./(r+r)=t(r)/(/),(v)&JQ

.tnEluil

d3oar@*"*

l) (,u,+),(Q,+)| b) (Q,+to,+) ; c) (Q,+),(Qi,) .

Av6m/((a+n)')=(/(4+rof = ['. 'f,..o..

\ o a)
,n

h fi'lq tunqf. / 6|!. .l tutl.ctt$

t+ r,:.!, 9i n: D +.q +1rF =.r2+ y2.,6.

(t), r J

t(r) = dn(2: + l);

d ne |torl|sn deBruFrl"
R. FrcG u $ubg p rditiv al grupului(R.+) .
4 rJ5)l\,2a r2Js\

-f(,2+ ,2Ji).+

2t2l

\.)
\z)
t.. A'i{trf d grupur.Ieldldrc (2,+) C (AXl,+) nu .urt tuonorte.
R &.1, p.in ab3tld,ooledou!grupuri& fi immorfc,alunciu rlbui c! ob snaibr aclEiproPrirq
de nedterninsr!
x cu
fdtr| ci S.upul(2,+) cst! ciclic -<r>. Dacr 4ll (nulrimo potiDoarDelor
ao.trcic{t lnnlgi) ar fi ciclic gmnr d polinonul /ZtXl,
Crad(, , L *N*, a|ullc
Ar4=< J >=ldln elt ce3celnsssln d b6repotinoarDl.lui Axllr syagndul zerc$u t,
aa6!ccc6t fab. Dcicle&nrl grupurinupolfi irrmorfo.
t.. SI !. dierdnc tote ,ubgropurltC sle gr|rpt d (n,+) Etret tnc{r .f :(C,+)-+(n.,,,

5
2"

loqt {G lwml = /(0) = /(' + (-r)) = f(x)t(-')

';'j:

. co82rE- cor,! -

sousin(z'+DAsin(-2,+l)*=l+}

znr=t!tx<4,

D.ci ponlrur G + r Z , aalicl c c Z . @t! c! G esrede faprsubSrop

al lui Z . Se$ie ct c ar
btn|! G
r eN.
-n2.
Lciproc.dlcl C
abnoit as&norfisrndgropuril(.t+ ),):(-l),+, =(-l)r(-l), =
- 'Z ,

. t(ry(y),(v)arc.

10.* SI & dt.e![lre erdobortrlEde Eupuld (Q,+) .

R Fic /:Q+Q
un rnorfi$n d grupuri. Procd3nd ca la problena EzotvarA2 slsim c! pune l
Exthdemcon$ructiatuitIa Q+.
/(l)-a4,
/(r)=a',(v)'2.

100

l0l

rl

lt)om

u-71j=7lI*I*.*tl= nrlfl.*.r

t'___tr-J

rl*l=*,.
".* -''t.1='l;';__,rj=a + it = i

^ ^: I
^ "
l a-b)' = 1 l lo- b) '=4

Dlci t(.r) = a! (v)r Q+. Dac[ r= -r, rQ+, atunci! Q): I er\ = -l Q)= al-))- 6. Aeadar
p.ntru
oricorQ,/(,)=d.
, .
,f r(z,d)

esle endomrfism

grupuld(q,+), cun utor s lchte vedea

(2,O. cee6ceesteimedi.c

rr.' Fte (G,.)un grup' AritaF c! t I G -+ c, /{ j) = r-r esreu trcmor{tn de srupurl dacr tt
Duml &.1G 6te abeltrn.
R.Prcsupunem
(V)a1eG sau
Avem(fmdnsm), iry):/(rf(y]
c[/esie ihmrfism desrupuri.
ryl, (V)r,y G <+
I
ry"- |! | .
$nrndican! deformaluil (,r,)l : r"Computrtld ultima egalitatela dreapta.u y ri apoi cu r oblinem ):r =

'),

(V) r. ) C galitatecarearati

presupurem
c! d esresrupabel+n.
Snadt4nc, l:G+G,l(,)=1.:
Rcciproc,

steur izgmorfism.

-i-lr-liu dbfrry,=rrrr-l-r-lr'l
s aJadutorcalese bijecdlA.
/G)"f(t) {v)t' )'
rczuxrcd/esteti rnorfism.
Prlnurma&/esieir.modism,
r2'' Ffe (G;:)un grup fiDlt or prcprletateaci tunc$r t iG "+G,llx)= x' lste lutomoiftm d
grupurl.Arltrti ci nd$mos G arun numil lmlor dedemente,
R. Id..a de Ezolvarc . problenei estcdo a sratapEoriceelment, 6 G, r * , (. glgmentulnutu) esle
difdit de invssul slD.
prin absurdcI ar exisia *C,r*,
4tf.l lnc& , r- I <+'I! = , e /(r) = e =
Prsupudem
= J @ + = e (ultina implicat areloc deoarE{e/steitrjectivl), absuril.
'
luj C-{"} li iitechi
Arsdd (v)'c,J-e+,+.t-1.
Aceasta
ne permitesa snplh elementele
(a r- t) . eea @ lnwamta cn nunirul de elenenredin C -.{e} estpar. Acum gse cl* ca nundiul de
elemente din G estEimpd.

tr- n " c -

P,,ll
d r l a , , z s . d e t"1
. a r = tl.

I l, . o, -1 1

[ .+ b = 4

'

-,fl1l=3,,',,.N-.
Evidcntc! (v)aQ,/(')=ar

=i satk +)hrkt-h)2 i sotutiitc

aa(,.t1-i $rultlrSrlltrr a3+2,3- 3ab2
"c,ratt

t" ' n

r) (G,t stegrup conutaliL

2 ) (G.)= ( Z l, ' ) .

102

din al
primulc& gisim solulia(1.0). i4 ir al doileaca?(1.4) Asmtn6ror'

,=l,a-b=4.In

'r

eNaliilor
. A dousruaie din primut\rstemehlee.h'vslentac! rcuniunea

sisr.mohiiEm aolutiil:toil ti,4l . nin umare,g.pul c ale pabii ele6nte:12: Ad,o),

detipKleineide.iesteibmorfcu
.10,21,a=eti,4lc=et3,41.crrme?= c , g,,purm es|e

+),
' l) St sdetertrlnesutomorlbn l grupulut&tttlv 26 .
.

.n

nb o=|a",=l!
? ll".z"l. *."ucI
t

t3o rll

(6,.) $te erup tl detern nqtl rutonorfismel;

ic .

desru?ui Dci/(r+ /) = "f(,) + "f(y),(v)r,l 26..Denicise

un morfism
al
/(6) - d ii /(.r) : .dai;. PI''em/(i) : b qi d-i /(,1= * *t fo* mui endomorfism

llFb f :Zs-Za

(
= /( r) +.(= vl numaidaca4 c Z6 qsteinveaabil.ad'cd
2..
i Y " .S! observlmc! fste inidtiv /(r)
alelui z6
altomorfisme
cia{1,5} D*i /(') =r /2(}):5.t suntsincurel

lui c
Av.n A(arA(b)= A(a+p) 9rsc verificl ugorcn (C,)e!te glup Sadeerudtrnnele'neqtele

= 1, t137=
=.r(i+ir=leti)'=,1',,q31=l3,edl
t2 oui e
t5 '46:1=
.rd)= e, ,tuncie(2)

'$!. .le'Dorte:rr (6,) = (26,+) prin izomomsnul/ rG + 26. /(,4(r)): r. Acumq ar atat
ott an gruput Zf

cu caE este izomof. A.estea sutu: /(A(.r))=,4(r)

ti

: <q1;= e51,1.

=ff .lo}.,.,"0*,,=,}.
"ti."={^,

$A4t!S cr (c,) esteslrlp abt ! l'-oinbrfcusmpul KldD,

f) Dote]||dm$s'$srupudle srupuluiG.
t 1166qe1=i ned! su4ia l+ti=i
cusrutiire(a,r):(i.0,(i,t, (4,1t3.61.prinumq c ae

.a2
-d C-l2
esar;tqire
rr.*""r",r,-ll
l].-ll l.=l: 1.p""-"* '" *d.Ec.
- loi l ll.r-li
l o i l l o r j to 5J

AB= M= C, AC = RC = A, C,4: AC = A. DeciG esteizonorf cu SrupulKlein

t) Cum C eee izobort o grupullui Klern.sDbSflprdlelui G vor fi de aelati riP cu rubSrupur
Fpufui fui Kl.in. Aeaca sunt:I I2t. I 12.Al,tl2.81.ll2-cl- G .

103

L l) 81. d.te cr rdlotle .f | (2,+)-) (ui,'), tO) = et, urd. ="*?P+lan3! na",*at
d. guDurl.

r)

crsDnc.fi.f !(2,9 1-', .),1",=

llil.t;*
^rt{4

O O Ctr2(r), G @I!

lrteDorn.ndesrupod.
frt& ArI4 ci /!{c,.)-+lR*,1,

Edclc lmg3.b ebnpoltcobm

i].o*'"'"-u",-'".
{[ i)J=,-',o{"
Or'run

"r

'(c',

e!.e mortrlmdGsrupun,ts.

s | (!2,+)-)(32,+),
8(r)=?, " = g6l , edt*a"'-.r*J

2, gl E aral4cl:
drednl p Z o rtrud||Il dectuplbelto$
l)rpllcada.r*r=rtt-2
1)rpllodr r.r=rty+1
deterrnlnipZ o.tructud d8rupcbeua$
3)hnt slrtpodL hDfl2)ef,tu'tIltlno
llm dGtordr ! tL--+z. !\rt =, +a,a ez ce.e
't
3. P. nullh|er G=l-r.t)

6econdderlapllcrdsr*y = IaJL.lorag

snlpur{ (Ri,.)

o) 8r.e de..rmlllea,rn.strdnift

/'nl-+G,Jtrl-.8+l

d (c,*lee poat st'bltl m tromor[sn de fons

-! a*ef-mF
.t.r- -Iry-.4'-1r
zlJ -Jr -JJ +5

/{.t)=gl
'
r+l

rl2) otuuctu{desrupcornrdr

lDmfotgrupul ((o,ool, prbtr.rD|romrtrlD t :(0.e,-+(1,2). t(r)=illl.

s. r)P. R !e
lege, . autl a.
'rd|uete
'*y=${IffiTF.
.b.lLn brd$rlcu (R,l-) .
lr. t.(-2)= r
2)R..otv.Stn R xr dltemut,
1,, _,. _ _r.

Arnrtl cr (R,*) eslesrup

.$e mDornsm lntre crupur e

f C. =(.,ool tuI'tdcr:

D. n Zt2 gr|tprl ldldv tl d{!.lor it rturl nodulo U tt G lluldnea demcDtelortneersobl.

p. C d.tcrDlrl o ltrucoll deSruprb3 an lmnortcu sruDll|lol XLb.
lr|hfcrheulttn
*o
*tlloel-*,")f
. e*"t cr G re o lhuctuttrdesmpebcrarh raport.{
$.ncc=ll
It-dba c{.c/
I
oD.rrfr de l[mul$i! r nttrtcelor, lzonorr cu glopul nuldptcrdv ol tlur[erlor conplexe de
bodul r
fr rt-,1'
I
-

c=[z,ir iip.*'1.
r+"rn

2r l l
I
F-'
I
blrh c=lA(r)=l r
llr rl.
rl
t2
I
J
l) Adt Sd.4(')-aO)=a(,+r-2xr\
d r2ec.

r , 2t , .

104

3r lle un tzomorflmInrr.

llf lr.tc cr: !) G d! gtIp mulltplcofti b) (G') E (n,+); c) G ad|rlte !r lubgrup itotnorf N
lnDt rdldv d Dunrdorr.gonrl.
lo.t Fle q', n'. SocoDddcrlp n lplcrllr r., = ar +rJ + r.
l) D.t mdrro F a C , .sfd toctt (&,i) d fie tNp.
It L[tm q , gldd h 1),.dr$ d (1,.) rlr lronort co (1,+).
l)P. C detulnopcrefikr.J=r+r+al,r.J=t+I-4,r,rC,dn.Arlttltd:
,) (c,.), (gt surt sruPudrbexdle.
l) .f r(C,*) -+ (C,.),.f(z) = & $te ll,nornlln de8rupurl.

l) idt S cr (c,t s.eEt|p rbnr[' 2)(l',.) = (G,.).

6. n. G=(-t,t),t >0 rl.pllog'

'*y=I-$aZ.e.ru6"r,
r) (c,.) estesnlp conutrdvi 2) / !c -+ n, t(l) = -l-h*=
(6,*) d 8,+).

'

9,nGn||lln.| d. ft'[c$ c =t"f I n "+ (o,oo)lJ(')=.c, onl.

,) {v).', & (c.,.)- (c'r,*)=(R+).

cud n coreelrbn det.rsLll"

a. sa.r'ir.c{.dl|'dr

b)itlttflcl (c,r)t grupabelt.qr*r = J'2r2 -,2 -rl+z

lr.& codrhd F n tpncolr t.a=r!-,E-o!+az+a.or

l) (Q,r)rrto jruprbcdaq

o:

.) (C,*) ..t Srupconutrdvi

b) hft

r) 8rrcrnt cr Jr2r2-r' - f +z ec drcl .r., c.

Frrqdre
{Bi,.lf (qr).

')-, (ni,.),11'+91=f'!+1, r,, R 3!.morilmdesrupu.

!) 6r rs olot! cr ft|lctlr t,: (22,+)+ 1sz,+),fr,r= $"

t. gl m rlst clr l) rDlloefr r ,l, I - rrn, ddtne|rcp. G =(0,@)-{11 o.tructu d! intp

rbd!&. 2) (c,f)-(1r,.).
O,IhG= (r'oo).

r sltfd lndt (G,.) $ fic$up'

llP.nlri|
n -ft);
'
'let.|[|l[!d
15,8ccondderl
nul$nile:

*={f
'1

,
lll,,a.q,l-,or'=f
l

o- pt t

105

q =1o+r,/iilo,ae g,o2- roar.rl,

.) Arlt.ll cI (qrt(62r)

b)(q,t-(c2 ,,.

0rDrsrupurtrbo onoInflr tot

ol ,r=fo t 1 . " = 1 - , 0 l. c - 1 0 - r ll
c .,
16.1)seco r u r dnel"rrr o-,r",
-]r,=l
r
[ to rJ [r o l lo _ r , . - l_ r o J J .

."1=[; : l]-=l;
i i ll*={i
i i ll-=tl
i i 3ll

cI: r) qes& Srup ltr rapori { tnrrutflrej

conpunercapemutlrttor. c) (6t.,] = rC2.",
l) 8l re arale umltoarele izornofsme de g.uprrt:
Arll.ll

nratdcetori br c2 elt

grup tD rapon o

rr(za,-)=(z;..)
rb)(c=ra,.+,)..)={,,..).
*", =fl;ll [ :,],t;:l.l; l,]1,
ct lG=1r2,
Mt.N2.Mr.M1.,ur1.1=(n
=1".p.pr.o1.ar.
").*u" a=f i}.",=l I

il.

) .) comtru(l trhh l.dl 8mpulot c d stmerr tor uDutdrptunsht(ci.e nu esrepitrol) cu

arftrll. l. 2,J,4 (Aplcadet
tdottce| * 0soclazr
pcrmu,"* ,o"nu"n = [t 2 3 al.
"
t o' "*.,.
'
) D"te'.tned un izonmlts,o de re gropur o" t'3) la g'upur
"
(H")' undc
nurtipricrtiv

,-lrr

0r

0) (-r 0)

o,l

rr
I-r
'-llo rJ'lo
-tl'l o rJ'lo -rJJ'
l l r r 'l
i

=l l o o rl l ,e:zrr[.
I n em u r r -cea
lto o r]
l

I Arrbd cn (c,.)es!erupabeltrn.
bt (c,.)=(22,+tt..,l2z,+l=pz,+),O Dere.mna
lI( 32' + ) ' . .,.:,,,,

'
loootl
hetrcs'
r,trre
r,*r"""
l.ar N.t.coodd.ie={cq,q.cll.unae
^=ll llll
"= l*
t9,9,t o1

;J".=ii
l].",=ll
iJ* .=fi";'J,=il'i
ij -[l;;;],"'=[i
",=[l-iJ'*=[-l
ii l],*={i
i i il.*=ti
i i lJ

(z{'!,r)=(z('!,r)
;'J''={i: iJ'a,
"=[l: :1,'-6
,

ft. -*'r\l
I
On.o=llo -r'-{'en'f
.se*a"rr.ift..Drnra.{er
tuc6r
(c., s.neerup
ri arlr'ri

hard c& at c steCIupabIsI l[ mporr cu oprads,retl|lnorire.a narricetor:b) q e3re

srup
|.|lm h
cu ope'?tlr decornpunere
i penDuur ofi c, G = q i d r c erretzonorr cu srupul
'ipon

.r"r,*1c,.;=(n',.).

otlpu-* c2= {.."3I 1 ran4r * e I,r} r

..

,,

.'

lo o 11
l)
coruiderr
Se
matricea
A=lt 0 01,
u.
t0t0l

144l

l
Il I o cl
ll
.:l .l

r
$

, s. comtdsrm',rsna
c=ll-

sr saratecI G = {A' lr N} lnpreu cu oFrada de imuure ; mrricclor formeur un grup

ob.lla|Lrndcad un snp denumrc conDtexeizomofcu c
,
Aj.IFd. c3 grupul.& slmetrii at rrtushiulut echihr.ral d grupur de mrrdce permurrre
?)
(r'x.24.2)dch grupurl,srhr iamorfe.
3) Arltaf cI grupd dedlrllt ii ateffIIshiulut echlote$t,te$rtui.!, A!.esi4 izoDrf or grupulde

p.rmu,rdd,n
s3.r,=r..o.
02.,.
r,a)*" " _[l ; ]l "={l i l} = i
" [] I
l t 2 3) {t 2 Jl- Ir 2 Jl
' = h r tY = t r z rJ .o=[z
r rJ.

4) a) coNtndd hbla lsflgrupotuic rl stmetdilorun-ui.p1i""t*

r, i, 1i 1eptu6",
"a"r*4
nl."o,,
ldntlce
pemurrrea
I sesoclr2!
idenricle= ll '3
lt ! 14,
lrl Asocladtlec,rel .ran6?orm,rt.te ta a) o permuaaredtn Sa ,t arntai cr,nutdDes rGrorn
tnprounl cu opomllodc colnpunere
e6tcgruptromorfor cetdela a).

106

r -!ll.en|.

l to o rJ

-1.
"-: sruprb[e tzomorfor sropd (R,+).
filfle fonrazl
lft ,". o]

turiaflc, G rlnpmu!.
cuoperatra
de

n"o=ll:
oll'>pf.e'im"e tg,eo,. srup.berhn
izomorcu
rR.-,.r
:
[ o o 4J
J
'
1: -l -r1
Ir I r )

rh ,{=l-r2. -rl r a=lrr rl,r,"..u,=*ie.l,',u,o=,",1,.o.t

l- l -r 2J
rred tc,.l-c.,.1
"i

Irr!ft.F d runcf. lr(t{(c),+).+

anodtm 6!d..dv de8rupud.

l rrt

'

(c,+),J(,4)= Tn(A), u|llt,r(A)

107

e51eurm, l[at dcei4

Ito o ol

x.F.
i{=tlo
i lJh'."1,."-",

I
f

pu u*l* r-*.r"o tz,+l

An. n ={t:n -+nlt(.rrr)=t(r)+to),,,r
n},

6 =y:n-+ 1,o"yly1,
+ y)= t(r)J(r),,,JR).

Ir0,t

!) (M,.).!t 8roprbelrri 2) (M,t 0Il ur ruh$up lr.ot|rorfco(Q.,).

f" o ol.

[o o.l'

r s. n.c =l+r =l o o ol l c ,rer',22+12+0, 1 2 = - r [ .

Arlt dcl (c,tlllosmplrmo

cu (C',) rlcrt.[||f ,{i30r,

[ oo r o l
26.nrndce.r=ll
I I ll,-.t-t
lor o o l

I.".-F*,-,*'=,.,.'.

tultrd cI umi.oorel percchldsrup||Il n[ suntl"rrnorfe:

J, * *::"ffi'*J;]f*':il'Jli:;)i;1;:,*I':;

moltbn degrupoddle (2,,+) ta (2, +)rcto celnot.

8I !e deter"alnenornrmelcde gnrpurl rteb (zh,+t h (2,,+), Iht ]mlnrf morfrmelede

Sl !. !trr. cl.lqon'l

0).sr.ed.r.r'rr
r, r e'rr.r
rncs.
r6p*ur.r
cu

hErlglr. m.dcdortnddmlo{A'l'|rv'l .I [.8rup tlonod. (24.+r.

,1,lrn. M ta,P. P(M) detrolE
oFmlr X +I =(I ncy) u(CXny). Alar.flcI!
) x + x = ot(v\x eP(Mrt
b) (Al{),+) d. gr{p $.[rtr.
l) ns C =
|mldllro ttu.dnorl.rle crre.rtnlt pdnldrc Fr, AqDd!
"(r)
r) (o,+) .de srup.bdrrq
c cll e c,} (r) = .r + r} cucmpuel!! o'ts8rupsbdtrDbnmrt.n G.
{ry '
-

tl o'=

p. rl nu r,,rp,".' o-{/, !(r,oo)

-+(2,oot
t, (')=2+(r-2f ,,,e l.ArlbflcI (G,").d.

3)nG/,s:td ,tt- -+n, ft| Idrc ondNdo1=l t, . n p " = lg r ' r * , p . " e n | ,

-l0if
Ip."

]l6,tsza'
If"
O o*rn * *o

lrotnorfsnul
deS pud:1)22xz2=f

l],2-rz,=2.,<+

(',')=1,,',, elf .

GruI|| lutxldn)i z2xz3=z|.

=[i
*
?J1",,,"u].*",.
"={""
J,
=[
?11",,..,
fr,r"*={"ill".,"],,
"={,,=[
tad cr (c,.) e.tegruplb.lhl.

I)(c"l-tz'.,+1.
-ttA

IArr.bd

"r

(cr,t- (c2r).

t.l
[bl

o,=ls.rlr.=J(r(r)+.)4t.cRl
t4t

c opelrdnc
t ./.,=t +c,,(vlt.,t.. ec J j

ecs .
k.8a, = tca.,,lv)sc,sc,
an*+"

@,1,(%,.) 'ult sruput.b.r.rc t'dnorteco(n,+);

b)Dd c(t)={4:6r-+c/lF
ec7},"t,'ury. e.r.rrh.dvr
(v)r.cl
"li",l=t".h4v)r",

tuI4flor rt (c(/),.)=(do),r.
I (o(f),").3t gr"p aruq Utr&6 .314coEpEnclta

2l|n nu@ tr,'2,tj :r-(0,0-+r-t0,r)d.0DtErfd,

1r1'y=r6.1=i1, 4,1=fr

l'

--

,"-l;;

;J*=*l'!n-rn4'c&6l

D *n s"l {c,.! (cr,.),(Gzr)suntgrupurr.

f
]qo-qxa,-z^xz^.

=i}.
*'={*,.('^?
*(^)
.:u1l*,
!t"
^,
f
f

l) ArIt f clcst s[P comutrdvlrimorfcr (26,+)

!l Dctrrnlnrd mblrunb hrl d.

d O = {/r,/2,t3}. Arltig cl d hDrurl cu ol|rdr dc snpunere r tur4flor fomEzr ur grUD

Iro|norfcu (23,+) .
--I

108

I-

109

(facultativ)
Nolart rupll'.etlarc despregtpurifrnit4 tlc pefinutdrL Teoremofu! Calte!
o aplicaliebiieaitd f:X + X
Flt X la, P|rnpermutareah llimii X se lh:lelege
Docd X, = 11,2,...,nl , atwtci4mnotat.perfi drile mullimiiXn Pfin litercSrecet.ti

Clclll carenusuntpc muhlmtdhJunrte,tn Senerut,

nucomuh:
l'1, o= (11e4),p: (1,7,62),
o,9 S7.A nci dp={1.3.2.4
: i,1.6.4x2.3
1..7-6,2t

?ouu
3--;+3--p

,-

o_6 z_+2_;t_i,

,-r-_r*?,7*60;*0,

--+2,5

pd
^+5-5.

Analoe,
= (t,3r(2,4,j
9q.= (1,7
,6,2)(r,3,2,4\
,6).
E\erciliu. Ardtali cd avemegalitdlile:

q,P,f,a,,.,structurd
t:[rlr,
u*f or6"td" permutdri'este

...
"[rJ,
"1,
de defnilie, iar tn a dou4 lihie

undeln pr ra linie fiSureazl elementeledin dorneniul

yetottte frncliei, Mutlinea lor am natat-o cu Sn. Aceatti tuallit E Wrem.d cu
operalia de cottlpuEre a funcliilor fomeazd ,rup (ln Senerulnecomutativ),,numit
grupulperm tdrilor de n elen?nte.

'(Mus decichrrisarhcapodus.tacialurl.tisjurrcte),
Fied.,g,,l 56,d..r (1,4,3,2),
= (1,6,4t,y: (l,s,3,6,2)
. Atunci:d1y= (r,4,3,2)(1,6
2,5x1,5,3,6,2)=
(1.4,!X2,6,5

i, icitq o*a existdmultimea

{t,i2,...,,.}g!,2,...,;} d oes, astfelincat
ti o l*sd pe loc celehlteelenent'
lungimer'
cizlv.ale
(adtcda(ir: i, i/{il, i2-. ,irl, atunci6 senumeqte
sau schematic:
Pentru un astfel de ciclu se utilizeazdnotalia a=(^'i2,..,i)
o(q)=i2,o(i2)=t3,.-,o(i/-l)=i'o(,r):tl

tF6:6==,,,;;:+''.
5 6 ?l
h234
I se Doate scre sub lonna oe
p"^u*r"o o
De escemplu,
.ll 6 3 7 s 42)
.'
ciclus,= (2, 6, 4,7) sau cx: (6,4, 7, 2): (4,7,2, 6) : (1, 2, 6, 4) .
/l i 2 8 4 6 5 7 9lso
oDcnnutarc
2. (Mitele uneipermutUt Fie a_lj
2 8 | 6 4 j g ))
pe care o scriemaranjAndcolbaneleastfel: dacd a(pr:q, atwci caloata care are
**
ln Irunte pe q (ca elementin domeniuldedefrnVie)sescfie imediat&rpd
"irY*
atuncld
arepc p inIrunte.Dc ?tmplu. alll - 3(p = I. q - 3). dd primacoloond
l3l.

t3t

In acestnoa aexuntele lui a d|n pritua

lrl.
a aclionzazd asupta lor astfel:
linie se aranjeazd a:tfet tncil
| .. I - 2 . 8 - r, 4 - 6 - 4. 5 - 7 - 9- s .
Submullimile{1,3, 2, 8}, {4, 6}, {5,?, 9l suntdisiuncte$i se tu nescorbiteleM o.
Fiecdreisubmaltimiti atatdm ciclul coresputlzdtorq =(1\\28), c2=(46r' ca= 6'7 ,9\
tnplusa= qc2ca: (1,3,2,8X4,6X5,7,9)
Vcrificali cd acesticicli, .fiindpe mullimi disiuncte,comutdtntrc ei!

doua coloandin descriereolui a este

I l0

t\,

1-!*9=r-*-'
1 , B . q

'
.----'.;
| 3----!16

--xr

-l ^-

2 --:+

' z 7 t F .e o e

;:fitjjj

pmclatd separAcek doui ci.lurt disjutrte.

(tx dreaptator suntprodwede cictidisjuncti):

!:it:l: l(.!r,ly_?.lj!uly
: (r,4,5,i,2,3)(s,e,6)
) 0,9,2,3Xr,e,6,5xr,48,7\
;

(1,4;8,7X19,6,sXI,5,3,2,'
= a,4,8,7)(2,6,s.3).

(Prtercaunui cicltr)Fie aeSn. At nci ot = oo o o...oo, ,l/, 6

aparc de k oi in
tfpr.,r?fp. t fN*. DacA o este dclu, arunci ak va aplica
fecarc intrcB Jin ciclu
k locui mai departe.

ciclul a = (L2.3.4,5,6,1.8,9)
. Atun.i:

J=o,s,s,t,s,z,q,e,g=(r,z,s,i,g)rzq,e,s)f,rn-tlfi
..1-1))

5, (d.. pmutus cdc pr"dtu& trrtp,diq) OtlN dlcluaflr l'dtlt dc twaryifi.

(lt,irX,r,lr-r).,,(lr,,r)(lr,lU
usorcd: (,1,12,...,1r)8t verlffcd
) . De qenplu,
o 36,o = (1,4,5):(1,5)(1,4).
Bx.rclllu,Ve ficali egolitdlile:
= 0,3X1,2X1,?Xl,8)(La)(5,6)(5,9);
,) 0,9,2,3X1,9,6,5X1,4,8,7)

: 0,7X1,8)0,4x2,3)(2,sr(2,6r.
2l 0,4,8,?X1,9,6,sxl,5,3,2,9)

Ttortn4 lut Catlef

Orupuriledepennrtdri pot servi ca modelepenttu toateSrupuilc.
Mal ptqis, orice 8rup este izonot cu w grup de permutAri. De aii
ln?oftonla 8tuplrilor dz permutdrifu olgebrd Are loc unndtoafta

decurge

"""o

eG', f

este simetricul, deoarece

, eG'

r
r-1
, fa , = faa
:f"
fe si f a,..f o : fo ,o: fe. Deci,
.
\f" )
':
Sdlrdtdm izpmofismutdegrupurt\C..)=lG'.",).

'

Funcia F este bijectivd deoarece este Wectivd

= F(b\ =+f a = fb .+ a:b\ ti surjectivd (Pehtru f a e c ' , l u d f i a G c u

L Fb stupd lG =l+r,+tl,.).

2) 8d afithtt acum cd mullim2a G'=tfalaecl,

Wreultd cu operalia de
conwunerea permutdriloresteun grup.
Vettrtcdmaxionele &ruptl i,
permutdilor pe G' estelegeintemd,hrtr"alevb, fi.e fa, fb eG - Atunci:
Cotttpunerea
(f" " fb)Q): f.(fb(i)= fapr)= a(bx)=(ab)x=folk), (v\x ec.
Dcci fa. fb = fab c'.
CompunareaIancliilot thtotdeawo este asociativd.RdmAnela fel Si tn acest coz
porticular.

fb=F\atF(b).Va-bec.

Sd ddznnnbn gtuwl G' d. Feflnttdri & careG 6te

r,r|fo'|''t u.n i c,= |f".c -+cla ec, l"1t1=at| . nec;c,=Ifb I,b fi, f-il, u,'d.
)-',{v)'d, t_r(r)=-',(v)' c, t(r)=it, (v)r c, J_ti = --i',(y)' ec. nncfa
t',,ttttzt i.ono,fu',yl.su: F tG + C'. FOr= 4. F(-t) = /-r.F(l) = 4, r{-i) =,f-i
1-l
i -t
1-t
t *t
t-i
i
-l -1
I
i -i-t
1
i
t-1
-l
1

atutd cd fa esb surjectivd(b afost alcs arbitrar din C),

simetrizabik, PeNru f

F cstenmrfrsmd1grupuri,deoarece
Fhbl:ftuzfa
ecaostateoreqa esteco plct dzno strda a

Dcmonstraliaconlinetrei pSi:
I ) ConsbucliaWrmutdrilar;
4 Mrwnca acestotpeftnatdi cu conpunereaestegrup;
t) Izonorflsmuldinte g pul dat ti cel de142),
Fh G rangtup. Pennutdtilepe care le utilizdm tn detnonstrdtiesuw aplicalii dafrnite
pa fiuuinAa G.
Pcntrufecore aec, dcfrnb fo:C+G, foQ)=ar,lv)xec,
Sdpobdn cd fa
.ctc bijectiltd.
Dln f ao\ = fav), t,f aG rezubd .Lx= a! , iar de aici prin sinplifi.care ln stdnga
cuat grupul G dadrcemt= y. Aceasraor^td cd fa esteWectivd,
li foG)=ax=a(a-tb\=b.

h. fo = f.a= Ia, u de f"(x\=x,(y)rec.

FtG+G!F(a)=fa.

Tcowml (Caflet). Orice grup estei4omorfcu un grup depetuakttt

Flcbec rcodoncniu).
Attncix=a-tbea

neutructE fc , udz e esteelenzqulrcutru din C, lanruLc la ofc = fae = fa

lr

Jr

l-r

Ii

[-i

f-r

lr

Jr
Jr

fi

li
ft

luncf . dit Gt tn ebla Lsii snai,, cd ea coi,tcidecu cea di,t dr.apta. Dia acestmotit
.a ttupt t a (f,"it - pentu @ utuzbt tdbl2L) sunt loMt
da.a u &bhle b J.I

& b=ti,l'i0lS2t.,.)
l.'atYlfi

G' ct c&..rt.

saul tutu$cativcuebn ntMuhue=e. sdN detqnine

supvt
izonotc

tullntn pnutblle dia c' astel: Ji, JA,4, Jitc -+G, JiG)=i,x,fAGJ=A+ ftr,.l)-Gr,
Fu.fa er. tutizezdarwa6'Nt elr.:F tc -+c',FO)= J|,FQ)=ti,
d(r)-i',(v)rec.
.l p4nF $,!" dabNn jN.
lat. !e, F li1= fe,Tm nac tu i'nasi'dt

I!t
l)

i i ;i

ti

i
6

6
tttt't.tttt

lt 6 4 2

?
i1t
6 2 tt4

ti .ti IZ

4riri

fr,i

li

lit4i

REZUMATUL CAPITOLULUI
Noliuni PmDricllri

r)M =(1,2)cu rrt=r.y

r-J+2.
Pednr:,tM snarntnm
cn r*JM.
Observnm
cd rM<+1<r<2<+0<x 1<t,
rident.
Deci,
r*J M <+0<**J -l <1<)
(r,J)--' /(r,J).PentnJ
<+
0<(x-1Xy
-l) <l evident
seutilizaazndivNno.rfii:

ti Ji li le
ti .Ii Iit li

,cifrdlireridicitatea tableio.touakt. .!!m!'tu. f

t. laeJ=

frlln=ix=

Ji/J)).

I)r.1, (.l.loan Ctupun sart izonofe.

0.1.,,-l;,
o,ll.l
,". 1,,1,,=11
11.",
1:
11.,,-1"'
'
r
,
i
0
,,
. / r J ,^o^,,n,*^,,0
-rJ
l0
l0
,lI

t( ll .nnire grupal ile pemutdri G' .u carc .ste izanoi grupul c

't tnk'cde 12 s.n.fl h,i@itl@ d. fMk s.-bn sinptu Jk,ft=7,2,3.Petu

EYplicitaft. Nolatii

algebricl

tuitectute eoid

h, lk tG-+G,k -1\\3, ude to\A=ryt=x, hlx)=Mq,!2(x)-M2x,h{x)=M.x,lqx ec.

tumodiwut
estz
datd2 F tc -+G,,FU)= !0,F(Ml)= Jr F(Mz\=!2, FtMi= h. A,n tabta:

r'

14fitrit4 legasdit prin

tabla leii (Cayley)l

lt l

u 1 l u, uj tz v z r.i l t,

211 2 2
3tl 2 3

h ti t,

tn plus,tabhpetutuc' cohcidecu tunha dow.

t,0Nenpta,f\. h\x)= hlMrxl= M?x = M3x = !38),lv)x

| l Rl ooperaiade
2t M =lAtat=l- -:lla
luri
I
I
hmulFreaa rnrt iclor.
Pentru ,{(a),4(}) M snarntftn c{
A(a)A(b) M .
aveft a(o)A(b,= A(d+ b) e M .
it ={L2,3} cu r * } =n,n(x,.J,)
*123

Legede conpozili

r) n, ={0,1,43} cu r *) = rsbrnnpl4ir'i
lul t+J Ia4,estepartcstabilIa lui N.
Rrultddin tablalgit
3
el 0
00

<G . Decic =c'

Pariestab n

rlr
(tt,*) structnrl
dgebrid,

2t2
Vr,JeIt+r*lfl

,, t=]o,",=lT"

tsrle slrbill a lut M

gemrate
'prien$
(M,*) strucbrd.l8ebrlci
lglorde

tuodatlrlblta

,6{R)dRJ

tsoc
L
steparteslab n ahi
lnnulfirea matficslor.
TrbuiepmbatcnFntru d{o), A(F)E M +
+,1(a)4(p) M . Arcm A(oX(p) =
=4(d+E)M.

( . l*J) *r =. '*( J*z) ,

\v),,v2e a

M =R cu ir J=. t +J- l

(r *J)*z = {x +J - 1)*z=
=r+J-r+z-l=
=t+!+z
2

tr 5

(r)

t r(J *r) = r *(, +z -ti:

---T-

enrpud.D.drlot
l) Grup rbelhn

= r+ J+ l -l -l E

= r+ ! + z -2
)h (l) rl (D + .. * .. estelshr|vr

I2t

f
/r ^r
I
r''=t,rar=l;
nl*m*n*
iJl"e

mtrlcelm.Trebulearltrt cI :
,(oMG) i1 + a(a).{(p)=,{(De(a)

Pr Conur.drtbtea .r*J =Jir, vr,t rtd

,{(d)/O)= .1(afF)=.4(p+a)= a(p)4(a)

tloorrc
c+p=F+A
,M .stdrdsnt;eutu n{=R c ur* J = rr+ r+ J
P'.Uan nttl mutfl P.otl|r,,+"tlad
.r*. = r, Vr n <+r, +r+a =r <+
.x*r=3.r =', vr t{
<+r(3+r)= 0 + . = -l
tert eitadmtrtEul fo M= Z s t t+ != x+ !-r!
rrporl cu,,. ri dact6islt
P1r'u--,"
t'rr cu
Dlnr*r'=0+, r+r'-*, -0=>
,|ttEtl'rtlh

. DacI * = +, rfurcir'esta

(M,.\' M
6
rdGdc! 'a
}|r),,.".todsdvl
Uhldo.na rcdrl

. DaaI* =., at|lndr, {

in\elslhrlr, r'=r-1
MJ (:t.r).2 = r * (r *z),
vr'!'zaM
Mt + M,aifdlhctr
x . . = e * t= r,V te M

+ r'O-r)= -r =+
''=*-i*,

-r
Ditr
''Z+'[0,2].
ftntnr r =0:+ r'=0 i penF.1ur=2+/=2
(2,+) = monoflillldv al trudi{dor h&rgt
I\u + sle.sochtiyl F Z
M, =0,deorr.Erf0= o+, =x,y, ez
"

r,,-.-,* ,
lo= *-t.{Jl } ' ,.,=

lbdhr (co6utodv) G.)r.r=J.r,Vr,lc

||.I: c.),,. "

D Gnp ddlc
l@rtdF r c.
ondhul rd
ldEt rc

clup
Gt ( r.])*z=r*(J*zt
vt,t,zeG
C,1c,r.s=.*r=r,

(G,*r,c @
-o
q) ,, . ..sodadvt VI G
G, e*meotrrNltru q) tec,lr'G,rir'=
q).&m.nte
=.r'*r=.,Vrc.
dm4&Me

<r>=l'Llhezl,
i e c.+< i >= fit lt z]= t-1,1,-r
-t.
put dletutrgi.Ie r.
ord6)=r
/=s C ord(-l) . 2perhucI (-112= r , ou 14=l
'lrd
rlV.stccdndii
c
Dun tqra(lrsl,l

r)C

luDgruP
(o,.) grD d
E EqA.o

(Z'+) albgrupdlul (Q,+)

(Q,+).uhglupd[rI(n"+)
(f',,) cubgrup
allut (C*,.),
(r4+) ruhgrupdhl(2,+)
t=*it=tthz'\'*za2+
+ r -J = r(tr -t2)rZ

S rldld!florde ordln, aleufltdt

u' + {. e Clrr= r},(4",')

2)grupuldrlebr rk nst d mddo r h lapon

urrduurq: zr = t6,i ...,ilit,tz",+t

Cdbrtu

(f ,.) e.t lrbgrup (Il,.) ie rubErp drcl

(.U,*) V r , ) P + . r + J - r I l
ihlC'L.l
nagup

(q,*)' (cr,.) goporl,

Morhn & grupu /:q-+C2.denore||l
degroFn iird

r:(n +)-+(r-,.),
r(r)_=r
lG+rt=.'+t =.',.t = Ic)!Or,
(v)''r en

t(tlr)=t(r.t(r)
Vr,, 6l

8,+)-((0,@1.)
IrmIonrLgruprrt

/ : n -+ (0,6),t(r) = .r .
t:q-)62,'!rd
r)/steW.d}{
1)/.3b btectMi
2)te6bmetrsn rlegruprnt2)t6te nolfm tlegup|tt
JG+ i=.'+t =.x ..t = Jt'rJO\,
Vr,f R

G, r G,]t'c, r.r'=e +

zrr'_r_r +r=r<+x,=5!
Avemr'*:<+2r*2r-l

116

-J -r+1=

l) Grlp lDlt
0ar!lDDum&ibfi
I dLm.ola Ac.rt
luDlr aatao[dt rl
Flutnt

ct ('*r)'{ =(b -r-j, +D*z=

=zb -t -t +lk -tq+t +t -t-z+t=

=4qE-&/.fE+)z)tr+J+r,
O)
,aO*z)=t.Qrz-r*z+tr=
=2,x(2y-r -z+l) - x -(2yz-J -z +l) + 1:
=4trz-4tr +e.+ rz\+x + r +. (4
r)y'(2) + ,,* " alodativr;
G), * e= r, V , < c + 2 ' e -r-e + t = , ,
Vr G<+e(2i - r) = 2r - t,Vr C +;'

G.)
.x*J= 2rJ-r-r+1=2JJ
= ! *x,Vr,! ec

CruFl (c,.) .rt

tt1

7, Sl $rnt

'fcstc dc cvaluarc

flr ol lr o I l-r ol l-r

--=lto

TXSTUIrr
l. S! re dtetnine 4R Pentry,inre
sGparte diab n faF
mulFnQar=k'@)
=.ry
r+ t.
+
deoperafa.r-*/

l. tL O=(2,oo) d F R le8ado com.

t.) = tJ -2t -2! +a, r,!,. en.
!.d&t
ll r dct rn n a etfcl lndacd fe P.!ie
.i.hul . lul n h nPort culegeo,, * '.
2. P. .moulnaa * N num!rd0. rale se
legea tt cortrpozife hlenI
.ddd.
Sn6eilet!.hine,',eR
r./=ry+r+DJ.
rl h.lt legersI [e aso.itt]L _
-t tL d,, t'.Pe irrd$mca (ar,@)deftid
t.

2. SI seiteierdne volorileDara';trulul riar a,.

pe R ;:dtrntt!
s3ddllcit leade compozitie
pdn r*J=/(r+r)-ry,V',J
B sl ffe
3. Pe lR se iLffneqtelegA de conpori$e
r * r = r! + 2/\t+b!, t,!'L,rn. ItetanniD4i totevalorilehd d ti D slderhctt lg{sn
ficonutativlf olodatid

vr,J >0.
oFirflr r * J = c4lnt-'lr',
sq|re
hcet
hge,
tl $ &Grnl4e d ti Dastfd
comuhtlvl ti tpoc.ladvl
4. Pe t|nlStD!! E={1,2,3,4} se deltDtte
reiu ln$r'
h.i dc compozi$er*)=
Itrll lul rt la s, pentruortd t,J e r.

n. , {= t 'r El 4 *r = 1 }, s:
' t ea'

4. Pem fme! G=(2,6) sdeffnqtelga

de conp@itie t.!=t!-Zt-2t+6'
nest'
Vr,Jd. ne & sum elemen_telor
metdzabtle!r rsport cu lea.*':,rt s2
se
suM Eoluliilorecuatielr*x=n..Sn
precizee 31 d s2 .
5, I'te nurdme. Mtrlcelo.:

x,

ti,. ,
!={rrir.4=3}. sr s d6.rndnes
Ln

ndFll|e{ natd@lor:
I
I
n-l

[
{r'ol
I
1
0
Rl.
c=lA(x'=lo lF
lo o r'l
i
I

M =1,{(,tA(o)=l::1,.Rl.

ru rr

.l

l) DemoDsrrsfd I4 lmpreuni cu operaFg

d. t|rul$te N rutllcelor fomrcaz! grup
abell$t
2) Arltrl d srupurtle (R,-t) ri (M,.) sint
3)crlcdrd a',r

3)SrecrrcukzA'(2).
6, Se. constderl dslemur de^pcultii., cu,

6. Seconsftter!$ Zz sltt4|intl:

=
ll,+rt+" ' ^
@fide$lr zs :

ls+3r+k=2

slstenullll
rie
, s deterDlnsntrt
deterdre
Sa
s
soluttitor.
rcspectil sum

n .{ = {a Zr l*tsteDulesteconpatlbtl}
'

tl s.

*ae ti,l,ir

j.[, ol.[-',o].[-' o]l

"_l{'
[0

.aaesbgrup rl nadcdor pMcc d ordir

dollfllrsalrleh raper cu'lDniuurcr.

sr

- ul

TESTIJL2
VAIUANIA A
L Pc C deddnolErs$r.1.q-g-lvr4.
1)lte elocidii l9.e,, | ..?
2) Sl ! datcnnlneelern4tul mutm d
oDra{d.
3) SI f. rezolveecu4la rr0+i)=2t,

rc.

zC.

2. Pe |lnerdul (r,co) s coDcdirl opemlr:

I.J= r+ (r-l )' ." ,
". sl6er |deci!
1)Lse.,, * u' edeo S. tle.aqnodlbre (1,e) i
2) Lgi,, * ..ede aaoci.livl d con rhtiv!.
.
I Pq Z 3eE)qridell lcse*
q, b FB.
t,* r= I' f,g+ 1r+b,
SI rc delcndtr a,, ptrtroc!Ie.lesea,,*,u

2, SI s deterndne dR pentn @c legea

.r. J =ry.+ 3r + 5, + rn 3teaso.irtird
pe lR' ,
3. Pe n re coD.ld.rl Lgea :
r +) : *,
+. ( i +r ) , a B .
Sn ,e deierdn a pentm cari ,,*.' erte
rlochtivI.
4. Pe n dd|rilh opemlh r.J:r,
! e det r nlne olR
- {r t J) +q. . , SI .
p.|ltru clr nulitrE{ c-14,@) te pne

4. SI !e dclirrnlm lorlle pdain anrlld rld

l, octfcl hcAt
errdul (1,6) sI ffe prrte
.ttblii r rtrr dndl I h Eporr or ksa:

2.

std n- ii 6.i c',,,;,t.

"i"i*!!
5. P R se de0hqt4 lrtrs de oryodtle
a*b=ab-2\a+b)+6. ne S lurE ele

S, Pe n seddlncc Lgile d! conpodfle

d.b= k+ 3h+ t t b+2,
acb= 2a+ b+2ab+1.
8l.re Ezolve dsteDrl:

o*'rao.ainitl or.

=60
+
l(j r)*4
. [r-r)03=39,
6, Fl ten first Patm. a>0 dirdm
'
la*+t -tir, t <t
/d!n+R,/(r)=ll

.huchnl de grup ln rlpo cu operaFrde

corry|lnercr tunciiilor.
2) Sl se anre izomorfisn d grupsrlr

"oloaa-

i-"ri"a" rn"

l J {r r =+..
1)Snsearabcn C = {r,12,-/3} eltegrup
iD .aport cu operalia de corDpu\erc !
tun4nor,
2) Sn se demrllreze tlolnorffsnul de

(n,t=(Ri,.).

.r0o rolula sbtehulul P.nt.u a=i. se se

dotrnnostl Y.

ll8

r , t0 - 4 t0 i l l 0

ste rubgrup dl imiicdor diD,:422(C)

inY$lbileln nport culnmu[irs,

+. --.r zr.
[-r
l) sI see.ofadr M={r,la>0} sre

12r+3r+z=l^
[ 4 ' + 4 r+ 3 2 = r.

li'+iy+h=G
li,+b+i,=i.

z. Sl rorrato cr nulllmer!

o l]

,J'lo-rJ'lorJ'to-rjl

ll, = ry -r-, + r l , -

r) Arlte$ cn G inprtqtn cu operstla de

tumurFrea marricdoresteglup comutatlv.
2) Arat4i cn srupurlle (R,+) a (G,, sunt

".

s=yo I v =-rt +j2 +i2 ,

"

VARJANTA B

VARIANTAA

cl mullhn.l

e'"n.,r',c,"r
1.
-llr,:IliJl[,
tL r tl
ll9

, r'" il={[: i]"r="]. . .*"

"
',*-u*,,*r=[}

^t].

' "t '=[i i],r.""].

'i..*."

*".t 1,*"r=[j ol
il'

TESTIJL3 Grlll)
VARIANTAA

c ) a=3,

b) ^=3,P=ir c )A=!,

6, Pe n sedeoryc tesere colryod.Fe:

t+! =zr! -68-6t +A.

6. P" R-t;J

Atudr,t*ri.-*.r,,

riiict t*r=2tr*r-

Irl

R,' N* {.!eeear

VARIANTAB

1. Pc t sc dedr.lte legpr th cotnpodfe

,. != 4 -2t-2!+n,n
R, Lrgpod4
coqodfc rdmh. drmd neutmncrtru:
=-6.
l t'=4ib),r=6,c)
'

+,i2+i2, aunar
r la= io=i; r ) a=i c =i ;
o=5.

('0 4

1. Pe n se dadrEio L&r.. de cqqod$e

r 'r , rJ - ur .l ry . Valodlahd a, q leDrir
cerc(R,r) te nonoldsrnt
.) (a=r=0sru!=-1,r!,1)i b) a = r,
b=-ri.\a=l,b=2.

o olrrlc^,to)
z nc u=l,rrrr=lo
t, o.rl J
I
Atud
I op{[rd. d. bDulFt . ffi.dor.
d.dcnor ldrtru rtE M h ..pori cu
b|ouldr.r .3t :
arI

l rrrurucrru'de[iJ.

3, P.rtru orlce r,, n 3. d.h{te lega,

MoldM
sohf or
rrJ =Ir(r'+.r).
..L:
.curid(t.r)t,=o
(
- c) l-h:l.rl
r) {-ln3} rb) 0nJ3};
I'J
4, Pc m|rl$@ Z7 r clrldor de nttr
nodulo 7 d.fidm la8.r dc conpodfe
d*r='r+3(a+r)+3. Ih.l r' e3t dc
irlcul lul r to rapon cu hger tlc conP{dth
,,. ",inrlm l = {r zr l,'= r} . Abnd:

o)f-r(.:-r)'+s;
b) l-l(r-O'+3

ic) 2'-1(r-2)'.r3.

lr I

.) r0) b) a(0)tc) .al:|.

(.,
3. P6 C !e coldd.rl Lgr. de conpodfie:
r,r,, =rt -i(r+J) -r+, , Mulflne! sohdld
ls.ftd (r.r)*r =r+l .ttc:
.) {+l+l}ib} t*1,1+ i} | c)tl S I,q24 .
4.Pem fm Z 3. tldqtc Lgp. ib cql||.
pod$.: r r,, = 2r, -3r -3,+6. Ihci I
ln
03t Dumlrul dem. .lor .lidrllrblh
liporl qt reepa . ", etund:
"
r) p= 1i b) p.=ric)
P= 3.

5.lr Zs seca l'lorl sbt |nd:

fi'+iy,'" =i
l ' + 3 y+ ir = 3 ,
[i'+r+i.=0.

li' +i1+z=Z
[6r+4J+sz=L
DrcI A .3t dehrdlnrntol
nul'A (;,i,t
sol4! ii..d

llltdcd
'r

dd$

i d=*+

DrcI A st4 detennhartul mtdcl slste'

{a $luda ddr|'jlu! lrr
.r'1", tt,y,"l

120

tsf,tz'-l'+r;v lqz"-rr rf,,

"r|<z'-rr+f.

7. P! Z !c co||!ftlErn hgilc :

hDul$t r .rt :

l2x+t+42.=2

Abnci

r.r:...-r. rR-El. ,tM 6..egar

cu:

r),{={ii}:b) A =ti, i}i c),{=tiA}.

s.In zs 6ccodrt rtdiiendl

f+1.

tl l

7, tle c = (2,oo)rl lger r6J=.ry-2rrt hgea r*r=ry-&-J+6ic'=(Xod

tzo|rorfisnde
-3r+12, hr trc-+c,
8r!p[|, t(r)=ru+r.Ared:
.) ,n=r=li b) ,r=r=-1; c) ,r=1,

sederirerreteadecolnpo

12r

.r., =r+r+5, r.J = r+, -5,

irr
I | Qa"t-+ (2,*J, .f(r) = r +', a R u

ironodrqn de Smpuli Almcl:

d n=r ib) n =10j c) n =9.

2. INET,E$r CORPURT

In scestcrpliol 6. studbztrrloui sructui algSricemalcornplxe

dec0lcelerborl|8teh capnol
o mutdlnenevldihplunl cu doul opera$l
Frcdrot $ lnuD cdrleinl$ corp.Secondrtern
i nq serderioDrprtsr acstroFradi. Surt iustrde exenphsdrFftcadvedeinde ti corprd.
Sedaurtet t genenlede cslculhtr-un lnl $ cory, O atntbrycidnsteacordrtntEhrlul de
p
patroama * ndclnntoerit(ru co.ffcjent'|I corFl r
r[x].
{Q. R. a.zr'. ed-} ,
. Btr Frrstlatl ffihrtica ac.stuiipd h csr! dod nr cdedounteorum frudamerflle teorema
'hptrI|iriiu!rt.ldtontlrdedescoffpunercbh.Iorllndu.dbfli.Nune$alele('ternpler,lns
i , Alr&se iartei taondcr. Suntpnzfirte,ftr porttculft,polinorDcrr@e6dendh z,Q ti n 9l
sedotrcaracterizlrialerldl.hlor scctdrtse et,itlnlhd daF,le foqgrddidntb polinonuluiti
coeddEfl acesnlie(rdrdfle lut VR'te).
llltltu parte r clpltatul se reterl ls rrrlvarE{ ecu.rtiilorcu cocflctentllnlrcgi. rationali.
, re!I, conplecti. Problenele rezolvotcortin uDa sau m,ll multe metodede abordsre
preentre detaliat,
Pmblemetepropule llustrarr prln valieta& aoateconcepteleteoredceillscut{t, eleavand
corgpondntln pmblemlrzolvat.
'lstoric. Contptelede hteld corps{u lmpu! h !coleleXD(-XX Mat4fn ddejrul german
Dedekhd(1E31-Dr6)- ri-a lu,r dorroratqlsuDconductlta lui G3u!s(17'n-185O- st
coidderrt ,fond.aton rlgebrd abghactd'.El a lftodus concQtch de bd tt corp.

. Inele de polmnme c! mefiden{

. Problempmpuse..,..,.............142
lDtr-ur corp @muttt|v........,,..,.,..,1?9
Comuri............,..,.......,.,.................145 . Problemepmpus--....,.,........,252
. Tat do evalude
. i'roblene prcpue.................-163
----------.267
Morftm rt iaDorffsre
detneltl corpud,..,.,..,.,..;:.........::.154
. ProblameDmpw.,..,,...,..,.......u4

t21

2.t. tNr,lr,E

,. P! t(n) corrft{.rtrn idun 16. d comDunnt{trrnc{ror.

Atuhctm dt. cornpuaorc.fttncdltor
nr drtrlburlvt h rrlolt .u sdunrnr funcdlo
compu'lcreq
nu est

.ohurrudrrsrd.. poor.vo*, o. *nouo"ts," ,Llfji; Hff,:#'d.

I. I'BTRIEUTIVITATE
Structudlc algebrice(2, +), (7,,.> au fost pentru noi pdrneleexemplede monoizi.
Mal mult (2, +) a devenitmai tirziu grup abelian(chiar ciclic). Totu$i, ata cum ali
Svut ocazia sd studiaF pend acum h liceu, acestestnrcturi sunt rcunite lrnpreune
PGntrua da ceea ce se nune$le in matematicestructurade inel. Una din legite
importante ale aritmeticii elementareeste distributivitateainmultidi ln npon cu
rdunareaa(, .r c) = dD+ ac, (b + c)a = ba + ca, (V\a, b, c eZ .
Dacf, se lncearcl s[ se teumascS,de exemplu,structudlealgebrice(Z , +t, \2,, o),
lunde.tob=a+b+ab nu riai aI loc distdbutivitatea
lgii " in mportcu legea+
d c o a r ce a"( t+ c) :a+t+c+a(b+c):a+b+c+ob + a c ,
(1 )
l.r
a.b!ao c:a+b+ab-a-c+ac:2a+b+c +
(2 )
ab+ac,
crriacc aratA
cd (1)a, b, c eZ pentfi c'f.ea " (b + c) a"b + a. c.
-

Defi lie. Fie * qi 6dou4opemtiipeaceeagi

multimeM.
SespuEcnopelalia
* a.teifrhibudvlhsl$rgafaFdeopentiao dacl
x * ( 1 "z ) :(x* y).(r* z),(v)r-y,zeM ,
( l) .
. Sespurecdoperatia* estedlrtrlbudvtrh dre{ptafarl deopemfia. dacd:
( r " z ) *x: (y* r)" (z* t),(V )x,y,z eu ,
( 2) .
.
Sespunectroperalia* esiedisbdbudv!fatdde operatia dactresle
dlEdbutivi la draptr $ Io st6nga,adic!dactrauloc O) $i(2).
Pcntlu a adta ctr leger,,*" du estedishibutivtrln mport cu legea,,6,, gdsim
, , ) , z M pe n fuca re-r*(y.z)'.(r*y)"(r*u)sau (y . z )* r, " (y * . r)" (z * r).
Observatii, 1) Dao[ operatia * este comutadvtr, atunci (1) Si (2) sunt evident
cchivalente9i deci sretiaecp definitieunadin ele.
2) Dacd Il cM stabil[ fali de opera{iile* qi iar * estedisrdbudveln raport cu .
"
atunciproprietateaseplstreazi 9i pe submuliimea1L

J . lE+ h ) = t.s+ t"hn ( s+ h ) .r= t.t+ t./,( v) /,s,r cr ( n ) .

-P. t[uldm.r ?(rr4) s pftdor lut

C!||ri||r

M, !m deffrdtope!.S e u (re|lrtutre),t n 0n.cl!e.rt gtim

).
legl$te. strtblrtvt tu rq|orr cl| ceotaltt adcr

rn(, uc)=(anr)u(/nc),

a u (, n c)=(^u r)n (,{u c), (vl^,B,c e F(MI.

nMertor ra te !e .oDsi,redhs e & comp{'dlir
It. 'Iuldlne.
t = t + ! -1\ x. ! = | + ! _ t, r

r .J=r +r - t

r * J = 3r y - r s ( r +t) +s 0;
sre
j""u u".y_rese
.rsrdiurivrtnrapon
.j.i".#T,:
or primarese.
:i|:^g-l:::
P""o"
nle caztr"ruie!i vqitr"a;;d;;i;;;;1':f;
*()"2)=('*))"(r.r)' (v)av,z R .

tdculerzi sepamrficarehembru ,1apors. @mpaln.

J,(r. z)=,* (r+. -li= li, il T-,(, * z_r)= zr+y+z_ _rz_|

i
^vcm:
_a)+(,+
t)"(i*z)=G+)-ry)"(r+
z-,2):(,+r

dlDtr d la drpipio ! lnmulthll fr

de rduD$c).

tu

z_&l_r=2,+|+z_x,_xz_re).

(l) 9i (2) scdd(e egaliftea etor doj ftmbri. prin

unnaft r 6le disFiburiv6in Bpon o o .

Adt f cI r dos! legedecompodoeestedislrtbuliv. rr rrpon cu prtmi

lespdnugmea M tn

r .r = r +) +t,:r r =r y +t+ r ,M =Z r
r .J = r +J -3, r * J = +3( x+ !) +6 M =2,
'J
ro.y='+r-3,
=3('rr)-.t] _6 ir =n I
'*,

al ' 22= zr + 22,zr. z2= ard2+ itp2, M =C,4 =a^ +ilrk,| = 1.2.
h n3. Fr.ilrAg r deconpodletx.!=,+,+d,r*,=xr+2x+2,+b,
a,,eC
x dtr.mdm !, ,, ssdettrc& r door t.ge.! nc diltrtbudvl l! rapo.t prt|ns
cu
t.g..
P.C_!e@dd.rlfsed.coopoagci,.y=,+yr_;,,, y = xy
+u +ty +i, a, o,ce C.

rdctcrDhea4.r.trerhc6,.-*'+"o"#"0*";;;;;;;il""
"
h '^,r2(n)
!edefirdc
r.slea.*-p"ag., a.a=a+B+cr2.'A+a:os*oii-t)trrr,
}. eX.Ihtrrnln|fa4

t. lnmutgreaestedlstdbudvnnt rrport cu rduDrrer p C (rt cyidenrp lubnulttn tc lut

c,N, z, Q,t ).
2. In ntrl$mcl natrlceloreLrsdc,44 (C) tumultlrercsredbirtbunvtln lrporr cq odunnreo
(cun lDnluryrermrt|lcelornu e8ae
comutsdvlirlcl puremvo$l dc i lrdburidtat trtelrtt, ta

(l) 9i

c Fnhu carcs dou! tgete dtcrrlburtvltn rapod cu prt|nalge.

f,)berva(le. Putonr.formulrdrflnl$sgiastfsll
tnolllarA'* @,A'c A, atunci
A'esiosubinel
allui A dactr:
,1Drc[(,4,+,,)ostc
1) (A',+)ostcBubgrup
al grupului(.d +),

I..INELE,

.
d')(v)r!,A'?'-).4':

i2')(V)',/ A'+ ry Ar,14'

Doc!,ln plus,lnmultirespc A estecomutrdvl, adicl x) = )r, (Vlx, J A,

atuncisDunem
ct inelulestecomutativ.
oh$ervatii. 1) PolosimpenEuinel ca multimeliteraA de la cuvenmlarn?4! (din
ftrncczl) carelnseamndinel,
2) Inclul va fr noiat de ieeult cu (4, +,.) punendln evident! fti ecestfbl mlul diferit
rl gclor doutroperalii; prima opratieva fi totdeaunaceafaF alecarc multirneaA are
strucftrt de grup comutativ.Structua (A, +) se numette grupul aditiy al inelulul.
Elcrnentulneu.ftiral gfi.pului (4, +), notatcu 0, senume$teelemeDtultrul sl ineluhd.
A douaoperatieesteceadistributivlfEd de primati ln plus (,e,) esremonoidnumit
momldul multiplicltiv ?l inelului. Sevedece mdFmeaA areo stlucod rnai slraca
fal6 de cea de-a doua operatie,cea multiplicativa.Pentruun inel uiutar, elementul
ngutruln mportcu inmultireava fi notatcu simbolull. numitehmdnt unitat al
lnelului. AxiomaA3)faceleg5tulalntre celedouaoperalii.
3) Explicitandconditiile din definitiainelului.avem:
I Gr) + esteasociativi;
I crl + estecomtrtative;
Ar) (A, +l grup abeliane I Cr) + admiteelemenr
nelrEu.notatcu 0. numit
element
Duli
I
I Gl) Oriceelemenldin A arcun opusfalii de +.
M-r)lnmullreaesteasociadva:
A,) (A..) monold eI
Ar) lnmulireaestedistdbutiv6fati de adunare.
Grupulde axiomeGr) - Ga).A1' )l
A") senumescaiiomele inelului.

A'nevidiia ineluluiA se
Dennt$e.'Fie (A,+,.)unircl. O submullime
numegte
sublnelal inelului,4.dacdlegiledecomporliedin A induclegi
decompozitiepeA'lmpreuntrcu careA'formeazl un inel.

Deftulde.lntr-un inel (,4,+,) cu elenentunitate,gupul (U(A),ral

elomentelorinveNabilodin monoidul (A,.) se numeqiegrupul
elemedelorlnversablle(saulnc[ grupuluDlttrflor)din inelulA.
cunoscutde tnete9i subi.ele
Mrrltltnan|ncrdor lDlrgt Z cr adunsrertrt lrmuldre| oblrndt! formazlun irl nundt
nmqlor lntregl roIlt {2,+,.). Ac6ta te un lnd coDutadv.Elennau![ur ete0, lsr
damErtuludtaG ste1.
Mul$nea rZ o [u|norelortntrcsi dtrtdblle pdn,, esteur subinelconutdiv sl lui Z Onrneblneri
rhcnu ll",tr>1).

c.,urrneruN(2,+,.) arcN'ru (z) = {-l,l} .

i," (Q,+,.)' esteina conutativ, Nmittrerd nurderelorraiioiare. crln zc@i (2,+r) esteun
d lul Q . Efemtul

trul 6te 0, irr eldetrhrl uitlte sr. l.

Id'rntrnerd(O,+,.),i(Q)= a'.
(nn,.)sre hel conutativ,nmitinelul numerelorreale. Cum z,Q c n,se ddueecI (2,+,, ,
(Q,+,.)sutrtsubinele
rleluilR. Elenenb Dulest!0, isr lenennntmftrtaestc1. Ald U{R)=R'.
a. (C,tr)

3stlrl conutafy, Nn{tnlul nuirerclo. cfmplex

|||nt subherede !d. Pertru (4,+,.)ave- u(C)= a'.

DMerice .
't|deh dh elemplleI - 4 senurn$tnete
* i""l
unde a se
6. DscI M*oet o ttrulFne,.lurct tdpletul ("(M),d,n)
"!t"
-muIativ,
dfiDi$lsfel AA, = (A - r)r(E - a),(YlA,B eP(M).
rume*edtlerenF3lrnetdcn
Bl.mcntuldul 6te o ! iu eleNtrrul uDitlh esteM.
V.rliclg anomelhh ut conutad%ln acstInel u{P(M))= {M}.
t, Incle d matrice pitratice ). Mulliiaea natricelor llrfadc de oflitn r, .{4 (A) lmprlunl cu
op.r4llle obl$uli dc dumre d lnmulfl3 a natrlcelor lormerdiDclul mntricclo. pilrmri.r dr

' Poculroriv.
126

p"tu cs.e(2,r,.),(4,+,.),(R,+,)

121

or r r ru ct(mrnrcdh C . Elon.Dtul rul dtr O, (m.irlceo null). Ace3tln6l .rl. u tar' I ' Il
(m$rlcor unltric d. ordltr r), Cum pontm , > 2 llrDr irei tDaHcelored4 ne.otnutr0vl lndd
(,tq (aI +, .)est".*.-n,ri!. ard u (.rvL(c))= cz(',c) = 1,{ ,^,q(c)lde(.4)* 0}. Aceltirler

co[flmc! luHmhF (^4(r),r,.), (,%(a),r,.),.(^4(z),+,1.

tdpletul(2,, t,.)!d. unInalconuhtlv,

nurd!intd.tesrtor
der$ru,j nrduto/. Et.nlontut
|lul
6,|ddem ulunlrot..!c i.Atd u(2,)={iz,l(r,,,)=l}.
-te
Pncc IIn
Ihn

dde:'Drl

Jo6tnl exlnpleslmplc & lll.le, idlcSrd pltru necrre ..bIete leg or de aitunsn

8l oh|cffIm d s porta mDrtxrl un l|lel d Drdce pl.f8dce ,l,4(r) F un irel comulafr

rrblarrr^ d.drce tl hrul0M |nrt.t.elo!X.v ,]\,l,(A | {tru otro| mtrte cu demeDtb.4d
3 bgfl rnalogcdtu A.
dlidbudvlarteahmrltldl h mport curduD$.a esteconsecin?r
8. 0n(lc dc tuncfiireale).M'itllne.s .t(l) = {t : n '+ r}ftnlreurr cu opeifnede
d.d t,s f(R),.tmci
$
2)rDmurtrr

t +8:R -+ B,(, +sxr)= t(r)+8(rI

ot2

0 00
,,' 1l212
i
?
r 2 0 i 0i

, 1 , a i a o2

0
2
1

+10i i 3 . t0 i t 3
6t6 i i 3 6166 6 0

iti 2 3 0 il0 i t 3
2t2 J 01

i 1 6t a t

3t3 0 I 2 3103 i i
hdul Z, sI daselorde rcstu nodoto r a srflj iL Dott fmp.trfa s!cisliri or ln tort,

r R

tl r servL ln al8ebrl c! p[Id de plec.Ie peltru tot fctut de 8ebrdt Id.

'!rcl,t,8.r(n)rllldr.8:n-+r,{/fxr)=t(r)s(r),rx,ro.Eerriunlftlnunitlnelrr
Acel.lnelcoD$ne
cr $blnele:
- {l,t(R), n , - inelultumt'fior mIryldle.
- (c(R), +, )- helul furcdiro. corti e,

!s {6,i, a},za= {0,i, i 3} pnot"

t o
rw,snz39z1l
"ooao". -nooa.

0Dlullntrsllorlul c!u!s). Pe|nut$n a AiL 12=*! Afl=ta +t ld,, zt c C sdeftlr

oblt[uit de aalumr. tl fdnul$r. .t. lun tttor ,comptcxc.
IHpLrd (Atl, +,.) 3teu|t
conut Uv'n|,lr|dtlnelullDtreellorlui causs.Elcn rhd lul .st! 0 r 0 + 0r,til lemcDtul
unltato

u(r(n)) = B(R)= t/ : R--+nl .tbtec$e

).
Ac.n tr plobleml ie poet tratr lntr-un crd$ mal scncrsl coNidertnd t\X,A)=IJ

t.x "+Al,

@, tar (4, O, Ol elte ur lud oIe.ir.. P! !@stl n|nir|e de tum$t htrod@etn doul
- sdu.rr
lotl ruDlte
tt bnn$rce fucftlor ti dfDlte dupt cum urm.azi:
und X

(./+e1'l=71'16"1','
(.re)r"l=
1.
11"1ss1,1',.

rr+0.t.Alcl u(Zttl)=(+r,+4. Evtd.dt(2,+, .) .|t. !||bttrcl

d tt Zlll, t.r zfi..telobltrd
lol C. Md g.tr d drcl d Z t untrtrtt lb.r d. p&I.h (ru drt& prtnpttrrtul Dtcl
'.
rumlr rAil,trl it|f tds 1),,,:|,D}.I
?iJdl=la +r,li td;t Zl or dur|I.e d tDmddr.ae!r.
colrnrtluv.DrcI d

obllrrm lneld btr{tlo. lul c.u!r.

- -l

goneralda calcul htr.u! tr.l

Dad 0, I sunt eleNDlul trEl d re8pedv unlilac dh 4 rtEnd

ox tx a a,ox@)=oea, 1:x-+a, l(i)= r, r x .

DmI lt estccomutsdv, atuNi ri .F(x,,4j rlt aceerd propdebre
').

rtrtle. Atrss.n !.enf! ca 623 qt ieZa au ftprdlttt accet nd$nq d.oIe.e:

={.--6-10'3'6-J23rlrEspecdv0=t-,-&-a,0,a,s,,.,}24.Corectrcrise*e63
- -6. -3, 0, r, G -l Zr rt rcspecdv0 = {-, -& ' - 1, 0, 4,' & -J'- 2..1 Corect0sis & 6r
r.8pecnv 0{ pentm a l[| cr dr$ rt! rrlt|rd nottoto 3 C rspecdv modulo 4. Scd.rer fftn h, cl

- (r(R), +,.)- belut tulcfiilo' dsirrbile.

P.utru lnelul {t(R),+, "laYen

e. onetrlt ctasetorde rGturi nodnlo

+16i i

Pe tnulflna cltselor dc rcshrrt nodulo ,, n >2' Zs , 411

^rLt ^
dlndt oper.fllk.re adufirf y' lntnul$reasfel:'i +D =;+i.r.,

^dd^
= 4r. Am rrftlt cI (Z'.+)est

Srup rb.Iu.
Eddenl ltrnuldrr pe Z" ste$odadvl clci

vtrzutc! tipltul (4,+,,) catcincl dac! (A, +) cstclrup abctian,(A,.) cstc

9i ars loc dirtributivita&acclci dG.8dout lcgi (.) tn lrport,cu prima(f).
lnse&lrnla[ rgulil. dcoslculdch glupurlrlmenvshbilcti pcntru(A, +).

a'rciircncr
rcgulilodccrtculdctanionoizirc pfrrcazelt p"nuuil, ,l. ln pfurapu

'rgult

dc calcul ln incl $ndnd scstntrdc logltura dintlc orlc dou[ lcgi

MaiFrcis Errloc:

ez".
(a.4s=a i =;\E)=a.fr=al6.il,lyE,i,6

(rn udllzrt c! tnmulllrer pe Z est$4.tatiyI).

Dlrlr'lbutlvltatclln rapon cu odunarer!e verlficn|mpilot iLoarece

=6Td =fr+fr=a.6+a.i,lv)a,6,
i e7'".
;(,+6)=r(tn)=,-6r,;)
t78

129

'l'corcm{.Fic (4. +,.)

"rt

i".t. At[nci:

l ) ( V) r A + r . o:0. r.- 0.
2) lnff,uninelcu celpulindoutrelemente
l:c 0.
3) (regulasemnelor).Pentruodce r,) A avem:
pn
: {l' 'h"r "'t
[-/, dacan esreinpar.n e d+
4) (dtstrlbutivita&a inmulfrtt fari de sctrdere).penrru orice .r, z A
),
(-r)r:r(

avem:
an- bn:( a- b) \o" - l +l - 2u+..+a,
"- '

y) : -xy, (-r)(-)) :,i,, (*,f

'

o"

: ,r o-

tt( oz ^. a2ntb | ]i

(V)|,e N
^,

t) .

2b2 ...- b2,1.

xl v- z) :ry -a,

l)emor,rtr*tie. Utilizand proprietateade distributivitatea lnmultirii faF de scaderc

regulasemelor la lnmuuireprecum$i asociativitatea$i conutativitateaoperaliilordc
inmulfire$i adunare,avem:

\y- z) x:,t-u.

l. d'\( { - 1 + "' 2 a + ...+ r ,' - l l :

/

I)rarxNnstratr'c.
1) Fie .rA. Atudcijr+ 0 = 0 +, =, $i deci(distdburivitare)
.r.0=r(0+0):.r0+rO $i0r:(O+0)r:Or+0r,
ateunde,adunand
in pdml
relalieopusullui.rO 9i ln a douaopusullui O, seobfine*0 = 0x = 0.
2) Prin absurd,dacf,1 = 0, arunciavemi
r = lx = Oxl0 pentruodce, A, ceeace dtrA = {0}, fals.

3)Avemr7+(-r)y=[.r+(-r)]r=o.r=ori rJ + r(-y) = x{}+ (-r)] : ro: o ,

dcunde
elemenrul
opus
fiindunic,rezulH(-4 y = r(-t)= -(rl) .
Dinegalitatea
r(-y) =(-r)) fi dinfaprulcr -(-r) = x, rozutu(-r)(-y) =f{*x)ly =r1 .
Relaliasedemonsfeaziprin inducliematematic{.
4) Avem

'loorcnril.l,io
(A,+,) uninetcomutativ.
Atunci(V)d, (

= al""-t +a, 2b+...+b"-r)_b(",-1+ an-2b+...+bn-l)_

= a n + a n lb+ . . . + o b n - l - a n - l b _ a k - 2 b 2 _ . . . . b n : a n _ b " .
Analogseprocedeaza
pentrua douarejafie.r
I thser!dhi"l) SArernarctrm
cainr-un inelcomutalivsunrvalabileformuleledec cul
ptesc\\ftat:
a2 -b2 =(a-b)(a+b), o3-03:1o-u1(o2 +oa+02), a3+a3 :
=@+\(a2

-aa+02) etc,

2) Analogsearad ce lntr-un inel comutativ

(o1+o2+...+o,)2 + ol +,..+fi +Z(ap2.r...*a1a,.r....r

an_1an),
-Q
eA
\Y)a1,a2,...an

*(v- z)=,[r+(-e)]=
a+,(-12,y-,,

ln particuhr(a +o)2: o2 +2ob+b2 , (a -t)2 =a2 -2o6462.

(r - z ) '= [ r + ( - z ) ] =
x y r - ( - l , "ly- u .t

DacAineluln-arfi comurativ
arr:nci(a - D)2 aft exprimarea

1r|,:trrf,rtir.
1) lntr"uninclA sumaunuielemcrtre .,{cuopusul
unuielement
y A,
r+(-))=(*y)+r
scnoleazd
cur - y. Daoarece
la oricedou!elemente
.r,J,e,4
corespunde
un clement
unic r-,A,
sm definitp t lnc! o operalie
algebric[,
numiUsctrderc.
2) Sdremlrcdm
ce dat fiind un inel,calculele
permise
pe acstssunttadunare0,
dctrderea
,)),
Imnuldrer
(2,
ti
0uatiinelul +,
Rctaulld calcullntr.un Inolcomntrtlv
Prczcntbm
aici cetev!propricttrliremffcabilepenbuun inel comutativ,Evidentci
propriet4ile
gcncr0lo
discutate
maisusrdman
valabile
si aici.

(a + b)z = (d + b)(a + b) = o(o + b) + o (o + u) = o2 + ab+ bo+ b2.

Aici nu mai aved d, ra .
4) Prin induclie dupa ,? se arat! c! lntr-un inel comutativ este valabild formula
binomului1uiNewtonl

(a+ t)n = 6n4 sr on-1

t +...+ cf on-ktk +...+ r", (v)4,,,4,(v)/' N3.INET,INTEGRU
Dendfe. Fie (a,+,,) un inet,Un elcmentreA, .r*0, (0 esle
elementul
neutrupentru+) senumettedlvlzor lo stonga(ls dreapfo)ol

lul zcmrlsollexistAi
130

= {}).
r,_r
I4, j +q gsqblilcql r), = 0 (respcctiv
t:rI

()h8crv{tlc. Dac! inclul cslc comuldiv noliunilede divizor al lul zorc It srAnga
tl|pcctiv la drcrptacoincid.
l :r0mpte.r. I! h.tul nrtrlcctorpttn$cr rl. ofiIDutdot,cuetemmte
dh n , M2(tR)tnlrrtcete
[0l
,r:10

rl,A-02
to ot

(r|rdc.r nutr - elenentut

rut rl ttretuluitr2(ltrl

a=ll ll, a * ar. ardzorr

rrhdzero
d{qrc".
a,e= l1 il=r,.
"*t
tu r,
t0 0t ln t.defolrn|mId 1Jr4(n), +, ) c*6 drdroriatlurzero.
2. hhdul(26,+,.),r*0,3*6 errorryri.3=6, ccea
ceurte ceaenenr.re
2,3
d lut z.ro.
3.Indde(A+,.),(A,n.), (& +,,, (a,+,)'ur!drytm d l'n zero.

peinonstralte.1)+ 2). Dac!1) esteadevlragatuncis[ prot6m2).

ornfac6aae6tlucruprin Fducerela abgrd Prsupurem
ci existi .r,, A r*0, y r.0
nt divia

Definrye.Inelul (a, +,.)are dtr'lzort,.t luf zro daci,4 continecel

puli! ur divizoral lui zelo.
Urrilel nenulc{re nu atc dfi,izorl ai lul zero,comutadv,jd numeste
InelIntogru(saudomeDludelntegrltaie).
Observafe. Dactr(A, +, reslc un inel gi dacl A esteinversabil(decir U(A) )
rtutrcix nuestedivizomllui zcro.(Adtali acestlucruprinreducre
la absurd).
r':xempte.r. Inelel. (1,r4(X),r,.). (26, +, .) surt c|| dh{zod .t tit rc.o' trrl s.rt|l Inctete
(r%(n[ +,l,(2,, +,.) (ddn!nun r compu!(h.prtn))ffi$ cudtvt ort.t lut r.ro.
2.Ibdul (t(I),+,r.!t

Teorcml.Ftc (1, +,.) unlncl.Urmitoareleafimalii suntcchivslcnte:

l) A asleinelintcgru.
2) ( V) .r ,y eA,r - 0 ei F 0+') * 0.
3) [V) .r ,y Ac u
.t]:O+r :0 s au]:0.

c[ dvlrorl rt lul z.m.N.rrtm atcat.I tuln /,rIn-+n,

... [ q.r < o

L - r <o
rt't-[.>-0, ,c)=ld;;; Frbu..re/-qs*o d iobd(/.s)(r)=/(r)r{.r)
iq ({r eR.
r. I|!.LL (r, +,,, (4, +,,, (n, +,), (C+,.), (2,, +, ,) (cu,- Dt|h|}prtm).ult ttl.letnr.si..
n.3ul de cdcul tnrr.uDInal tr .gfll

r) = 0. Dsr aceasta
lDsealnntr
cl , $ y suntdivizoriai iui zero,fals (A fiind inl
penaucu p + 4 estochivalent!cu
2)=) 3) Defaptacest
atinnaliisuntehivalentc
l)hitr rcducarc
la rbsurd.r
Teorcm!."Fie (e,+,J un ircl integru.Penru orice uei eledtente
a,r. J A, cud 0, avemechi!'aleDtele:
1) ar = a) <+.r= y (slmplttlsre
h=rfAngtprlntr-un elcmentnnul)
2) ra = ),ia{+ , = } (slmplltrclrela drcalrarprrrF-uD elemenl.rcnul)

Avem (iin6nd searnEde 3) de la ieorern{preredentd

DmoDstrafe.l),,+"
qx=aJ+alx-fl:o <+a:0 sau.r-y=0. Cfrma-O rezfltd.
Cunecesita
t- y:0,adicdr =y .
propdetate,
Aceasttr
lntr-u[ ilel integu,estocurcscutitsubdenumirea
desirnplificare
h steng4printr-unelemenidiferit de elmentulndl al inelului.

,,+ " EvidntI.

pentru2). r
Analogseproceieaztr

Flptul cI indul (rl, +,.) nu dradivlzoriai lul zcrofundzosztr

noi regulidc calcut
plczontat.ftl umtrtoarclcdoutrtcarrno.
Ulmltoarcrplopozitiearcu! crl.clar da g.Deralitatg
pentruun inol in&glu ti ofeld
oxplicatiih lcgltur{ curczolvarcs
unorccualiidatcprinr-ln produregalcuzdo.

l. SI se rnte cl pe n|Idtiin r dumcrhr bEcSt Z,reg c: r@,=rtJ+1,rO,=r,+r+,

dd.nnlnl o rtr{.drli
de |rd conut rh tl A4 dvJrori rl ld ,em. I).&fmlmf
elrrenlal.
lDY.rllHle rle l|r.luluL
f,, Verificln a onele inelului.
1)(z,o) grupabelian.
( ! dun&ide r m cr c
dcar E. dinr , ) Z, Fzul6. x@! =x+y+lez
O)E cst Le. d. conpozilie
g).
lnE

t32

133

o)A alt aNoclanv4

an](,r
(.te y)o 1- r6116 r;,1y)r,y,ze Z.lni-adcvlravom
p.nmm.nbrur
nlntr(x@))er=(.r+r+l)or-(r+ y+r)+r+l=.r+r+ !+2, (t), iu p.nrrum.mbrut
d!. p t j o ( /@ z) =,@( )+.+ l)= r+()+.+l)+ I=.r+, + z + 2 , (2 : ).
Dln (l ) tl (2)ftrult! cgdtilr.i cdordoim.mbn,!dic! lgeaaercsrocirrivi.
Oi @ esk cMubnit d.oanrcrey=yea{V)arez, adic!,+r+t=}+r+1,(v\,,rev,
(.dunNr p Z fiind comutadvn).
Oi ELn nt neutn p6\tn o . S! arttrn c! clisl! . Z lrrfel in.rt. (Er=.r, (V)r2. Avem
,+r -t =.r,(v)r R <+r- _ r z.
Or')E"Laffit!sin4nztbib.Pfirurz, agitrar,st gtsin ,'Z qsrfcltncet r@.t'=
I<+
(t+x tsl=-l a r'- -2- xeZ,
onu..Li,.
2) (z.o) monoid
Mt) O .st.let daconpodti.WZ dfigfcadia,,reL rczultr.rol=r/+.r+iZ
(lnr$ltiqi
dunlri dcnut:m lntregi'.
Mi a.sEasociattud,s/ta
(.toy)o1=js1rs.;,1y)ry,zz.calcuumperandccidoimembri
d.8didtii. PnmttFbb|lll sr$ngsvlnl
(rO))O z= (ry+'+r)O z
y)z+xy+t+y+2= ryz+xz+rz.+.ry+
t+ y+ z, (1).
-lo+t+
P.ntu mmbruldrQroblinnl
*o()oz)=:o()z+)-z) = r(yz+y- z)+x +lyz+ y + z)=xtz+ ry - n rz-' + y +.. e\.
Dn (1, ti (2)rerulq egali;Gr cctordoirEnbri gidciLgc! O .sreasociarivr.
Mt, O .sE cbnu;tattvd
d.6!frf
s ! xr+x+y=p+y+t,\VJ,,r.Z
'Or:t.O&(V)ry6t
p
Omullift. d adun@! Z suntconuhrivc).
It\) Eknat Mtu F'tut O. Sl atlrn cI cris6 ! Z r{6r tlc$t ro!=n (q.rZ<+u +x+/= ja+
au\x+I):0,(V)x<zcu=o<2..
il
3) Irg.s O estedistributiviin raponculegeaO .
ln$-adcltrr
o(r o z)={xo y)eko d. (v)*.r.2e z.
P6ntnac.$ts calcdim.p. rtnd,ccidoitrlmbri.
Pontru
m.mbrulstengavcm:.r o () e z)= ro () + z + l) = r(y - I r l)? x + () + z + t) (r\.
-ry+xz+zr-t!+z+1,
M6nbruldrePldevire(roy)o(roz)=(rr-r+))o(&+r+z)=lD,r+yJ+(,2-r-zl . lQ\.
-ry+n+2t+y+z+1,
Dtn( I ) 9i (2r real|r egalitarapropusd
spEdemoruFar.
h firc. saprcb|mcd uetut
t".aai'itor, r, tui zenladicilr a*Um cadaciix,): I t-t esre
",r"
6l0nu|tul
nulsrinelului),
srunciro)--l. lnE{hrik.ror *-l <+,',+r+/*_tJ+(r+4(r+1)*0, ceq
clJ adcvlrar
deoNcer*-1,r+-1.
Dln el6 deInaisusrEzulrr(2. @,o) ) cst inetcomuBtiv,i f&[ diviroriai tui zero.
Si dd.rmin&ndmtele inrcBabileaL irctutui.fle r Z . SAgIlirn ,' Z pennucare,O.r'=0<+
r+ u + r+ r'= O{+ r'll +rl= -r.

Dr ce,-

r,

"' " * t

pc r . adi cdoc
6
dr v i dc

/- +;=- 'i +i r - .11- f6z <+:- r

r = -2 Decidoar.r=0 9it= -2 sun

f,+1 {+l). D. liclr + l = 1rtlr = 0,iarpenrur + 1=_l avem
Dsi
U(Z)r'= -2.
I 2i0J.
alctrnk inv$abilectndr'= 0 ri respectiv
,'.!) D.termintll sublnelel
irl'rlui Z rl numeralo.intrcgL

Irl I.l
1
ArrlrgcI nnddlnta
zl:l=l+ldez'Nlca
t') tll
I

fonrFadur sutli'dallftr'doiQ m'mdor

a) Oricesubinelal lui Z Eebuiesafie un subgupat sruPuluiaditiv(Z.-) Am vdTurIa.xemPle

u N. Prcdsul a doi eultipli ai lui
de subgrupuri(l) c5 foma scestorsubgrupDriest
'2,
.eprczintasubinelelelui (2, +, ) . D6@ce subinelle
de ,. A{!d{ nutimite
.st tuca
'Z
'nutiiplu
D.ci Z esre
ie sdfi unitar.seimpunel tZ. ceeace condu@lat = 1, candgIsim |Z=Z
subinel
imPropdq.
(subinelut
Z &ltui Z senumesie
alloi Z
Problm celedou! prcEietrti ,]e subiDclului:

*"**'.'' ro,.r]
;'z.fS+
i)(v)".t
"- yezlr][[,[r|,.J
z[i]*u.zlrl
zv
1v1,,,.
r).Fter,)z[;],"aa
vciicf,n
'=l,l=$.".t2,

n,neN.

r>m. r y=+ - j, ="-';{- *lA

F,e
^\en
dac5,< n, arem'- y = L - -!- = 9!:::!.2'f).
Ar.ros

2),pen..
I : 3,' = ".r. tlj] *. =#
v.rinorm
$,
"

*ll)

ou**rr". y"111"""s[r1] ste,rl maimic.slbirerarrui e c!rcontinepe z ri I

2

'={+f.,I;l
prim.
nnm6r
atun",
Dacdp
esieun
"[il:{,+1".r,

"..u}."

*n*,,", ***

dep

Q )unsubiel al lui Q .

3.sr s.nte

"t

ei rrynur6
zlllz]={.+fl2+"1fip,4,cez}mnreunr"u'atunarea

obl$ultr sleur irel (subheld lui (R, +.,I'

R.tunlm rnailnl3lce 4 +01!, + c3\ta
=o,a,b,c ez' <+a =b=.=o

134

+ii
"u

r35

pdnabsudcr d!.r a +,0i +.Q6 = 0 , runci nutoalcnumotll!tnt$81a, b, c sunr

" PFrupuDom
"+
c! doudcal. doul suntPrim.lntrele(altfelsefnplltc falellaprin celmo
n|lI., Md multpr0uDuncfit
n'u! divlrrr comund rumd.lo.a, h c)'hmultim .sditstadauptii l/t 9i ?? candavenslt doD!

nt gt a{, + b{7 +?' = o,allt +u + zlfz": o.

y ..-o
l . ' t { i - "1 1 e =o
l u -b +
cusolqirr = r.y = $, 1= 16.
Av6msfstlmul:
l2.+d14+b{i=o i*Iu12$+ay+bz=o
=o
l2bx+2cr+az=o
lu +zll-x+.Xt
Cutnuldnulsistn liniarelreomogen
$ adnitsolutianbataE:=1,/:1e,.=tr6
cu?erc'
sistdn
flb]rie
sr
fie
e$l
d.i6nnlnannrl
acstui
la b cl
a3+ 2r3 + +3 - 6ob"= o
tl =o sauduplunclecalcute
ll"
'
l7b 2r al
* aa .3 =z(4

nzultdc!

mrl rus d 2n'avcrl aa3+t3+zF -e"'u-0. Deaici(cr nai sus)rczult!21, 9i maispoi2l..

An qiull!c{ 2ld, 2lr, 2lc to coitndi4icc.rlFsllpurErllc! r, ,, c suniprimofttnctl

r.*

""tr2

,\{;i

e,b,ceZ.
Vortficln c-!ladou!pmprietltialesubfuelului,

I
Iac =N.

O) lzgar* .st corutaliddlfi.r*y=1*.r,(y)ay6pala+ry+c=ry+rr+c,(V)x,)R.

Dc

O) Elznaadnam pam * csE, lRasf.ltlc'r .r*.

-,. {V)xR r+ ar+ae+c= r,(v).rR. Deaic
(c ffxatdbit !Idin R).
siDutirabik.P'rfi.o
, e jR,.xi!rl'<n

sefi tElr r**'=--.<+ar+Ar+c--r.

!=r=1 rrultlr'= -2. - r . Dccipent|Ia=, =1,. R cuplul(R,*)$tgrupabclian.

!) lnmu\iF uzualdesledciativl, lvrnir !c I ca elenen!neutru.Trlbuie s{ impunenconditi. ca
naobiqnuid safie disribDlili in raportcu leger * . Mai prcisncbuic s! avemegatttib:

)*4 =(ar)*()z),
(r+y+")z=
k* r)z=(x) *(y),(v)a1zeR sau.x(1+z+c)=.ry1.xz1a
rE + /z+ .,

(V) r , ) , zR. Dc&icir ededuc

c=0

|
/- -ll
I
a.Eb A=|M..,=l: 'll.eq.renl.
Arn'd c. r'{ estauo rrcrcomu.rrtv
rh
to a1
t
l

d Dtnug|r nohtcelor dh Jt.4(n.).

n. Treluie s! vqificlm axiomcleinelului cohutltiv.
l) (,4, +) esle sdp abeliandeoarce lu loc uiorcle:

r)da.r.r,r, z[?/-2]a$nci
zt- zzezlllil.

Ot + .ne legede coDtpozjliepe JA..

1= t,z. et*"i,
lnr-rdcvlrfi z,: ai+ rii6 +
";iA-,
z1-z2=(a1-a)+(t1-t)Ii +@- ")1!iezllfi)
2)dlcrzr.4zltrE].atunci
zhezllf4. Alelll:
a,7=1.1-at"!i ',rl1a\(",

t'-:

D. iici rczdrnsistmul:l,=rr

i-l,s='c
ga, Elanrt

dc
-zi +3arc),c.!r ccAlsucn 2la. Fi. d&na=2a',a'.2.1^roaiindlnrelalia

plltimiltado'.d ci .rmnEre din zl{61* *i" *L *

Aa6.d obaervEic

R, l) Tr.buloil vorlfolmllrknn.lcsdrputul.
Oi Aroetlttvtta!.o
hsll t, hM
(r* ))* r =
* z),(V)x,!,zeR..+ a2, + ab! +b.+ac +c=
'*(,
ar+abr+b2z+b.+ c,(v)x,t,z<R.
-

hlfz + "21!+)-"e2 | zbtc2 2ath+hlh -h,a2 2qc2)4rt

<zl1!il.
+("1"2
+ btb+q.2)?!A

'i+r.,,,uu,r.e..**t,
O)lmcr'ld.NM

a&Mfta

*0,,=li
",,*

hatdcelorp.

M(P\

".]):,.*,
;*,,
f.[:;J:[';'
"

esteas@iatbd.Decl ilntuE l& fcl i pe submutinq

4 c & (R).
6, AdMr@tuattiaetorpe M2!E) estecotu*4n\d.pmpietatea
secon&rvn,ipe .4 .
O<,ELtunn/Ineuttue*.Mne ,{ .stfellncar
M4r+ Mq,q:M.,i,(VJMo,,eA.
b ri,<;,
Ma+.r,raa=Ma*#a+q=a qi x+12=i<+q=0.9=0.
oruni.eanuld)osreelenenrtl@tru.

D! oscmcnca
I=I+0 V2+o .14ezl4zl.

arnfolosirct lya,* = Mr,, sa=,

atrui{R.-. ).
c",*,G. (zltEl.+. .sGun,ubiner
)
a'r,. R.
4. P6n rc condderll.geadec'npodlt rr, =d+0, +c
'Ctr
r) I,.t.Idnri ,, , rl c e3t||l c. (n,.) s| ne erupchIrn
2) Condd.rlnd tnmutflft. otutll p. n cr c dou! op.rrtlc determlrrF prralrl tn . {tifel lncAl
(r, ., l .r t|. h!1.

135

prinurmare
M0o=dr2

rrunicelor).
ti I- y {c.! c..i inejiar din egatiralea

gi Elanatesin&tz,zbi1.Pqtrn
ila, eA,eist M a,,r,,4. ,f,tlF,tit{iI
M a.r+ M a,,,,: M o,o+)
|* M.+a',,+,,: MOp+t a +a1=0 ti r+r'=0<+ a': -a, r'= -r,

D*i sinEnicuf
fui ,na.r6e M-.. ,e.4. oo.c6,."*

=JT -ll=

'l=-",.,

I: 4J
-{0 {l
t0
"_*_,
ttrult{ d. att!pt!1.Fntru cnop@li. esleceadadunarc
obiinuitlr olEicelo..prinurruE simebicultui
/lr# c,,4. cstchiuopNaut i@i M,,r.

t37

r) (,4, )*6...i0
adlcir.v6 flctutorcrol
".,r,,riv,
M)lnkuBt.a ,at c.lor .sta l.g. d. cowotllt p6 A p.nil|t cd oricarar fi M
o,,, M b,, e "4 a\eml
la r)(b !\ lob ar+b,l
(evi deff di n a.beQrarcQ
n
'o."'t.>=lo
,u )= Ma b .a ,-h e A
dlo a) = l o
4)+r.r R da. r . t , t R) .
Mi Innuqlrca MticelotY
M2(W) estetntotttedha Aociartyd. Deci rlmane h fel 9i pe ,ubmutlimea
4 r lul J1.12(R).
Mt) lnnuttrea p. A estecobutatird deoare.ea!m Mo,x.Mb,r-Mab.dr+b,=Mbo,b,+or:.
M o, , , lv \ M a, , .M b } . A .
-Mb ,,
W) ELnEntuI n2kttu. $ adtlm cd exb6 Mq,,e ,/4, asrfelinasr Ma,.Maa=Ma*l
a M
^r,ou"q

Mar6A++
= M o.,, \Y) u o,, e,A.+ aq = a rt, au2+ nr = \ (v) a e e. (V)r R. De aici
n

! t -l ,tr2 -O . D. c i

M r , o, c \tee l e n n unl e u ri x

ll

a -[o

*t""'"

-r'*"

'] rrmane h fel p

3) hmultirea mat.icelor este disribuliv, in rapod cu admda pe .422(lR), deci
ti
4 c .t.r2(R).

ll.a-10 -'l
Obs.rv6h
ct ioetut6r. cu divizori&i tDizrre.N-.vem
decar
sarurm a-10
t0 0l
l0 0 l
A, B-O2 p.n'r!.$e AB: 02.

6, l) sr.. rni. cr rtarder n=l |

*nr'* *," la A2-2at t2=n.
-ol
l-4 -J'
z1tt M^ = {a e :l.42t1tlt= a.t+ ot2,o,t e z}
SI .nae cI (tte,+,, $te un tneltDraportcn ope.stiit
obtrnuitedeldurareg trnurfire a
'3
R. ..1) Relala se vrific!, prin calcrlul direcr (este@&lia ca$cterisric! pntru maricea pdrratic! de
ordlnul doi).
2) S. leiilicd diomeleinelului.
l) (,^n,r,-)eqe etupaberio adicdauIe axiomle:
At) Aduqt.a .\te leg. dc .onpoziti. pe M4 .
F i. 4 -- a tA+ W 2 $i B 2= a z A + h r2 ,4 ,B2 e MA . Atu n c 4
i + 12:(q + a2)A+ (h+ h)12e MA .
O) AtluMt.o ,'4ttic.lor .ste inrott auaoawiativd pe M2@) . D@i ran ne ta ftl !e l4A .
Ot) Adu Eo Mtticelo, W Jvh(Z) estec.ituutativn.va d]maneh fel g pe sub,nurlima
a lui
^4a
M@ r.
g.\ Elenzntul r?urn este matrica IJ eMA
petrt care B+U:,,(V)A.
De aici
=
=
U 0 2 0A + 012 e M A .
C.) ELncnQ sinatiubilE. Pf'!6t ,i,1a, edstn ,'Ma
ssdetlilcer A+r,=q.
De aici
B = -B =l - a\ A - L b\ t 2 e M a .

2)(^,L,.)",r"
"*n,,ia.
138

M) Ir"r $a

tutrL.bt fr MA .tr hg. dt cwreodth&fl{(({! dn q-a4+q

2,t=l,ZqeM/

h!'uftI q4 -(h^+qlrJb,rA+hI2)-qa(+lqbr+a.! A+4b2,2-lq4+a2h

+2qa^A+
+\hh - ata)t2e MA Ctrufti;a csalitaieamutilizarpuncrul1), ,{2 = 2A- 12).
llt I nulfin! m.ricelortoiodaum$0easoclatd. Dcit{minela fl ri pe ./VA .
Nh)ElzMfin rcar1!(fre 12=O.A+1.t2.
D) hmntirEandicelor estedistribulitin nportcuadunarta
fiind8=r(a,r). i\en44b)=4o'b),rla=ddb=b)
Obse.vatiese podeconsi(har=a4+r/2ca
se
vrific!,
.rlmutor
As; B(a,b)+B(a',b)-B(a+a',b+b). llr0losB(a,b)B(q:,b)= Bkb'+ a'b+ 24o',bb'- M).

7. Ik "4 = t,f : Io,! -+ 4l.f rgrthrlrl .

t Sr 3. .4& cL4 tupf.ud crrrdumrcr 4 bnultk.3 !4!SLoJ fqrne8zt ur inl&mulativ.

b) ?e iu ,,4,t*0,.drtl
s.A,Aro altftl lndt. t.s=o ltt FI d rumsl dac

lrlt(') = 0l co4r. untnt.IYrl

'

tt.,

din..4 3lllr defifij a8delrpntruonce f,IA,

t d OpeEtiilede.dunarE9ilrunutired. tunc.liiloE

R,(t fsxr) = t(r)+ 8(r),(v)r10,11,

.t+f :10,11-+
Otli
.f.t:rc,r]-rn,(r.sxr)=J(,).s(')t(v)'

..

Vcrifi ctm lxiomcle inelului.

l) (,4' +) eqe srup abelis . adicaa! loc uioGl.:
g) Muiarci eee lete dz con'pozfu df,aree di,^ ,E e A",t .tEzitt
f
I + s a A Gum. de tunclii
continueesleo fimcti co inuo.
Or\Aduwrca j.i4iilor estelatotd.alna asociafivd,dfxjisep{slreazaproprieBtead pe

.4c t(.4,8)={/:4* rln,8C R}.

O) Anwrr.atu4iilot es?irlbde;utuiiaMtarid.ProEldat?is conspwe
d pe ;A .
O.)EIM,tu! wwtu pcnotldunarc6tefi'ncdazero,0rt0,l1-R.qrr=0.(V),l0.ll pnruc.re

I +o- I,( vjf e A" .

{lt) EI'Mte siwtnubil.. Pafrn / e ,4,, lrbitrar,cxistl -/ ( ,4. ( -t opusahtn4iir, astfelhcat

| +(-t):o.

2) ('4, ) e$e nonoid comDtatjv, adic! scv4ficd riomele:

M) lnnutttea pe .4 cst t.Be d. cMpozili. M)are@ dia J,s erA.'. Js<.A (prcdB de functii
continuecsc o tutrcfi. 6rtinu.I).
proprietareii
M) ktotd.auno tnnuttlrcL fu^cfitot esteasociativdF t(A,R\, dci rimene cu aceeaSi

W) Inru\ftea l"n liil pe t(A,B\ .sE conull,nvdlrn('tualnr,dciseconerv!proprietaies

9i pe
A,
l'{a)El&rnd rar.u penmhmutlirtes. imqiaconstmd
l. l:10.U-R.lrx}=t.(v)rt0,U. caftsc
cstc
o
turqie
continul,
d.ci
I
.
Aven
evident
i.
fdc
/.1= /. (V)/ ,4 .
3) In ffncsctti. c[inmulJirca
tunctiilor
estedisfibDtiv,
in Eporrcu adunarea
func{iitdpct(,4,8).
D..i propric@t
! s. pdsttz!ti F r'( .

139

D)h+" D|.l ,t[0,1]an,r.o|lm.t ql.t|.batoll rd.l lncrr8({,).0,9t pnruDuncm

cl
t(,t) > 0. Om I * cafinurh .b, r d.&0..t odd y y{ utfclhctl r(r) >0,(V).r y (dacr
y-[0,e),t r paru ,rb-tF tr y-(l-e!,e>0).D6r
{-0,..l.
/(.i)8(*)=0,,y,@r c!
londuo.l.
/(r)r0,rv.
cl /(r)
p.lltru-re[.tr,*2],
{ i " Sl p(Eupun.m
<A
a,x2t0,11,4
-o
:lol]-14'.t2l
cooao.trrn
,ar
.,
- = [9
[( r - ,l) ( j-.q).rt{,41.
k vand utorcts.ooc
conrirur
pcI0,11,8 *0 ti cst!clarc! /(.r)r(x)= q .Iet0,ll.
i. htmtfl|l.| I=Bxn ikdrlD|Ieg[.rtc.o,rFdt|.:
\s,b),(.dl= (a+ c,t + dl , 6,bl.Gn)t lrcd + bcl.
l) Adl|f cl rdlt Lgl cod.rt'rlulilnll j o drrdurl tt hlelconutidi'c! dilrod rl Lji,iero.
D)lt dt d lolD. r vl|.r 0 tul r.!ir
a.) . 4 bdlle .l.mrr.br dh4 di fornr (d,0).
ll |. .r.t cl 4 .rt ,qrtlnctiI lul I h lrpont& operrdtletrdu!.. (Cryludte(it,,), (., d) runr
osolo
d.cl c r c tt, d).
R,d V.rtnctun
sxiorElc
incliluiconut0aiv,
cudivizoriailui zro.

(t, o) c{tc nuhl(' r (

'Irrlllrl!, rdlol iu loc!rlom.l!:

(cr)= (a.a)"[k.d).
I2s.a o .st. asochrvd, l(c,a)"(c,a)1"
G,/)],(v)(.,r),G,d),
'r',td

.f) A. Pcntru a vcrilic! cgalltri.a calculim fiecarenmbru scpant. Pmhu mcmbd sang avcln:

sd+ bc)1"(e,r
) = (Qd.,Gc)t +bd +bc)e)=lae,ut+ adz+ bce)Q).

kur&+d es.ri4idevim:(a
b).(""d +d.Jl:(..(*),"14+dz)+ble)):(ee,ad+&k+L,ce)
@.
(1)ri (2)rca$n egdft.reapmpNI.
r.egea.esteconuwi'n,31tci(o,bbkd):(cd).(4,b), (v)(a,,),t.d)e1.
N6:(edd

+ 4l) = (ca,cb+ da) , adevrmtd&n inem selm cd rnrulli@ t admaEa pe

tur4turgtrrtegea. esre
Elznanut
(rq,r2)e,{ 461 trcft (a,}).(qi,rt = (4.r).(v)(a,r)A-sau
sN a\-a i u2+bq=b,(v)a,bep.. De aici q=r,
,at2+bui=\a,b),(v)\a,b)eA
= 0 . Prin |ll]]]e (1, 0) ,4 stE elcmntul unira&el inelului.

r! raponcu rga*, adicd(4,).lGd)*(,,J)l:l(4r).(cd)l-[(a])"(a/)].

L.sEs. ele distriburivI
(V)G,r),

ei doi reDbri ai saliutii d deinonstatPentru

G.,r). (r, /) .4 . se cdculeazn

l) (/|,+) .sr srup abeLia4dicr sevgific! rJdomere

)rur stns avem:la,b)" G+ e d + f ) = \o(c+ e),a(d+ f ) + b("+ = bc + a.,.d + af +

"))

o) rrs.a t .n asociany\
&oarcc
IG,r)*G,d)l.k.t)-(a,b\.lG.d)*(e,r)1.ucarer n

.be),

(t, ,), (., d), (r,/) ,a . ld.-ad.th

!lirri.{ d. [!ai suss. ftsoic:

la+c,b+d)tG,tl=kb)*k+,,d+r)sru((.+dra@+d)+J):tq+G+d,b+.(d
+ r))
+c)+c = a' (c+u)
- [(a
oce-isdcv&"FnFuc! ldumre F R catea.@iativd
lb*olr1=r*1o*
)' 't!a
qt bs.o * est co,nutattud,
niadlr, (a,b)*Gd)=kdJ+@,b),(vxa,r),(ad)t, cri:a ce s
tr..r16(a+.,r+d)=(.-a,/+r)s

arepraeuna
[(acaz+*)]* l("",.t +t ))=(* + *,"a +bc+ef +be), Q).
(l) ti (2), via comutativilaia9i asociativiiateaad$nlrii 9i lnmultirii pe R , se drduce afimatk din
Elarmln unitateal ineldui 3te(1,0).
tn , tAlul estzu divt od qi tui z.'o dq@cc din (0,1) (0,0), (0,2)* (0O), 0,D, (02) A rzul6
l). (0,2)= (0,0).
-

ta 1 . =.+o

Inc, ji*)

_) *l, "eaW "a.vrrded@recadun@ pe

o;,,Et nuatutnutn tn npo,t cr * cstc(qdee, pdt r..drc(a,b)+(q,.)=(a;b),(i(a,b)ea.De

=:
.tctnzurd (a+q.r+.2 J (4,b1saul:rq
adc. .r =.2 = 0.
lo+ ' 2= D
&rd!r.l.mentll

(l ).

(0,0),{ dio elcmcnrncunupenm! *.

oi n.n.nt snneniuub.Pffin (a,r).As! 8&im (a,,r),r asdcltnca (ar)*(alr)s(O0). De

dcl i. obtinc(a+4ir+r)=(0.0)sau a+a'=o ei ,+r,=0,.dic[ a'=-a,].:_r. Dci

Dh(d,r)*(0,0)ria=0,rc=0,deducemi,*0.Analo8din(c,d)*(09)ri.=o,dd=0rc^l6
nlc.sicareI *0. Deci diviEii tui ao suntdc rdtm (o,r). , * 0,, R .
;) Sc vdificr elc dour proprier4i ale subineluluil
l ) (V )ny4 + ' - y. { i
2) (v)I.) c 4 + ro r 6 r \ r i {1, 01
4.

Pcinu1)lulm' : (2,0),/ (r, 0),q eiave'n y = (4,0)+ (-r,0) = k -,,0) 4 .

"Pcntru2)$emnndtoravem
.i",:(4,0)"(r,0)=(2r,0)4.

icul lui (a.r) estr (-a.-b) (dci 6itrdvorbader.s6 + carEhsamAadunaraF compontrre.

vomnumt(-a,-r) opusul
lui(4.,).
im

140

l 4t

ln rcrh ln.l. .l.n trtel. Inverssblle.ln hcl.lc cu dlvlrod rl lul roro $slll rcelu
ot lul !.ro, (Doul.lqnent (a,rl(r,J)ZxZ
e8alcdrcl tl nulnoldrcn d =, tl
'unr

| , gi.blll|l c.re dtn urlnltoqrclenulllml do Dum.relmpnuni cu opra$lleobl|nullede odunaretl

('unerele tnhgl. Eultiplu deu r: 4' Q i srt +61314.r.4
'Z
6) la +b\Ela,be2zl t,7, {a+rJ5la,rQ}i s) {a+ul,,bezl (lnlullntrllor lui causs)l
r) Z r 2)22 (nuneElelrt.rtsl prrerr 3)

Arllad cI umlto{rl nulind ftrpreurl cu rplcatlle collldemteln drcptul lor au structurll

Zi rT r='+r-,I

e){.+ ,r 14,, 32}; r0 tu + btla,b Ql ilr)Ia+b\lii\,b ezl I

|

..E

dsmrtde lDYerslile d i[t!rd.lor.

A]!!!!J!o.5.2,",0
|2

Z t x @r = t + t + lt r O t = r, + 3(r + J)+ 4 (2, ),O) ere doMiu d! tutee.itre. DefJmi"

*lcearipr.trrleli rr) {d - riJ;14., Ol .

I

I el.Dertlc l||vellcbtle rt hverseh lor.

zi xT t= x + ! i-2,; L r= ry +2(' + r)+ it (2, r, L) siedo|[ du dehleerltate,Detemd'
ddn !a.le lnversrbile ri lny.$de lor,

Delrr nlt pentru flecnrc Inel delneDteletnvftsbil. P.ciafi pe.chi de ir& dinlre care unl'l
0116 bhel el cluihlt*.
2, Slrblld c.Ie dh umtto$ele nullirDi de ast ice impreud o op..liile obiFuite de admare d
Innuldre ,unt lde :

r\ Mntztt2).l4rQr:3' ,{4,(R':
4, -u,tc,,stllo,sl".tezl:ot ]1" "ll"tezzlt
j
ItD 4t
tt" .it
l

Lr = q -3(r+ tJ+r2tlt r,"].) dc

dehLgdrde.I)terfli'tonntu

u + ii'

"t

=, + y - i,
=
"] +(ry -.r - I + 3),(22+ r, *,.) 6tedomedude intesritate.

elDtrtdellvmat|lle rl lnverlale lon

, Wl; z1tz2=ayra1^1";rn(zr)l'nderln(zrir)=r,a,rn,

, ftip'.o]'
ft11p,,.-1',,
{{;7],,,..]'
"ft7)|,,,.4,,

Deternln{ti elen .re hvencbtle,

M
'P(M), =ld,blt A B =(^-B\u(D - Al, A' B =

'.,.,1,,,',{|i,tll',."
"*o*"**1,,.,
[ ;"]1.,.
"r

'{(;T)|

lro t

[to "ll

"tl
urflilll,.,.z['rs,
011".,."
ezl.
lli
lli".r.z[,",
llo
4,t
Dl
"
tr,
I tru
I
o
Crre dln sc6te ltrel sun comrtadw? Prcclra$ lelndele l[versablle. ln lnelelc cu dtvlzori ai lul
,em p.clz5$ aoF iltvizortt lut rem. Predzafi perechtle irl dirae csr urd esie lubinel d
c.lullalt'.
J. tunad cI decare diD u.nitoarle nultln de ftlDcfl role dcnrdte ne [-l.t] trnpreunr.,
opcndtlc obtrnul! d sduDArd ltrmdgE esteut| ircl comutativ:
l) mu$m. tuturor funclilor contlnuei 2) mrlfnq tutoftr ffDcliilor p.It; 3) nurfma tuturor
tunclllor polnohiElq 4) nulflne5 tuturor tun itlor rlerr]8bni t molfinea tuturor tumitlor
tnlrghltc. Detlr[|had ln scesteinele eleDntrtilYetlablle, lr crre din aceslelnele exlsl! dlvizod
d lul zelo ? P.ecimli percbtde h.l. dlntre carc unul te sublnel al cctuihli*.
4. SI te slate cI tnul$nea Z x Z cu ummoffele operatii lelrcl comuta v ln flcare dln cauurllr:
r\ (abbl)+(az,b2)=(q+ d2,h+bz),(t\,bi-b|,b)=la{2,hb2).6.
c}4]approdsut dir@tdl
tn.L dt in.tulul \2.-,.) tu.t t6u$it.

D (ar,b\)+ l[r,b) = (ai dz,q + b.-l,(al,hl. (at b) = (ae2+ qbz,ap2+ a2r\\.

= (atu +3\b2,ap2+ a2\).
n (a1,t)+layt2l= (ata2,\+ b2),lq,h).(a2,b)
0 (ar,4)+(ar,rr)=kr + d2,\ + b),lat,\). (a2,b)=(op2-3Eb2,ai2+ atbi -

(,in't

(al;+,") esre
aomeniu
ae
t[el coiutariv.u

^nr,(2(,u),a,.).ice
c.ll sdunsra g hlnulfra

I
lr-r\r-rr
I
.^4 = l^ 14r(Rtjl:' I= l:' la,d rlr (,t4,-, l$eunherlDrapod
cuedura't!ri
tu4J
llud,
I
I

= :'.1,i*-!o\.,
*,* =-,i;(-+;+,
n
n,
1*tiln.l
fl
"
[' o i l

,4=llo o ollrnlr(+,:)
['o 4l I

HPorr crr s.fur$ea ti

| t"o"t

ltoo"l

,l=]ee ,ra3trrfe=f
o

tl raport cu adunalt-r $

a1,",t,",aenlt(.a.,-,.) tact ncomuratte.

Determlnafl
"

l|rvenah e dh hd

143

[ta o rll

t!)') /=lfo

"

tl''r,",a',.ezrltl*+'I.!t

lt do4

lo"lftco'nu.ldvtu
r.poncuope.rflre
uzuare.

It, o al

b) ,4=ll 0 c olla,l,"enf;1"1.+,.)esberncr comurdvc! drvr,,rrai rd zc,o,

lt_, o djl
I
t
| ,^-,

n e'=lu ='tt+ tl

=li

cuopemdre
uaare.
iJ."r. nf ,1r,*,'1"* m r'eri. raporr

s n+=lu=,rz+ le=f' j 1,",r.",,. o],1,n.+..) o& het com!.sdv

tu mDo.r
.u
r
| \c at
J'

op.r.gnc utuilc
t6) .a={t:{0,4-+f,}t(,4+,)
||lutrrt| { ttnulttrcr ftsq o..

esteun rna comutortv

cu dtytzodot t,ri zerotu rolorr c,,

rD Oxrt (d,410,r)=:b+b,
x+,),(a,").(b,r)=ior,"r
+r, + w);(qxn,n.) ot" Lor

cohu..dv. Det rlltDa$.remcnreh Inw.sable. (Dod tenor|i (a,r),(r,r)exR

d.d tl nuErl dacl d =, tt r = J ).

ro),(={:erl'=a+dI+",1
t.firlurlndd

a,r,

sult eeah

+alc,.,t,",aeah(,(,+,.).!&rftrcorrurade.

&/'icttuerd(ab_bo)=(.b_bd.h.

Dxno l.rd pcr.n orlcc N, > l .r .r loc.flslftr@ a,t

- ta, =o1o5-5o1o,-r.
'
'
7.fhl otr tnlcu proprt rraeax, = r, Vr d. SI rrrr&
ctA.r!. tml conuidv. .,
8.n. (i{, n I ur hcl cu
ddr.nr& sa !e dite ct l+l+l+l+l+l+l= 0.
'|pte
e.A !S dft! lmtot Z, au
tocegaltlf,r.:
i b+bf =.2 +bz,(a+bY =4+b,(v)d,bez
b, (a+b)2=o2 - ab+ b2,(a+lf =aj +a! =a +a. (v)c,a z3
e
r

ct (a+tl2=o2-ut+t2,(o+bf =oa-bzb2+ ba,

Fh,bez4l
d) (o+rf =o5ra5 =o +b,(vhi ezsi
el (o+bY=aP+tt =a+b,(vb,beze,pwtu
l0 ln hetrd(a,+,.) !c roodct d .4,16= r . Arftil ci:
a) 12=.r,(yba, b)Inelfi|
a esh
ll n. ,{ un lml tn c,|r 12= r, (v)r e r. 6ro ."c"r a. hi{ selur|erie
Jrzlrort"d,} Arntrd Lr
r+ r = 0 , ( v ) .r ,{.

t44

12.Fle4 m Inolctr.t.rn nt unttltet*0. Ur etem.lt, A !a rumetlc ldorrpor.tra

drct 12 = r .
! it |nulflEi.r .tcnenlotorldmpotenr.dln.4.Artr4 cI:
dacl M eslef,ntu, rtumt crd(tt) 6!e un nunir psri
pltrdulul leftdtetor dr! ff esr.esrt cu r ,ru cu 6.

ncrndd(nn,{261.+..)',.".*.r={i
=[: 1).xN "ta+rea(a126\st
;},
1-r,3-1.
.It (.,t'n,

ur hel unltrr d

',f

.roodetemflietnverssbite,
,sifel n|c6t r-r=!

dactretnentete
a=1+r+xz,b=t+t+!,c=1+J+),2suna.tenen,e

r +r - r +.- t = I,
drcl l+r tl r+ f

inve$sbilqstunci

tt|ver!!ue,arund(r+ rfr +(t+J)-1= t.

'unr

nodurhellarDerarrrorlc.!4cu12=0,avem,=0,SIsararcIdactr1,.r2rrj.{
idd hc6r rrr2rj = 0,.,und aw : a) r2r3rr =0 i b),3r1 12 = O,t) xra,ln =n (v)o,b
e A.

lrte (,{,r,) ur rn!.Dac!(,r+"+r)r=r(*r+,+r),(v),,ree,

anfid rDerur
este

.ne (4,n.) un lnelunlt:I srtrlhcet 13 =.r2;(V)r'.{. Arttal cr }2=r,(V)ra

d,{
ujr lrcl comutad%
.ne (1,+,.) un lnelastfethcet eiltl oD.telr. uDtcr .{, or pmp.ierate_r
r, = r+1. Se
atrtedl+l+1+t+l=0.
(CsrEctrkdounulfnl).FfG(,{,+,, u[ hd.udtar. Snum.*
cad.tisti<, indahnA .d Mi
mmI'r maurelr e N' cuproFiearteor . l = 0 , DlcI ru e'dlrL
e + cu
,. f = 0 ,
d lrclul !I c*.cterlsdcr tro. a) DacI n sreclrlctedldc! inetdui ,{, Fopdetaa.s
atuDciet estordtnrl
r ln gruput (a,+); b) Inetd (2,,+,.) ale coraderbdcrz; c) rntetez,
e,R, qUil
c&acterisdcaleroi d) Drc{ lecar.ctrtsricatut.{, arunci,, = 0, (V)r 4 e)ihcl
i
r est
'
de htcg.itlte,

abDcl olrcaerisdca esr! zm sru numtr pdm; O lnrr-un iEl

r aven:(r+y)'=:'+y',

(.r-r)'= r'-rs, (v)r,, ,a.

"{

de

CORPI,'RI
vdzutcepentruinelul (A, +, multimea/ aleo stucturtrmaisemcacu privire
),

cea de-a doua opeEtie,cea multiplicadva.S-a puut consutaca plopriedli

limentare perftu lnmultire (comutativitate,elementuoitate)dau mai muhe
penEuinel.
cclece urmesz,i
vom studiaiDele(cucetputindoueelemente)
in carEcatmai multe
rmentenenurcate salesunt simerrizabile
(inversabile)
in rapon cu operafjade
145

0 nupoatrfi invenabildeosrcror ' 0 s 0 t * I '

nrutruls adun0rb
lnmullirc(clornontul
(V)r A ).
A* = A - {0}' nu 9i pentru
Docl.xiotcntasimetriculuipoatefi pusdpentlumultimea
nul.
el?mcntul
corp untdplet (X, +, ), ln careI( esteo mul$rne
Deflnl$e,Senumeste
cu cel putindouaelemee, iar.,+" ti ,.'' douEopratiipe If {numire
tlei axiome:
urntrtoarele
satisfdcend
girespectiv
,Jnmulfire"),
,,adunare'i
cueledentulneutru0
KD (r,+) estegrupablian,
neutrul.
Kr) (r-{0},) estegrup,cuelementul
fali deadunate
K3)Inmultireaestedistributivd
Dac6,lII plus,estesatisfacud9i aldoma:
IC) lrunultireaestecomutative,

Un inel/( No[umo !corp dacioriceel.rnentnenulal luir(csteinver8abi],

adic!dacdr,(,ir0,(l)x-l
lncdtxr-1 =.r-lr=1.
e f astfel

Deflnlfle*, O submullime
nevidliI<' a unuicorp1<senumettesubcorp
tl lul I<dacllegiledecompozilie
intemedin ( induclegi decompozilie
intmepetr',lmpleuddcucarcr<'estecorp.

vrnd ln vederedefini$adattrpentflrcorpcu ajutorulcelortrgi axiomeKr), Kr), K3),

poatefi reformulat6
pentrusubgnrpur
lfinifia subcorputui
utilizendcaracterizarea

Teoremtr*.Fie (1(,+,.) un corp.O submullime

i('a lui tr, carecontine
celputindoutrelemente
eslecubcorp
al lui i( daci $inumaid4cd:

1 )( V ) x,y
er ' + r -

1 e k- t
2\ (Y)t,ye K' x,y*o=+ ry-re x'

corpcomutrtiv(saucAmp)
atunci(tr, +, .)senume$te
gupul adltlv al corpului,iar (X - tol') se
Olrservatii.1) Gruput(r, +)se numeqte
grupul multiplicstiv al elementelornnuleale corpului(saucu notaliil
Dumcate
U(K)= K -{01),
cunoscutl
2) DacacorpulK estecomutltiv, atunci(f - [0],, estegruPcomutltlv'
distincte,un elementneuhufalede
3) OricecotpK con$necel pulin douaelemente
neutlufatddetnmu4ift,decipe0 qi 1'
adunare
ti unelement
Rccipmc,pe odce multimeformatddin doutrelementedistincteexistdo singurtr
cu0 $i 1, atunciadunarea
6i fumultirca
di corp.DacanotEmacesleelemente
struc_tur!
nu pot fi definitedecatln modulumltor:
0l
l0
Acestcorp cu doutrelementejoac[ un rol importantln teoriainformatieiundefietare
litertr se codifictr ut izand simboludte0 9i 1. Se arati ca receptareaunul tnesaje-sle
mai buod (corecte)cu cat fteafuei Iitere i se asociaz6un vector cu mal mul'e
componente(formate din 0 qi 1), influenla factorilor parazitari (de perturbare0
mesaiuluitrar$mis)flind mult redlse (Shannon)
4) Toateproprietdlilepuseln evide4e la inelesuntvalabile9i pentrucorpuri'
5) Definitia datdcorpuluipoatefi reformulatd9i asdeli

spusK'submultimea corpului,Keste
subcorpdacd$i numaidaci estesubgup
rului aditiv al corpului tr ti submultimeaelementelornenuledin K'este nevidA

subgrupal gupuluimultiplicatival elementelor

nenuledinK
tr'este subcorpal lui K, atunciX se numestesupracoap
al lui/<', saulnce
rle(sauextlndcre)
a corpului
ff.
bbservEmcd fiind dat un corp, calculele pemise pe acestasunt: adunara,

fumu$red $ilnpl4irea (prinelemente

nenubI : a D- I ).
cunoscutede corpurl 9l subcorpu.i
! nunerelor rr$onrl lmpreuntrcu opra$ileobt$uite de adunareii irnullin,
ur cory conutsdv,nundtcorpulDunerelorrasonalri notar (Q, +,') ,
Mult'he. nu e.lor .ale cu aceLrd operalt de sdunaft rl lnrnurfre fomeazn un corp
lurnlt corpurlumeretorratert notat (R, +, , .
QCR' coryul nunerelorrafonsle sieun rubcorpol lui R ssulnc! lR esteo xtindereo

a.

Mu$ltna numerelor conplele cu s'turaEa ri lnmtFlta

nulnereto.ol! exrt notat (C,+,,.
QCCqI RcC,deduemcI

Q tl 8. suntslbcorpuri allui C su C sieoqtinderealul

de lr 1, 2,3 snume.comuf nune.ic

t46

fortllear! un corp comutativ, numit

t47

Altc oxornplorcrnarcubllcdc corpurl

l) Coryul clasolor de r6turl modulo p. Am vlzut la inele cb tdpletul
(Zn,+,reste un inel pentrurN,n>2. Se pune problemapentru cc
, N*, Zrl estecorp, adic[ pentruce, N*, (Y)x eZ b t + 6 esteinversabil?
Rf,spunsulestedat de umetoarea:
Teormtr. Inelul (Zr,+,.)

ai clasolorde rcsturi modulo n esle corp

dactr$i numaidac6r estenundxpdm.
Demonstrallc, lntr-adev5r dacd
pe ru cI (r,tt):1.
inversabil

'l

este numar prilrL atunci (V).re2", r..0 este

2) lnmultlroo cmtemlodlor
Daci q1,q2t1 atunciq1.q2= (a1a2- \b2 - qc2- drdz)+Gp2 + a2t4+
+qd2 - c2dt)i+ laF2- 4d2 + azq + h4) j +(ai2 + hc2, b2q+ a2dt)k H
sprezinti produsul cuatemionilo! qt 9i q2. (P|act:lcla inmullirca fui q.| at q2
distributivitatealnmu[irii fap ale adunarela care se tine sealndde
datc pentlu i,j,& * seinmultettefiecarctemen al lui 4l cu fiecaretermen
lui {2, in aceasgodine).
q : a + b i+ c j + d k e H ,
i rrcr q=a-bi-cj-dlH
se numetle

lui q.
im tuDcfia i{:.FI--+R4, N(4):4. tr= o2+ b2+

normtr.

"2

+ a2, carese numeste

loc urmltogrea:

Reoiproc,s-a rtzut 0a grupul claselorde resturi modulo ,) cd dar},x eZn, x=6,

oxistl x-l eZ, penau(r,n):1. r

Defap Zn esteco4rdaclsi numaidacSU(2,"):2,"-16l-

{i,i,..., i'li}

Teolemtr.Tripl.rul (4, +, ) esteun co4r necomutariv

numircorpul
cuatenrlonllor.

aa"aEi

Scarat!utorce(H,+,, esta
inel(0=0+0t+0j+0t,1=l+0i+

numaidacd(rl,,t)=L r:i;=.
Ultima afihalie areloc dacd = p esteun nu$Er pdm.
'r
Evident (Zn, +,, estecorpcomutativ.
2) Corpul curternionilor. Fie iEC, unitatea
imaginar[ ( i2 : - 1). Consider{m.1,
,( doul obiecte
natemalice lntr cale intoducem o lnmulti
(ce prlungestcpe cea obiSnuitAdin C) astrell
i 2 : i 2 =p 2 '- - - 1 ,i i :- ji: k. jk-. kj _i.
Expresiaformaltra + bi + cj + dk, a,b,c,dek se
nume9te cuatemion. Fie II mutimea ffuror
cualemionilor.Evident CCI', pentru ce (V)zq,
CONTRIDTryI
.
tMb
M.r.lD
poate
contplqe
a+
bi,
a,b
se
z=
eR
scrie
z=a+bi+Oj+0kH.
Pe mullimea11 se
definescdoutropemtiiasdel:
1) Adunara cuatarnlonilor
Dac6ql= at + bti+qj +\k, q2= a2a 6ti 1""i * d2keH , afiIlr,t qr+q2:aia2 |
+(E+b2)i+(q+c2) j +(4+d2)k H reprezintl6uma
cuaremionilor
4t $i 42.
148

i + 0 *) .
arltlm cI {V)4 fl, 4 * 0 o8tcinvcrsabil.
q= a +bI +cj +dk*0, atunsioclpulinunuldinnumercle
4, ,, d,d rotenenul.

ntrrr$.N(q)= a2+ bz+

"2

n egalitdtilc:
C.fri=fri

+ d2>0 .
C=1, ceeace arartrc6 4 esreinversabit
ti

'=ffi=fr-ht-ft,i-ftren..
Corpurl pitr.tlce. Fie d.eL-tlj un lnteg liber de pitrate(decid nu se
vide prin petratulnici unui nufiit lntreg difeiit de unu). Definim mullimea
JAI= {o+bJAP,b eQ}, pe careseconsidedoperatiiteobiinuirede adunare
$i
ire a nunerlorcomplexe.
loc umdtoarea

Teorerntr.Triplen (O<.,41+,.) esteun corpcomutativ,numit corp

ptrtratlc.
149

Domonstro{le.
Severiticdugorc[ ldunarca
suntlegiintcmcpeQlJZl.
$ inmultirea
lntr-odcvdr
fie z1= a1+b1."1i,
z2= a2+bz.!i, zt,zzeQl$l. llurci
4 -z2 =a t-o 2 +(h h )JA eq/lJ;l
ti
422- ap2 | qbzd- (ah+ bta Jd eQIJTl
i0eluluicomutativ
Scvcrificeutoraxiomele
(OtJ7t.*. ;.
irt elemenflrluniare estc
Blcmentul nul este o:o+oQtn6l,

l = 1+oJ; erJ;l .
S[ verificdmcedaci z QhA], z 0, atunciz-l QtJ;l .
lntr-adevdr
fie z = a + bJA :z o. adicdasau, estenenulAtunci:
I
t
a-b"17
a
b
r :_-------------F----;-------r;,^.
z

a a b,ld

a, -b,d

a, _b,d

--;---Vs

a" _b.d

c vtvu

r'',
I

nu are solufii, dar in QIJII are solulia *:.]f

De exempluin Q eqalial2:2
Iattrde ce aparenatual plocesuldeextindercal uDuicorp.
Cetevaobservatiigeneraleasupmreguliloralecalculdina-uncorp.
hodusul aD-1, & * 0 cu a,, tr, semai scde$i subfomE de frac$e(saurapoft)

tiei bdt : de + bc.

abo.alat,anulprccealent,
sistemeledeecuatiiliniare cu coeficien! in Q, lR sau C .
asemenea
teoriadeterminanfiloramrealizat-opentxumatricedin ,{4 (Q), "44 0R)

M @ \.
nu ne lmpiedictracumde a lua ln locul acestornumerc(mlionale,reale sau
), elementedintr-uncorpcomutativarbitrarK
acesl caz. rezullaleleobfinule Eebuie erunFle in termenii corpului i'i

al,

matricelor pdtratice de oldin n cu coeficienti lntr-un corp a$itrar 1(

urt iDelde maaice 14 (K) , iar submultimeatuturormah-icelorA ,M, (tr)
care det(,4)*0 (elemenhrlnul al corpului ](), @onduce
la notiuneade grup
complet GL(,,,K) pe,(. Facandstr variezecoryul /< se poateobline natural
seiiade grupudimportante.

ile detipul Q, QtJ2l, lR etc,suntlngeneralnumitecorpurinumerice.corpul

r , p - pnm esteun exemplude corp nenumeric:at fi incorectstrnumimelementele

,1

n-*. seDsalecatpenru ,;.oeste solutiaunicd a ecualicl

,z ^
= -.a D
v.

( o|
ac
ac,
a
^
:-.4,o*u.
D..t ^ l ;l
- -=-.
- ui
Acesieasunt regulile uzualedin gilruuziu pent41oper4iile pe Q. Rationamentclo
carese fac pentrua le probaln cazulcorpului l<ti de operaliiledin K Aqa de pikll
pentru a obline a douarclatie dintre cele scdsemai sus se poateprocedaastfel: li(.
150

e$e unicasoluliea

un co4) comutativ oarecareK cu prccizareac6 in corpul

'b 1{ scrierea I

lau mai spunemcd Q esteun subcorpal corpuluipafatic QtJ71.

Abr:bc =+bd\+ y): da+bc ai dec t:r+y=4)!9

solutieiunuisistemliniar ti valodlefimctei dt vor apa4inecorpului

sc
numereptrtradce.
Pentruz=d b"ld Ql.vql numerutz:a-aJTcQIOl
nume$tecoqlugatul ptrtradc a lui z.
CorpulQtJTl esteoextinalereacorpului
Q (odcerQ sescrier=.r+0.,6eQJTl)

f,,...
b.r: d . Reguliledecalcul aleftacliilor suhtunndtoarelei
a c
a c ad,bc
^ | --:
au
i : d + ' ad :b..b ,d+ut i+ d=
bd-,b,d

$i rcspectivdJ=c. Atuncidbx=da,

Metoda lui Gauss de rczolvare a sistemelor de ecuatii liniarc. teoda

, formulele hi Crar$e!r6nlen valabile (ftuI modificari importante)

Severific[ceringaa2 - b2d
dacaa+o sa! b to.
-o
Numerefede forma a+b.,li. a,beQ[.,a|. a inrregliber de paEate,se numesc

Deci, ftaclia

soluliialeecualiilor,r:a

n=t,t:i

mullimii
numerepentr'nsinguraraliunecl uneorise ideritificacu elemeniele
p- ll.
0,1,...,
) Corpuri de mabice. ln celece urmeazlfie A un inel comutativin care lto
in loc de A se coNideril corpul comutativ ,<). Notim I4(A), r N* ,
mafiicelorpaftaticede ordin n cu elementeln inelul A.

cadoubmatriceX,Y e,\4n(A\,X :(aii), r : (4; ) sunteeaeaacb$inumai

a;;:b;;.11i.

i<n.

aceastd
mubimese definesccele doueoperaJiide adunaregi de inmul(ire a
, ex.crcair ca?ul14(Cl, adica:

l5l

oacex =('t1),v = (ta),x, YeU^ttt, urn"i v 1 v - (a4+ b4),r < i. r <,

t aikbkj.l .<i. j::n
r-l
rcprlzintitprcdusuldinre llratriceaX $imatriceaI tl aceastiordine.

Fcntrumullimc!.i4(A)

lnzeslfatAcu operagiilede adunarcgi lnrnullirc are loc

rrprczinttrsums matricelorX si Y. iar xY:(c,;).c4 -

1i6, 1 [ 6 i 4

rrcmoruFrern-Mr(zt)
untrlcete
x =li i il, v=13 i 31.
t_ _ -t

[2roJ

zero,llllrt Inelulmatricelorptrtr.atedeorditr n, cuelemente

dinA.

[2r 2 j

Do r0amcnca
drc! x eMGt, atuncidclinimdct$minaltu]matsiceiX, clcmcntul
(dtnA)j det(X)= E e(a)a6g1a26121.-ar61n1.
oSri

Dupl cum se obEclvi,doffnifa e8taceea$ca pcntru x e M@t , numgic! aicl

do
allmcntdcat6ft) apatdnineluluiA 9ievidantseafltrln accatimullimeproduscla
asdcldcclemonta
cngi sumeklor.
Au locpropdcttrlilo
cunorcutc
dch dotorminanli
demtrice din ,rt4 (C).
Eremplu. Co d.rldl rnetrlc.l. illn exempluld. nd ,u& crlcullm detcFrnlnrnnrl
br co re3ul.
lul Srllur OO cu ngulr trtrmghtulti(v),
|l 021

dci(x)=1i 3il =i .i .6+3.ii +

. i 6.6-(i .i . i. i. i. i+ 4 . 6 . 3 ) = i-=ii
^vom: 't... t2 101
102

3ii
ot!rvrmcI'kt(x) = i erretnvenrbll
ln za,i-r = i.

t6iil
det(r)=13
t 3l=6.i.1+i.3'i+3.i.i
i. t" *."r *,
-lt.2.r+i'.i.i+2.3.iJ=6-i=
dot(Y)=2nueol.lnvecbtllnZa,

O.

+, ) este un inel necomutltiv

gi cu dlvizori aI lui

t^ ^ ^l

li+6 6-i i*rl [i i 0l

nuna:
x+r=13+3
i+i i-31=li3 6lI
[i+i i+i 6+iJ [6 i iJ
i.i-6.i-i.i i.t-6.3'r.i]l0 3 tl
[i.6+6.3+i.i
xr=13.4-i.3-i.t
3'i+i'i+i.i3'i+i.3+i.il=li
i il.
i.i+i.i+6.i
t.i+i.3+6.iJ
6
[i.6+i,3+6.i
[3 iJ

t2 r 2 l

Teoremtr.FieA uninelcomutativ
cu I
Tripetr (rt(A),

ff;f;,T,i:*"

*omeleinelului'umandanalogia
verifictrrii
axiooelor

lru spulemcd elementulnul erte hatlicea One

M@) formatl,numaicu
mertullul 0 dind. Blemcntuluhitaiestematricea
notattr,n avendelesrentele
de
diagonala
principaltregalecu I (l .ste unitateaineluluiA), iar lest
elementele
h

esslc
cu0(oestc
clementul
nula.linelului
A),, -fl

i ... 3l

[;; 'l
1,= (6u)rsr, , *d. 6,j=

ee.nr']rfolo'im
'.dc,eu
.r,,
dmbolul

i<n

[;.i::l=_i

"

n tt!
ltd Krorreckr,r
continuarcvom prccizacoreEuntelemcntele
inverdabile
(unitqile saumahicele
) din '^4 (A) . Areloc urontoara:

Teorcmtr.
Fiex eMnG\. Murri"";t;

inu..ruuitr--llllffi

dacl det(X) est-elcmenr

invelssbillt inclulA.

Dec|u (M@))=
{x

u(A)}.
^4(.4)ldct(.r)

moDslratfe.Se plocedeazi,ca idee de lucru, ca

ln caz|l ,rvl(C) c'rrrd
y'4(C) esteiuversabilii
<+der(A)-o. (Aici A=C
U,'*", on""
".a "*
C, a-0 esteinveBabil),
X e MnG) o rDatriceinversabiltr.Deci cxisttr X-l e Mn6\ pentlu
care
:F'X =/n, Lulndtn aceasrtr
egalit4edeerminanrul
avem:
a(X. fl )=A (1,1<+

. , ,:\..
/ ,-- 1 1
pentrudetertunantir
+tdCt(X)AellX-'l=l- (amutilizalproprietatea
determinantul

produ$uluiesteegalcu produsuldetenninantilor).
ln A.
inversabil
Dc uicisededucece det(A) ,4 esteelemenr

4=li
t;:)[-;
4 t6

=
sorurr!
a= r(,, *rr)-t,
-01"*,rtr^-ly i, oy+r' = 0, ts.tearct

= -r(', +rr)-r

presupunem
in A. deci del( X ) U I A]
cade()Oes[eunelementinversabil
Rociproc,
Problm cdX esteinvelsabili construindX-1.
Tohnlcaesieaceeagicu ceautilizati in cazul "44 (C) .
ConStrucliainver6eilui x compofii nlmitoarele etapei
l) Con8truc$atraDspusell\l X, tX M(A\ (pdn schimbarealiniilor cu coloane),
din tX . inlocujndfiecareelemenl
2) Conrhucsaa4lonctelx* r4(A). Seob,tine
cu complementullui algebric:

( e6tecor!, lementulr2+r2alt Inve$h t(

dacn 12+r2 *6. ngcl r=y=6,
nd! nu arc un tnlrri. RrrDSne
de vertffcar
drcn ,2+y2*i
r,, r, r_6 sau
"u

*0 .

Z3 rc rerttto 12+ y2 * 6

hr"."a*r.
"e"a(,.r)* (6.0).
0t0 | llrl2t2

orlcc rDrhlce ncnull dln 52(23) ,ft o tnversl 9t ded (32(23),+,.) .t

cor?. DsI tn

tnversiX-r e M(A\ .
3)Conrtructla
x- '=ld e r( X)l ' X ' I4tA ).
Avom.
SoerrtlcdXX-': X-'X = 1, r.
Observade.Penal K corp avemc[ (,^4(I(), +,.) estecorp de matrice, dacl
+o .
(V )AeM( K ) . A+ o n
-d e (A )
l
llxonPlu
corptn
sr rrrrrn cr s2(() 6t
Flef,uncorpd
srrxr=ll ' 'll',r erl. Atuncl
lt-, rjl
)
r.port cD opemdfledo ldunare tl hmullre a mrtrlcelor pertru tr=23, q|r nu e6lecorp
N = Z!.
Dontru
Inlr.idovlr , rduDeray'lDmulthe-s
suntleg,decomporldelDlarnep 52(x) dln e$llt{ilel

lrr rrl+l12 rzl_l rr-rr

l-Jr 'rl

l-)2 rt,

t<Jt+r2)

r+)21-lrr rl.l r, ,21_l{.y2-rrr

4r2+r2rrl

rt+r2j t-Jl

{r2-)r)rl

rlj t-)2 12, l{{J!-rth)

cft 1) 52(23) slr noul elementei2) cmput adtdvnu ertctclci !) cruput nuldutcattv

dcnc

r. Sa.bfltgc.re dln nsHcele X,y M3(?9)

f ii3l

l rn 4

3 iJ,y=136 !l,stornvcrnurr.
-lA

laril [i;4

Cdcul&hp.nEufi..arc m.artccd.rcrminlnrut.
Avmjd.r(x)= 3 * aa1rl= ? .
jnvcrsabil
3 a2 nu $r!
rcrult! c! mariccaX nu crio invcrsabitI.Mairiccaf .ste jnveFabil!
i Zl2 csoc
invcrsabil
tn Zl2 . Dcrermintm
invcrsalui t

tn 0t
||0l
Elenenhrl
neurupentrusdun.Eeslel, : l. is pentrutnruldresre l" . | .

l o oJ

lo U

Eddnt' adunar$ ti lnmulF.. matrlcelor strnl

Drct MS2((),
rtunci -MS2(i{).
$oclauve, tD generrl, deci rinl.ln ls fel d ln acest caz, lomulthea eft dislribulil, ln raport ill
adunnreamatrtcelor.lnpeneral,trmultirEan.stdclornu 6le comut lvi,lnacsl@srern.n,
prln colcul, comutathliata iDDultit acBtor natrlce.

u].
,,.,upuo.,"
["
Ii
'l
x)
"n.u,n".u
l-y
-. "**n -,,"*" \-b dl

finsl

r- = 1 3t o l .
[66nJ

155

154
,.---

3)r,ryrMlul y.st y-l=i-lr",hnaoi-l=i

,,3t.b[f$ csredtr mltdcclc X,v eMiZt

[6 6
=
=lil
i
eidccrv-' tr.

rl

Demonstrullo.lnfi.un corp orice elenent nenul este inversabil,iar un clement

vcrsabilnupoatcfi divizoral 1uizerolntr-uninel,.

lra 3 l

run rnv*rUre unAcX=l

(-5]

- tl. = lt
3J " t0

;l

n, Dn nou s. cal.1 c{z! dctcrninantulfic.&Ei m!!ie si obtind:

d.(X). I, dc(Y)= 3.

clar cUnu oricodoroeniude iffegritate estecorp.

exemplu,il inelul iffegru (2, +, .), numai elemeniele1 $i -l sunt inve4abjle,
fu![ doneniuldeintegdtateertefinit, atuirciacestadevinecoi!. AvemurmEtoarca:
TeorNitr.OricedomeDiudc integriiatefinit esteconp.

NundmrEic.a.X
3ieinvcr$billrnt4(Z), dcosrece
t steelment
inversabil
ln Z,ln timpc3 nu
.r!. lnv.Bftil ln Z .
-^5lt
ftloulullnv.rs6iluix l) r/a,lJp*oruix.r,., 'x =[2.
t-l 3j

elEert arbitrar.Considerdm
mullimeaproduselorlaay aa2,.,,,aanl , Aceste

x !!,Etx'-l;
2,
^dlm.tatur

divizoriai lui zeto).Cumaai e A, (VJi $i suntdisti.ncte

dou! catedoutrprodusele,

;ll

luix c'tc:x-r=fa.,rxri-rx'=r.x'-fl ll.

5)LrvrEa
2)

\3
Obscrvalic.
Daci l.dt6 comiddrttrln ,\rz(Q) GEU,142(R) sau rtZ2(C)) atuncido(D = 3 estc
Invdftll ln Q (sru R Mu C) tt d.d ln !c.it! tnuldrdY st.lnv.sabtlI I

Dcttn$e. GrupulmultiplicativU(.^4(A)) al mairicclorinvcrsabilecu

cl.moDrcdininelulA 8enumcltclntpul llnlar dc ordlrul n Dslelnelul
A 9is. notcaz!GL(r,A),

DocicL(n,r)={x ,{4(A)ldd(x)
u(d)}.
ln cazul
ln care
A = 1(,capcomutativ,
stuncicj/L(n,K)=
{x eM@ ldet(x)* 0}

Fie.A,doedudeintgritare
frni| A: ldl, a2,...,anl,iar a e A, a * O,
sunttoatedisti[ete, deoatece&n aai = aai gi a + 0, rezulttr a;: aj (A nt
ctr. estefomattr din acesteproduse.ln particular,unitateainelului I este
din acesteproduse,adicd aal, =1, lentru u! anu[re dk. Cum lnmulrireain A
eomutativtr,avem aka = aak:l, uJicdak esteinversullui a. r
pune lntrbareadaci exista corpuri finite necomutative.Rispunsul e.stenegativ.
careafinntrc[ orlce corp fmit stecomutatiy a fost stabilit ln 1905si este
subnumelede teoremalui Weddedum.
Teoremtrt. Odce inte$eclie de subcorpuriale unui corp tr e6tesubcorp
al lui K
r ,l
Fie i& ')iat
o familiedesubcorpuri
alelui Kqi fie K': lt Ki.
'
| |
iel
celodoudpropdetdgide la caracterizarEa
unui subcotp.

Dac6r,t 1<',atuncisdartrtlhn
c5 r- y tr'.

DomenllledelntSrltatetl corpurlle
Amvtrzutc[ 6xist!inelecudivizoliai lui zero.ln cazulunuicoroacest
lucrunuaro

a, r'-

subcorp
rezult[x - ) 1(,,
n r; +.t,t 4, (V)t r. Crrm( este

)i e t, adicex- ye n Ki.

loc. AvemunDltoarca:

ieI

D.r;E x, y e K', \,

Teorerntr.Un qorpnu adqitedivizoli ai 1uizerc,adic[ din ,, ] f,

r* 0 , ) *0 + r J *0 ,
Decl,orlcecorpest domenludelntegrltrte,

156

0, atuncisdprobemcd .9,- I K' .

dinr,yK':-n

K; seobline
r,)r;,(V)t1.

rj cstesubcorp
a ur, seaauce.ry-l e 4, (V)ie I, adicary-l e lt Ki
ieI

t57

6. 8l .e rorolvaaLhinal.l
l P.r m A, r, natrlco drto nal 106,!l i. crlculoreA + 4 ,{ - 4 det(.4)rl rut8@).

o,o,^",oa,
,,=[l;J',={l
?J,
t),o,",a,,s,
N,,+
'^-[
1102 1

12l 0 l

lr1 3 1

l0 r 0 l

e*qrza
o e=li 3 il,a=lii 11,*n
u r-16i il,a=li i il.t,ae.,"stz5t;
[ 3 tij [ ii' l
Iti il
[ 63q

t. & |! rozolvG
ccur$llen.tdc.alcl

x'?=[
*'={il]",tz,r;sr
u
iJ';
"ura,rr
"=[i lwe$s nrtrlcol.{ d r.rolvl$ .cu.llafi.trlcaltrxa =,,l]"',,'r'
3. Sl .o crlculere
ln crrudle:

,^=[l
,."{l|,,=[;
1f,^,o,-",,n,,
il,o,",*,,,',
il,,=[l
Itiol

li6E

liii l

[6i,1

e=li 3 il,r=li 6 il,e,tet"rjtz5,

srr=li i il,r=li i il.e,ae.+qtzgt,rt

[;a iJ [ i3 ,J

l a i il

4. 6I.a romlveslstemele
deecu.Sl:

[L-r-" = i

[ z '+ 3 r+ . =3

t it q

l ,- it*i.= i

u] '-)y -z = i r o z 5 i z r ]i ,+i r+3 2 =i l n 2 6 :Jtl x .y+ 32=i

[,+r+i"=3
f'+iy-3,=i

.la,*3r'+i,=:

[i'+y-3"=3

ln ze;

Ii'+3y+iz=2
l--v+2,-e

l n 2 1 2 :sr
l r+i y+z=) rnz,:o li*- 6v k=i ia21.
=
=3
[i' +r +iz !
1l,+itt+z=)
[:,+iv+i"

r r ] 3 '* iy *. = i

5 sI ! rmlve tl dlsote sisienele:

l)

l-'+r+"=i
=

lr

3)

[,

25 , e z a t

l2x+ t +32=2

+it +"=i
11,
= 1. ln
+

+^z

1r 'ry
[ 3 . r +J+ 32 =3

li'

+^t+." =i

25.nezst4\ l r+3 J+z=2 rn Z s ' n e z s i

1 3 " +i y+4 =3

i lt Z6,n26,
fi'.1-'""=
s)

8f.6.r|t! cl ryflc.gffer* !=t+ r +2, ,.r= q+21r+J)+2 def4ntDlpemulgneres

nllonrleo.tludu
d. corpcmutrdv.
Vcrifidm axionrlccorpuhlcortutltiv.
(Q *) estesnp abelian, adicl au loc axionotrl
k s.d . dt asoctalya,aAtct(r* r) *. =.r * (y *
4, (V)r,y,. e. Inr-adcvtravoftl

r * y) *I = ( .r +y+ 2) * r =( r +r +2) +.+z -t+ r +.+4,

(t)

,' ,( ) ' ,!) =,*( ) +.

+ 2) =r +( y +..+2) +2= r +.+4,
'+
(1)
,r d.ducc c!
|

(2)

lcSoa .st6 aNoclativl.

d 0)
L1.a * .stc cornltatvd,6diclarcloc .gslirlt !.r*)-)*r,(V)ayeQ,

I x+y+2-t+x+Z\V)iy

pc Q !3r.c.tnutsritd(r+)=)+r),
Q, dloaruco
sdunsr.a

Ekna,inrcaru,S,
c[.xturi , Q alrbttrcli
(V)'re<+r+.+?=x(v)ree . oe
'[id,nt
'*r=E
=
, -2 Q 3tcol.ncnnrlneutu.
Elzn nt4 slndn tbiL. Sl arlrAmci pmiru ,Q, srbirnr atcs,cxistl'Q
lsrf.l tncet
rx' =ee x+ t'+2=-2+ t'=-4-:Q.D.ciodce,Q ft ursheric,'--4-rQ.
(Q - {-2},
abelian, adici s. v.!ific[ axlonoelel
")estesrop
Apl nlo 6 est.leg. d. tuhpozitlepe Q - l'21,
lv)',y Q - {-2}.+ x. l Q - l-2}.
^diLc6

r.rQ-l-21<+a, eQ- l-21,xcyr -2a+r,teQ-l-21,xr+zlx+ r) +2*-2,+

ty e Q-{-21, ('+2)(}+ 2)+ 0, evidenr

t sea6 .steas@iand,(x"1).2:.r"(y"z),(v),,y,zee

{-2}. Avmsuccaiv:

(r.v)'z: l"r+ z('+r)+ zl.z:l.y +z(r+y)+ zlz+ 2lxy

+ 2('+ r)+2+zl+2:

+ t -1-"=it

+DJ+z 2 b zs,'nezst2)

+zl=2
=0
[ , + r + iz - i
lrtJ
l 3 r+ 3 J + 4 2
=i In4 tD
l) 1,2+r2+322
=3
l t( .- xl = i h 2 6 r r l ' 2 + r 2 + i z2 1a2t.
["3+r!+i"3= 2
[.k- r ) = l
["+ r 2 + l zr = 3

"z+
( l)
+2( r y+{ + r z) + 4( r +) +.) +6,
a,(t " z): x.pz+z(t+ z)r2l: xllz+ 2(y+ z)+ 2]+zlx+ y+z(y + z)+z]+z: xyz
+
4(r+, + 2)+6,(2J.
+2('r+ rz+rzJ+
(l) 9i (2) ! deduceErocistiviEle3legii . .

r")=(r+rxy+2)-2

s-a!fi scrismaisinplu:
eiatunci

(r'r)."-[(,+z)(rtz)-2). z=(x+ y)\!+2)(z+2)*2 er''.

t2su

. ak comutdtiva.deosiec. x, y = ). r, (v)r,y Q - I -2t {='r - 2(, - y) - 2 =

.x+2(r+,)+2,(v)r,yeQ-{-2l,advlratd.acrtinemseamac!,sdurareaqilomultireapeQ

l 2 . r + sr +2 != l
[ r + t Jr - r - 5

t5 8

159

Oi EhMntuln utru(nlts]6:).
Ar|llmc!.xlrrt ! Q - l-21 alrfctlbctt
r.! =a (V)r{ie-l-2} . Daicl
I'r + 2(r+'r)+ 2=, !(.r+ 2)- -(r+ 2)l+!=-lQ-(-2).
Ot) E|]l,,nta slh.ttixaule,Ftc,Q-{-2}
. S[ ar6tlmcI exist!
asifeltnc0r
"eQ-{-21
2t+3
D.dclrv.m:i,"+2(.r+r")+2=

r+2

ltbuto \,.dftcrt cI .r"Q-l-21, Bvidlrlr r"Q. Rjlm&Es! arlqm c! r'

r. -2.t-3* -2,-4, vid.nt,
lq) SI vodficlmdistribudlitalea
lecii o in mlon cu * ! adicn$ a$t!m cr

(v),,v',
ee.

- -2# -=::,

'.(y*

_2.+.

z): (r. y)*(,t" 4.

d,r d ,. y e lR.R[|nnn
d!dficar
d.rortl2r,
r,y+ l ral tl :-1 , ) - l- 0. D. ci

c - 3: 0

} R - {U.

-2(t+t)+c * r <+2(r-l)(r -l)*3-c.

d! c=3.

LSii ,,. " severificapnncdcul.

De obicei iElo8tri p ametrului c sc dcle.minl din ccrinF dc .sociadviraie sau
a lgii ..
Con ltivilaoealegii ,, o " s. vodfrcl Wor.
EIew ut neuttu (Uii.itttr)dW

,,"" 6E

3
2

Elenvnte siwti?abile. Penttt .r R - {l}, xisu r' R - {1} pent$ carc r. i'=

Calcuhm filcarc membruqi avemr

r' ( ) * z ) =.t"( '+ z+ 2) =r(r + z+2)+2(r+t + z+2J+2= x r+ ' z + 4 x+ 2 y+ 2 2+ 6 , (1 )

It

(r. y)-(, " z): [', + 2(,+ ]) +t)*lu+z(x+ z)+zl=a +2(x+y)+2+& +2(,+ z)+2+2=
(2 \.
r!! tz - 4, - 2y _22! 6.
Dln (l) 9l (2rEall! eg.lit teapropust,
Olm c.lo ti axiorrFKJ, Kt, &) 3"arvdificsr rudd critdpbd (O *,') esteu corpcomutariv.
XP! md$mea r $thoDsc doul lei

(n-{l),.) *r. ru .'t'etun,.dict scv.dlicr uionlcl

' 'r'
Apltcalia,,a'.n. h8e deconpozil' F R - { I }, adic{din r,} R - {l} +,.

're

corqozili r +r =ac +br -\

-:.

De aici

#=i'n-n''

Prin calcul savrificl dhtributivitater legii ,, . " in raportcu legea,, * ". Acum puten conclu?ionac5
(R,*,, es&corpconutltiv

.e*rtecr,-lrrnea
* =1,* =( ;'

u,uare,re
1,Jl.r.o]*"--. ". op.r"r'e
"

d rnmulttrca nstrlcelor fonnerri un corpcomotsdv.

r. r =2xr -2lx + rl+.,

flce verifisa arjonEld corpului@mutrtiv.

I
r , r , c R.
SI !e d.r.mlneruDereiec,,, c .$tel tocea
Hplet {R,*, .l st tlecorpcomutadv.

(r, f) qte erupab.tian.

Adunana ene legede conpoile pe K , adid (vlMd,r,M,,, etc.+Md,b+M,.r<K.

R. St ln acstcl" severificl cletEi ixiore &, Kr, & diDdefitritiaerpului @rutativ.

Kr) (R, *) cstegrupabelian,adicnau bc uiomle:
o) t2sea * este
aaio (.r y)* z = r* (r* z), (v)ar,z e R . scrid explicitesalitatq$i
^ftidtivd,
obd n cm:(d+ r ) - 1) *z =
x * (d y + b z -t\.(v ),.r.z e R .
s au a (dx+ ,l - r) + ,z - r : @ rr

+r(ay+rz-l)-L (V)&),2
R.

a 1."[.rr
r ], I
*"^,*",0*r.'=ltf,O
a- b)
r-

b+y l
fa+r +r +)
a- b+r - y )
r J t b+)

| Y

l"totdeauna adunarca ,stic.lor p. M1(Qt

C laz(Q) adunareava avel acstepropri.ittfi.

esre asociativAti conutativd. Dfjci g, pe

ElenqtuIna&L S, d:Nr dxisdl Mq4 rc 4i.tdld<& Mab+Mqe=M4b.\V)Ma,beK. D.

D.

ft^lrA

M a&r,b+4:

Mar,\Y)M ab eK - Cnm Ma,b=M,,r<+la:

rlir:y)

rzdtn

neutrue$e0n:02e,C.
+.t=o 1i b+e2=b sauq:!z = 0. A{ad{elenentul
ei lasu * 6E @nltatiyd,
:*y:y**,(V)r,yeR<+a+ry-l:ar+rx
^di.A
adcvtuaddeoarxea , de nai sus.
Oi Elehetuut
ta.tm. St g6timeR penduc{r i*e=r,[V),m.DE.ici
a, = I +x-a!

1,(V)r)le,

ar+..-l:a(v)reR

t6 0

sihetnzabih.P.'frtt Ma,berc

s! eurlm.!

difi

Ma,,b.erc

+ Md'i : Mor <+M a+a't+r.:i10,0 <+(a+a :0 i, + b' :o) a+(o': -a, b' = - r ) . D " " i
srtr

Cxm lmenhrlneutrual bgn * es|eunic (dsi nu depiftle de x) tEbuie cr

=
=
a l, cende 1.Tintudsanadecelcdemaistlsaven z:r:1.
Dcilseaeste.r*, = r+ ) - l.
O) Ele tzrte sinetizttbile. Pentru rlR, arbiEar ales, sn arfinm c5 exisra f,'lR astfel lnclll
r +r'=f r . r '
l= lat = 2
r.1 R . D e .i o ri c erc R e sresi nemzabil nl 6pon o l eS ea- t
ar! rlmctricol.r'= 2-r.
(V)iR.

Eltutt

(lu1

M^ n e K e

M - a , - b e K .s d i cM
, -,..b=1"_b

ri

_._rl--u.1

t"p*

Ma.D). Era d,eEtepa @s @ltal liindcl av.m aduD@ obiinuiA pc rc . cbmentul reuru
(tC-{Oz},.)

esteemp abetim.Dei vdifi..m diorele sdpului-

l6l

O) lnnullt acavt s. d. conpo.ttt.

pa K-lotl,'d]tcr (v )M

",b,

M ,,e e K - lo 2l !,

,4= I0,l, d.rl. Prdupunom

cI ccualiaf + r+ I =0 lrc rolulioIn A. &t. vizlbilc[ 0 nu
solutic.Nict I nu catcsolulicpcntruc! ln accs!incl I + 1+ I +1=0 ((,4,+) fiind 8rup,dunci
gc) l+ l+ 1+ I E0). Pc de.lt! p6ne l+l+ I =0, iff din ultnrdc r.lalii dcduccn I =O f8ls. Fic a

l(ar+2br)+bx+at\ bx+av l
M*-2bt'b.ateK
-f
*+ov
^-u -1L+a4l-

Or)Inrotd.auna
bnugrca natrtaelot,tt aloabnrdp. M2(e). Decirlm.ench fol ii pe
'c.
Or) Pin cdclnsc ,fttl c! hru&na nsrlN.br .stecorututvdW,Er.A Mar.Mr,r=Mq+?hrt4+a
I
Mx.r'M ab Mtu+2yb,ye+$apois. ii. sallrd. cgalitatc!a dounnutric.
O., Elntrtut heltn (\aiw.\. Trebuiesi g!6im Mllrj2 K-lA2l att*,t|tr,artMa,b.M,t!z: Md,r,
("t)M..beK- lo2l.
ESrliEta se mAi det M ut+2buz.but = Ma,b w de
ave'nsisrlmull:, '.*r-.",
-@2
^ci
lbnr+au2=h'
(v)a,,c Q.a:0 sAu
r' 0.
Or'imuror!r -I i /2 =0. Dqi etenenmt t'r o inauruieste,tt16= I 0j "r.:.
|

a.outii. Decia2+a+l=0, Ar.nna+t=b, doaFrea

+1*0((-1)2+ (-1)+1:0<+t =0) .
1*1(a * 0),a+1+ a (l * 0),rt''. az+a+t-'
sd.ducea(. +1)= -l qid.i a, = 1, c.acc
da9i,sun inrcrsabilo
prsrFmem
ln,{,.diclA est oory.Rciproq
c! r{-{0,1,a,,} aricc.rp.
,{r = {1,a, ,} stc8rupnultiplicadv Am \d,lt Ia gruFri izomorfecI oricegflp qr tei lernentste
cu gruFn ndtlplioativ 6l rai .inilor do ordinul rei d. unit!$i ln care once elcmentr vdificl

y ' = r. ln pa n i c u l a r u r : 1e. s r 2 3 - r = 1 a - r ) ( " t - , - r ) = 0 . c u m d + r r c a r r i

+ a + l= 0 ,
(x,+, ) utrcorprt a,, doollenente
rthtlrct
dln r-{0}. DacAa+r=a-r+r-r=1,
ct a=t-r j b=o-r

a)" +t(;1")=

e) Hedente sinttiubib (inve$abil)Remaidmc[ estetniaultireaobignuitnd nahicelor, I

of Entulunirate
$re chid n rriceaunihrc 12.DwrnMoreK-lo2l,anncj Ma,,b,eK-l(hl
slmcniculfui Ma, cohcidecu inversa,dolrece trebuicsn N6: M 4.b.Ma,r, = 12.Ai ftsjLttctr
n4.., cstc invesabilr daci aa(A..r)="2

"

+t =t.De aicir"ult*a=b-t qi b:a-r.

d wnltoqrcl denumlrl[rprunl cu oper.fiileobttnrttedeadunsretl totbulflresuna

-18 *O, cela ce-i adevlr&t, clci tn caz con$ar dtr

0t2) t4+rJ5la,rQ)r '

o2 -zb2=o si,

.1,,
0 (d.cra = 0,atunci
,=0-Mo.odrc-tql)rc^r^"-!
*" ib 'a
fals pentruct mmbrul
stanSerteun nuntr r4ionaliff ctdrcpt.sre ir4ional.c!!im utor (|
M;.1=M .
-6 eK.

jnt'7n,

Altlel din M4,b Ma,t, : M1,0* rc lt5 M@,+2bb,ab,,+t

, : ttto , adicnsisrennjllaa'+zbb'=tltl
sotufad'-=--.r'r-' r.
4.2b.a.2b.
Kr) Innultireamricelor sreinbtdeaumdisrribu$ve
ln npon cuadundea
1or$i de.i rdmene
h fel $i I,r
K.
ohserraltePenE!psfle ad,oua
oftiEcddledin tr!:,)s-& fi prcceddnar uqordde seremca tsprdt. I
rr n) ft 1)
u
i rl'', _t] l=d/2 +rJ, unde
J e vopna'la J2 - 2r2.
"t "l\"" i']
\t
4r Fle / un Inel cu pstnr elelnentc.tuItof cI A estun corp dscn tt numai dact ecxrth
t'+.t+1=0 rrt o rldlclnttD,{.

162

1i 6.o=tr---\ri +.-1)'-

Ate'"t a b=a.t.b= alnt +t-1)t=l*a)t+'lt-tl:61o=1

3)ta+rrla,rcQ]
i

4) {4+rftild., e Q}!

-'.;'s.,,0.
*}' o {.+*!i+"XlP,r,"
*"1"=
eal.
{,
Arita$ cI ullnlioortle muuml de m.ddcetnpreun! cu oFratille obl |lltt

de adu'are $

-')1.,,.a}'.,
?)1",."1',
{['i',i,1.,,.
ft
.111|,,
:11.,..},,
.:,J1.',..]'"'ft
{g
{{:
ftlll"..|il

T'
It,

l{l tt"
ffi;],t:

f
!..
1
li illlllc,'r,r2tzyt,
ro,le,,r=1i..' lleet"r2t4rlt"'l
o,l

r, [1

-,

,'{[

a 4

Jl"..l,
ll;
,r ll'

-dll

.n,,0,",r
a"1.

d a -bll

-c

all

t63

.r.Arltr cI urmtto.rctcnutdmltlnprounrcusp c!flfleconstde.ste

tn d.eprutto, Bunrcomurt:
l) l i r + ,= t J - 4 ,r .r = ry_{(r *r)+20;(R,..4r
l) (0,@)i
r+r =r/,r.)=rrtr,r k0,oo),.,.)l
t) lr r i] = r+J -2, ro) = 2lJ-4{r+J)+rq (R,*,4;
.)tc={.f.![-+Rl,f.(r)=ar,aR],(/+c)(r)=t(r)+s(r),(.f.sxr)=t(s(,));(rc,+,tr
I

r----a

r) rc=fd :r--'R|"qrat''=[f ',!i_ol

t'pro'no{duDsraecomp,staru'"tlor.

6)cir.r=r+J-t, ror=,'irr+,'(r+r)+r(t_.fn ec.,(c,*,.);

rl rr'*y =fi-,+r,r, =,r,(&r.).

".r

.rFrd rnpreunrcuoFrltirtecomrderat
tu d$prurrorsunrco.purl
$l;int":n "'trt.,""*"
o A x a; (.,r)+(",,r)= (" +d',b+ b,),(a,b).(a',b'l=(@,+2bb,,
ab,+a,b),,
2) r x af (.,r)+ (a',r')= (a+a,,b+ b'),(4,b).(a',b'l= (aa'- bb,,ab,+t b).
5. Ir. a,tRrl legltede conpodlc t!t=@+b!-2,,'rr=rr_2{,ry)+r.

Se rc

d6t6nrlaled,, affl lndt.rtpletot (R, r, r) d fie corp.

Ir
..rl
l
6. 1) tc=ll--- i['.rezrl
t'op*-r * opersdile
d sd'lIift rt tnnurrirer mrrricerorsro
tr'' '4
I
2) Fr6nutdrn.t ={[1

tripretur(rc.+.J eteu, orp co,nurariv

cu4,,
']1..r.r"].
tl--' .,1
| ^rr.!d

7. Fh r mdflmer tuturor m.ricelor Ud, ,A4(R) defortrt. :

_b
,
b ]
[_n

u"n=| b

.4._b .l ,. , a e n .

t dD4_t )

Sr x. ante cI odunaftatl hmrl6re{ ndrtcetor dtmi[I pe rc o strucalrr decorpcorrurafv.

Ji.8c.nddr! i( = {0,r,a,r} uncoryorpaku d.tute Sr sesErecI: 1)a, I =rd;2) at =b,a. = | ,
d2 tc+l = 0 i 3) I + 1- 0;4) SI sefacl tabhile eiturarepentruIc

2.3.MORFISME$I IZOMORFISMEDE INELE

$I CORPURI

vom cereca izomorfrsmul(morfismul)sd conserveacesteoperatii.Mai precis

urmdtoarca:
MDItie. Fie (A,+,, 9i (A', O, O)dou[ inele.O apticafie/:A + A'
s numeqte mor66m (sau omomorllsm) de lnele dac6 satisface
urmtrtqarele
doui condilii:
1) 1(, + t) = /("r) @/()) , pentruoricer,, A;
2) f (xt\= f Q\O f (y), pentruoricer,) A.
l) Din defi[ilie lezuld cI odce morfism de inele estesi un morfi6m de
de la g pul aditiv al lui 4 la gupul aditiv al lui A'. Atunci, dac6 / : A + A'

, mofismdeinele,dinFopriettrlilrnorfirmelordcgropuri,lezultii
/t0) =g (ude 0 esteelemennrl
rul al lui A, iat 0, esteelcmentulnul .l lui A,)
sihplu c[ uDrDorfismdc inele,duce.'eldentul nul in elemeDtulnul)

opusuluiprinmorfismesteopusulimaginii).
f(-t) =-/(r), (V)iA (imaginea
PenEU
ineleleA Si A'din conditia2) nu s pootededucE
ce /0)=l' (l esre
unitatopeftruA, iar l' esteclcmentulunitateal lui A'), Dac6ln Dlus,4'este
deintegritate,
atunci/(l)=1', r
Deflnlfle. Fic (A, +, ) 9i (A', e, o)douEinele.Un morfismde inele
/ :A+ A' cu poprietatea/(l) =1'
s nudE$ morllsm unltrr d inele (1, lespectiv 1, sunt elementelc
unit te din,{ 9i respectivA'),
morftsm de inele de la un inel la el irsugi se l|]megte .ndomorllsm al inlului
a douEmorfi$ne de ineleestelncd modisfi de inelc (Verificati!).
r. neA dA"iour lneL"ApIcrF /:4 -r ,' dedrtrlpdn J(r)=0',(V)r,1
deIn le, nomtt norfismulnul 8! v.dncl utor c.lc doul condt dh dtlddel

/(r+r)= 0'=o'e0,=/(')otO), (vlr,J,{ F

/(xr)=0'=0'o0'=
t(r)o I (t),lvJx,re
^,
ne,{ |tl lmf, Apftcgr ldnttcr tatA-+A,lAG)=x
rdonornllldor

Conceptulde izomorfism(morfism)de la grupuripoatefi aplicatla fel de bine la itu:|ll

9i corpuri. Dfinitia care urmeaz! este o extindere a conceptului ale izomorfisll
(morfi$rh)dc gnrpuri.Deoarece
ln definiliainelului5i a corpjui sunldou6opefrljl

t64

e!r. rD

.dc un mortum udler de Inde,

lul ?{.

honau z[Ji]. rtnnurpnc4'r

norlbn d. Ind. p.DtrucI rwmr

p,t" 11.+t"El=.-tJi
'zlJzl.+zf,til *l,'ilu
-a

l6t

r, !(l+LJi +a2+bt\E)=
/("r +cr+(q+4)Jll=alq-ltr+t)Ji
+lo2- brJr)=r\q+\Jr\+ tl"2+trJzl

=hr..tfi\ t

zt t (lu+ n'E)l'z+tz{z)l=f (atz+zra +l"n +

=
.
"*rl"lri| a'.,+r4h- ("h +a*lJi
=n@ - \.lil {u,(l a - tl = (.,- {zq)|",- {uz)= t * tJiJ ("2 oz,E).
r lt
"

a. Apnclfa/ :(2,+,r-) (2,, +,.),,> 2,, N,t(r)= r, crreun norlbm de Inel, nunll
mornsnulc.nodc lntr-aderr !e.ln|

r),r(.x+r)=;;l=;+i = t@\+for,(vl,,rEz $
2J!(trt=6 = ii = !kv(r), (v)r.r2.
Dacd/arc proprietateparticuhd, atuncimorfismulsenume$teconformumitoarclor

Ihnnifil. f) Un morfrsmde inete f:A-A

ldecdv, dacI/esteinjecdJ6.

3) Un morftsmde inele / : d a A, se nume$telzohorflsm, dacef este

bijectivi.

r' Fh l{ u[ lnl. Aplc4la litntlct t/ : ,{ .,1,tA (.r) = r de un aoromor0smol

-+
A. Am srltrI nul $.|3(exmplul3))cI 1r esreendonorflsnal Inelulutt. Cum t/ esteo
biie.{iv!, sdducecn r,{ .sle tomorfismsl iDetutulA.

n|[c& / : (2,+,.)-+(2,,+,r, ,f(r) = i, (v), z e,reunr$rflmsu.jcdv

detnre.
Mor6"-ut / zhAl.+ z[./5], t(. +uE)=. -nJz *,e b{c{vdoarcrste
tderiv, ldjcr
'

f ln+UJl)= tl"r+t2Ji)+ar-ttJi

q=r, cea
cedr
-a"-tr,!i.>at=az $

+b\Jr=oz+b2\lr.

t.lcctdada+rJ2=a+b'J2,r,o,,b,b,eZ,*Ed

ryM (b-b')\E=a-a, rtunctdrci ,*r,,.-",

4 = d',, = r,, deoarec

sciird retat

"qr*

-ffi,

rarsdeoar

hdmpe

=d,.Re.iFocresrcim.diarr).
Q,Dd, =r' rtaturcleyidentd
ffi
t srrJectiv!dosrece
pntruz =a +rO, rtumi exts'nz =" -tnE ezlJi] pl']t"

f@)=2.

I)tfini0e.Fie (r, +, .) $i (r,, @,o) dou!co+uri.o aplicaJie

/ : r + r'
senumette:
a) morfismdecorpud dactri
I) f('+ y\= f(,) @f (y),(v)x,r e rl .

2)f (xy\= f(,)a f O),(v)r,y r.

b) izomorns.nr
decorpuri.daca
l)/este horfismdecorpuri;
2)/esrebijectiv.
Sf,lclihem concptulimport4ntdeizomodismdeinele.
Aplicalia / : A + A' esteizomorllsrn de lnele dac*
I ) /este modism de inele;
2)/estebiiectivE.
Dacedou5inelesuit izomorfe,atuncigrupnrileaditive (e, +), (e', e) suntizomortc,
iar monoizii (A, .), (Ai o) suntde asemenea
izomorfi.
Se verific5faptulcA mo!fismulde inele /:A+A'
edtei4ljectivdactrKerf :{01
( Ker / = {r llF(r)
O'}senurnestenucleulmorftsmuluir.
Un izomodism de la inelul A la el lnsugi sg numegteautomorffsm. Compunercarr
doutrizomorfismede ineleestelncll izomorfrsmde iiele (Vedfica$ !).

t66

din definitia de la a) ci morfisrnul de corpuri fiind lm morfism inte

ii de integritateavem /(1) =1'.
morfismde corpuride la un corpla el insuqise numestpendomorfsm al acelui

izomorfismd corpuri de la un corp la el lnsuti senumetteautomorftsm al acelui

r. Aplica{t / | Q -+ C, ,(r) = r edeun mrfsrn dcoryui rumlt norfisnur.imtuiune
Aplcrtls t:c-+C,t(z)=U
es,eurautonornsnal lut C (ve.ificadD.

Teoremtr.Oricemorfismde corpuriesteinjectiv.

167

l)onronslrs(lc,
Fic / rK + (' un moffismde corpuri.Fie r,J) K pentnrcfl!
A ve m/(z)=/( .r + ( - y) ) = ,f( r ) +"f( - y) , r(* )= "f( y ) . N o td m.:x-).
= I G ') 1 G f ( y D =I tx, F (-/(.r))=0 '.
yk)f e-t):o'f (z l):0', conEadicltr
Dac[z*0, anrnci
t':71t5= 76-\:
dcoarece
l'- 0' . Decid:0, adicl-x: ], ceeaceinsearnn!
celesteinjectiv.
(subcoryurilor)
Comportarea
subinelelor
la morfismede inele(corpuri)estedat?t,(lF
urm6to.lea
TeoreEL* Fie /:A+,4'
un modism de inele (respectivde corpuri).
Atunci:
1) Pontsuorice subinol(respectivsubcorp)I al lui A, multimeaB'=/
(8) esis $ubinel(respcativsubcorp)al lui .A';ln particular Im/ = /(A)
estesubinel(respectivsubcoip)al lui A'.
2) Daci / esie horfism injectiv, atunci ,4 esteizohorf cu un subinel
(rerpectivsubcolp)al lui B.

.f('r y)- "r(r)+ /(l), (v)',Jz'

(v)r,) z.
,f(ry):"f(.r).f()),

vorificar.acondtri.il) analidmcazunte:
+ ) csicPar)9i
lnaegipue (.t, ) e 2Z).Alullcir tG + y)= 6 (dcoarcc.'r
,,) numrc
l)oreloc
111y;=d+d-0.ucoitnacestcar,

xe2z,te2z+I Atuncir(r+ )) - i G+y'3t'inpar)qr

dtfcrit. sA spwlarn
r,rz d! parirlli

+ l0 ) = 0 + i- i.

rp.sl c!2, l) s. vdf,ci.Anatog se|Iatil.zl c znl x ezz + L ! e2z

(a) z+l). A\!in:/(r+)) =0k + ) .!tps) $ /(r+/0)=i+i=0,

,,) nunE!thle8timpsJ!

ccoa

ci l) a'c loc,

acelc!$o,ruti.
v.dficarcncouditioi2) scanslir.$2tr
!) ty22, /(.t )=0 qi /(t)-fo)= 0 0 = 0 , adict2)ar. loc,

2)s. vrtfic{.
.2Z tl te2z+1clnd /(4,)=0 d l(.t)/())-6 i = 0, adtc{
lbtD-i ei /(rU0)= i.i -i, d dtnnou2)a.!loc.
r.2z+t,iM
rllf.ls

n .e cudd.rl olrnrdll.: r T J = t+)-1'

t I J = r+, -rry. SI $ oralecl

T,l-)6t ln l tronortcu(R,+, , Drlnt:R-+n,"f(x)=r-,

'

deitucgdtatc
L&trmln scamrcititoruluisl vorificocI itiplotul (R, T, I) alr undomantu

Oboervaiit. 1) hi6o afirmalie din teoremtrse poatefomula astfel: imagineaunll

Bubinel(subcorp)printr-un horfism de inele (coryuri) este de asemeneaun subinol
(subcorp).
Partcaa douaa teoremciafumt c[ inelul (coQul) A se.po.tescufundaizomod intr-un
subinel(subcorp)al lui B pd!ts-un morfisminjeativ,
Demonstralle.*1) Dacdsetaduce modismul de inele (corpuri)ln limbaj de mo.fi$
dc grupuriadinve(/:(A, +)--(,t: e)) 9i morfismdemonoizi(/:(A, )- (A', o)),
iar subinelulI al lui A c. subgrupal lui (A. +) $i respectiv
monoidal lui (A. ) gi rc
line seamade propozitia de la modisme de grupud ti monoizi confom cerch
irnagircaunui subgrupal lui (A, +) prin/este subgflrpa1ltd (A', e) 9i imagineaunut
nonoid al lui (,4,.) e6tetot monoidal lui (A', O) demorstratialui l) esteimediatd.
2) DactrA cstemorfi$n injectiv de inele, atunci 4 = kn"f (lm/este subinel(subcor|)
al luiA).
ln consecinlxla 2), dacd"f :K+K'
estemorfism inje.tiv de corpuri, corpul ]( ertr
izomorf cu un subcorpal lui /f.

f .srEmr.drpflcr$! t rz-2",

tr,n=l!'d'"''

*tF

lLdrclr e3L l|nptr

R.Trcbuic.! v.dllolm .!lo dou! conditii al. morfismuluid. inelc.

""*lno.[r.

d"in"l".

mc{ /:R + R, /(,) = 1-.x cscizonorr'sn de inele 1trbui.sl vriliclft cn:

nrfiaiarFmorfi sn deineldacl:

('r))=/G)+/(y).(v)r)R, b)/('l-y)=/(r)"f(y),(v)nveR.
a).Avm
/(rr r) = l(,+ y-r) = 1-(,+r -1)=2-.x- ) = l -r+l - ): t(:t)+ lO)
b).Aven:/Ory) -J6+)-ry):l-{r+r- rr)=t-r-r +ry=(r- t)(l- ))-/(ry(})

n 6) ti b) au fost vrificae dlduceln cltst tnorfrsmde idele'

s; 9dec! stbijectiv!dacn', 0 Decild cazulrostru
fu'"fra iiniao /:R-R,l(i)=a+r
2) au fost verificate zult! cn J
- l, , = 1 , tumfia / cste ti bijectivi. D@ec, cond$ile 1) ti
!lz.{z! izomorfisrul lntre celedonl inele.
6
Z !etla6nscadL!flI:.}. J=r+t-2't']=ry-2(r+,)f
fonxrl$rHnurtrdnrdegt
o! c.rE deylDe ito alu & lnieCitate SI se rrlte cI rlcm l'onn||slnul de lnele

., 4-(2, +,.) ddde,f(r) = d,+P.

incle are
Scallia utor cI tipletul (2, *, q)esreun dotrtriu de integitaie AsDci qtim cn motfismul de
*
iar
!o este
elemmtulneutruln mportcu lese '
J(a*)=0 9i /(x.)=1, unde
'*,.ste
ujtrte al joelului (in raporto a doualege d).

\trr{lt

izomomsn de inele,
J 17.a 7', f GJ = r - 2. Prob5n cifste
'dicd:

169
168

Anrma u I) ro vc.ific!drcdrvcrnl

r)
/) - /c)+/(/), (V).r,y
z I d b) /(.r"r)=/(r)./('). (v)ayz.
""(.t*
lnrr-adcvrr
pcntru
a) avcm:J(.y*))=/(r+l -z)=\x+,_2\_z=a+r_4:(,-2)+lr
An o S ^p n fr
b )use o btinq/(r./)=/(x!
= (r - z)lt - z): | (,)f (r.).

2x_2 , + 6 )= (, r_ 2 x .

2)-

2 , + 6 )_ 2

D.moDsrnn2). Aplicatia/esre
bijec$!d d&dr a,)/esreInJeuv,g b r/esrasurjsrive.
vcrj fi cdma' ' . F unc t ia
/ e s l ei o j e n i v dd a c ad i ; l n _ t,y t.,. " .2_,_' r"
o* .
f,,, f,r,,,
& x-2 = y - 2. DeaiLc r r= y .
tunqia/este s eaivn dacelentru o.ice z (codoneniu)
exis6 , z (domeni!) asr,cl
r
:citiu-b),
Din /(t)=

r = t + 2 e2 .

.ezult! , - 2 = y , adic! r=),+2,

acesrafiind lementulciutar. Evidonl

Din cclc de mli susrezulii ci inelelesuntizonbrfe.

4.tur,rd
c!rdde(.a=rr-rJ:l,,,z].+,.).
["{,=fij-'lll,.r.r}.,,.1, ,,. _*
I
)
i"o.""'.rJ "
R. 5c ama u{or c! rripterete respecrive
"*n
",,r1,de inreerilale. Apticaua cde reati/eali
sunt donenji
-O-.
odlrnr.cari tnr,utttrsrzustro"

iromofismurdeinereesr/:e-.a,',
trf.1kno6shd. n k ei 2) I.n.
Afirmiia 1r seozdue pr,n

**,

tA+y6l=l!

l')

yl.
evenoe verincatca:
rl

bii.niva.

rJ lkt + z2\= I Qi + fk). (v)zt,22e.4.,

b) ! (422t= J 6\. I e), (v)4,z2e A .
v.rifi cdma).Fiezr: rr + I J5,z2= x2+ y2,$, 21,
x26 4. 6y651

Afirinaia2) inseamnn
si ,jftrin ca !)/es!e i4i.ctild qib,)restesurjetivn.
Prcblma). Fie z1= 4 + yli, z2:,2 + y2\8, 21,
22 A peint catef (z; = f g2r.

,,J.i* o"
_a ,,
"i., a

21: 4.

r"

vc , i n c dr h b r Pi eA- l -.\
;'J(,{.A rumre,,rsaz=r
p n ru
c s re, r? )_ , 4 .De c , rc , r, ,
".6, , r
,urj.criva.In onctuzie/esreizomorfism
de bere.

170

c(l0,ll) + t(o,U)

un asfel deizomorfism.
coNidqnn "f D(lo,ll), /(r) = J. Din I' surjcriva
c! ensd sC({0,11)astfellncatr(s)=/.Din s ec(t0,11)@okt ct g X;C(lo,ll)
hptul caf $te morfismaven

=.(?,6i6i6)=
r"G)
r(i6)"(xt)"(xt)=k()'.D""i. r"(iF):i,f :1,6 Atci
la o contadictie dlrrrec r+V,
nu csteddivabil, h drepiala':r:0. Deci presupunere4
csiefal6l, adicSnu exisd nici un isnsdsn lnbe celdouninele.
Ca $ ln cM grlpuilor i?lrFrfe qi pe ru inclclc ircniorfe, o prcprietateadevara6pe o
aleebricdseconsrvEti p. structun dgebdc! izomod!- Aici seqriecl exb6 fiinctii conrinuepe
ftr! a fi ddivlbile !e aceamultime(aici intr-un punct, , = 0 )-

mdtlne{ /d=Rxn

se
L8iledccollporlte(r,y)+(r',y')=(.r+.r',y+1'),
'trnsc
)'(r"v')= (rxi ry'+ r'r)' inpftuni cuc.rc rorrnaz| un Inlconu{dY.

de!'lur.r rl lrmultlrc uzurlc).

c verificnDqorcatriplelele("4, +, ), (+', +, ) sufi inele.

.tte Mfande inet , zrfeste bijedtud.

I ) severific. eealidtle

f(zrz2\: l(Jt+ \JtG2 + yzJij): fepz +zntz + (qr2+ x2ri\6) ,

xrt2x2yl
-3)r,
x2 ht ..
=Jrrr,
-lt1 ,tll
l3(412
-rrli I r1r2,11y2J-ljn
4)\3y2 ,21-rtzt)ttz

h =!2 .D i

8c verificd or d6tul! uturintd c, rripleteledin enunl sunt inelc @hurstive. VoD demon\ira ca nu
un immrfism i re cel dounirele. Drin Etodarcduceriila absurd.PresuDunem
deci cd d exisia

' l .st izonorfism. Tebuje si araeE ce:

!,4-z2tf\\,"-,r"^6,-{il,;,i_;j-l; ;rJ-i;;l-r,.,,_,,.,,
vcrificrmb). Avem:

s6ad'[m
cr zr=22.
an rzi=t\Z2)
"-" |Ji il={;i

C(10,U)mulllFx| ftrnctlllor rcal. condnuepo [0,1] rl ,(lo,rD mulllm.otuncilllorrot o

p 10.lj. A t.ll c! htr lmleh (C(l0,rl).+..) rl (D(l0,rlt+,.), undc+ rl .
"unr
9lrrDulfrea uuuill, nu exbll ilcl un lzomortrlm,

fQt+ z)= f(.r) + fQ2t,lv)4,22e"4.

lQt'zi= l(4) f (z)' lv)zt'.2e A .
!n peniroa)(l'rln q. = ('1,),i,.2= G2,t2r\l

+ a2\= I (l'1,y1)
+ Q2,y2,= J(rr +
r.l

t; '):

"r,

yr+ yr, =

f ; "

r+)2) h )r).
.ir+.r2J t0 {l

Jkt+ lQ2t.

psltrub) obliiem !(zrzz)= !(Qtpz,tryz

.{lY2 + i2 }l I

td i)li';)="""''
d/ste biiearivl seve{ificn imediat.

d * , . sr s.rat'crI"aa" (z[rtr],+,.),(z[.4],t,.)
n d,e z,hrrst rhertdepr.rste,

t1l

Von p!!dr prtnruducorc

l. lbrud, pmrutun.rn
ctrat cxtaraI :ZJJ?I* zlGl untzomomsn,h
In.l6(.unrchlardomodid. tntlgrttrr.).D6ct,f(0) = 0, /(l) = I .
S. rfrtl (v6ztconst$4i!oodorDrfismrlor
srupului(2,+,)) ci l(r)=n,(V)rez. Rrmeno{
.xdrd.mconsnutlilui/dtnpunct!dc
fomr r=a+r!A,cu r*0. Avan:
l?r= f(a + b'!E)= f@)+ f@t(E)=

a+bf(li),

c!.. cc615e/.$ep.d.ctdetcnni,at
dur

rrtndru.s. r(^F).Noi!'n
t(JA)=.+"Gezl.El. *,"a a_rct=t(.,lAJn)-t()f(t6)-('+"f,f

=n2+n2e+znaS,
Do ot<id=n?+n2. et 2nu=q.p,.1

,'-0, i.|tncidln d-m2+a2e rfy4l]|d

d = sr2 ,ft cumd .s!r libcrdr pllnta r.rutr! 4= t, sdlol
d.E.. hl!. Dacl a-0, eoncid
cumd.sr.ltb.r d. p!r4i.,!zulrl,= *t, candd _1,
-n2 d
ftlr.
obsrvalle.s6 &ltt cr in.t"l (zlfi
.),
l, +, d z , d Ltr.s [tri do!{rrro Gcr6tronorf cu inerurd.
ft- utl
l
n.t'lco,4d= ll '"la,,rzl.
L\4o a)l
l
M d'f,, dA.,d,.<z,
thrllfi liM dr ptrrt!, aruncinici in leb d. Ill|nic! ,4d,,4, nu sunl
8. SI !t d.tcmlD. cnitonorftn L tn tutut (4 +, .),
\' F.taI tZaZ ur cndonodimat inctutuiZ. In peniculsr/csdlnddrcrnsm gnrputui
sl
Mhh
(Z'+). Am vrzut Ia nodsmc d. grupud(lloblma2) r.zollrtt) c! forln lui JeEnd(Z) .str
l(n)=,ta,tlodE loJ=aez. vompr.ci2.F aZ dinconditia
/(r.))=/(r)./O), (v)areZ, evcnr

a= /(r)=/0.1)= /0)/O =(f$r\z

-a2 .

Din a=a2 p.{.iltrat =0. az=l , drd atEmi(,)=0 (morfilmd t)9i

{
/2(r) =,r (morfisnuriden
al lui Z ,.
- carccsl. chiu auromorfisn
9*. Sl s. rht4rEh. ruiorio lDllle corpdut (q.fdf, +,.), u"de d
Z,d tnhegubrdepnrrle.
R. F" /,4[.JA]*Alrfd]
un.!tf.l dc izo']ornsrlAiurci /(0)=0,/0)=r.
Bvidenrorr
+,
esrr
/:(Z
norf;8nr
d. iDer.,adic{endoDornsm
?Jtuiz.De.i l(n) = n,(v)nez .
-(z,+, )
vom extiod.costruqialui/la e+, e_ ri lpoi ta exrhdercae[.t1 .

Mri htti s! obstvrt!

c! din /(*+r)-,f(x)+r(yl,(v):,yeqfJ7'l
= /(' + (-,)) = J(,) + t(-'), adicr
/(-'):

rezurtn
0= /(0)-

-/(r), (v)relJdl, ceaceantncE/este

impa.i.

r)
L n
it
.(v)n,"N,n-0.
l-+ . . . + n
- l = n v"ll-rll: n - : \ '.r
\n
|
lirifre O .Fre a O,.Anmirfe$eirDdU

alnatitatca l(r)=r,(v)rQ.

r"t 1 p" Ql"til . r*n'

,: . + 4"6 e a['tr]

rcbuie sd pmizin cine ste

= tb+bJi\= t(a)+ t(oJit= t<"1+J@lJtJit:a+bJdi). D@i /(r) esrebin

diratder qtimcirc
est,f d-d)= d+F14 A[Jt].

a = I<a;= t *li Ji t: JtJat <"lir o+FJZ|

sulidsistemu'
lceasr.sari,te
l;ill,

=,

p=0 cn a douaerualie),
abncidinFim I =ct2. fals:dacn(|:0.tuci p2=1, adic!0=+l
pndu/(\E), avmdounposibilitsti
l\utomotfttut
t(ra)=\,a , candfla+tJ7\=a+t!7
, .^\d J?+b.trb=d-bJ7 @ Mtfsmut coajasat).
*, ldb:^JA
St sedot rfilm .ndonorfsnere corpuld tn'+,t .

de @rP(esteqi d. inel al iui Q )

stendomorfism
Din /(o)=0,/(l):l
i ftptul ca /:R+R
9 dolvasmisus)
/(r'=x. (v)'Q (veziprobL.lDa
cltest strid cEs.ltoare,obsevendm.i intel c! d&n xR,r>o,exrsE ylR astfelhcar

=.rridaici/(')=/(l)=lO)/O):("f(y))'>0,*cedatncrdac4.r>0,atuncil(J)>0.
fie t:t< h, ad;cL4- xt> 0. Confornobsenafeide maisur 0< llr2 -{) = /(r2)- /(a,
.f(r2) > t(rl ) , adic!/est strict crucrtoare p lR . Ar*nm acun cn / = lR (aPlicaliaidendcea lui

).Presu?unen,prinabsurd,cn
/*h,adiclexist!

ro lR atfelinctu/(4)*.ro.

.f(ro)<ro, abDciexistaaQ altfl inont ./(ro)<c<ro (Q estedenssln R).Deaici a

/(4) < /(rir) , fals. Analos ! tlteencanl /(r0) > ro.
umsl singurulendonorfisn al dpului (R, +, ) estecel ideDtiq /(') = a (v)r R .
SI se ds&rmlne su.omorfltmele corpului nunenlor

conPl*e

(4,+,

) csre irvsdazn

rEqre(r(r) = r, (v)r R).

Co^'nctia luifpe Q+. Auenl

=r[]l*...*iH
:./111.
(rl
. tr,

t12

Asli@li. f este bine

Fie /rC-C
un asfel de stomorlEm pentrucare t(r):x,rR
dac! Itim cumdefinim /(t) .
At nnci l( z) =l( r +t
fi e z-i +i, r r lR.
) =, f ( r ) + l( t y) = "f ( . r ) +, f ( i) "f ( ) )=

t73

P.nmesriolf ob!.lvtrl'
cr -r- ll-t)- !u1)- Je.t)= /(l)./(/)= (/(D2. D6rct /(t)=tr
AFdor rvcmdou doud0srfcldc auroDorflcmo
,f(r + j)) = x + i G.t tdenttc)st -f(r +t) = r_ i (ert

cI apllcrlh /tJ-|1,/((d,r))=d

..to morftm.urllctlvdclmlc,dtr nuo.toldcctlv.

-u,a*")
t) Pen'dfns,4 z x z r d46| lccafft, (;,r)+k-d)=la+*+a),(a,tl.lc,t)=la
cu csrt d.vlnchd Arlrrd cL4 r ZIJI.

12,Fl (4, +,,)un lnelcuelemcnr

unttr,ot*0 cupropder.ts.r2= I pntruorlcer .4_{01,
8r |. rratecI (,a,+,.) e3tecorptzomo.acu
22 s'u z!.

Ftp M =lo,bl rl ("(M),An), und. ,1AB=(A-J)U(,-,4) d {zrxz2,+, ) und.!

y)+(r',r')= (r + r', y + y');(r,y)'(:',y')= (u', ry'). a$tadcr ("(M),^,n) d (2, xzr,+,)

R. Rolalia
r2=t aratlcI r*0 esieinve.sabit
gi r 1:r.Deci (A.+, ) estecorp-pedeat6paneii

lnliromorle,Coman d lsbleL opro$tlor.

ll. d = ta,r,cl or operaflldeadura.tt lnnu$rc drte to tlbeld:

obs.fldmc! (r+l)('-1)='2-,+,-r=0.

co' a
corp(n-aredivizoriai hi zerc)Ezurri
"ste
r+l=0 su.y-1:0,adica rl-1,U,(V)r*0.ftiiuriolre,{={0,1,_l}.
Avomdoui posibiliiAli:
I) I -1, sdiclA = {0. t l rj aruncr
apteriaO . O,t - i es|eizomorfismul
dela A ta 22.
2) lr-l,adicd.4-10.1.-ll tisplicaia
0-o.r-t,-r-i
esre
izomorEsmut
der.4 ta21.

b bc

tc! (4,+,r=(23,+,.).
A = {o,r,cd}

r. 1)Ad.!fl cr ,f, (26,+,r-){2,6,n.),t(t)=G

c|l opersine & lduDrlt tl iDlriul!rc datein bDelele:

deInereri X4r/ ={6,3f h{JD ={6,i il

-o.tr".
l!"
I
-la,rezl
gl opnt'fleuzuded! sduturd ftun'iFe. Apricda J:"4-2,
't
DEo,a.=llL\"

f lli -ll="-r
Ito d,l

_jt

ot"

esoe
m @rrsDdclDere.
Der.mimd[ucreur
m

,+.t.
'= {0,i. i,e}c zs.A"n'fcr (,r.+.1={4

sDurur.

spucadtle:x4!=r+!-2,ro!=ry
-2(r+J)+6JnPEuni cu
'r6nta
derlnedoneDlude hhsd.a.e. AIIt.d cI (2,i, t=(A +' r, urd i'onorffsm"l stedat de

Ie m'i$ni z

3) A.ltrfl cI spltc-sttfle
ttet[!t lc sunrmorfi$w ite hete:
trI
/- ..1
(2.+..).
r) s= -ll
="
zl./ :(s.-..)-+

ll;
: ll},'.2
t\"

"4
It'
=l[, n

b)A

/l: llzJ *r""r;."s",

ru

r)pez s.,ennelcperccb,c
*'*F, gi- ;-_i;,
{:
"

l
t' ol
ez1,
r,(,t.+..]{2.-,t..r{'
oll*,
oJ=,*r*;*",

ci lnelele (2,@,o),

,_ ., ri 61.
ctr tl^'t2qt,+..1l^.r2tzrt,+i.
rl'- :l=1"
* -, r,' ,iJ'
tu_._

, t_ lol
dt = Il"' "' ll'.,'ezl,J,(a,+,.)*
{altrr-'l't[, .J='+'vz *1t1*1i"'
^ t\^ ^)t
|

2. Se coDsldertC(-LrD irclul tuncdnorcontiNe!. t-l,U cu valortrtale deterDtMtdi

ede nor[m. DetenDinaCD'rdeul mrtst[dul.

I Fle = Rx n.I)flDlm pe4 dout splieFi:
"4

oll".r.
*l. FdoddrsFil cr Etdehi(r.+..) lstecorpcom,ht*ti cr n'csa
"=l{'l(-, d,l
)

,rc. a, rll".

'll=, *t,"**&corrorl'sr*remlwtr

rDpreunl cu care devinelnel.

t'74

rc silterlul:

,J.,..".=[_i
.,=[_,,
l,]o***,*-{l
il"-[I llJ=
.1*-[,1,
ArItsF cI inelele .Atl

(or,bi*\a2,bz)=laft a2,h+ bz),(athb lor,b2l=bp2, arb2+ a2bi,

(z'.'l

1::l = ;.1:,_,.

sunt |ronorf, prlntr-un iamortrsm d forna

tZ-+Z,t(tJ=@+F.

operadue
deadunanrl hmttire a funcdllor.
sns mre cl apUcada
r:ql-U) -+R.fur =/[l

.l

t 2 -+ 2 , ! (' \ = @+9 .

"d'o!

oprafrb de tduD.t $ tunultira utuald surt izorDorf,in

11",.,],
",={[;
115

,r,r-{*+rrt,,rez},
"'={[; ?]-.4,

r) A.nrc d rnorur
fl rr cuotcnron
o! e3te
rzonm.fcu
Incrur
drur.rc.

t11,=1,
+ ytil,,yezi,, ={[':,';,"),"\*,1,
"
.j]",,.-],
o e={,+r.llt",re
zz},
"'={{;
A={x+irtx.r
ez}.
',
"'={[; l)1,,,.,],
6).4={r+rl,,re3z},
",={[; l]1,,,.-],

cui'dur,edcdor

Irr rJj

rr,r={' +rfsrl",.,
ec},

Ariraricrrnefur
?r r'".,.*'"."""-.

t..: :. :l
t:].**.".sreizomorrn,
:

l Fle / un Inel conutadv ,4,{ nulgna de natdce cu eleM.e din4.

tt

1.oro!

=lr*.0."o,..10
ol.
"- 2 !1.,0,",0.
I
I

l cu d o l l
loc odjl

I
]

cl ,14 eston irl (ln raport crr op.aliiI de adu[3! tl lnnuttire a Dlrricelor) izonorf cu

M26).
st sa detnnhe mrfisllle de lnele d b (2, +,.) ta {2,, +,.}. Dtemimli acetemorfi$r,e

",= {[; ?],,r..]

",=ffi
r\ A.=Ia eM.@)lAx
=xe,tv)xe,t4td{,1,=c.

o, a'ru&fta'ifrmuul'"au?ua,5
a nutde]or

[-J :"

tolA={x+ i!,te6dezdnb.r'tpiir.c},

1]1,".4
-= {[;

kodoffou,r
/ :c --',ra.
r,'. r,=[i il.

y{xlx,x
t.a.={t+
az1,=fi l,)1"r.4,
"
or=ffi',r.2, ',,u.",*0,l"o,"r"|,
[t:.
i
=llj -lr]l
ez,+r
a""*"+,
,
n".la.f
: ll',r
"'

"= {[_",_;j1,"."]

!du!rle! y' tnmuldrjr obknuul a

'nerdcelor).
b)SI seara,ed DurfrE C . op(n'l.dJ,t
zrl z2=zr+.2,zt az2 = 2122+ Im(r1)Im(22),esretni

iI""'4'

. sI sedc.emire morffsneledind deta (2,,+,.) ta (2, +,r.

+ sI detrnlneendonorfismdelrclului (Zr, +,.). Dttrl'tnaq sce$eendonorfisnepenrru
'.

8. P.'nuIODa
sedefirercopemgfl.,,+.,tt,,...,tnpr3unr cucgreforneszrimle tn
-{.=ZxZ
crudb!

' Sn .e detenDlremofsnelc de ln}e de la {2,,+'.)

t) ('r,4)+(ar4)= kr + a2,\ + bl, (ar,br).

(.,2,b2]l=
b{2, Wl I
2)(q,q )+(d2,r2)
= (4rr dz,\ +t),(q,h).('z,h)= fup2+tp2,ap2+o2qJ.
3) l.\,\) + 1"2,h)= (q + dt h + \), b]!A).l.ztzl = @1a2,
arh + ot4ij.

Pe A = (0,) se'lSnsc
lplcssne' O, = rr, r O J = rr'r. ArItnF cn tripltul{,{,@,o)

ArlLf

lzmorfflnele d. lnel

un corp comrbriv izomorf co corpul rMlltlor

t^ (z^,+,.).

rcqle n, prtnrr-D

Dtminati acerle

izonorfisn

dat de

! R -+ (o,oo),t(r) = a.&' .
, SI sellrte cr aplicsdiler * , = St * f , , , = r , derermtrrpe R o srmcrur. de corp
"
lmmd cu coa'n nonerlor rEale,priDtr-u izmrtrsm , : (n, +, , -+ (R, t ,
',

n","'u,-["'={[l
o,","",,=["'={[i
j]1,.,.4,".],
;j1",.4,,.J,

",",*",,,-[,,=ft
;11.,.4...1
t't6

I}etlDlmp R apltca$l:rTJ=r+r-2,t.t=2rr-44x+i+10,
r, *) e*teun corptzonorrcu (n,+,.).

l7'l

ArnbF cn fipbrrl

L. lltr N0dcDnrurrczc
cit r()J .r I / . _7, x O J = .rI _ 7(r + },)+ 56 dctornrtnlpe
,
e n
{rrrcr rt domrp romura v, t',norl .u corrut n|,lneretorraftonak
(A, +, .) ,
lo Arlng c! pnulttDta (0,) adtcatlllcr,*]=,J,r"J=ih{t
dtrndnn
o $ruch.n dr
co.p comuhtlv, lzomorf cu corpul nunerelor reale (R,+,.) pri"tr_un
izomorf:smite forntr
/; R -+ (0.@)./rr) = dPJ+ .
'
.:1.Pc lR sede{iDesc
te8lte
d. conpozitt:
rTJ=r+t
1,:+y=21q,_5_yy13.4"a6r;
(R, r,*) stecorprzonorfo (R,+,, prirtr-mibnorfrn,f :(R,r,4_+(R,n.),/c)=tu+4. "n
21. Arlull izonodsmete
de corpudrc ri rc' cu operrfitede adunm {l imutlin uuaje. in

,,"=at.61,.={(;
' ,li',,.o],
:Ji.i.o},,,o=oo,=[l
Lr, '4
I

,,.=o1,a1,"
={[i'Jpr..],
.r"=o,",={a
,n-nr",=fi.;!fi,.."},t",.,
"t,

..1
'+
li:;lil
=1""=[::1'..1

o.=o,"'={{X 6)rc=R,
"i,]1",.4.
o0ol

"0

ol"nl
00J

. 4 . t Nl, lr . l, l I ) t,t I' OL IN OAt\4 ti cl tr ( l Otl ]t,.i ( ' i N .i ,I

IN'I'R-I.JNCORP COMU'T'ITI'IV
I9-{!94yE

DE o MDETERMTNAN,TA.
FoRMAAr,Gf,BRrc.iA uNrr

FOLNOM. OPERATII CU POLINOAME

luI pe.care-l prezentim reprczintbun domeniu important bine studiat

al
$i
i ftadilionale.Numeroaseprcblemede matemadcA
dinEece]emai diverse,sunt
9i rezolvatein temeni depolitoame.
tr un corp comutativ (ne interese^ztrcazurilein care lf esteunul dit corpurile
R.,C,Z p, p pdm). Vom considera.F(N, f):
{/: N + r<}, muuimeauuror
definitepe N={0,L2,...,n,...}cu valori in K. O astfelde func,tiese
re$te Sir de elementedin Jf. Funcliaesiebine definiti, dacdslim cum actioneazA
fiecare
elemenr
din N.adic,ceinseanxla
/'*r_dt ( N. v,t N.Amnotaracest

primmul{imea
ordonata
(a1)oro.Oecif :\n,+a2,...).
aceast?i
muliime de tiruri f(N, 1<) ne intereseazd
o submultime? , format5din
(d/.rt>O pentrucaretemedi lui suntnuli cu excepliaunui numarfinit dintre
Deci,elementele
lui P auforma(an,al, ...,an,0,0,...), norat(a6,q,...,ar,0_
),
a *0 Si il numim polinom cu coeficienti ln K. ond1 an (elementirlde rang
im nenul) se numeite coelicientul domiDnt al polinomului, la care se adaugd
Entul (0,0,...,0,...) (pottnomutnut).
multimeaP a polinoamelor
definimdouaoperatiialgebrice
inlemeSiunae\lerna.
fule de a lrecela operatiilealgebricepropriu-i\e. pentrupolinoame.
pre,/entam

S[ searat cI hlpletul {r, +,.) esieco.p conutativ.

'r)
b) runcfa /:(r, +,.) + (R, +,.), J@,\=2,
tetzomorffsmdecorpu.i;
c) SI s calcd% n!, , e N.

2r.triernardce.
o=(,a).r,ta),,,u"

'=J ei muttimaM ={zAzec.l.

tzJ

l) Arit'fi ci (M,+,.)=(a,+,.)r2)carcuratt
,n,, tr,D N,
75. \Taorcnaite ta8rytl de stluctu.nrie
/:,{_+R,AqR, o functtebijectivn,i bgitr dr
compozroe
pe ?r,x ar = /-117t,t+rO),
(4,1, )
"ry=y-1(71ry.y1y1),r,];.Adtalicr
c,rccorDconuhtivi?.tnolfcu (R,+, .
,

l7li

Definife.(Egafitlteaa doutrpotinoame).
Fie f :(.s,q,...,"D O*).
poltnomul
e: (tx,4,...,f.,9*
) doudpolinoame.
Jfesteegatcu
polinomgul5i s c r i em
.F ) i
/=g dac e$i nur nai dac aai - .bi>0.
Doui pollnoamesunt egaledacl eleioincio pe componente.

t?q

l) Adunarcspollnosmelor
Arc loc urm[toarca:
IMlnlSe. Fie f =(ao,ab-,a^, a*) $i I = (h,4,...,4ft,0oo) doud
polinoafiE.Polinomulf + I =(aX+4, a1+b1,a2+ 2"2,...)se numegte
sumoDolinoamelor
Operatia priD care orictrrui cuplu de polinoame (J,g)
polinomul /+g senumetteadu[area polinoomelor.

D e ci+tP x? +P ,\f

ii asociem

Obserysflf.l) DwE f = (an,ay,,an,0*), atunci-f =(-a$_u1,...,-a,,O,x)

( -/ seobline din/pdn schifiibareasemnelortutuor elementelor
nenuledin f).
2) Dacn/.8 P, atunci/ + (- 8) senoleaTa
simplu/ I 9i nulnegr.difer"nl"
""
gintrepolinomul/$i polhomujg. Se6cadpecomponenre
elemenrele
din/ri8.
3) MuJtimeaP a polinoamelor
cu coefici;nflin Kimpreundcu op.rrpui. iun-"
;;
Al) - A.) formeaz[grup cornutatiy_

1.ne /=(3,2./5,-r0e),g=(-r,Jz,o_)..r*"r
y _s=

lnmutflrea polinoaoelor

,s)- f + g.

ullircaa doutrpolinoame
este,subaceastd
foqni, maidific e.
locundtoarca:

Observafll, 1) + I p deoarccedoar un numfu finit de coeficient sunt nenuli.

"f
PentruI > maxtr.rr)avemat =0,
2) Din definifies deduceca penru I( - Z(Q. R. C.Z
o) Wwu I .I ep rc^rttt
/ + 8 polinom cu coficientiinuegi (rcspectivratioDali,reali, complerli saltclasedo
rcsturimodulop).
rixctr'prc.
r.ne / =(q2,r,-1,0_),
r =C. Aturcit+e=(
s = (jI j-r,0,3,0_),

i,j+i,j,a0F).

e rrr y = (i,1,ii0-),g= (i3,ii,d-),r =25.ltua y+g=(i6,i,6-).

Pmprtetlfile aduntrrii polinoamelor
Urmdtoarele
propriettrti
severific6u$ordacdsetineseanadePloprieta$le
adunf,riidc
pef ti deegalitatea
a doudpolinoame.
Are locumdtoarea:
Teoremtr.A, (Comutativltatea adunirii) Adunareapolinoamelorest
comutativlt.adica
t - I - I I.lV)f .g P.
A) (Asociativtteteaadrmtr:ii) Adunarcapolinoaineloreste asociativd,

(f + 8>+h: f +G +h),(v)f ,e,heP.

adic6
Ar) (ElemeDtulneutru) Adunareapolinoameloradmirepolinomul nul
(0) caelement
neutnr,adici O+ f : f +0: f,(Y) f eP .
A, (Elmenteopuse)Oricepolinom/adnire un elementopus,notatcu (-/)
(-f)+ f :0.
astfer
lncet/+(-/):

180

{aJz*s,o_).

n / =(iiti6*),r =(iii,io_), r =z,.,ruar _s=

{ii0,i6_}.

Defbtfe.Fre I =(ao,q*"a^,Ooo),
e =(h,A*4,0J

d""[ p"lt"""*,

Poliaornul
/. g = (c6,q,c2,...,ck,...,q*n,O@),nldEl
cO= ah, cL=a&t+ qh,,..,ck= aybk+ apk_r.l _*apg,..,c,q^ =anb^,
8. numesle
pmdusulpolhoamelort 8.
Opemliaprin careasociemfiectrui cuplude polinoame(f,g) poiiromuf
/ 8 selunettc ltrmulflres(ptrduul) polno.melor,

)bserva$l. 1) In loc dc / g vom scrie sieplu Jg qi fg ep

hlm+n,ck=o,

aleoarecepentru

S! retrlalcamc[ elemenielect din structuaplodusuhisuntsumede pmdusede

ajDj cu t+ j: *. i,j N. Deci c1r: D
+atu_I+.-+okh.

.aibi:anbr

1. Fret = (-r,r,1- J,3,06),I=(0,L-r,J,06),r =c. Atud:

=40h= (-1).0= 0,.r =404.rqro= (-t). r + i. (0)= _t, c2= a&2+6r4+ah = (_t)<_r)+
'r+ (1- t.0= l+r,.3 = ah,r + a[2+ a2b1+
.3bI= Ft).i + i.l+ (r-t).1+ 3.0= l- i,
Et&a+drh+a*2+aA+aah= i, c5= a&E+aia+.-+ dh =i -Lc6 =0&6+dps+
-.+
=a}bt=3t,ck =\*

+4h

> ? . Ded /8 = (0,_rJii,1-r,i,r

_ 43,i,0e).

r. r'a / =(i,ii6*), c=(i,i,il-),r = 2..11u6,

cn=.oro= i 3=3, .r =aorr
= i.i+ i.3 = i ai = i1,
+arro

='rp21
: i.0+
+azlo
""
"A
+i.i+i.3=3+3=i,c.= afi3+ -+aps =arce
=i,i >4.De"t
ts=(iO,i;i,d_).

ProprietltileinmulFrii polinoamelor
Areloc urmtrtoarea:
Teoremtr.Ir) (Comutativitateainmultirii) inmullireapolinoameloreste
comutativa,adici /g : &f , (V) f , g e e .

3) lnmulflrer cu lcaldrl a pollnoamelor

Delinitie.Fie t tr $ipolinomul
/=(e,.1,...,"",0_). pr;J;;;;
scalarult.ti polioomul/este
polinomulk. f : (kao,kq,...,kan,Od))
.
componentelecu acelscdar.

Operaria
prin
*o"i"- ri""ffiiffili,-i
"u.r
numettelbmuuires

cu scalaria politroamelor,

L 1) Operatia
definid mai lus se numerlelegede compozitieextemii
/- cu ooDenrutcteoFratori (scalari)K

lnlocdel,/
Mullimea P a polinoamelor cu coeficieDli din r< impreuna cu lnmultirea $i
propdetefleIJ - I, forme^zemonoid comutativ.
Celedouhoperatiiintrodusemai sus,adunarca$i inmullirea,suntlegateiotle ele prin
propriehreade:
DistribEtivitate. lnmullirea este distdbutivd in rapott cu adunatea
polinoamelor,adice

f(e +h): fs + Jh,(f + g)n: ft+ gh.(v)f ,g,nep.

Cu acesteelementeputemformulaum5toarea:
Teoremi. Muuimeapolinoamelorcu coeficienliin co4)ul comutativK,
impleunacu operatiiledeadunarc
Sill|fiuIte fofineazduninelcomutativ
Deci (1t; +, J esreinel comurativ.
Observatii. 1) Pentru acest caz cu tr corp comutativ, inelul polinoamlor esrr
domeniudeintegritate.
2) De obiccicorNlruc$a
ineluluidepolinoarne
serealizeazE
plecanddela uninelA cu Orl .

t82

uo,n.".ie4191""te ye Z.
"i".

r. Fiet( =c.t =3i. / --{0.i,1-i.JJ.0&l. Atud r,y =(0.-:,.1+J,r.Fi, o_).

K=4,h=af =\i,,,6,i,0_*r,""r!7 =(!,i,6,i,0_).

).
ale lnmultirii polinoamelor cu scalad
loc proprietAfibdatedeurmtrloarca:

Teoremi, st t(p/) = (t"p)/,(V)r"

,p K, (v)f p.

s:)tr(/ F8)--tr/ . r.s.lvJl(-x.FfI;? L

sr){}".
u}/- r/ Fpl.tv)Lua r. (v)Gp.
fiIcarea proprietitilorejle imediali(seapeleaza
la asociatjviralea
inmuhiriide De
inmultirii in mporl cu adunarea
de pe K. a egalital;ia doua
',! -(xsmbunltEtii
).
ullimea?..impreunicu adunarea
polinoamelor
$i inmullireapolinoamelor
cu scalarj
DllletaFle Ar) - Ad. S,, -S.t lormeazaceeace se cheamaun spaliu vectorial
(, numit sprflul vectodal al polinoamlor peste
corpul K

tE3

,, FORMAAI,GEBRICAA UNUI POI,TNOM

Uneorivom lbloNlpcntft/scrierea (numittrde asemenea,

forms algebricl):

de forma (a,o-),ae (se aduni 9i se lnmultescln

S[ obtervdmcd polinoamele
scll0gi mod ca elementelelui K lntr-adevtuavem: (4,0oo)+ (r'0co ): (4 +,' 0o. ) .

f =anXn +an tXn-r +...+ atx + ao,

undeam ordonatpolinomuldupl puteiile descrescibareale lui X
Obsrvatii.l) Elementele
ao,a|..,anK se numesccoelicien{ilpolinomului,iar

(a,ooo
).
).(r.ooo)=(ab.oco
Accastane pemiie str identificdm(modulo n izomorfrsm)astfel de polinoamecu
din K adica(a,0* ) = a, (v)a e r .
clcmentelecorespunzitoare
Dcscrnnllmelemenhrl (0,L0-):x
$i numim x nedeterminata pe K ut izatd
opcraliade inmultiredin ? rezuld:

).
x = (0,10-), x2 : (0,o1,0-), x3 = (0,0,0,1,0oo
),...,x' : (9;0-.,0'1'0oo

monoarnelealxt,

t : d:; senumesctermenii polinomului.

al =0, atulci termenul0.Xt nu se mai scrie(f =2-3X

+X3,

aici

qZ=O), iat &c6 ak =1, atunciin loc de 1.X{ sescriesimpluX*.

DacZ.an = 0, al = l, a2 :... = a,t : 0, atunci : X reprezintl un polinom.
"f

helul f[X] congne,aratpeK (potinoamele

consrante)
cat gi pe X Inelul I<[X]

penhu4 X avcm:(9,0..,0,4,0oo) = aXn : X" a.

D! asenrenea

,,c1mai mic" inel carecontinepe ( $i peX, ln sensulc! orice inel carecontinepe

ao + arX ' ...* a,Xn
ti X trebuiesaconlindroatpolinoamele

Cu accsteobservatiipolinornul / : (a6,a1,42,. .,dn,ood) sscriesuccesiv:

ln formaalgebrictra unui polinomsimbolurileX, X2, X3, ... pot fi privite ca

ichete"pentupoziliilecoficienilor,

a2,0co
) +.- + (9!:J, r, ' o- I =
) + (0,0,
) + (0,d1,00o
/ = (ao,ooo
=
= a6{ o1(0,1,0*)
+ . +an(0'0'..
*a2(0,0,1,0oo)
'0'l0*)
= an+ a1x+ a2x2'l . * anxn.

Se impune se avem griitr in a nu considemliteta X ca replezentandun element

din I<; litera X desemneaz!un polltrom particular (obs. 2)).ldEE cd X
irftr un elementvariabil din trprovine din conftrziace sefaceinhe un polinom
coeficienti ln tr $i tunctia polinomiah definir{ pe tr cu valod ln tr, ara$atx
respectiv(deaprecarevorbimmaijos).

PentruI< {Q, R, C, Zz, p prim}seown multimiledepolinoame:

Am oblinuturmtrtoaftal

X] = mulFnrea
polinoanrlordenedeterminari
X cu coeficieDliio Q r5aupesleQ ) ,

polinomului
Dellnlfle.Scriera
/
!1

X" = 1,
f = a n +q X -a 2 X z -..+a n X n= .l ^a1X' ' ' tnde
ale
formaslgebticdr luu ordonatduP[puterileoescetoarca
reprzinttr
X
nedeteminatei
X cu coeficienti in -K se
Muuimea polinoamelor de neileterminatitr

rfxl.
noleazn
Polinoamelede forma f = al,ao e K senumescpolinoamecoDstante'
Polinomul / =0 senume$tepolinomul nul.

R[X1 = mut6to"u
denedeterminad
X cucoeiciensin ]R (saupesreR ) ,
***r*tor
potin*-"to. denedetrminariiXcu coefcienliill C (saupestec ) ,
C[X] =
-ol|*ea
ZrfX] = mrnfneapolinoamelor
denedeterminari
x cucoefictLer.stn
V,o (saupe$eZ , I

locincluziunile:
AJx]cR[x]c A{x].

r*.prc.11=|-:x+Jx3e{xl,/2=r+J2x-Jx, en[x],
!t=r+i -zx2+ix!-(t-rx4 eclxl,!4=i+2x2+3xaezslxl,!5= -t+sxz-sx3ezlxl.
I. OPERATIILE CU POLINOAME SCRISESIIB FORId,i.ALGEBRICA
noformuttm operatiile cu polDoame descdsemai sus, tinend seamade forma
igebricl a acestora,ln urmtrtoarsa:

184

IE5

Teoremtr,
Fief,ge KlXl,,l ,,a0+alx+a2X2 +...+utln,

8 = h r + 4 x+ h x z + ...+ b n xn
.
l) (Egalt{tfr 8 doul polinoame)polinomul/este egalcu poliomul g
$i
scriem/:g +)q:{, (V)t>0.in paficdar /:Ol+q =q (V)t>0..
Doui pollnoamesunt egaledactrcoeticienlil termeDllor carl con{in pe
X la ecelelti puteri sunt egali.

Demonstnllr.Sovcdfictru$oraxiomele
ineluluicomutativ,
Elementulnul rl inetutuilY[x] estepolinomulnul O(O l() , iar elementulunitate
cstepolinomulconstant1(1tr) .r
Si observtun
cd avemf cr[x]

9i (,<,+, ) esreun subinetallui (r[X], +,.).

t.SI sedetermlreporalnetdiEafi q 4 crd adel lncrt poltnonnd

I J =b-r\x3 +2,* +lc,Ax+u+r

lnarartfuular,un polinomstenul daci toti coficienliis eirntnuli.

,l lle esalcupotinoDulI = (x - 4(x'+ 2Xx - 3),

2) (Adunare$ a doui polinoame)Suna polinomutui / cu polinomul

I
estepolinomulnolat f - I si egalcu:

R Seadu@?olinomur
s rafoflnn g = X3 - ZX2 -SX +o

f +s=ko 'q ,)t \at!b1)x-\a2 | b2)x 2- . . . " y e E la 1r b i) x i.

i>0

0slner
Drdf=s<+X2 2b=-2 _tm ..
^
X
x0 3d+1=6

Adunarea polinoamelor se lace adunend intre ei lermenii asemenea

(cu puteri egaleale lui X)

3) (lnnultirea a doul polimaoe)produsulpolhomuluitcu poltuomul8

polinomulnotal
este
cu:
t.8.sausi_rDplu
/g $iegal

fs: aofo+(a1fo+ axh)X+(aob2

+ arq+ a2h)X2 +...

x3

4) (Innullirca cu scalari a polinoamelor)produsul dintre scalarul

,t t( tl polhomul/estepolinomul6 egalcu:
lf : kao+ kaq + ...+ kbnx! .
A lnmulfi un scdar cu u.npolinomimeanrntra imuli
al pollnomului cu acel scalar.

llcaretermen

ln fine, mullimea K[X] fuzostmtdcu operafiilede adunareti limultire a polinoamekn.

l :\
denc'st

iu X3. -X2.x. x0 din@ledouipolnome).

aiciglsin a: e r= -1,. = -3, d::-

,.seconsidernpolnoamele
!,e e*lxl, f = x3 -tx2+2x-s,s=a+r(x +t)+c(X+tF +
4,r,.,d R pmrrucrre J : a.
+d(x + 1)3.Sn!e dete.rDlne
( S$rie 8 subfot@ (ordondmdupdputeritedescrescitoffi atelui E:

Inmultra a doui polinoamese face itrmulind li{:aretermen din

prjmul polinom cu frcartermen din al doilea pollnom, duptr car se

adurtr terrnenll osemerca,

Ditr@iditia /:s

s = ,tx3+(c+3d)x2+lb+2.+3d)x+a+b+.+d
x3 1=d
. x 2 3=. +] d
cJ \ or r n6a- ,
X

.r-

2=b+2t +U

..-

o. d- j.

; X"

3-Slsecalculeze
"f +s ri t.s tu caruile:
) J = r+ x + x 2 .g = 1 - x r b r / - | x I x 2 , c - l + x i
c )! = iX + t r- it x2 , s= r + i - i x , a X 2 t d t!
xt
-J-)x.g=
-ix.1.s.z.lxl
n.a)P ru /+8
svenr / + s = 2 + X 2 . i& pentrua calcula /.8
tnmdFii ln Epon cu opeGiadeadunderia\eb:

aplican dislriburivitate!

, f a - ( r , x - x 2 lr r . xr - { rr v. x2 l .r l-- x.x,) x - .r -{ .x2 x x2 r r :1- X 3,

TormI. Tripletul (f[X],+,

) este inel comutariv numit inelut
pollnoamelor de ncdeterminaltr X cu coencienfi in corpul K (sau
simpluInelulpollnoomelorpstcorpul](J.
tE 6

b)Avn/+s=2+x2 ri I s - l - x - x - a \ l - x -

IU7

x-tx r r

r2 x ,{2 Y3

c)/+/r =r+ i+ 0+i ) x e

, iI . s * l

+ 1 r - 4 x r ]p + 4 + fr+xp - r ;xr ]1r xy+

+ [ rx+ 1 r - 4 x ' ] z i x=, 1i,r)x +zx2 1 xz+1 -i -r)x 3- zxi + ( 2i+2) xa:li r ) x+
+zx2+(-t-i)x3 +(a+z)xa.
o J + s =3+ x + x2,J.s =2x + x2+ix3,y 1 g,1gezrlxl.

dacrr'=-r

ctud!=r+2xtEradt!t=2

thcrD=l c0nd!=t+2x-2x2'

ale gradulul
fiind o funcfie pe muliimea polinoamelor(nenule)este interesantde viizut
ei ia16de operalillecu polinoafire.Formulh$ utmitoarea:

4. GRADUL UNUI FOLINOM

Fiepolinomul
f =aO+afi +,,,+anx'f

! *r+2x -(n+1]'x2+l-'-l)xi enlxl rre slodu)=3d.cl 't++l;

Polnomul

Teoremi.Fie /,9 rlxl. Avem:

[X]. Arelocumftoarea:

1) grad(/ + s) < Inax(gra("f I crad(c))

Dotinifie,Se numeqte
gradotpollnomulul f ;4, ,.tar Cl.,ad
f) , cel*
md marenumiirDalural cu proprietaleaan 0,
't
Dace/ =0, atuncigad(/):-oo.

gadele celor doui polinorme.

-ffiffii;+sffiiL

Deci, erad:I( JX]+ N U{-oo}, unde

Craitnl produsolul a douil politroame 6te egal cu suma gmdelor

celor dou! politroame.

-oo + r: -oo, (V)z N, -oo * m: _oo

= 01./*0
-. -.): Ifrnaxftla;
gradu
l-oo.,f =0.

an*o,e:4+btx +..+bmxn,bm*o'
Fief :q+aF +..+anxn,
DacI r>m, atunciSrad(/+8):r,

Str observtrmc[ gadul uDui polinom este dar de cel mai mare exDoneDtal
nedeterFinateiX, al cfuei coeficient estenenul. ln particular,gadul unui polinom
constantnenulestezeroDac[ g!ad(/): n, atunci /:d0+qX+-,*aoXl,ao-\.
Termenula1 sc
nume$letennenul liber al polinomului I iar coefrcientul d, i,.0 se nume c
coenclntul dominant al polinomuluiI polinoamele/tr
se numescpolinoamc
constante.Din delinitie lezulti ce ekmentele nenule al lul 1( sunt Dolinoamedc
gradzero.
l.rcmFle.
l. Poltnomut
7=-r-1x3+sxeqlx]

r scrteny=-315y-lxr

llh6 esi. o0=-J d coeffddnddo|rtl!

8rodl/,=J. Termenul

sr oc"r

es!.egatcu -1, rern*ur

clr fl conFmpe x2 tipsh4 &e co.fde'td zero.

2.Poltnotn|dI = !5 - 5x2 + 2x4 n
doninonregalcu 2.
[x] arEgrrdut .srt c.|l4 ,t coflctnrul
Termcnulllbr esce.v5 . Ternsnlt caft cotdtr p. X rl xr arc coedtdendi
zero.
.l.Polhomul/=-3 ora 8md(/)=0.

arXn estetermenulde gradcel

deoarcce

).
trlaredin /+g.Deci grad(t+ s) : grad(,f
m-n.
+0, *0

esrc tefinenulde glad cel mai nDre dactr

iar dace d, +b, =0, atunci
$i Ctr,cignd(f + 8):n=gad(f\
'
arunci lon-bn)xn

.
+ s) <'' = grad(/): grad(8)

m > n esteanalogcazului r, > m .

Pentru f g temenul ile grad maxin es@anbnxn+m. atpm;:o,
| * O, bn 0 $i tr e'steinel fiiIE divizori ai lui zerc.
-.e) =
grad(8).r

grfr(f

deoarcce

n+m=gad(t) +

'Corotar.
Inetul (([X], +,) esteun domeniudeintegdtato.

De.i,lf

-0, -0,

:01'
f ,ee Klxl.+f 's :/0)<+lf8:o+/ :0sau8

rezultngrad(/)> 0, grad(g)20, iar din teorema

c. Din /-Og-0
) sededuccgrad(/g): grad("f)+ $ad(8) >0. De aici fB *0 r

188

189
,- 1-"

a. r,oflno|nul/-s.f
Eremph.
,uu*n potlnoDul
+x'-lx+r.
toforma1=x(sx2+zx-)+t
*liT*"#,Jffi
:.;ll.,.HTil1if
l#"];ilpfu.xrxresre,nversrh,l
3+ 2)-3]+ I = r45.
.t = xlx(5x + 2)-31+l eldecl/(O = 3[3(5.

oA99l!,9!11!gac4!Li9!I8 i(lx I asrfet

S[ arltimcr U(I:lxD: (* : J.:IQL

po{ n ffu{ate ca tu schrta de nai Jm {utiliz6r.l coeficienltl termetrflor poltDomututtl

numereledln flcarEcoloan,). Secobos.ncoficientuldontnant ln linia 3.

Eslecloi!6 a\mx4 CU(l([xl),(t). Reciproc,

fie /U(,K[xl).Decieiisd s4xl
astfciincet/8 : L l}(rnd in aceasd
egaliurela gradobtinemgradu ) + grad(I I = 0,
i& deaicigrad(/)= grad(s):0 +,f r* . pdnurmarcU(KtXl) c r*, (2).
Din(l) ti (2rrczutra
U((tXJ): r(*.

Caficietrtii dln u.nntoar@

imulliti cu 3

15+2=U lsl-3=4ii 1144+

pannterclor
r = r4slvebarea
OOO=i3l

EVjLUAREA FoLtNoAMELoR FUNCTTApoLrNoMrALA. RiDACINI AI,ti

]
UNUI PoLINoM
ile

3+ 2r-31+r : 3r!7.3- Jr+| = 3.48t-t - r4s

,f{Jr= 313{5

--F

--Z-

--A

f eKlXl, f = ao+ qX t...+aoXn $i o1<. Atuncifonnutimulm?itoarete:

Definlfi. l) Senumeqte
valoareapolinomuluifir ;eldffi
f ( o): ao+ q ct+...+ oacI .

xt

x0

l. l7- 3=48

3.38+ 1- r45- J(3)

/(@ seoblinedin/ irlocuitrdnedetermitratr

-trcu q

3.5+2=17

A calcula /( 4 lnsealnna! evaluapolinomul/ln .1

d$crbn ltri sussenumesteschena lai Eorwt.

2) Elenentul(, edteo rtrdtrclntrs polinomut"i/aaca/((I): O.

Evaluareasumei$i produsuluia doudpolinoameestedat6de urmatoarea:

in evidenlla
tunctia/ :,( - (.
/ i(lxl ti (r c X . Atunci/rd) ,( . Ampusasrfel
((!) :

"/(g),

(V)q r. Arc loc urmitoarea:

Delln{ie Funcaia
tunc,tia
f : ( - f , t(q) : /(q), (V)0 I( senurneste
polinomialtr
asociatipolinomului/sau
simplufirncfiapoliromialS.

Teoremi.
Fief ,gKlXl $i dr.Arunci
r) (/ + 8)(q)= /(d)+/(o).
Valoarea sumeieste

cu sunravalorilor,

vealeci un polinom/ $i tunctiapolioomial5surt nofiuni distincte.Ele nu se

2) (/sxd): /(o)s(q).

Fierarepolirom / l<lx] detuetteo functiepolinomiatd.

De exemplu

Yaloareapmdu6ului esteegaltrcu produsnl valodlor.

Pentrucalculufvalorii polinomutui! -arxn -an-i'Xnl +...

alx +ll0 in q .c

ulilizaza
scriera f to.t:ao - stlat-dt\a) t ...-a"an-2)1, eviranau-s
asrfelridjct tF
t"
la puterealelui d .

=X definettetunclia/:K ',(./rr)
r.(v)r( K. moliv penrr
"f
confunalEuneori argumentul rI(
cu polinomul X. in descriere
aparc
mare
desemneaztr
necunoocuta,iar in descriere
care
lltera
X
/
ncliei/apare litera mictr r care pieizeazi argumentul functieil De aceeavom
funqia asociatatot cut
cXin anii Fcedentide liceu am introdusnotiuneade functie polinomialt

de la ceadepolinom,ganditca o sumdfinitdde monoame

de forma alx* ,
lfa cum sc porlc vedeadin tabelulde maiios

190
,.-&-

/,b,c lR,l'-0

Funcliflpolinomialtr
asociata
Ecoatiussociat,
/:JR-R
Funcliadegradulintai
lcuatiadegraduliftai
ax+b=O
Functiade gadul doi
icuatiadegraduldoi
f (x\: az +bx +c

ax3+b x2 +cx+d ,

Fun4ia cubicf,

a,b,c,dR.,a*0
X = nedetennlnati

f(r\:

Polinomul/

aX+b,
d,, R, a;.0

ax2+bx +c,

Ecuatiado gndul trei

ar3+ bx2+cr+d

r = variabiltr

at3 + bx2+cx + d:o

r = necunoscuti

Cmdul polinomului dn gradul tuncliei polinomiale. Coeficientii Inlinomului sunr

coeficienFi tun4iei polinomiale.A determina luncfia polltromiali inseamn{ al
prcD{ coeflclonlii. DacI (r I( esterdd6cinea polinomuluil atunci o se numette
zeroal funclieipolinomiale/:(+f
.
lntotdeaunapentru ull polinom /K[x]
fiebuie precizati mu4imea irl ca.e sc
determinaddlcinile. Polinomul / :2X + 1 ZlXl nu are fiMcint in Z , dar arc
t^

radacina
.!0 . --Q:polinomut S:X'

2rQIXl nu arerddacini
in e.dff.u,:

rrdlcinile +J2 ln lR.

Prinhealtelevom vealeacendun potinom / A[X] arertdlcini in A. in acestconrexr
A: C joacl un ml deosebitdeoarcce:odce polinom / ClXl de gradul z are ,?
rtrdtrciniln C.

S.NumlrullC .rt6 d8bdcpeiaen deodcc.rtirapolDorrul/=X2+IR[X]

..t! t(t) = 0.
4Nurnercle,qs suntars||sendertpe.te Q.

pntru

Lgatdeddtrcinileunuipoliiom prezent?lrn
urm6toarca:

Teoreml. Fie / I([X] ud polinom de grad cel mult ,. Dac[ corpul I(

ate cl putin ,+l elementeti/are cel putin ,+l rddiicini distincteln
K, atunci/estepolinomulnul.

8..{Dd&rr
.{Dd&rI ponloonEte
ponloonEle/=t-3xu
3.
/= t- 3 x2 +2xreetxl
+ 2 x3 e e txl
t I

=t_\f3x +5xr n{x].

crtcuhflt(l-./5), t(l + JJ)1ot"en"aX

t.g *a tlrrc.redou!v.tortcDeralzlrl.
crtcuhS t {l - t), , (l + 1)rt ohdermlt.gttun lotrectedourvrtod,ccnerajtzsfl.

R')Avm
=r-:(r- di +:)+z(r g"E
/(r-\f4-r-3{r-Ji)'z+z(r-,itf
e o/5
- +p-:.,A)- - ,
r-:(r+G)'z+z(r+JI)3
= r- r(r+2,5+:)+
g+eJ3,
r(r+J!)=
z(r+:.,6+s+:Jt)=

Unnumlrd.forln!a+rtr6',d,,Q,ptr,pprirrrenurFieDumarlaradcNumnruta-r\
rnet& conjusalur
prlraticalnrmtrului0+116.

De renarcar
c! nunorct a+rJtge

daci

dat/arIns!cocficientiidln Q ,
i, dac!un polinonen coeficienliir6gor.ti ti calcutrmvaloritetui tn dounpuncteconjugatpnt.'adce
torma a+b,,lp, aruncivalorilcoblirursuntdc lsemneanum.reconjugaprFaticde forme

r * r J t , u n d o , { ,r e .
Definifie.Fie f {Q, R, C}. Un DumEr.ro C se nume$terdgebdC_pesttr dac6existtr
unpolinom
nenul/ e X[X] pentrucare/(r0):0.
ln cazcontarsespunectrx0 estetnpscenalent
pesteL

lr'i prcis
dac!tl.+bJiJ= A+ BJ; ,**i

y(.-t.Jp)= e- dJt. Est

ueor
dvrzut

.r urilizedd.zvolaMbinonurui
tui Ne*ronavem:("+tJp\':x+v,li,x,yeA

(o- u,li)" = x - Y.!e , id deaiciEzulratutanuntat

ma,su' esteiilete simplu.

Din definilie sededucecd oricenurndxcomplexestesaualgebdcsaufanscendent.

b)avem:
s(l-i)=l J3O-O
+s(r-if = r,156-t +sG 3r-3+r=-9 .6+(-ro+,6)r

Itxtmplo.
l. frce nMnr rsfonataQ,n,rZ,s*o

, (t + i)= l-J t n ri r + s ( r + 4 J = r - . 6 , r. i ) r 5 f l + j r J i r - - e - , 6

porlnomul
J:,I
2. Nu,nlnl

-a ezlxl oerrr"*

JIR-Q,

esteatgebrtc
pesnZ, rlcoarcce
exhl

'rl4l=0.
l, l

p - prlE 6te .tsebrtc p!. Z &orec distn porinomtrl

f = x2- p ezlxl p."t-"a"e71Jp;= o.

t92

1 jq -./5,.

Aln cdculat valo.rea polimrului cu @eficienli rali 8 tn puncrele l-i,l+i

car sunt complex
onjugaie. Varorile oblinute ln &esre pu&te so-r).s(l+r)
sunt de awmnea nunee comDlex

193

Molto'6rildrcl strlxl rl t-o+ri,rrqz.reR atunci8(a+,/)-/'ft/'A'8lR i

lnui numrrcompt'l
conjugatulni
a-btr= s6+f,6-TlE -.t- rl (m utltlu!.popriulilc

ponlruoum!9i podui (PuDrc)).

drcl /(-1)=L/(0)=o't(r)=-r'
2. 6I!ort tcn neft|lctlr dGrrrd|tl.l dolL. /:t-+t
condilirli
rl doil.r/rRrR dt llx\=u2)bx-c'o.b..cR.a'0
x. Folm tuqi.i d. gtttttrf
:
=
,
.
1l
sub forna: t(- 1) I <+a - +
t(0)=0<t'=01
dln probLmrsc nanscriu
=
<;'
4
+D+c=
-r
-r
/0)
'

fo -b+ c:r

a,r,.: { c = 0
obtinul
ln nc.unolc.ulele
Sistemul

aretolulia
o=0'r:-l'.=0'

l a +'+c=-t

Cumo trebuir{ fie ftnul dcduccncd$ cxkt! tuncliedegr.dulal doilea

se pmtescdecr produd
-r. Sr !e $ate ca rllrct's D. rom|llr t:l'+R,t{t)=.r]+3r+4
dt re o tuncie d! g.rdol lhfl d d|I.le grrdul d dofle{.
R, TrcbuisI aralm c! cxi6&nD4iilc s,t':R-R's(xr=1+o'h('r=b"+c'+!t'
$u duPrunlecaicll'
a,r,.,dlR,r*0 asfellmft /+3r+4=(r+4)(tl+d+l)'(v).tR

S +3r+a=# +k+ab)J+U+rc\r+ad.

/:n -+R, /(r) = x2+a.r+r,d,, n

n. Dacaecualir12+ar+,=0 de rtdicinile,t
=r,arunciconfo'nrlatiito.lui
Vi&eDurem
-a, 12
ccxie
al b= a ri ob=b.
RezolvtndsistemdSnsin4 : b = 0 saua = I, b = _2.
Decinrrctiilcdutate
suntt(t|= t2, f(!r-,2 + r 2.
5. a) Dac! t:R-+n
!G o tunclie po|lro, atr d gr.d
, 1 !i!rd tub4ia potilodaln
't, > ,
A r lR+ R.Arrr: /{r+lr-ltr)
ire grldut,_t.
b)Ihteminsti tun4iapotimndntit,lacit(.r +1)_/(r)= 3,2 + 3.t
+L (V), R.
D. a' Fie/{x,- a0-arJ - -.. a,f . a" O. erutcr
-

sQ)- f (t + 1\- JG)= ar(x+ 1)'+ 2,_r(r+1)'-r+...+ q(r + 1)+ a0 ant a,_1{ t _
;
.- "r'-a-(","' -cl.^{-t r...+',)+1.,u.-t t c)-p, 1j,,-2,
--,^.,)+....

---o1,-un-*,{-t
penmr
%f!|
@reMr,0.adrca srerst-, I
.A i"!
-...
b)Dr.Agndul lui 8 esle2. atuncigdul luj/esreeral
cu 3.
Aeda f1t1= a3i a aryz+arj+.o. Aven

De sici prin identific.ra (! tcrnenilot d. lccla'i Sradditr ci doi tnenbri) rezulrilsist'mul:

sG)=f('+r')- Je)=34i +Gq+uzr"+at+oz+q.

l:b
0=.-4,

S. Sr $ doicrn'ttl|l in|(llo po non lrte de Smdul d dolo

car adDlr co rldtctnt F d ,l ,.

cu3otutia
a =, = l. . = - I, d = 4 . Decifr,r-('+r)(,'

Dtr 8(r) = 3r2 + 3r + 1 d expriDdead nai sus,prin idetrtificjre,gn6imsisremull

'+r).

cusolutia
al: az= 0,a3= I . Delit(x):.i+ao,a0R.

Obsrlatie . Mclod! PriD crrc rm de&rlninat coeficicnlii a, ,. ., d ! nurlc$ tmtod&oeficicnrilr

nedeteminali(srhetodaidenlifictriir.

\13-3a3+2a2

=ao+arx +a2x2 +'+ag1x{ '

a. secrodderrpolhouul t =6+xf
r) Sl sec.lculezcd0+rr +t4 +-'+d30 i
b) Sl ecd.dr. zt+4!+-.+dt i
c) SI $ olcult. 4r9'd2r,
polnornuluit ln r=r ouinen surn tutMr coficimliloracastuia:
valo0rEa
R. a)-b)CalcDrard

snsedetmine n,' n arfelincAtpoliDonul

l=xlxr-\(x+nl+"

(1).
:aa1o1+"2+a3+-.+s29+d30,
Jqtl=230
l2).
PentNx = -t avcmt(-r)= o = ag- q + a2- a3+....- azg+ ,so,
Adu nd(l) cu(2)Huft! fo:z(on+42+...+a:',),adict ao+a2+ . + a3o:28 '
=24 '
Ti.endslm deacealt!ultinr cgalitd. ti dc(l) rczultft al + a3+ ..+ a2g
derangt+l
c) sd obs.rvlmcn al9 cai.coofictondllui Xl9 S.arenformulateflneaului

SI sedetmine frh4ia lo|lroDta|n t : R -+ R pentru clrer

f lft'l)= xa- er3+ t'2 -sr r 6,(v)r e n .

Dald/ ar fi de gradul fu6i, atDnciri / . / d ave3a.ef,ari proprieiale.Deci ru esteo nrnciie
buna

din binonrl

ca 30-t=19 @zrltr *=11 D l

lui Newton9i wn: 4+l =clox3o-r ' lmFnandcotrdilia
a1e= cj[. enatoga27=cfs.

194

sr [e pnr.rulunui

dt loliron
. Cum grad(, = 4. ilr c@ficiedrul domitrmt at lui esre 1, atunci e cere sa gtsin
lotinolnul
cu prcprirarea
S=X2+1X+F
cr J=82. Ridicandpe 8la pltnt 9i ordonendcele doua

Plntu probtem noasrd. Dacn/ are gradul doi, atuci /ot

arE gndul palru. Deci asrfel
rfo tunctii Eebuiesa malizrm. Fie de.j f(r) = ar2 + bx + c, a,r,c R, a J 0 penFu
c!!

= o3,a
+ r(*, + t,*
+ zo2t3+ (,* + zo2"+ ot),2+
")'
")+ "
+(zot"+*),+ o"2+t" +
".
r(tat)=.(*' +t,+

195

t4

Fie /

,,
Idont tclm ti avemsistemul 12 8=ab2+2a2c+ob cusolulia
4=1.r=-a.=3.

+ b2
-8= 2^1bc
r0

6. Tf,OXEMA IMPiRTTRtr CU REST

l) lmplrfrta

0, gr 0 d( /) >8r s d( g) ,undef = ao + a1X+...+ anx n, an ;r O,

e =bO+ bt+...+bnx m b, * 0.
ln cele ce urmeaztrde$criem.lgorltmul lmpnrFdi lui / la Gnsofitde un caz
I
paniculaletapele
suDtnumerotate)
l) Pentruaceasta
scriemcelealoutrpolinoame
ordonate
dup! puteriledescrescdtoa
2) SedispunpolinoafiEleca maijos:

f = arxo + on,tx"-l + ...+o1x+ o6 bnxn+...+4x+h= I

pollno.Eelor

Arihretica inelelor de polinoatne f[X]

este similari adtrneticii inelului Z al
numerelorlntIegi ln cale avemdoullteoremeremarcabile:teoremafinplrFrii cu re6t
ti tgorrnad descompunerlnfactod prtr .
Toremairp!4itii cu test din Z !e spu!. c! fiind datedoul numerelntegi a 9i b,
, 0 , exirt! exact doud numerEhhegi unice 4 9i I astfel fucet ar loc cgalitatear
a=bq+r,wda
0</<lbl, undeu cstr detuip[4itul,, lmplrtitorul,q cetul,iar r
rcBfuI.
ln torialmp&fidi polinoamelorselnt lnege o proprietaieanalogE,Reamintimcd am
notatprin tr untrl din corpulile Q, lR,C, Zp , p pdm.
Are loc urmltoaral

Exemplur)
/ =6x5-txt -X2 +s, s =lx2 -cX +2,J,ceelxl
! =6x5+oxa-tixt -x2+0x+3 lxP-{fl.-:=s
t) Se lmparte primul terme! al lui / la plimul temen al lui Li
avem
=
alXn : a^Xm ara;lX'-m. Acesttennensepuneln 8chemtr
sublmp[4itor.
tlmullSte-rezultatulasfel obtinul cu impE4irorulI 9i se scadeacestprodusdin
opl4itorul / (adici, 8e aduDl acsrpodus cu semtrschimbatlal) 5i se oblne

fi= I -6ab;txn-n8.
feor|!l!. (TeorDr lnplrf.rfl cu rcst a pollnoamelor). Fie
polinoemele
uniceq.r K [x] asdel
/, 8 I<lx], s 0. AlunciexislE
- =

I = arX" + an-txn-l + ...+ao b n xn+ ...+ h x+ h - I

Polinomul/ s nuEle$te
ddmptrdt, polinomul8 estettrpi4itond,
polinomul4 estec4htl, iar polinomulr se numetlersh lnpi4irii
polinomului/lapolinomul8.

h- f - anb-txn-m

lncet:

gq+ t qi gmd(/)
< gmd(s) e).

Dacl r :0 , adic6dacd / = g4 , atuncispunemc[ polinomul/se divide

pin polioomul I (Eauc[/este muldplu de polinomul 8) sau I divlde
polinomul/(sau c[ I e6tedlvizor al potinomuluir.
Dac[/se divide pri! g, atunciscdem: f :g (citim:tse divide prin 8) sau
s l"f (citim: 8 divider.

Demonstr4ie.l)Existentspolinoamelor4, r. Dacd/ :0, atuncisciau 4 : r = {)

9i (*) severiftcx.
Dacl / 0, gnd(f) < gad(g) , atuncilulm 4:0, r: / $i (*) esteverificatl.
-

-anXn -.

/l aregradulcel muh |t -l

l) cxs:rxL :xr
I

6xs+ of -nxt -x2 +ox+3

-6xs +12x4-4x3
I f,t=tzf -ztx3 - x2+ox +l

3x.2-6x
+2=g

lr.d(/1)= 4

4) Dac[ grad(f1)2 zr: grad(8), aruncise repet! pasul3) cu Jq in locul lui Fie
I
+-+o'o,
nt
<r.
fr=o'\X4
t c o b t in e/ 2 -, h - a ' n t b ; t x n l - m , n n &

r96

197

g a d ( f 2 \ = n 2$ i n z < n t .

4) srrd(4) = 4 > 3r.d(8\= 2, h'tzra

-zlxt - x2 +ox +3,g =.r.rr -6x +2

h=t2x4 -2txt -xt +ox+a

-12x4+z.x3-tx2
I
3x3-9x2+nx+t=12

PUJnem
q=a|h;tXtt'n

+ a'nrb;rXnr-n +...+ anr-rbfilXnr,-t-^ , | = fp $

avem:.f :8q+r cu grad(/)< g!d(4)
h erenplulno6trureutdDerrpleFlcedmre
iotFosingu schemr
ri aven:

-6xs +12x4-4xt

5) DacIgradf2))n =grart(8),aurrciFnEu $iSseaplici3) /2 =4'n2xtu2a... I o'o,

"f2
antncif3= f2 - a"n2b;rx"2-', undcgrad(/3) = n3 Si n3 < n2.
grut(s)=
2,4f2=3x3
t sntf(t2)=3>
-gxz+3,g1x2 -6x+2t3r3 3x2=x
!2=3x3 -9x2 +ox +3

-6X+2=g

O DupnUrtnumnrfinit dpagiseobtiie numlrul np < m , AlgoritmulsetlminI cand

gradulrcslului{Jf,''rwfp,g?4fi=ttr).sb
6tictmri micdccetgradulnlpd4itorului.

J3-3x2 -2x+3
Jxz
-6x+2

-2x+t,t

-a*-zx+l

tf -sx+z

.;
I -8x+s-t
Alh arltat cd existdpolitoameleq qi r pentrucarc(*) areloc.
,) Unidtrte{ pollnoamelor 4 /. Prin detoda reduceriila ab6urd.prcsuDunem
c[ mai
cJdstIq, 4 , doudpolinoaoecareverifice(*) cu q1+ q gi \ z r .
=g41-4, iar de aici prin scdderE
Deci: l=gq-r,f
rcznld 8tq- qt=r
4,

gmd(/- 4) < max{grad(r),

, deoarece
grad(t)}< erad(S)< erad(S(4- 4l)) . Deci

=3l2 -5X+2.--112 :?12 =-l

{,/ din (*) suntunice.r

TeoremaerunlatdesteadevAmg$i in A[Xl, undeA esteinel comumtiv
ouelementunitatecu conditiaca 4 , c@ficientuldomitradtal lui g,'f6 fie inve$abit.

llx'-cx+:=g
lr

-{x*s=ti

tnplll

Undegr.d(,fa) = 1< rrid(g) = 2

SI sedlernl& cth

rl rcrtullirpI!{r

polnonulot/lr

pol|roodIh

r) ! = 3xt+2x2- x +s ,s = x 2- x , !,c ez l x l t

Din egalitltile& Dai susrzufttr:

,',

1=anbfirxn-ng+
fi,
h=a'n brnrx\-ns+ f2, :
11o,
fP = anr-rb;lXnrt-n
'
Prinadunarea
lor,trFtrtbrucumembau,
rczulttr:
y =(antf,,txn-n + a',rqt x\-n

j\'

2x3+4x2+x -t=q

nf -raf - *+u<+t
-nf +utt3-t*
I
rr3-cl+ox+:
-_ax3
+cxz_rt

'

-3x3+6x2-zx
--x2 -:2x+3=!3

6) grrd(tr)=2=Sndc)=2, h-3x2

2-6x+2=g

t=6xs+ nf -ux. -x2+ox+3

l)

c*uritc:

7 = 2 x ta 3 x2+ i x + i ,g= i x2+ 2 x,!, c e zsIxl r ,, :

! = ixa+ix2+5x+2,c =2x2+ix +\ f ,ce zalxl.
1) Aven $hena de ftnpltste cutroscut!(ob6re.tico.ffctentDldonlnant rl lul a e$ta

li!'c|sabrrn zi a(z) = {*U ):

3x3+2x2-x +s
-3x3+3x2
5x 2- x +s
-sX2+sx

+ -+ano-rt;tx"r1-^)e

+ fp.

3X tS=c

4X+5=t
,) 8I otdwrm ci no pla!fin or ftnptudlta tnr.-url Inel cu dlvlzod d lul
don nrntnlh f{|o 3, crrG.'teInvrsobtn z6[x] el!-r = i.

198

199
,it--,

D.clclid lln 4hll.ttr {-3X +I,l0rrcarulortcpollnomul

nul /=0, c.!Nc. tnr.amnfd pollnomul
/ s. dividopdnpolhbmuls.

i x ! +i x z+i x +i
*ixt -ix'
x 2+i x +7
-x2 -ix

Prob!a$ locdcoirc!i2x2 - 3x + 2)(3x+ l) = 6x3 - 7x2 + 3x + 2.

N.totu 2 1M.tutu d.nwrdt). Evidcntap.l6!z!Ia r.orEm!lmpriirii curst

-2X +l=4X +l

.f =8 {+r,unde s'!d(')< sr(s),

| t o q=ix+3tr, =Zx+ t.

Ittc clarct grd(/) = gBd(r) + fErd({), adic!

lrant|u . lld co.ldcnrd prlnluld lcmeri.I cttolut Febul. d rY.n.Callrta 2=5 cr. De rl'l
l.i-l =c1,aatl c1=i.

gad(9)=Erd("f)-Snd(s),

P.r$ro r Sirl coendennrlcelol de.aldod.o renrEnil ctdnol rctohltr ecrrttr i = 3'c2 ' th alcl

+i){ox2+ax +c)+nx + n,d,b.c,d,8ez6.

drcptqru'"-' ixa+3x'tix
f,r..turn crrcouerD membrur

+2=hxa +lb+b\x3

r.,unr6titend:
+^lx +"+n. Prlnlde'rtuc$e

+(i.r3r+')r't(i+l

Dn id.ditlils tmpt4irii r rst avcmi ex3-lx2 +lx +z=(zx2 -3x +2)(ax + bj+cx + d
tr|r dupl cLdu.rEa cdculclor ln mcmbruldrrpr 9i ordonarE!d.lcrea.fioafoUi,pap,it.ito tui X

6x3;-1xz
+3x +2=2axe-(3d-2b)x2+l2a-b+c)x +l% +d) .
pdo
D! rici
id.ntific6r.r..ulg listcmull

x3
x2
x

.
I?=:
=o

=ia, = i" = i-, =0,",=d

12,+34
^
slesktD"t,o=irr=i"=i*
+ !l +. =i. cl"t- pudrdonsolutii
ir= i,
"ct
lit
15 " + l+ a r = i
t . ..

Dod/ !e po.te s.de la lnP!4lr{

pdn g ln ct pu$r doo! modud:

+3x-21.r =r{ix'?+3x
t = el2x2
'i)+3xI !'
l'.obleme rezolvat

I0

-7 =-3a+2b
-- - culolulia4 = 3.r= 1,.= 0,d =0..dic, 4= 3x - l, r:0
2=2b rd

t, Sr .c rtr c3nrly' rt!$l tryIrdllt

t=x-i.
t

pollDoDhl ! = x6 - X5 + X4 - Xr +Xr prtn pouronul

Efecrllnh lDp{trti.e. direcd a polimmuluitprin polinomul8 candavem:

x"- 5x' +x - - x " + x . +ox +o

x5 +(i-t)xa -x3 +x +i
l(i-l\xs + x4-x3+x2

l.Sr rc efectueztmpllfrei pollnomulutt = 6x3 - 7X2 + 3X + 2 h polDomul

-(i-r)x5 +(t-r)xa

s = 2x2 - 3x + 2 tl rpoi sI te f|ci PIob&

l{.l,f.rod4 L Aplicnmalgotitnut descrismi su! li svem:

6x1-7x2+3x +2
t

2x2-3x +2
-2x2+3x -2
---T---i
I

200

12)

FhSu 4 r! le un pollnomcuco.fici.nf tilordi (co.ficionlin.d.t nnln4i) cr$ st satisfr.! rlstir(2),ta.

P.nEur r. la un polinomcu co.fici.r4i ncdlrcftdnrdd. gradmrt ritc cu o unh.r. d.clr grudullui ,
(thplr$lorul).S. lnEoduca.cs!! Dollno.n6ln .gdlraila tmpt4irit cu rcsr !. .fecru.aztcalcul.lotn
trFnb l drEptd ruhd.i. Soid.ndllct co.fici.nlii r.rmcnltord. !a.l4i gr.d tn X dlnc6tdotmambdi !.
o!Fn. un shom rvlnd canccunos.ur.
cocficl.ndllul g ti r. !h rcrotvt rc.ir 3ilrcm|i r. obgna ti /. ln
,!aI norEuI =.X +,, iar r=cX +d (gnd(r)< $ad(S)),

o1 -ir= 3 .
!) 8I rolnrt.I'n c! ltr accli cr, cotldentulilo|nln.l{ d lul a .sta egd ctr 2 ' c'It lnrr nu $t'
lnv.rrb|l h z6[x] tt dd nu rrt tmcfon.tr ttprttnul de h tored|!lnplrfdt cu rctl' ct'd
cfnd d re!.uf crouuDlce.TodrrL.criempntto I .g .sdtr^ta 4xa +3X' -tx +2=l2X' +3X +

(l)

2x2-3x +2
,"'

ttx
-ix

201

Ih c l{ = X 5 +( r - Dx4 - fi 3+x+t ql
t.
"..
J.8f r deorr{nec{trl rf rtul tmpf4frttpottnoDdut
1 =ixt +ix2 aix +1,ta g :ix2 +ix ,

I 'sz'lxl.
It Suntcmfu inelul Zs [X ] , caE esteDndomniu de integritateln carearc loc toremaim!&lirii cu resr,
0u .r (ceNI) i (restul)unice.Aven:
'

3x3+4x2+ix +i
'3x3 ix2
t
zx'+3 x+2
I

D@\ f iX-ae

q(:a)x+c2(=i)

t2

qe Klxl.

Ponuudct rmind lui .2 senzolva mada i = )r2. cerd 12 - i .

u:tf

2) lmplrflrea pollnoamelolprin X-a.Teoremarestului.Toremafactorului

In cozulparticularcandlmpe4 oni I = X * a ([X], rc,stulsepoatodeterminasimplu

Arc loc umtrtoarea:

Teollllrt (Iotel||arcsdui). RestullmpS4niipolinomului

f eIqX],f =0 ,
prin polinomulg:X-aKIX)
esteegalcu valoarea
numerica
a
polinomului
/ penmrx- a.adicdr - fta\ .
Demonstr4ie. Colform teoremeiimpd4irii cu rest a polinomului/ prin polinomul /i
pulem scrie f : (X - a)q + r, undegrad(r) < 1. De aici grad(r): 0 sarr
grad(r)=-co, adicl r esteutr polinom constnt sau respectivr:0. Prin urmaft'
f(x):(x-a)q(x)+r , (V).dr. Penhux:a rcztrltlf(a):r..
Aceasttrteorerntrprccizeazdcb in cazulin carc un polinom/se lmpafie la polinor rl
X-a, aturci restul acestei lmpe4iri se poate calcula luend valoarea funcli( l
polinomialeasociatelui f1n ,= a , adrcd.f (a) .

hl

atuncise aduceru f*."

s-o]X
t

bl
,'
I
I ./,1

2)DacI gmd(/)=n 9i /(ai):0,;=1,r,61unci f :a(X -q)(X -a2i-.(X-r")

Mai generalale loc unniltoarea:
Defidge, Elefientut aK cste rtrdtrctnlde ordln pN* pntru

polironul t r[X] dac!/se divideprin (X - a)p , darnu sedivideprin

(x -

.
"\e+r

Pentrufumfa polirrondaltr
rsodrttr elemcntula sterero deordinp.

Dacup= l, aoncia eserldnchnstunpu

pefiu /(y:x -t

1l,1l1x-.12).

Daclp= 2,arunci
a esre
rtrdtrchtdubHpeftu /{/(x -a), nf/1x -rp1
Dac6p= 3,arurcia esre
dd{dnr btptr penruf{/:1x -.13 qiyllx -"1a\.
Ridlcinile multiple ale unei funclii polinomiale /:C+C
pot fr caracterizatecu
q,utonrldrivatelordeordin superioraleluiJfprin umlitoafta:

Din teorenaresluluise obline cunos,cula

tronemil a hrl

202

f (a):O.

Demonstratie,Din teorenn restului r=/(a).

Elernentnla este ridlcinA a
polinomului
dacl"/(a)=0.Dact/iX-o, atunci,f :(X-a)s,eer[X],iarae
rici /(a) = 0, adicla esterldtrcintrpentrutr
Observaii.ll pastrq,a2 tr suntrldltcini alelui atrrnci =(X -at)(X - e2)s,
i
f

ronru oclcfnumre3l|)l q Ezorvam4ua$a r - r.r, crnd grs'm cr - 4 .

rcstul estc r="fl-:l.

Teoremi factorulul @dzout), Un element atr este rddicine a

polinomului / K[X] dacl $i numaidac[ X -a divide pel

ix2 +3x

D..tq:ix +i ei/= 2.

Dactr8areformae:aX-b.a-O

Ddrout (teor.mo hciorolul), carestabilesrelegltun inlle divizorii de gradulindi

Flinomului / K[X] 9i rldlcinile din I< aleacestuitrrolinom.Mai precisareloc:

m3

T.orem!. Funcfia/ arepc / c0 ,cro multiPlude ordinp dsc[ 9i numai

dac[/(a) = /(a) =...= /(p-l)(d) =0 9i t(p)(d)*O,PN*.

r: /(a), dcciol sc poaiedetermina

prin schemalui Homet.Mai mult,in acestcaz
schemane dd 9i coeficientiicatului dela impl4ire.
Fie
7 = arXi +anqx"-l +...+dtx+ao $i

q:h||xn-t +bn_2x,-2+...+4x +4.

1) .r= a estezeroslmplupentru.ifdsc*
ln partlcular:
f (a)=o,I'@)+o
2) r=a csrrercddblupen[u/dac[:f(a)=f '(a)=O'I"@\+0'
zerotrlplu pentsu/dacir
3) x=a eBtp
f(a)= f'(a\ = f"(a)=o' /*(a)*0 '

D1 f :\X -a)q+r,pnn identificare,

rczultaegatit fte an:h;,h=at4+t+ak+1,

l,iitrrDl(. l gl,. dlt nr !e r-ttul fiipl4trfi Pollnonuld.fpdn 8 = X -4 h c.turll6!

Scllemalui Homeramtbasdeli

0<k<n,2.

Deimpd4itorul/

r\ I =rxs -3x2+4x-\s* x -li

h ! = x'-}xz +S,g=2x ali

x,-r

tl t =ix3+ixz+2,t = x +i, ! ,ceztlxl.

R. l') Av.m r = /(1)= 2.1'+4.1- S= 2-3+4-5 F-2.

I r rt'
.1 r )= 6 e
p.a|[btomn:s = 2Lx2')scrlen
tl r'!Id' = /
l-J ;.
[-;J]
tul.rnr
td'h| I = x -(-i) = x - 3 tae"e'.*-i = 3) i a""1."*urmpltftu
3) soDur!8.ub
d.c e$l co
'=/(i)=3.
2. SI .. uate cI a .crb ftl dl.plq polnonu|l|lr& rldlclnl . rce$ulr ld crro.llel
l) | =X3 -2X2 +tX -2,a=l

z\ ! =)x3
+i.a=\ t e41x1'
-!xz= 0 c.tt ce.r$I d a =l sterldldlrl
1) Arcn

R.

,(r)

'

pntruI

2.tcalcuhrD
/(i,=i !+3 i+i=i+i+i=6.o."r o= 2" est.mru"r" t',tr.
ontto,la..unptat'ltn
p.ndupdnomur
l. si seprcctteze
f=x6-7xs+Exa -ax2+lsx-fi
rl ddLtnl a=2.
:R -+ R, t(t)= .x6-7r5 +15t' -4012 t48r- 16,
-f
penrru
crr f,'(r)=615-7r4+60r!-E0.r+48,
t"(.r)= 3Or4-2E.r3tlSOt2 - 80'
/"'(.r) =r2or3 -84'2 +360r, 7(l)1r;= 35na2-lcr+3ro'

R.

consftterlm ftrnc{s pollnondrlr

,Jen !(2)= f'(2r=f'12)=t''(2)=0

d J(')(2)*0, ceeac lEtn cn d=2 6te rldichr
n$ldpll dordin pdtm penruJ.
Alfel scttrprrteth X-2. C6rd 3ftnprrre dln nor la X -2, lc.Von ror'enlrsupn aceel.l
pmblemeh S.henalul Homs.
3) Schema lul Homer ( l7t6-1E37)
Am intahit mai sus schema lui Homer (William Georges, 1?8G183?, matematicirrrr
englez, public[ ln 1819 metoda care-i poartl numele) cend a tebuit se calcultrlrr
valoarca unui F)linom intr-un punct, utilizand pentru funclia polinomialtr o anumitn
restul este dat (1.
$crierc. Artt vtlr[t c[ la lmptr4irea unui polinom prin X-4,

m4

'n-2
an-2

a'bn-t

abn-2
,,
l+
/*,-)*"^-,

'il._::..
f
D n-| '

;-,

xn-2

bn-3

x"-3

-2

XO

a2

al

40

oh
t-

i
d ryo'hr*
+q/
4/

W
xo

oh
ah +ao

Restul

Coeficientul dominant al cetului, ,r_1, coincide cu coeficientul dominanr al

dclmpl4iului. a, .
For[ula ,*-1 = art + cg, t = iJ-,

ne spunec! dac6arn allat coeficientul ,r al

lui )lt din c6t, atuncicoeficientullui Xt-1, tot din cnt se oblinelnmullind pe fu cu

a $i rrzultatul seadundcu dt (coeficienndlui Xr din deimp!4i0.

Setse. putelile lui X de la delmpd4itln ordinedescresctrtoare
(inilusiv puterile care
lipsesc- aaesteaau coeficienfii egali cu zror. Sub fiecare putere a lui X se rece
coeficienfirlcu carl aparln scrierealuiJ Pe linia urmdtoalese coboar{coelicientul
dominant(d, calt este4_1, pdmul coeficienral cetului).pe aceastIlinie, in fata lui
d,r, se sclie termeDul4 din binomul X - a . Aceasttrlinie se completeazdcu ceilalli
coeficienliai cehrhi dupdrelaliile:
b"--z=a 4-t + a"-t, 4r-3= aha +.tn-2 etc. sub coeficientiibn-1, bn-2--, se
rcriupute fe lui X '.X"-1 , Xn-2 ,,... pentu a scdemaiugorpolinomulq.

205

fixe'npfer)
/=3x! -2x. +!X1-t, t
-x -z

xs

x4

.t

' t+ 'r

xa

l.Udllzlnd 8cholll lul Hom.r sl. detendnr oflttn|rl de m[tdpldtrio

x2
3

12

0
46

92

2A'

2
2
2
2
2

x3

x2
D.d,q=3x{+6x3+r0x2+L3x+46,r=a7
2,J =2xt -3x2 t4x -6 s= x +l

xo

-5

saulnprrtiDd lN 2 avem:

2ir
a2

x0

tua:q=x2+1x-!I,r* i=?

",

=?

t, J =2x3+ix2+r,s=ix +i l,s ezsIxl

r'enr:r=3(x+i)=3(x-r-ir)=3(x-3)* a". =3( x -'t\. +, *" )r =lx -3\'+i.
Aptlcln lclemr lul Hornertr'rtru it

1
4

-l

-l

x0
- 16
0=4+a=2

r ldlcinl sim p[
E
0=D+a=2 daucin!dudn
0=rl+a-2
rndncinl
tdplI

0- 14=)a:2 rld&ina d! ordb prE!

0 =' a = 2 nu esL rid!.in! de odin circi

xo

til sedlerriheft.tr ftnDlrdr acestu

lmpi4irii@ sr penm potin(,smtc

/ ri E cendav.b: y =x(x2

Dod:q =4X- +3X +4,|rf A=4,rfitt r=2-

m6

x0
0

lq , , .

gad(t) < gIa(i) = 3. Dcci grrd{r) slc c.l mulr2. Fic r = ax2 - rX +.. A dretuiM raL F\r
Lvin ta a gr6icoficictrfii
a, ,, e
Dn csrlir.aro
de tunqiipotimmiale
fr,r='(l-r)et,r

ar2+,I+..(v)rR

durrd p,in

lonicolari?ffumn@lle.c'radirtr4.r, c
t(0):0.q(o)+c=2,'d'icnc=2.,
-da! r-0 avm;
5=d +r+c $u a+r=3t
-drd r=l sobtine
- d!.r r= -f tn,iD 5 = a - b+c w a-b=3.
DloultirEledounex!4ii scoblinvalorilcc = 3, r = 0 . Atadff rcs0rtcI 3I d. r = 3X2 + 2 .
r.ne n[x], 8nd(t) > 2. SI.e
rdd tunrsdl lultptu podnom'lx2-r,dsci
"f
'LLrDlDe
|trm lodlde[slor larneD{or th gl{d hDrI d poltnoEolulI e|te 3, lrr su|Docodrcienltlor
brtrErl]or ite grodprl d ecelElqlpollEoD.st! - 5.
R Dh t@'!m rmp!4irna@n.sdit rer / = (x2 -t)e +ax +r. C)

a0 + alx + a2X' + ...+ anX o polinomul

dar Arcm:t(l) =a0 +al +a2 +...+4, ri
\
De aici prin aduouc ri scrderrezuld salitdlile
/(-l)lao-a!+a2+...+(-1)ia,.

Bc

ri

x2
3

-m

-l

R.scrie'nr"c"*

_1

l0

4a

gottmnprlnpotlmnutg = x{X'-rl,

t
I
rl
.
I
:t=lx+:la+:-,D.|Dentdoolirooul:f
si "r = X , = x . I I I seaDllcrlrhrmalul
2't
21 2
2"
!
(2'

-5

-,10

A8. corffderfpdfDomoft=Xfi+X4+xa+2.

Ihd, dnrl e3te4 = 2x' -5x +9 rl rc!tuIr = -r5.

3, I =zxr Lax2-4X +2,s =2X +r
In acct crr, t ottm| rmpll! C||rcat esre/=(2x+1)q+r

oaa,| =8 -z)a(x2
+zx+s).

-3
2

-1

^l

t5
5

46''

a = 2 pcntru

RSlc

x 6 )x 5

r{

ot rldtdrll

Doltnorrul
t = x6 - 7xi + rsxa-.tox' + c8x- ro.

fl |l -

fi -

11

#=aO+oZ+oq

+,.. $ 3-r::--LL--:r= q +43+aj +....

1)
Dnipo@'ravcn t0) +J(- - -5, fG):/(- l) = 3 , (!).
Dh (.) pcntru,= I rczulr!/0) = a +,, iorpdtrtur = - I scdducc /(- l) = -a + r.
Culccsi.xrchllllo(**) daur= -5 9i a=3.Itcci r= 3x -5.

m7

7. DDSCOMPUNEREA
lN FACTORITREDUCTTBILI
lN rNEr,uL ([X]
l) Pollnosmelftducdblle
Reamintimctrstudieminelul depolinoadede nedeterminatd
X cu coeficier4iln corpul
comutariv(, undef {Q, R, C, Z", p prim}.
Am vdzutca dacd /, g e )f [Xl, g

0, arunci/se divide prin a ($i notiim / :8 ) dacil

cxisttrun polinom 4 K[X], astrelincar /=g4 (semai spuneca 8 dividepe/9i
scriem gll;. Polinomul8 se rimi spunecI esteun divizor (sau factor) at lui, iaf
polinomul/este un multiplu al lui 8.
Am grsit ce pentru f eK[X], X,a esrefacto! al lui /dact /(c)=0 (teoreml
Bdzout),adicedactrd esteltrdtrcinl a luil
Este imediat cd pentru. feKIXltaK+
I

f\I-ala-'f

,\

)t t-o-'(a/)l

$i

a/

sunt divizori ai lui

. Cu aceasta
puemformula
unniioatea:

Am vlzut ctrNcpotconsfuipolinoame
$i pestnrcturicarenu suntcorpuri(dccxempl
inele).Dac! lulm r('c.K,rK, cu acelea$ilegi de pe K, atuncis; poale
conslru

familiadepolinoarne
r,lx]c r[x].
ln flxl
se pot defini analog relata de drvizibilitate notiunea de polinonr
$i
ireductibil.Este posibil ca un polhom /I<'[Xl sd fie ireducribilin
aceas
mulgme,darrcdudibiitn r[X].

Exenpre.l.
t=x-1este Ldrcdb h z{xl, AIxl,R[x],clxl.
2 t=r--r
lrducdbrtr
ltr zLxl,alxl,
z[xi,alx], dor rcducdbit
rcducdbir
h Rlx],alxl, deoaBe
', f = x 2 -3 eire Irductibrt
r=(x-'5)(x+"5),
s=x-Ja,n=x+Jt
surt polnolmedrn nlxl is
"ae
"",p".'"

clxj).

3. Polnomdt=x2+r e!.eheducdbfl
n Z[xl,AIx],R[x],d.I ostercductibit
to CJxl,
d.o@ce
=
(x
+r),
t
udos=x_i,r=x+teClxl.
-4(x
P.obleme rezolvate

Definilie.Divizoriide fo na a $t af, aeKa:K-lO)

se numesc
dlvborl trnpmpr ai lui I Ceilalti divizori ai lui, daceexist!, se
numesc
dfi'lzorl proprll.
hoblernacareneintereseazr,
ln continuare,
este(h a vealea
cumsescrieun polinom
:KIXI
ca
un Fodus de factori de un anumittip. Vom fomula o propriettto
f
similadceleidi! Z ln careoricenumtrlnuegseexprimicaEodusdenumerpdmc,
Pentruclarifrcare
formulamumdtoareai

l. tuItrd d ponmnult ZlXl, f =6X2+t X _S sercducrtbpeste

Z.
R. lnErdA{r obscndm
c! f =0X -r)(2X+S) undcrlctorii3X_1,2X+5 $rnrpotinoame
din
ecl.riin l zlxl.
2' Arr'ta$crpg nontul/=x2+rN[x]

este
trducdbfip.sreN, d.r $rerducrDil
tn c[x].

R. Pr.3upunclrr
prinEbsurd,
ca/ ar fi rcducdbil
pcsr.I{. Dcciexis6s=aX-b,h=nX1-n.
a,b, m,n eN, a * 0,n o, a6lft
hcet / = (ax +r){rlx +r).
D! aici(dup!calcuDlXz+r=anxz+(ar+bm)x+bn.
Tinendconrd. csalibtlaa dourlorinoarne,
seobtincsist inur,1":;;":r

Dcflnl$e.Un polinom/X[X] selumefreireductlbllpesteconrul

I( (saulnc[ lreduc{ibilln lnelul 1<[X]) dacta.Iegradulcelpulinunuti
dacdnuardivizoriploprii.
In cazcontar,elsenunEenaucnUlpeoef lsaul.ltctr
rcfudl'it h 1<[Xl)
r r+ (l)s, t r{xl, Crad(s),
/reductibilpeste
$ad(h)>t, f = sh.

208

Dln priDati

Eualirczltd 4= n=b=4=t

'rltina =s/r.
.xtsr.s,rNIx]
o /

.
lbn: I
I cafttDstnu vsificaa douaecualie.
Decinu

In fml polinoml / -x, I I esrftducribilin NIX].

Accstpolinon lnst esl. rcducdb psteA dloare
/ : (x , r{x + r) .
J. Arrl4 cI potrro||n t=;2-5z[x]
estairdoctibilpstez, daresrreducribirpste)R.
L. Pr$upuncmca/tr fi Educlib F$e z, decid ldlnireo s.rieF de
foma /=(4x+r)fnx+,r,
a, b, n n < z, o, n + O,sA! dupncdcul x2 5 = dd<2 + | an+ bn\ X + bn.

2$t

l:;L=,

siscmuft nu ||r! lolrF fi Z . f,tci/stc ilEductibilp.t Z .

lb"= -5

t:umx'? : = (x - r6)(x +

"6),

c!t.6terthdibir
unaex -.,6, x + Jt R [x ] ' s deduce

portcR.
IA r'S ci poflnonul
rducdbillninoldz4[x].
t=ix2+ix+iezalxl6t
fr'Ca/ $ nc Gducfibil,
vatrebuisdetdn cnerisLts=aJ<+b,h=cX +d,8,heZaIXl,a,c-0,

sistmul
,l::-j=t
rncat
Mrfof
/=srt.{+ix2+ ix+i=*x2+(oa+t")x+rd. Deaici,zultr,

Iu=r

o orula a =i, c =i b=d =i.o""l 1:(x+i)(2x+i],

Altfol obscNlm c! /(3):O

9i d@i /ix

"*,

e e!6ci/6radriibil psbz4[x].

+i ti sesPlic! scheftilui Homer pntd a g&i cetul ix +l

ireductibibto ,( ix].
o clastrdepolinoame
Urmlloareapropozitiepre-cizeazd
Teorimtr orice polinom de gradul unu cu coefrcienfi lntr-lrn corp
comutativesteireductibil.
|)( nr" r$tratie.Imediat.
r
jos
e-ste
importanlpeDtrucEasigurtrexistenlaunei exprimdria unui
Rezultatulde mai
polinom/ln tunctiede polinoameileductibile.Mai Fecis areloci
ln factorl treductib l) Fie /K[X].
Teorema(de descomputrere
Atunci/ se poaie scrieca un piodusfinit de poliDoameireductibile din
inelulKIXl.
lt, ||n'nsrrdrie.Fie gad(fl =
DacE/ este ireducribil,arunci reorcrra estc
'l.
demonsEattr,
numlrul factorilor ireductibili din produsfiind egal cu 1. Dactr/ este
reductibilin I{Xl, atunciel sepoateexpdmasubfoima unui produsde cel putin doutr
polinoamedin KXl, ial pntrufiecaredin acestase r4ioneazi ca mai sus Deoarecc
gradul fiec[rui divizor pe care 11gasim scade,in final nu putem obtiie decdt sau
divizori Foprii avendgadele mai mici decatn, dar mai mari ca unu, saudlvizon dc
gradul intei desprc carc gtim (teorcmapreaedentit)cd sunt iiductibili Numdrul
acestoraestefinit, deoaEcesumagradelorlor esteegal[ cu z. r

2t0

conslanli)
,Obstlvu..M{i tuhscricreaesEunicdtabstracfieficllnd,evenrualdcfacto
Legilturaintre proprieratea
de a aveadivitori ireducribiliSi proprietatea
de a aver
rddicini in f penfu polinoameledin X[Xl, K com comutativesredat6de:
Teoteha. Fie { corp comutativ.UrDitoarele afrmaFi suntechivalentet
1) Odcepolinon ireductibil din IqXl aregmdulunu.
2) Orice polinom din .KlX] de grad mai mare sau egal cu unu are
redEcinitn f.
Demonstralie.l) + 2) Fie / i(
lx], grad(/) > 1 confo.m teoremeiprecedenre
/
poale
8e
scrieca un prcdusfinit defactoli ireductibili (degradulunu).

Dcif :(qx +\)(a2x +b)...(akx+bk).

Od ecualiaaix +rt = 0, i: l--& aresolulia ; = -bia1 | e K .

2) +1)Fie /eK[X] polinomireOucribil.
Conformcu 2) existdd]( asrfelinc6r
,f(a)=0, adicl X-alf . CumX-a aregradulunu$i/arEnumaidivizoriimpropii
t z ' rlt X -a = b f , b e K - { 0 } s a u/ = 6 * 1 ( y - d ) , i a r d e a i c i C r a d ( _ f ) : 1r.
Rpmarc[mfapflrl ctr aceastilteoremtraJirml nunai echivalentacelor doud afirmalii.
Alare firesc inaebareadac! exislacorpuricomutativeK pnlrucareunadin celedoua
Uullxtlr esteadevAmui(rezultd,evidenl $i cealalu adevdrau).
Definifle. Un corp comutativt< se numeitealgebric inchls daceorice
polinom / KIX erad(/) > I aretn f cet putin o laddcine(adicedacd
],
lentru f aJimatia2) din teorcmi esteadevdra0i).
Corpul Q nu estealgebricinchis, deoarEce,de exemplu,polinomul X 2 _: e q[X
]
nu arered&ini ln Q ; nici R nu estealgebticinchis,deoarcce,de exemplu,polinomul
X2-r-le RIXI nu arerddaciniin R. Corpul C estealgebricinchis.ece.r rerulrat
foarteimponantestecunoscutsubnumelede tqema fundamntdtr a algbrei.
Avem:
Teorem{rd'Alemberl-Gaussr.
Orice polinomcu coeficienlicomplecsi
oe gad marmaresauegalcu unu arecel pu$no radtrcindin C .

2tl

uN P|(tNDittAt. MA'|)lMA',rICll

pur algebricl
lt0ndrcum nu s-agtrsito demonstr0tie
I rloc8lciteorcmeimportante.Pentrudemonstraliaei
rc utilizeaztrapantul analizeimaiematice.
UtmAtoareateoremepune in evidenli polinoamele
lroductibile de glad mai mare sau egal cu doi
dlntr-unineloarecare
Xfxl.

Teorehl. Fie f e Klx), Brad(f\>2 .

1) Dac[/este ircductibil, atunci/nu arrddilciniin K.
2) Dacd gad(/) {2,3}, condilia necesadde la 1) estefi suJicienttr,
rdicueste ireductibil e / nu arcrdddciniln K
Vom prcciza acum polirDamele ireductibile ln pdncipa.leleinele de polinoamcl
C[x]9i R[x] . Are loc umdtoarea:
TeoEttr!.l) U polinom /C[x] esteirducdbil,dac6$illunai dacE
f =a X +b , a,beC,o*O
2) Un polinom / R[X] estelrducdbll, daca$i numaidactr
I:aX
sau

+b, a, b eP,,a

-O

foma 4/ rtunci .t=(X-X})af

sau (/-O)1=(X-{0)a,
adicdX_16 ar fi
inveisabil,!dic[ ar aveagadul zero,fals.
hin lrrnure B=aC*, adict gad(,f)=l. Ori am vizur c{ toatepolinoamele
de
gradunu suntireductibile,
2) Conf-ormteo^remei
precedente,
polinoamelede giadul unu $i celede graduldoi care
nu auridlcini il lR suntircductibilepes lR..Si arftlm ca nu mai exiJa altele.
Ptrtu ac.astaaretihncl orice polinom ircductibil din R[Xl de grad mai mare sau
egalcu doi ,,serduce"la un potinomde g.aduldoi flrraradacinireate.
Pie deci /R[X] ireduaibil.cu en f)>2. Conformreorcmeilimdamenlale
a
rlgebrei polinomul/ are o rdd.Acindra C . Sd obserytm ce .d0
ellR , confom cu
Eorefi|,aprcednu pct. l). Pdnurrnare.roC_]R.. Cum/arc coeficieniirea.li,va admire
{ r5d?icinacornplexconjugad A C - lR. Aplicand eormalui Bzour,deducemce

/se divideprinI : (x -{0Xx -.'0) : x2 - ("0+4)x + ro'0 R[x] in a[x].

D*i I = I ' h,heQIX] . Cum/ esteireductibil,
divizorulsEuli ar tlebuistrfie de
Iotnn a sfnrd, dC*.Dacd h=af , a aci diaf= gh,ar rezulta1=ag, adictr ar fi
8
itrvrsabil
dcci
grad
de
zero,contradictie.
ti
Remeneh=a,aeg*
cand/=ag $i deci
gad(/) = 2 ,/avend ddlcinile complexconjugare.{0 to . r
$i
Aplcand tedema de descompunere
ln factori ireductibili ,i teoremaprecedenti se
oblidurmtrtoarcs:
Teonnl

l) Oice polinom/ e C[X], / + 0 ,/neinversabil,,e aLscompune

b mod uric tr factod ltnlarl tn inelut C
[X,
2) Odcepolinom,f lR{X], / +0,/neinvenabil, sedescompune

t| mod uric h tnelul R[x] intr.un produs de factorl tiniad sau

frctod degraduldoi ftrtr ridtrclni reale.

f =aX2 +bx + c, a, b, c <R, a*0, b2- 4ac<0.

| )(nr('rNtratic. 1) Fie /C[X] un polinomireductibil,Deoareregad(/)>1, di
teoremafundamentalla algbrci rezultEcd / admite o redicin! r0 C . Confoflrl
lcorcmcilui B6zouravem: .f - (x - xo)s, g a[x]. D aici cl-f ti cum/ c! |
ircduulibilrezuhadivizorulI eslede fonnad saua, unde a C^. DacaI ar fi (lc
212

nxempre.
r. t = x2 .r2 alxl, r ={x -,f2il(x +{2il I
2. I eqxt, t = x2+ x +l-, =(x-4(x +r+r)l
3. ! e\txL I = x2- 3x+2=(x -r)(x_2)l
t. y 4qx1,1=y3- y2-x -2=lx -2)(xt+ x +r).

213

oonBccinte:
rezulttr
urmdtoomlc
Dlnnccastl
teorcmd

.Art'dt
Pdnrodrc66
rtrtrbsurd.
o'.d f=lox2+tx+")("xr+0x+r),aa..,c,6rez,"t*"i
prin idcntificorcsisrcmutoblinurtn numeretnfegi nu e solulii.
Porircmur/.{re rcductibilFrte R din scrircat =(x2 + Jix

core
Corclor.Fie f =an+aI +...+anx', an*O z>lul polinom
.r1,...,xr.
areridlciniiedrstincte

1 1),
"";
doi factdi fiind din R[X]. D asemra acerti doi factori fiind de gadul doi
cu dierniMnrDt

Atunci/ = an(x -.t1)(x - x)*(x - x")

(+aE)2,4= -2<0, sit iEduclibili.

+r)(xr_.6a

ln finc/ste ftductibil pesteC . av6ndd.scompun@arn firctori iredu.ribiti:

lifr{'lr. I. / = 2Xt + X -1 QIX],rIE ddrdrdh rr = l, 12= -1. Ded

r =z[x-i)tx *rt'

2.!=Jrx2
a.."idi.n'fle
+lr| +r)x+2RIxl.
{=+,+=-:*t* r=Jz[x*fltx*a'
t f =ux2+16+i)x-3ea[x],rlerrdldnflc
.rr= rt,,r=-l1u

1=a1x-"{t

-;1.

Comlar.Dact un poliro8 f eC[X] cu gndul cel mult n seanuleaza

pentrun+l valoridistircte.
atunci/ =0.

f :\x -

'llx

--\)(x'2)(x-4).

2)pofircmDr/admii.
scrierile,
r =(x2 +\lx2 +z)=@ _t)1x+i)(x

rJi)(x +t"6).

De aici deducmca/ esrrcducribil pelt K = Z, r =

e ,i r = tR avand.lesconlunereain factori

i'"a*,iuri
r : (x, + r)(x,+z).
Polinomul / este rcductibit 9i pste ](=C,

cend adnit desco,rpun@a in f&ton ireducribili

r = (x- 46 +l\x - iJr)(x+ tJi).

3r S a obserudm
cA / r ir

- li. adr c, t -

esr er adac, n6
a pol, nom ur u,
/ cand a\ em :

x +a):(x+4)(x2
r: (x-i)(x'?+
+ x +2).
PolinoBuls=x2+x+iffre

f)rnrr)nstrati.
-x2)...(X - xn)sc
Dactrgrad(/)=r>1, atunci/:a(x-4Xx
Dacefu plus/ (x,- 1): O.xnaq
in n valoridistincre.
aoulgazb
-x1'ft=fi.atunci

iductibiltn Zslx], doarece sraduldoi qi nu c ridicini in

corpul
Zs. penmci: s,6r- z srir--i, sr)r_ 3.s,ir _ i. g1i;_ ).
w t =(x +4)(x2 + x $) Z6[xJ leprchu de@npuneerui7inri].tdi ircductilli
Fstezs.

l1r'l'l.me rezolvare

2.Snsat!t4 ca potimnmt! =ix. + X2 + x +ieZalx]

.3t Eductibt h Z4[x],

d = 0 , a d i cd / = 0, r

t. Sl !. dcompunt h frctorl |Ied|rcdbil lest K ponnotnd, h cl'udk:

t, ! = xa+ r e zlxl,K =2 ,r =Q,x =&r =c ;

2\! = x' + 3xz+2ezlx].( =2.x =Q,r = B.K =c I
ty 1= x3+ x +ieztlx\,r =zr,
t. r) s. obscrvdm
cr y =11aa2v2
ar -rr2 =\x2 .t)' -lEr)' =lx' ,,lr* *r){x'?-'rx+1
-r x

n r l x -n) ( x- r ') ( x

l-i

;,), unoe,,=j-i
.,tl'a=T

Polinomulftsle ireductibilFst Z d pesieO. Problm ca osieiftductibilpos& Z.Cum/nu!h

rldlcini lntcgi sau ralionalc, cl nu s poaie scri. ca un produs dintre un flctor de gradul lnui
d alDl de gadul rrei. Scriets lui / ca produs d. dou! polinoane de Sndul doi cal'

z (sau
in Q)'
nuau@cficientii:ln
wrinoane
.f =(x2 +Jzx +r)\x' .Ex +r). oarcenaoue

214

nu arenici o rldicinrjl

Za,d^r

R severificrpdncaiolci /rOr,rrir, /ri). Jrjr

-o
PuneD
at(,x2+ax ,
/-{4x
").o.t.".a.,ezo
Dezvoltand
ln lnenbruldreprg apoiidentificard
gtsima=2,t=i,"=a:e=3..e,rce@tacI
t :(2x +i)(3x2 +3x +3) eideci/este
reductibleste24 .
3rSI sdetendI3potiooondrcucofdenSftali careveri6ciretaFa/(r) = (r _3)/(r +r,
{v)r n
R. Penru r:0 relariadevine0: 3/(1)_De aici, = I sie rad6cind
polinomutui
a
I punem
r= I h acee4irel4ie9iputn
=
adic{,
2 esre
radnciD!
alui,
"f0)-0= -2l(2).
Da.!r = 2, aMci Elatiadevine2.f(2) O= -JG) $ dei, = 34te,deemenea,rddircin!
aluiJ
Dad luid.r = 3, relariad! 3"/(3)= 0 : 0."f(4) . adice0 0, decinici o informaiedespre
o altr rrdlcine
i fuit Dh cerede nai susf@:,(x-rJ6-2)s@,
tnbcuind
s:tR+lR , func,iepolinomiali.
&.ad. erierca lui/itr rctarie
s obtineduptsimptificeea
prin r(.r_lx.rr_2). s(,):s(r+1).

2t5

(V),|R. Nollm /'(r)=s(r)-s(,t

,( r)

fl)

Drc! $!dul lui h c3!. , (dc 6xorplu),aunci

0. (V): 6 R rczuld I cstcfunclianuu tl dlcl I csictuncliaMsland s-tjR",

Docl/ - tx(x -4(x - 2).

l. thaornnrd por.netrll rcall !t , s3 el lncgtpollnonur/ sI se dYidn prln pollnomurI

l) f = x3 +ax2+6x +6,s=xz - X -2i
,, ! = x4 +(d -r)x3 +(b+:)x2+ x +" -1g =(x -rf .
in fa'tori ireductibili pste]R sub
|r. | ) ttdodd l Sdobsneh cdimp4itmt spoatescai.descompus
potinomlrui
sunt
r.dncinile
=
dst!
ciI
2
1),
c.4
ce
&
2)(x
tuffi ! s (x +
li
Cum/sc divide prin s zul6 ct rldlcinile lDi 8 trcbuiest fie ddlcini $ PntruJ dic':
l r( l J -0
l a -,+ 5 -0

l],2,=o '* laa+2bI a=o

d$6m din corcqulri valdile lui a !i t Grsin ulor a : -4 b = I

M.toda 2. (Ptin inpa4n. dirccldt EtccruandlmPe4irealui J la s alem I-8(X

r s - 0) (4 -

vompocd& al rfel. Vom consider asor ndncint aibit r a. ! aluis( r lsaui) . Decjo2+3o+: : 0, ( t ) .
Voft allta c{ /(o)=0,ceeaccspuncuadnirepea carddlcin!.
Cum d esreo rlddcinl oa..arE
a
lui 8 dducm
c! t:8,pntruaprobact /(o) 0, utiliznmfetalia
0).
-

Avdn:/(d)= (d.ft)3'+2
+ o + z= frc+rl3l'1c
+ D2+a+2=(s3+3cr2
+3c+l)'(d+ l)2+
+c+2=

-a ., - r)

M.todL 3. lMetod4.oefcienfitor nedzaminali\' Porinotitt I s divide prir I dac! disd n R[x ] !$f'l
lnclt/- gr! TrcAndln 6ceast!Salitntela grsderzult! 8Ed(.,rX- g0d(8 ,)) : gad(s ) + Stad(") sau
3 = 2 + gmd(rr). Deli Srad(ft)= I Seia / = x + o . Sc idndfic! coficienlii lui X la aceljqj pulercel
s. obtinoun sisten ln 4, ,, o .
M.toda 4. (ScheB lui Hom.i) Seaplici schermlui HomI pentrutqi X - 2 Siapoipetrtrucat 9i X + I

x3

Obsenuflc.Sc por aplicati cdelaftehtode d.scriseh plobtem precedentn.

5.SI searrte cI polDonul / =
1x +rf'+2+ x +2,, e N scdieidepriD s = X2 f3X +3.
R,ln tuc.rcir3 de a gtsi rldncndb imp!,rtirorutui consradmcr acdtea
suntconplexe rt. ;i . Trebuie
I
0lltlt ci /(4):/(4):0
pentruca /:8. ori /(4) sau J(,2) compo& nirte calcute.
De ace.

d-l\

+( o -b -3 )x - 2o - 8.
Drr /lsqi deci resonlnPi4irii nebuiesn fie poltuo'nolnDI,adic! (a+'+3)x+22+8=0
o(o +b -3 =o, 2a

la+b+c=0
PrinumoE$oobrtn.
rtsrcmurr
i34+2r-6_-0-,oru1i"o__1,a=_2,"_'l1
I
3
l o a- z a + r o - o

a 3a13y1r]n{cr+ r)2+c+ z= {c+D2+a+2=s2+3a+3=o.

[o1o2

6.) Sl.c slol. cl polnolDut

J = Xtu-r + X -r, n !|. sdj!,idpdn polnonulA = X2 ? X +t.
b) P.nhu c. rdod rlc lul rN, pottnomut/=(X+f)tr_X'_1
s dtvldcp n polnomul

c=x2+x+ t?
R.a)Scvcdcugo.c! rtd!.iritc lui g suntcompterconjugarc.
Nute dcrqminld efectiv.Arlrdlnc{ / js ,
probAnd
d o rtdaah! arbidar!a tui a cstcd!h.in! g perrruI Fie o o ddncinia lui
".
Decic2. c- t= o, O).lnrutgndcu a-t rtariq
0) rczutdra3. r = 0. (2/.
P.ntu a arlt! cI t(o) = 0 vomtntrebuinta
retaiite( l) ei (2).Avemr
/(a):sto-r+s+t=(a3t2'.1+o+r(3f
c( !

+o+t,

tTo.*ro'urui8 {reriddcine
eipenmr
f prinumatr/sedilideprins.
H^T::31i11
" obffier cdrMdcinite
u6ervaFe. riebuie
tui8 sunrsimpte.

Dee 8.re raddcinmul;pte(Are, rebud

3! fie rrd-lcini 9i pentru/cu cel pulin lcetasi diin.

b)Fic o rldlcin[orrccrlea tui & Deciavenretatiilero2 +o+t=

-t

Ca/sI sedivi.ldprjr s trbuieca /(o)=o

I4o+ u+ t 4= o
4 ,r= r'
a res l u l E a
Si{ te mu lL
l o + a+ ' = u
2) Mctodade rczolvaredli.. azddznwt.l. R.mar.rn c, inp!4irorol 8 $e rndlcina aipld t = I Ded /

riPlt ripentru,adt"
R divdeprins. .runcir = I e\terad.c'na

l{t?.=_'"

l; ti;-;

l-t'ru- o

fonnalale polinomutui
Colculdmderivatele
/ fi alm| D(/)=4X3+3(a

o2(f\=tzx2+ae -Dx +z(t+ z).

l)X2 +2(b+2)x +t '

0, (l)

Si 03 = l, (2).

Crriavem /(o)=(o+l)r_o,_l=(

a2)r-d,_l=

= (-1\na2n -dn -1.

Cun (-l)" sediscus dup6cDm, estepar ssuinpar, iar o, dupntr de form
Xt,3*+L3t+2
l uardeunadi nforne le:
6/ . , 6t +! 6t +2, 6*+3, 6i+4, 6t +5, t I t .

tN. vom

C i zrl l .
_r * 0.
" = 6i ,reN .i nacest @ / ( o) : 1_l_l:
= 6t nu corelgrde cerintsiprobtemei.
''
Ca.ul2. n 6k + 1,k eN . Aven: /(d) = _a2 _ d _ 1=,(s2
+ a + D = O.
D cipnduz= 6t+ 1, / : s.
D.ci

C azul 3.r= 6t+ 2,tN. Avem f ( a) =( - - a. 2j6k+2- d) 6k+2_l=( oi3) 4t . 04_( 03) 21. 02_l_
= a -n2 -l = o-(-o)=Zo*0.

2t6

1+c2+a(00

2t7

S. facnr-01&oblln. r = | . Punlrd
eum .r- I Ezutur2l =a+tr+d, (t).
Sodoriv.ui .Srllrar60(*) ti sloi s. facc , = 1, cend!vem:

(ru, 4. r=lttiStN. ln rcelt .r/ /(o) {-c2)6t+3-d6r+3 t=1q3;al (,6 -1tr;2t..:-1.

-l l-l=-1r0.
(.r!rl 5. n=6t +4,1 N Aven /(o) = (-{2)&+a-(r&4 -l =,((t141.o8-(o12[.o4 -t-e2-a-t=2s2*0.
(l[ri 6. r=6t+5,tI{.

20/e+reJ8+...+2J+r=(,-r)2alJ,+ul,-r)q(x)+,(,-rJ2
.
s'\x)+2^+b,z!o=?a+b,(2)
Rc@lvend
sistcmul
formndin( l) ii (2)8!sima:1910,,=-l?0.

2) Dldribllltrfta

ln fine /(o) :(-{2)&+5 -06l+5 I = <d)4i.alo -(o12*. d5-1.

fh.l tl pcntru
r =6* +5,t N,/lX2 +X +1.
pentrua e {6t +1,6t +5} pollnonuuse
ln concluzic
divideprinX2+X+1.
t

.) sr $ r!!e c! ponnomul7 =(x -tf+21x2"+r,oN

!e dtrtde prlD polinomut

a -x '-X + 1 .
b) P.Dtrucevalot alelut r polnonul / =(x -lf - x'+r
s. dlvldepdn s=x2-x+l?
R. r) Arftlm cd fic@e .6dd.ind o r lui 8 esGr{d!.in! i penrroJ:
(l). De aici prin lnmultirecu q+l
Flo q o rlddcinnoarccare
a lui s. Deci d2-o+l:0,
Ilzulu(r3+l= 0, (2).Ac6easuntcledouArEl4iip.carcleurilizilnpnEusprobacl
/((t)=

2 . f = x 3 + r , c = x2 - x+ r .Atu dJ = ( x2- x+ r ) ( x+ r ) ,* r = x+ r .
polinoasele
Pcntsu
nunErice
o Foprietate
deimpofianltr
esteumitoareai

0.

N. sr !. amtect pornomrt I = xs't + xsnz+r+ x54 +2+ xs''4+3+ x5t5+4,r, N srr

prlDpotiDoDul
dfrfzlbll
a = X4 x3 + x2 + X +. .
ll Pcntru fezolvareutilizin teorema
:8 <+oric rndlcinl a lui sterndncin! qi pentru cu aeh$i
I

A v. m: /(o ):ds A + d5' 2+ l+ d 5 n 3 + 2 + c 5 ,4 + 3 + 0 5 ,5 + 4 :(o 5 ),1+ (os)' 2.d+ (d5)23.a2

- (cs)r4.q J + { s s ) r s. u4 : l_ a _ a 2 _ a J r q { :0 ,
Dccifr dividepritr8.

pottnonulut/ = xr +xle +...+ x2 +x +r u x(x -rf

r61u1ftnprrfrx
'r sr sedererndne
R. Confornteoremei
lmpn4iriicure$apolinoanelor
avem
Trc.end b tunclii

alociatavem:

Teorcml. Fie /,g C[X], Polinonul/este divizibil prin polinomutS

dacd $i numai dacd odcr rIdAciM a polinomului 8 esreriddcina ti a
polinonului/ avandSipentrume6raun ordiDde mulriplicitate
cel putin
egalcu cl pe carell arepentrupolinomulg.

Fic a dddcin!a lui & Decis4+d+d.2+o+l-0,0)

carep rnlnmultir o (r-l d! d5 -t =0, (2).
I'c ru e probacd /(o) :0 , utilirnm datiile (l) d (2) (Se ara6 ulor cn dddsiiile ecu&liei I (t) : 0

x2 0 +xle-...-x +l- x \x -t)2q+ ax 2 b x+ . .

politrohial

Am vdzutcd dac[ /,g K[X], g

atuDci/sedivideplin I dacl exisrl 4,<[X]
-0,
=
(mai
artrel tncat /
spunectrleste multiplu de.8 sauci 8 estedivizor al luil).
64
Deci/ se divide prin I dacl 9i numaidac[ / = 0 (acstadevineun criteriu pdn care
probltmci polinomuuse divide prin g - sefacelmpd4ireacelor doui polinoame se
9i
constsdc! rstullnptr4irii estepolinomulnul).
L cazulparticularcand I = X - d , atunci/se divide prin X - a, dac! ti numaidace
= 0 (B6zou9.
"f(a)
Exemp|e:
r. t = X2-1,8 = x rl,Atrmd / =(X +r)(x -1), cuq = x -r t

Av. m: J(q )= ( a - l) , - 2 + c 2r + l -(c 2 )r-2 + c 2 t-l -c z tr+ l ,c l - c2t+ l = c2r!l (cJ l D ;0.
D.cl / scdivide cn &
b)S.Focrd.rr!analogpon(n'ib)del&prcblmlpreldent|.Cnsimn{6*+t,6*+5,}nil.

/
ordlndc mutiplicilrEcelpulincasipeluu 8.

polhogmelor

Demonstr4ie. Prcsupunen
cf,lse divideprin A. Deci existdllC[X] astrelincar
/ = 8.i. hesupunemcI r=a esteddEcini a polinomuluig. Deci f =(X-a)er
SrA[X] ti pdn ur4are f :(X-a)g.h.De
alci X-a)f , adice,=d este
rtrdtrciniii pedtrupolitomull Deci dscd/se divide pdn g, atunciodceIedecinea lui
I esterldicin[ $i pentntl
Reriproc, sd gesupunemc{ oricare ar fr o redecinaa polinomului 8, aceastaeste
rediciDd$i a polinomuluil Atunci X - a , careesreuDfactorireducribil al lui s, va fi
la fel $i pennuI Dci tofi facffii liniari diD descompunerea
polinomului g vor fi
luit Daclr= d esteo reddcinemultipl5 de o.din ft a
Fezenti ti ln deaconopunerca
polinomului 8, arunciacestava fr divizibi! prin (X - a)l . lnseamnac6 polinomul
/

;r20
+rre+...+l+1='(.r-1)'?s(r)+d2
+rx+.,(v),R e).

pentrua fi divizibilpdn 8. va rrebuisEfie divizibil9i prin (X - d)l . adicesaaibnpe

x:a rldlcinl mulripledeordin p>l .

2t8

219

prr.mcr. r.dl d! 4. p.rtru corepollnomul!=Xl+aX'+bX+c

scdelcrndnc
t,;xcfnplf,,S{
!odhfdecupollnomulg= x3 -2x2 * x .
rldlclDlle jl=0 (rldldnr slmpll) $ 12=1 (rltl&nn dl$lr). Pertlu catsr
R.lmphtltorul
're
rodlvldr prln a 0elmpDlrecondldacr ac61crIdldtrl sI fie $ penru,f.
qid.l / =s 'Atttel,.t
D..f /(0)=0, r(1)=0 tt t'(1) = 0, D. atcioblinona=-2,r=r,c=0
r.herhr l|tl Horner,epllcro dearlod (Frtru r = 0 ri deaoul orl iilrtn i= r ).
Artlrl' prln lmplr-lina diltctl serdpuft conitlSrcarc6tu1. = 0 .

Proprlettrflale relaliet de dtvidbtlftqre

ltr contiruarerirElebrcplietdlialerelatieide
FieX un corp comftrdv. Vdmprczenta
divizibililate.
ester1) reltedvl (adic!/l/, (V)/ rlx]) ti
Pr,Rel4iadivizibilitaie

(adic[dac[/ls, g1],atunci
2)tronddvtr
/1,r,/,8,r, ,( Ix]).
Avertr/l/, (V).f I({x] dcoa$.e/ = l. / .
Demonstralie.l)
(l)
cAexistlif [X] peftu care8 = /.r,
2)Din /lg sededuce
(2').
cl existltll({X] .sdellnceti=8.81,
Din 8ll sededuce
rezultd
Din (1) $i (2) rc tltA h=f .fi.sr=/(/l.s1). CuE ,,81 Erlll

i.Er ,([ x ]s idec/ilr . r

Pr.Fief , g;,i:f,i

polinoane
dinIl [X].

Dacd,
f Isb i = r,n, ntn*i f | .\qi ei., c! qi e K IXl, i r,n.
Demonshralie.Roprietatoa
6pune
cI dac6unpolinom/dividepolinoamele
8i, i = l,rr,
dcaccstcpolinoame
atunci/divideorice,,combinalie"
, anicafl Y,^qibi.
i+o

P!"Fio./,8 r[X],

*
"fls 9i 8 0. Atunci/ * 0 Sigrad0) S gr0d(8).

Un dlvtzor (, al unui polinom nenul (g) esteun polinom nenul de gtad

cel mult egalcu al polinomului.

Demonstratie.Din
.flgrezultlcI exis6tr[X]
f +0, fr+o ri dcigrad(/)> 0,erad(fi
) >0.

astfel
incat8: /. fi. Eviden

Olm f[4 estedomeniudejntegritate

avemdin /./i : g, grad(g): grad("f)+ grad(, ),
'iar de aici (el.d(/l ) > O) deducemgrad(/) < grad(g). r

P$ he f,seKIXl, f +0, asfelincatfle Si slf . Atunciexisra

d e 1<,.r= 0 , asdelincet/ = ag .

Demonstrati,
Dn I+O $i glf rezulti 8;.0fi exis6 8lrlx]
asfel incer
:gg,Din
rezulu cl exisd fi rlxl asrfelincar g=fi. Din /:ggl
f
$i
"flg
=
:
se
obtine
:1.
=
sau
(,f
0), s1fi
Trecandin aceasdrela.tiela gmd
a l7i
/
fig1
=
:
grad(l)
0
grad("fl)
rzultii
+ grad(St).
Cum i,g1-0
rezultE erad(i), gad(gr) I0, adicd (via relatia de mai sus)
gmd(fi) = gad(sl) : 0, ceeaceinseamne
cd li, 81 i( - {0}.
Aqadaf/=8l g unde8l:atr-{0}.
r
Observa$i.l) Aceastitproprietateafirm[ ctr dacddoutrpolinoamese divid reciproo,
'atunci ele ,difeld" pdntr-o cotNtantdnenultr 4(-f =d8) saucoincid absrractiefdcand
aleo const&ni nenulaa..
2) Dacd/gi3 auacelagi
coeficient
qidacd/lg 9i gl/, atunci/=g.
dominanr

Defr|dFe" SpunemcE polinoanFlef,geKlx)

sunr asociateln
dlvidbilltated"cd /lC rr 8U (decidacl sedivid rEciproc)$i scriem

f- s.

carcei = l. fi,i-T;.
Intr-adevir
din .f l8; sededuce
ci exist[/; ,( [X] pnfru

=
faptulcd
xlrnci .L,oq1g1=
.f,rq1f tt flf oeit) Din acea$triel4ie\ei din
cbflf, qigl. t
.fooifi e xlx) telzrit|

2m

ConfomproprietiltiiPa,dacE/ 0, atunciI esteasociatln divizibilitatecu/dactr$i

- lncatg=a/;dactr
nurnai
daceexisttra f -{01 astrel
g-l dacl $i
-/=0,atunci
numaidacE8= 0, cazln cale8 = d/ , estebanalverificattr.

Ps,Fic /,SAlX], Atunct/lg, dacdoriceltrdtrcintr

a polinomului
/
(cuordinuldemultiplicitat!rcspectiv)estertrdicintr$i pentrupolinomul
ordindemultiplicirate,
celpuiin).
8 (cuacelagi

o6!im,- -2.
' --t.
c) Apli.llrl dSorlhut
dctnpr4ire c'ror dourpolinoang avcm:
t = 8Ix- +\n+n-2)x - d-2nla\n-h- i)x _3n+8n_ L
condiF sll F mduc.Fin lelrj egat
a polinod n

Accasttr proprietaie este deosebit de utild in problemele de divizibilitate r

polinoamelor.

l. SI& detemirc pranetd! rrllD,4?

altfI lncAt polinonuusl

sdt dn prln polhoEn g,tn

,t ! = X! -ln
2X+.1,'.a= X + I r
-r)X2bl I = x ' +( 2n +r jx'z
+ nx -'-r.r=(x-t)(x+l):
. ) / = x a F{- +r lx3 +( n -rlx2 + x +r +2a,e - x2 t2x + 3 i
d) l = x a tsxr +n x2 +rx+t+t.p-lx2
_ -\t

rIIx | 2\.

R. a) Polinomuusdivideprtupolinonuls=X-(-1)
| = /(- l ) d educ em
f(

dacirestulimpa4niihi/las ester= 0. cum

l) = 4 n + 2 .D i n /(-l )= o

b) Metodo | (Metodacoeficinlkt

* tt^ :-| .

wd.t.nitutt.

DrAJ se divide prin s, arunci urbuie sa aibl l[

lgaliraiea / = s(x +d) <+x3 + (u +t)x2 +,x - -, = x3 + ax2 - x - a. De aici, prnr
^

x2
idcntinc@, rczDltl rbtemul X

n --l

c us o l u ti iu -

l .r-

1a-

.].

x0
Metoda2. Din P5 Miltd cZ ori@ rldlcini a lmp!,rlilorului ene rldncind ti penru diinpl4tu. ln c0i'o1
noslru il : 1,12 = - I smt rtdd.inile lmpl4iiorului. Acesrevalori nebuie si fie rldicini ii penrtu/,
adicd/(l) = 0, /(- l) :0 . Acsrsisieme BoluriaD: -1, n: 2.
Meto.la 3 (Pin tnpd4iE dit ctd). Aplicard algoridnul de imp64ir a lui / Ein g avenr
n .a ,L .
I - s(x -2 h - t ) - ( h- \ x
Polisomul/ se divide prin s dacnresrul f -(u -l)X-r-r+lsLe
polimml NL adjceden
r+r:0
n+
/
+
1=
0,
@
e
a
@
d
A
h
:
\,n
:-2
.
ii
Mebda 4 tYtm lui Howtr. Seaplicdddounod schemalui Horno: o dlta pnsu/si radacm r l!l
apoipentru.a$l obtinot 9i rndlcina .r : 1.

-l

x3

x2

I
I

2n+|

2n+2

X
2n+m+ 2

222

n+2-O

''**

ln-nt7=o

lr,o+t,*r=o'dtia

u =5

'=-2

d)R.ldLinilc
tup!4irdului
fiind rl:-1,12=1,13:-2
s. irquDeconditia
s! firadtcini
siDenr
ddr4D4itsdic. l(-t)=O, ft\-0, ft-4-0 ()@ceconduce
tasisroull
curoluti.n:5,2 = -5, p = -? .
]^+"+e=-t
I4n-2^+ p:23

2. Arltrf cI poltmmul/='Xo+r-(r+l)xo+!,eNr
seilividets polinomuls=1X_l), 9
&tenblDrf ctn ece|reituptrf rt.
lui Hornq de doudori: o dar, pnrft/ i rrdnciD., = I ii apoipe ru catu
R Von ,plica schma
obtinutri
r= l ArE:
'|ld.Lim
x"+l
x2
X
xo
-('*r) 0
0
0
0
-l
-l
-l
-l
0
-l
I
t-2
a- 3
I
0
Docictbl laln'p64iralui/prina csraa = njr,-l + (n_1)xo 2 +...+zX +t.

3) Cel rtrll mrrr dhizor comur a doutr pollnoame.Algorinnul lui Euclid

Defilritiile,_teolemele
de la aceast?t
$i chiardemonsradile
scfiuoe
sun
9i urmrroarea
similarEcelordetadiviibilirateadin Z .
FieN uncorpcohutativ.

Definitie.
Fie/,8 r[x]. spunem
cxporinorl-r
J??JffiGffi
mai mare dlvlzor comu! al potinoamelor /,8 daci:
l) destedivizorcomunpentrul g,
dlf $idlg:
^cnc6
2) odce alt divizor comun peitru / $i 8 fl divide pe d, adic6

( v) d'eK l xl ,dl f, dl 8,+dl d.

C-elmai maredivizor comun(c.m.m.d.c.)al polinoahelorJ va fi notatcu (rg).

I
Vom adta c! oricarar fi douf,polinoamedin f , g e K[Xl, eniytnc.mr.d.a al lor
Fll
vom construiefectivprin aganumitul algorlh al tul Euclld.

Pcnlrulnceputprczent{murmtrt(x|rc[i

L.mtr.Dac[ f,g,q,reKlX] lstfellrcet /=g4+r,9i

(8,/), atungi
existt(/,8) $imaimult(f ,e\:G,r).

dacdexisttr

I trfr$nstra{ie.Fied : (a, /). Deci d)g, dlr 9i,dlgq + r (combinalie

deI Sir). hin
urrnoredl / , adiced esteun divizor pentru/ $i 8. Daci d' esteun alt divizor comun
pcntru/Si8, atunciavemdlf -Es, adicdd'lr.Delj.d'este un divizorcomunpentru
g qi r. Cum d = (g,r) rezuftad'ld. ln final d : (f,8). r

thnn,nstra(ie.Fie
f ,e eKLx), Dact / =0, atunci(0,g)= g, deoarece
Sl0,8lg,
ior dacdd'este un divizor pentru0 qi & atuncievidentd\s. Deci am artrlatc!
(0,8)= I. Analog
dacl/
I :0, (/,0): /
-0,
Pilsupunem
acumcl / 0 9i g = 0 , Considerlrn
urmitorullanldelmpd4iricurest
) < $ad(s)
Crad(,i
grad(rr)< grad(ri)
= r28t+h,
grad(/3)< grad(rr)
^
ri-.= rn-2qbr + rnj,grad(h
\r-2 : r,trqn +0

Pdn unn{r., drrcfltnddoutrpolinoamef,BeKIxl,f,g*O(cazulintercsant)pntru

a deiemins c.m.m.d.c.al potnoamelorj I se realizeazdlanlul de lmpl4iri cu rest de
mai susdac[ erad(/) > grad(8). DacI grad(S)> grad(/), aruncise in;e$eaztr rolul
lui/cu 8.
Modul de a obtinec.$.rD-d.c.a dou! polinoamesenumestealgoritmul lul Euclld.
Sd observam cb c.m.m.d.c. a doua poliroame st4 unic p$ntr ta o aEociereln
dlviduntate.In sensulci d^cAd--tf.8) $i d
-rl.8). aruncid-d', adic
existda X - {0}, asdelinclt d = ad' .

hn-aderdr
diud:(,f,s) s;,aV, a'lg+ala.

Analosdi! d':(/,s)ri dlf ,dl8=+dld,. Ac'rmdl[d'ld qidld,.+d-d,.

Observafit.1) DacIJ 8 suntdescompuse
ln factoriireductibili, atunci (/, I ) seobtine
luend factod comuni la putereacea mai micd (similar cu determinareac.m.m.d.ca
doutrtrumerenaruraredin aritmedca).
2) DacI 'm lanFrlde lmpe4iri o egaliuE se inmullf,glecua f - {01, arunci,in final
c.mJrld.c. tru se modifici, acestafiiod uDicpandh o constanttraenulddin 1( adictr

(f, s): (af,as\,(V)a e r -{01.

3)De f1,f2,heK[x]atunci
searatlt
usorctr(fi, f2,h) =(6, D,h):(i,{fz,

fz.l

hdicelld asfel cum se determintrcel mai maredivizor comunpentru trei polinoame.

AnalogseFocdeazn$i pentrumai multepolinoame.
C,Iolrr. Fie /,8 rlx], a:(,f,g). eht Ft e*i$d I,l,y r[x]

asdethcal

d=uf +v8 .
) <g:rad(h,2,

S! obsrvdm ca resturile obtinute ln lmpdrtirile de mai sus atr goprietatea

gr n d r l ) > gm d r r 2 ) >..
Cradelesu distinctrdoui caredoul si apa4inmultimii {0.1,2.... g!ad(4)l. hin
urmarein inegalitilile de lnai suscu gmalehtelnim o egalitatecarc sd aib[ restul zero.
Fieacestarn :0.
Str artrtdm ctr uldmul rrst nenul rn,t reprednttr cel mal m8r dlvlzor comrm sl
pollnormelort 8.
Aplic[m lemaln modrepetat(dejos 10sustn lanlul de relalii) ti avem:
6_1= (4_r,0)=(r,_2,r,_r)=(r,_3,r"_2)=...= (l,a)= (s,,i)= (/,e). .

2U

Aceasttr
conserinf,a torenFiprecedente
afrlmdc[ c.m.m.d.c.
pentrupolinoameleJI
seexprtudcao conbinatiedeele,Demonstratia
esteimediatittoceperddejos ln su;
cuexpdluleaulthului lestnenulrn_l .
Dentri$e.Fie f ,8 e KlXl. Spunemctrpolinoamele
/ $i g suntprime
htr eledac!(/,g) = 1.

Thetrdseatnade corolarulprecedent
dacddoutrpolinoame/,gel([x]
suntprirne
Itrteeleatunciexist!tr,rflxl astfelincet1:u/+v8.
O propoeilieutilitln lezolvarea
unotprobleme
cupolinoame
esteurmtrtoarea:

225

Teormtr,
Fief ,I e K lX] 0rrfot
tnc6t/lst', (/,s) = t. Atunci
/lt.
Clm (/,8)=1, stuncixtuttrt,,rl([X] asfelincett:uf +vg.
Domqnitratle.
lnmullindaceasttr
rclatiecu ,r t.zt)ttAh=ugh+t8h. Deoarece/16n, exista
precedendt
/i ,([X] a6tf6llnc$r8r=lFl, i6r,egalirarea
devineh:dh+uffl sau
=
h f(uf +rfr).Deanc|flh..
S! observum
cadaci f ,eeL[x],
(f ,dezlxl dacx/,8elx], a$nci
^t\tnci
("f

cumuldnulr6itnonul6rtcx 2 - 3X + 2 , @srareprzitrr!
c.m.m.d.c.
pcnrru,s.
ob*rvafle,Dac!&n fi descompus
in facro.iireductibili
pestez, arunci/=(x_t(x_2)(x+l),
8 = (x - t(x - 2)(x+2)$ ded(J,d=(x -t)(x -2j=x2 _3x +2.
2) Pntruatr c.rlm.d.ct a doui lotinoafte esteunic pennta o consrrnt!,
aruncitn loc de / luln
I2f = 4X3-nX2 - X +3, ie in locullui luam18a= 2X1.
S
X2 -tBX +g .
AlgoritDil lui Eu.lid estedsqismaijos

4x3-12x2-

-4x3 + 2x2+36x -18

,s)eelxl.

Sc demonstaztrugorumfitoarea:

-rcx2+35x-\5

A .tou4thEd4ire. Nart ftst1linpr4idl

.cu(_ s) ,i aren 2x2

2x3- x2 _t8x +9
_2x3+7x2_3x

Teoremtr. Rddicinile comunea dou?ipolinoamesunt ddlcinile celui

maimaredivizorcomunal lor(cu ordineledeflulliplicitaterespeclive).

l. Sl te detern'trccel;|!i norc dirimr conrlr rt polinomelor

! a tr co'rjr e u.hn&,sii:

l) ! = xa+ x3-ix2 - x +6,s =x3 - x2-4x +4,i,sezlxl,

2,| =lf - x2- +x +!,t = f f, |x2 - x +|,t,r.olx1,

l8s: (2x_ l)(x_3Xx+3)

x 3+ 2x 2+x + 2

ya 1y3-7y2,1sa6

X,+

-xa +x3 + 4x2-qx

I
zx3-3x2 -5x +6

txz +4x _4i

(2+i)x2+5x 2-4i
*

(2+t) ti apoipentru

(2+i)x3-( t+2i)x2 412+i)x

+4(-t 2i)g e+i)x2+sx+2 4i s cotrtinu,algoritnul,

+4 tanoulrtst X2-3X+2

x+2

226

x3 -ix2 -4x +4i

A doua ?npdr1irc.Vom tnNlti noul dei.pi4it X3_rX2_4X++i

-2x3+2x2+8x -B
|
-x2 +3x -2

2x2-6x +4
-2x2+6x -1

-o

De.i(f, =2X2 -7x +3.

Dacnamfi dscoinpus
to factoriaDfi obJinurl2l : (2x _
4px + l)(x _ 3)

n. l) AplicdDalgoritnutlui Euctjdsiaveml

2x2-7x +3
X+3

ri dei fl2l,t88r-(2x -t)\x _3)-2x2 -7x .:

3) AdicnmaborirDulJuiEuclid,i obtinenimp{4inb cumt deMi jos:

3,f = x3+zx2+ x +\ s =xt - ix2-4x +4,f,s eclxli

t1y = x3a3x2+ix +2,c= x, +ix2+ x +it f,c ezslxl.

-x3+3x2-zx

ev2 - ct v

7x +3 ti contiNdmalgorirnut

,6x2 +ztx 9
ttl

Pmblme rezotvrte

A doualhpd4irc.*ltr[nlttp cinJtX3 -X2,X

x+ 3

(c.nm.d.cest unicDanil

(z+ i)x3 - l, t + 2i)x2 - a(2+ i)x + 4(- t + 2i)

-(z+i)x3,
5x2- \2 ai)x
-2(2+i)x1tox+4(-l+z)
2(2+i)x2+
t---1-

rox-4(-1+2i)
|

( z +i ) x 2
+s x+z - u

l l lr nsu l rcsrn c r ulc s lc ( 2r 4X rt5 Xt1 n i !i rc c s l !c s ro c .m .m .d .c.al poti xn!n.t(!./,f.D actan,

A lreid tnvil4lft. Norl rcst X + 3 il inmullim cu 3 $ avem

3X+9
-3X -2

(:nm li obtn]ul:
ll dcs.o'npus
In factorii.ducribilipcsrc

/-(x

+2 ).8-l x
4 {x.1 4 (x

i )(x+2) ( x- z) .

A du U.s) = (x - i)(x + 2)= x2 + (2- i)x -2i , we esteMiai

ln .livizibitihrecu @l oblinur

nx,iA'spenlru
ci (2+i)Lr2+ 2(z- i)x -2i1=e +i) x2 +sx +z-4i .

: x + z : r (?
lf x + 3
1+o.
?J

,l) vom desconpunein factori ieductibili pe.te Zs polinoameleri aven:

D@i ultimul resi nerul 6te 1 * rcprczinI! c.m.n.d.c. d polntoalnelorj & Crln ("f,s): I , se deduce
d polimarele , 8 srnt prime intre le. De! sd fi dewnpus ln fetori am fi obtinut

+a),e:('+2)(x+3)(x+a).
r =(x+i)(x+3)(x
Pmu,naE
(r.s)=(x+3)({+a).

sepostevd*).
Acuhstecldc. (t,s):1.
2) Aici fiind vorba dE 25, clattu\ evenoabrndlcini ale celor dou6 polinoameln 25. Avem

Ahfcl optcendalgorihul lui Eudid avem:

x3+3x2+4x +i
x 3- 4x2- x,a
r
i x2 +3 x+2
A dD4tapd\irc.latullntudJdeilnpi4ii

pste
ircductibit
z cumwor
| -(2x +r)(zx-r[x +2)ezlxl, tx B=x2+x+tzlxl (este

x3+4 x2+x + 4
t0)-0,/{2)-0

_
'_ ^r2(x+31. PenEU
ri seoblinedescoryma /-(x+4J
B.sisim 810-08/}-0.

(/,s) = I ri deci/qi8 sunrpriineinr.eele.

Cualgoritmullui Eudidamfi obtinutacelarilucrud!p! cums vedemaij6:
ctuds:x(x+2).oristecle.!

X3 + aX2 + X + i cu .i ti conrinudnimpn4iiiie

;x3 +x2 +4 x+i l A xz+3 x+ j

x +z
-4x3 3x2-ix
|
3 x2+ x+i
-3 x2- x-i

x 3+ x 2+

4x2+

4X'+2X
------------- ^
2X +3

ttt
Doci uldmul 6t nenulreprezitrE@t mai lEe divizo. dnun al polinoalnelor.

A.c'( /.r):.ix 2+ i.y+i - lx +4i/x+il.

x2+i.x
-x2-Ax
t,x
-3x-2
ta

I SI e mte cl umltoarel polino!re lunf pdme lnare ele:

r\ ! = 4x3+8x2- x -2, s= x2+ x +1,f,cezlx)i

z) ! = x3 + x2 +i, c = x2 +ix, I I ez6Ixl.
Il. l) Apliclm algoritmullui Eudid ti avern:

4x1+ax2
- x-2

X 2+X +\

2x+i
|

4x2-5x,2
-4x2-4x -4

/-9 x-6 =4 Gx+z)

-3

A douotnpd4ire.Nolld]lmfi4i!

X2 + X + t il inmulin cu 3, id restuloblinDtil lmpd4im prin

CondnudmalgoritmDlcu imp64ired:

Uhih'il r8t neNl estel

3-1, ceea
cearatrci(/.s) = l.

1x2+3x +3

.:!:,2'

x+3

228

229

Modollti$ de dctnnlnareo c.m.m.d.c,

Am indicatpendacumdoudmodalit4idooblinera c.m.m.d.c.pentrudout polinoamel
l) DescmpuneFr h fictort a celor doutr pollnoame$i ionnarcadivizoruluicomun,
lu0rldu-sefactorii polinomialicomunila puterilecelemai mici; metodasepoateaplic{
ltunci c8ndpolinoamelesepot descompune
u$orln factori.
]:ir nrplc. S! sdetrulne (/,c)

lr cazudle:

D .t =x4 +x2 -x2 - x,g = xs -xa -x31x2, 1,geallxl

2t! = xa+ |xt +Gx2+x, g = xs + x4+ 6x3+ 3x2,!,s e z1lx\.
R.r) Deconpu.nlnfactorltGtrcdhn cehdounDolrorme(p3teQ ) g oven:

x(x -4(x+r).
/ = x(x-r)(x+tF,r = xr(x-lF(x +4.Dd(J,8)=
ln act.t..z rldlaio e comrnerle cdo itoul mllmom suDtdrte rteradrdDilepotiroDului (/,8).
Acorta
suna:11= 0,12= -1, 13= l.
,,,

{2
-t2t
z)ArclD/-.x(.{+6J
omum
(x+rJ,8=xz(x?6,(x+l} , tsr rt,s)=xr+6x. R.di.irfle

docdo.dordpoDmmer{ tlatede
ridrbih podDomjrd
r/.cr g !c.d.a$nr rr =O:z =i rr =6.
2) Algoritnul lut Euclid, ln cazul ln careprima metodiinu esteaplicabilE$i nu sc
cunoa$te,apriori, gtaduldivizorului comun.
lndicim ln continuarco alttrmetoditdea obfinec.m.m.d.c.a dou[ polinoarnenumitxl
3) Metoda scidedlor sBccesiye,aplicabili in c^zul ln carese cu[oa$tede la inceput
Sndul divizorului comun, iar polinoameleluate ln considerarenu sunt de gm(l
prca mare.SE ilusEamaceasdmetod:iFnau polinoamele: f: X3 - 3X I Z,
al lor esteu! polinomdegraduldoi.
I = X4 -2X3 + 2X2 -2X +1, dacEc.tu-trLd.c.
=(X-olfi,g=(X-a)e1
Idoeaesteurnitoarea:dd f
sunt doudpolinoameal
otrror divizor codun este X -d, atuDciconstruimpolinomul h=ktf !k2g , carc
contineca factorpe X -4.
Dc reguldpenuu folrnarealui Ir se aleg t1,t2 constantesau polinoameasdel incet
polinomul i s[ aibi gradul mai nic decat grad(/) sau grad(8). In cazul de fatl,
h - g - xf : -2X3 +5X2 - 4X +1. Polinoamele
ft $ijf au acela$idivizor comun.
Arunci construimpolinomulA-i+2t:5(X-1r2.

Un divizor penFuI 9i /esrc

clivizor9i pentruii + 2t : * . Evidentk - (x -t)2. Luamanrncipolnomul Q:(x-f)2,

h-8-

xf \. Deci{X -t)21/, (X .l;2lg . cum qrimcac.m.m.d.c.

at potinoametor/
tt-

$i 8 aregadul doi,ace$aestecttar (X - t)2 . Oeci (/,g):

(X - 42.

4) Cel mal mic muldplu comun

Fie ( un corp comuBliv. Are loc ufiniloarca.
Dtinitie, Fie /, g K[X]. Spunemcb polinomulm esteun cel mal nfc
multiplu comun al pollnosmelorJ4I dacd

1)m estemultiplupenfiuf, g (adtcefln, gln\;

2) Oricealt multiplucomunm' pentruJ8 esremultiplugi pentru,t
(adice.
dacd[ln'. gln' auncinlm' t.
Celmaimicmultiplucomunal polinoamelorJ
prin f,8
8 senoleaztr
Observalii. l) Dacapolinoamelet I sun! descompuse
in factori ircducribili, atunci
c.m.m.m.c.a doua numerenaturale,luand
J"f,B] se obtine analogdererminaLrii
produsulfactorilor comunigi necomuni,luali o singur[ dati, la putereace mai marc.

Exe mrp. /=
t .x( x-rF.s={x-rP (x-r).A tund
-r121x+43.
l l ,cl =x1x
L r =lx +if F +t),s=x(x+i)(x+3),r,cez5[x].
Ariftrt/,81=x(x+if(x+i)(x+3).
2) Ca$iln teorianumerelor
relatiadintrepolinoamete
f,e,(f,C) Oi[,f,3] estedate

deegaliratea
/. C: ("f.S)["f.Sl. DeaiciU.Sl-

fe

ffi

,.

. eeaiare
carenespune
cum

sepoatedeteminal/,g] dacearncalcular(/,g).

3, Penffifr,fz,heK[x] sestabilegte
ugorcaavem:Vr,fz,fz]:lVt,fz],fz]:
=[r,l/2,/3]], precizand
asfelcumsedetermintr
celmaimicmultiplucomunpentiu
trei polinoarne.Analogseprocedeazdlrntrumai multepolinoame.

t: I - xkl:2(x -r\2.

t. MDACINI ALE poLINoAMELoR RELATIILE LUI vIiTE

1) Politrorme cu coefldenti rall

Cum kt $i / au acelasidivizor co*un (X-l;2

se deducecE acestaestedivi/or
pontru/ (din ultimarelatie),apoipentru,r (din h+zf :k) $i ln fine pentrug (diD

Pentlu polinoaoele cu coeficienli reali ulmtrrorul rezultat (fdrE demonstra{ie)este

lmponant.

230

231

Dac[ '{0=d+ib,r*0 cstc o

Tooreml.Fie /R[X],/*0,
r{dtrcini,complexla lui, atunci:
I luij
o $dtrcinl complextr
D 6 = a- it es!e,deasernenea,
2) 16 qi I auacelaqi
orditrdemultiplicitate.
Amvlzutcdpento/R[x]$i

crnplcx coqiusat!;,

1([):1(a),

cea
cearaticd

'0a-R,avem
r{dilcint aluif .to
estc
radtuih[
a
luiJ
atunci
.16estedeasernenea,
d0ctr
Fzultl ctr,dacd/steun polltromcu cocfidenflrall carnreo gdiicinl
Dlnteorcm6
xo:a-ib $i
nci maiarecartrd{cind
complex[r0=4+ir,,*0,a
li conjugata
cclc dou[ rddtrciniauacelagiordinde multipiicitateDac.5.n0esteo dddcinesimpld.
dunci polinomul/ se divideprin X - 16. Cum9i I
rczult!,ci/s divideqiprin X - r0 ,

prin1x-a)(x*[)-1xdivide
Dcci/se

a-

')(x

1.81.cd.t rdr. D|lrmtr{n iln,rdsctrpo domul7=xa-lxaq^X?-(a+2)x+l

sre
=lradldrr canpL*l r0
I.
R. Cumpolino;d /RlXl, atDnci
odnl cu ddicim mmplex[.yo=l-j vo sdnirri rtdlcina

radtrcind
ested asemmea

1+ L
Pdru'mllE/sodivid.prinp'odusul
(x - &)(x -;)=

EfcctulndfttDl4irc! lui/prtn X2 -ZX +2, seimpunecondtli!cs r.s$l st fic potinomulnul.Avem:

t =(x2 -zx +zl(x2- x +'o-a)+Q--"-a)x -2o.+s,

D!Eil2n-n+8)x-2n+e=0<+(2n-'-8=0ei -zn+s=oJcxi n=Zr,n=t,
2.Fk ./,se n[x]. D..r .f(x3)+xr(x3) e arra.ul" x2 +x + l,.turcltrla aurrdrdml.
R. F ic c t rld L in le. . u a l i e i1 2 + r + l = 0 .

-a+ib)=(x -

")2

=
-1ir12

* x 2 -2o x +o 2+b 2.
rezultllurmltorul:
Dlnteorcmtr
Coroler. 1) Oricepolinomcu coeficienlireali are un numir par de
(carcnusuntreale).
rldicini complexe
2) Odcepolinomcu coeficientireali de grad impar are 9e1putin o
rldlcinn,rcau.

(x -r+ t)(x -r- i)= x2 -2x +2.

r.l-=*.==Ol

Gn'idor. a=-'*-''/'

D.ci 02+a+t=0

9i o3=1. Atunc

(anoros
serarcdaocrnrarr
cu,. Deciq esr
_l'; . f i

!.ro.r tutrcrici
,-/t/J-t8{1J,
eoltnoniale

adic. /{od]+qs(orJ=0/{r} -:jr-r!.80)

=0 e

.+2/0)-8(l)+l.f3f(1)=0$(2t0)-80)--0,
r0)=0). D. aici /(l) = s(1): 0 , cacearatncr
poltno8D.Lr s auridncinscoBun! r=1.
3. Sr r de$onpurr ln lb.ron beducdHttp.de X lollno|md J=Xr+X2ir.
R Factoriitlduciibili ai unuipolinomcucoficienti
r.ali suntcidg.sdullntli ti d. gradulal doilacu
.ocficintircjli, c.i d! grrdulal doileaavanddiMimimntulneSativ.
l ^,2

Am vlzut cSln multinFa lR[X] singurelepolinoameireductibilesuft ctle de gradul

lntei aX +0. a., c R. a

0 precumti celedegradulal doilaaxz +bX +c. 4.r.c R,

o *0 , b 2 - 4ac<0 ,
ln factori ireductibili avemursutoale!:
deteorernade descompunere
Tintnd BaII|tr

Teoremtr.Oricepolinom/=ao+alx +.,.+4nxn,an*O se par,6.

scriecaunprodusdepolinosrFdegadul lntAisaudoicucoeficieolircali:

p,
x2 + t.x
f = a-(x - x ,) &. . . { x- ' ,") i i l\ x 2 + a' , x ' t ...(
+
Pl
z
".\t
-of \
undr,i -4cr <0, r = l,p.

obsnrcin/ = x4-2x 2+r - x ^2=\x ' ,r ) '- x , ={x 2- x +r ) ( x ,+x +r ) .

Cutnffccardin fadorii dc gradulal doilaX2-X+1,X2+X+I
(a = -3), acestia
s,mtf".t-i ircductibilidin RIxl pdrut

arc discriminartul
negari

a. Ife t n[X]crlt nu.r! Dld o rldtdnl rertl Arnl$ cI furcfr poltmlIlafi rlodrit sI !nn
coDrtlntF R.
R. rn ace*crz; at scricnb roma: / =4(x -{)(x -i)(x -4)(x -.r)....(x -,i(x -a) *0"
rt,,..,rrC-R,
l:

Lt

^
-.
Dcituncri!
polinomiau
.ste.gsr,@:/(r)=arr(r-4)('-',J=an,l,,-(+

ori arnitzut c! 3111: r'z - (,; +f),

I -al.r ra.r;j.

+ 11;> 0, (V)r R. det)lw disimimntul rinomuluiesie

n.8miv.A9ldar/(r) arcselnltullui a, (V).r R .

2) Pollnoame cu coellclnfl ruflonoll

Cun Q[X]CR[X], inseann[c[ rezultarele
stabilitereferitoarela polinoamole
cu
cocficienFreali rimin valabilefi pntrupolinoamelecu coeficienriralionalisauinfegi.
Tcorcma unnlhoare precizeazeproprietad specifice potnoamelor cu coefici;fi
rutionalisaulntregi.

3.Fre,r,
elxl,,N.,*a"r,
=r+f,+.IG!*-* t(t*r);1**o-t).rn""*,"
c. tr arep -1,-2,-,-'

carrdnctuL

R' Avernrchtiadere!ure4! /,*r : l, + x (x + 1)-{x +.L- , (x +

') .
(n + l)!
Facem
demonsha&
prlnindu4iematenaticd

Teoremd.
Fie/ eefxl, /'0. Daca
n=o+JE.".tee,i>iJi/e

r"'-,--r,l=.r+f,

esteo redicinepetraricA
a luil arunci
t)i:a-^li
este,de asemenea,
o ridtrcinl (numirEconjugata
ptrtradcE
a lui r0, aluiJ

Prsupunen cd /,. $e rid.tcitrile -1,-2,...,

-1"-2,*,-a,-h -l .

,i se der|lo$ram cn /u+r

rrddcinile

Diniporeadeinducti
t,: a(x +t(x + 2)...(x+r),a e.
c u t (0 )- t * ^ ru, - { .

2) .I0,6 auacelasioraindemulriplipitate.

1,-'-]lx t
Tcorema
afirmtrcA dacdpoliuomul/Q[X], are ca rid5cindpe m:a+.!b
(numtupduatic),atunci/ areca rtrddcinaqi pe fr = a - \6 (conjugatulparatic at
lui xo), 9i maimult celedoudddtcini auacelagiordindemultiplicitare.
DacAx0 esrc
redlcindsilplii a luif, aEnci/sedivideX - x6. Cumqi .io esler5dncina
sirnplea lui./
rczultic6/se divide$icu x - it . Deci/se divideprinprodusul(X - roXX - .t0)=

=(x-,.JF)(x-,- Jr1:tx

I u."carrdi.idpe l.

--x2- 2ax+ o2 b.
-1JE)2
'.'z

o""i r,-r - \lx

. t l xt I 2 ) . . . 11x" 1 r x i x , r l ) - ; \ f
(,+r)l

"),",

+
,
=1]-!1{:3I!I::-_1r.
'11x4...(x")lr--I-l "o", 7,,,
""""*

amd cl /z+r arecaridt ini pe -t,-2,...,_i,-._1.

3) Polinoamecu coeticientlintregi
Urylitonrl rezultatvizeazl nultinFa Z[X] 9i ne oferd un mod de a descoperi
rtrdiicinilemtionalesauintregialemui polinom.Maiprccisarcloc umAtoarea:

Teoremtr
Fief ao+atx +..-+onxtt,an*0,f eV,IXl.
,=

lhbleme rcrolystr

rt DacaxO_- D . Cr,4 numere

prirneiDm ele)esteo rtrdlcintrretionald

t. SI sedeacrniDep$amet l raFo.{I n. z drcl poliromtl J = Xa - X3 . nX2 +|:lX +, ar!

rldlctDar0 =3+Jt.

a luil arunci:
a)p dividetermenulliber(adic6plao,:

R. Polinomulfiind cu co.ficie$li nlionati odatncu rnddcinapnraticd l0 = 3 + Jt , va adnite qi rad&inr

pltaricr conjugad .q] = 3 - \E . P.in urnare potinomuldlt !e divide pnn:

(x - "b11x
- r{): (x - 3- J;)(x- t +,E)= \x s12
- (Ji)2= xz 6ys .
Efcltutnd
inpi,rlimcuresta tunJy.l X2-6X+7 sisimlEs$r/=(6n+ll6)X +n-jn-r6t
rcbuics!6e
potiimulnul.
Deaici6u - l16=0 i,-?z

6r-0 oeruri! a=

2. f,xkil poltnoonEteQIx] desradlltrpr crrc sI nu alb! rrdnc ir e?

R Da.Polinomul/ = x3 - 2 QJXInu!rc nicio rrd.citr. itr e .

+.,-+

b) 4 divldecoefrcienfirl
domlnantal potinomut
nnf ( a&e qla).
z, u paficulrr. ctaca49= p esreo rtrdlcintrlntresgtra luil atuncip
stedh,lzoral termenululliber (adic[ plag).

cn,

Demomtratle.1) Din ./ (r0 = 0 rezultregaitatea

)
f
|
ao- allL)
") r ^+ a^ l LJ- tn =o

*u

aot":-o(a10"-r a...*o,0"-').
234

I
aoqn
- atpqn f .. +r ,p':o

,u, i n" ,

De aici sededuceplooq,si c,om(p,qt:t

rzuftf c[ p|40,Totdtnscrlcrcn
dcffai 8u!rczutuarpn= -q(aoqi-l +qCn'2 +.-]

1l drr.|qla,pn.Dar(p,4)=l si deniqla,.
2)Rozult!din1)ctnds = l r
Toretm rflrm.I d perbu u! pdlmm / cu coendcrgfrrtwt ddldnlb
rrllomb podblborfu prlnte flacge Z, urnep e3teu! dtr'lzor(lh Z) al
q

bnreoultd lfber qo, lar q f'ta un dlvlzor 0n Z) ol coeltctentuld

domfnsnt a, ol polholrulul, b pardcutar,drctr pertru f ezlxl se
cr|tttr rldlclDle tntregl,atuEdscestersealltr prlntre dr'lzodl ftrtrcgl al
t9rmerululllber a0.

a o+ qx-. . . + an xet L I x l
,
\
r
plao\
/

| +

| laico

I h= nez
|

f . Mnntnd
rldldrlle r.g,oDrle de pollnoDrutd t = llxa - t6ra +X2 +4X -1.
, Pollnomul avad ccficinti inaEgi. ctuttm rotufii tnEegj prinrrc divizorii tnnegj d tui - l Acr$u
.u + I . Cu schenaluj Hmer (de exebplu) gAsimcn r = | aE rrdlcini a lui t ln @nrinuarecaurrn
dlclnt mlionalale luiJr$lizand ft.clii de forn1 4 , undep $te diviror al lui (- t) , deci p {+ l} ,
l.r 4 c8tcdivid

lntreg al coeficientuftridonindt 12, adicI, 4 {+1,+2,}3,+4+q+121

. D@i avem

66a111.
11.11.a1.11.1I

2 3 4 612
Apllclm schem lui Ho|G penmr caul @utrar din lmp64irFalui / prin X
tudil. d rui ss te$tlm caresl. r!d!.inr.

t2
t2

_f

t2

xJ

pnFu eBr cet I,

-l

t2

UttimulcAtl2X-4 a$ radrciIar=f

r=-l

ga-b,a,bez

s vdifcd ulo.ci Jllr, f<b):a,b.D{,)a,:ln.alulnosru,d

j(3
exiEla
_
/ ztxl, abncit(3) - /0)
l) slu 8_ 5t2,fats.
3. St ! al"rtcI, drcl polinonul t Z[X] e ,tou! .rdlctd intEst de pr.turti
dtferiie, atund
por, (V)* z .
este
-f(t)
k Fie4: 2p,12:2q +l,p,qZ celedouerdiuciddpaiidFditdnearhi
I
Dod, | = (x - 2p)(x _ 2q_r) s, I e z[x).
Fieacm tZ . Dacn
hnD t=2D,aZ.atucil
(k)
=
(2tu- 2p)\zn-2q - r)slk) = 2(h p)l2n -2q -\ setu\.
f
ce@ce!Ia{nct ,rrtr.srep6r,
D&,\tu k:2b+r,aet,simifacrodr X-2q-t:2{n-{) db /(ri esjepqfidci detafel.
/G)

4) RehFle lul Vtae

Ijltimul rzultatel accstuiparegraf
stabilqteleglturalntrEcoeficientii
polinomului
=
anx'
aoix"-t
+
f
+,..+a1x+ a0 c[x], arr* 0 fi rtrdtrcinile
saler,.ra,,,,,.ri,,,

Mai preis al! loc urEltoarea

TeorleBrtr.Numcrcle complexe q,-g,.,.,x,

f ea,Ixl,f = anxn+ao-1Xn-t+ an_2xn-2

+...+qx + oo,an-o,

esterndlcin!

\l'

t2*...t x,=-!2J

an

\x2 + 44+...+ xttn+ x2x3+...+x2tn+ ,,,+ ,nxn-1: !t=Z

an

DrclDolinomulfm
dda.inil.r'' -t. r' -1-,,
-

''o =t
236

sunt rddicinile polinomului

dacl9i numaidactrauloc relaliile (lui Viete):

-3
,2

R. PentulZIx]

4. SI s.nte cI drcl po lonnd t Z[x]h ralo&a unu pe m trEt r[m.re tnftgi,

atundt t
.r Did o rndfthl hhrsgl"
R, D!'4 a,beZ, a +b at:unci
Jla) - leri4-b,.eeaces.v.ri6crugorprincatcul.
prsupunclrl,
Fh Jk)=JQr=J@-1.a,r,c2.
prin absurd,cr cxist! ,0Z penrrucr|
Atunci
/(x0)=0.
f(a)- lGd= l@-J@)= "f(c)-,f({)=l * deciI sedivideprin a_r,
,-J6, d-'&, ce,.{cc aragccd pulindouAnulnt!.gale,
,n zicem,a_ n-b_ xo, .dnn a= b,
tab (a ,, c fiind dihrirc doul c3r.doun).

e Z lxl
I n + o 1 x + ...+ o n Xn

,^=2
/t1",
"q/

2.8l r. aret.cl nu.xhtr / z[x]Fn|rucrlc /0)=t/(3)=s.

237

D.|tlonstrf,flc.
guntrtrdtrcinilo
Dacd,r1,r2,.,.,xn
polinomului
/ dc grodA alunci
calculelorgi ordona.rea
| - an(X - 4)(X - x2)...(X-.rn ) sou dupdefecruarca
tarmonilor
dup[puteriledescrescltoarc
alelui &
+(4x2+...+ xrxn+x2's+...+a2xn+....+
f - anlxn-(xr+
'2+...+ 4)xn^t
+xn-rxn)X "-' L...+(-t)" 4-r2...x"1
cw f =anxn +an-tx"-l ron-2xn 2+....+orx I a0. prinidentificarea
celor
rezultd
relaFile
doulpollnoame
dorite.
Rlciprocaesteimediati.r
Pdlcularizlmacumacesr
rczultatpentru/ C[x] h cazulfn carcgrad(/) {2,3,4}.
a DatAf = oxz + bX +c, a + 0 , areradicinile.rt,12 anmcirc.lptiilelui YiEtesuntl

lb

lft + 1 2 : - -

It -

a.

l4rz=:

2) Rclatitlc hi Vibte se dovedescdeosebit de importante penttu un polinom

(detcrminarEaiunor paradetri din sfuctula lui, a rAdlcidlor) ori de cerc ori se dd o
relalie (saumai multQ lntre uneledinhe rddtrcilrilepolinomului.Plactic ori de ceteori
avemo infonM{ie despreddtrcinile unui polinom, acesteiai se ata$eazirelatiile lui
Viete.
Nu vom insista plea mult aici cu astfel de ptobleme deoarccele vom regasi h
iezolvarcaecuafiiloralgebdcedegradsupedor.

1. Fle polnonul t = X3 +2X2 -23.X +*enlx].

ridldDne porhonulul drcl r? = r? * r?.

R. nina a.o retalia.f = f + d rfte ridncinilepolinomulur,

a.sreia
li vomasociarclatijtelui Viete
l*,,xr+11--2
- '
t'
ltrtz+ tr4+ x24= -23
l4r2r3 - -'
h lelul Gsla avemun sisremd,cpatrueuatii o p6t r oe.lnoscua(a, r2,r3,a) .
Avenegaritate!
rirxi+{=(}r

. Da.6 f = aX3+ bx2 +cX + d, a

-o,

clt iiLddciife ,1,r2,r3, atuncirelaliilelui

ttJt24=

r3)- -2(rrr2+rrr3rx2x3)su14 =,t-4).

=i-@,rr-11@
De! 4: -5,atuci x2+4-J,r24
- -a "eoax,
2. ne rr,r2,r3 rrdrritr epotlnonul / = x3 :3x' - 4x + 2f .

'24=9.'

. DacAf =ax4 +bx3 + cx2 +dx +e,a*o, cu rdddcinile

q,r2,4,x4, a.,tnci
.b
xl+x2+t1+t4:--

rcluliilelui Vibtesunt:

r,2

2ri -l2f
-2\-23) . satcd.xf- 25. Deaici4 =-15.
D&I q : 5, aomci12+ 4 = -7, q4 : t2, dEvde 12: -3, n : - 4.
Din ultimalElalievihe rzulr6n = -60 .

*1 * x 2 1 4 : -L
Viltc sunt: xlI2 + xl 4 +

SI $edeN.rnlaeporametrulfl g sn se afl

ttt2 + xtrq + 4]r4 + x|h + x2r4 + a3t4

.d
4r2t3 + 4x2r4 + r1x3t4 + x2t31c4= --

]tt02+4x4-l\+4i(4 -&)=: 9irespecdv

x1r2(x3
*x4)-kr +*z)':q - -1.
238

- *.

.) SI $elort||'epdlno|m degrdul rl trIeald I crfe.rt carmcill pe n=rf,y2=r!,y3

b)DetermlDadrldlclDle
.rr.r2,rt.
R. a)Pntrua fotm Dolbonniln y vorrr.buicalcula,r.
sumete
S l: rr+ )2 + )b ,
S2: !p2 + \n + t2n,
s3= )u2)3.
Polinonul
restc a = 13-&12 +s2r s3.
Maihtni scrinrEl4iilelui Virrepntutgi aven:
q +.t2+ 4=3i, \4.+\4+12"3=-4
.
\x24=-2i
Acumavemsr = r - )2 + x = fi 1 1 $ = (r, + x2+.r3)2- 2({.r2+.r1r3+ r)rr J= - t.
"!

Ob8ervaltt. 1) Relaliile a douali a heia suntuneoriconvenabilsd s scriesub foma

,' .-

=r!.

irrx =(a+)'?t(a",)'?+(,n
rf =kot aN+nuf-zaa4(a+a+a)=+,
-w:irrr
st: ynx:Qwn)2 =-+.

D@i:8=Y3 +Y2+4y +4.

219

b)I'orrnomur
s=(I+r)(f+a),Ierrdrofnrlo
r=-LD=a h-j.Dst
Culn-l-42=(l+42,-2=(r-,)2aea*cm 4e(j,rt,12tr+r,

\2:-t,,1*21, 3=-t.

t-il,13e{1-,; l+i}. verificand

Ino(uollc
8!sim4:i. 12=I+i, 13=-t+i.
l) Pollnorme ln aplicalii proctice
| ( 'nsllloria9i polinoamele)Fun4ia C(r):31.e 569 (in ) modeleazecostulmediual
ooitumafiei mirilor, iar N(t)=23t2 +nst +tUN (in ) nodeleazecostul mediu al
nunlli,undet:0 reprezinrtanul2000$i 0<r<10.
Utlllzlnd teoremaresmluisrabiliti costulmediua.lcostumaliei,coshrlmediu al nurfii
ln lnul 2m? si anut2010.
fl Anul 2007corcspundela r:?. Obtinem C(7)= 52le rryE?jlnt' costul mediu al
oo|turnafieimirilor, iar tV(7)= 2002 estecostulmediual Nntii. Pentntanul2010 se
tlco t=10 SisecalculeaziC(10)ti rspecrivI(10).
I (l'sb din cl4i de joc ai
polinoame)Numirul de cdtti
noccsor ponEu a constrrri o

or dln ctr4i de joc (frgua

dltuntl) cur oivcleestedatl

dGformulsC(r) = 1(3, + 1).

2'
SI rc dotcrminenun&ul de
pcnru a consruio ssfel decasdcu r = 8 nivele.
cHl ncca0sr
ll. Scfacr ri = 8 ti scalculeaz!C(8)= 100
.l (( irnitelul de elevi9i polinoamete)
O cla66de elevitehie 86-ii oleagtrun ,ef dc
ola!tr,unadjunct$iuncasier,Numtrluldemodudln carespoatefaceaccaste$tedar
do formulaP(n): af = ,3 -3n2 +2n . Sesedetendneacestnus16rdacdln clasl
sunt20elevi,
po-pulatiei
4 (l)onsitarea
Densitatea
Sipolinoamele)
D a populatieiunuiora,(nunnrde
poBoane
pekm') estelegattrdedistanfa
r, h hn, de la cntul oraSului
prin fomula
D(x): -3gr2 *1t0r*500, O<r<3. Str se determinedensitatea
popula+iei
orotuluila distanlade:1) I km:2) 2 km;3) 3 hr.
5 (l'ro,itul $ipolinoamele)
O cotDaniedesoftproducejocud
pecalculator.
Conducelelr
compadeia determinat
cI Plofin{companiei,
ln , dela fabdcarea
venzarea
ar jocuri
ti
cstcdat de formulaP(r)= -0,00001x3
+?8.r-30.000.0<x<3.000. Careesre
profitulcompaniei
dac!eaproduce
$ivinde20.000dejocuri?

2q

6 ('lJlnrlt|lir dc gxzele$i polimxmele

aulos!aduse
) Un numdrde200degazeleafricane
intr-un parcpntruaninale s batice.Poputaliadegazeledupat ani estedatl deformula
P(t)= -0,5f +123t2 - 43,2t+200,0<t <15. CaIeestepopulafiade gazetedupa:
l) 5 ad;2) l0 ani?
7 @iramidapaharelor9i polinoamele)[,a o petrecereun grup de pdeteniau constmilo
piramiddcu ajutorul paharelor Pdmul dnd de pahareaSezate
pe ina-sisunt dispuse
asdelfucatsii fomeze ul triunghi,iar cupelepaharelorvecinesunttangente.Urmltonrl
eqi de paharesefornreazdastfel: picio l unui paharsa!azi pe zonadelimitatade 3
pahare vecine (av6nd cupele tangefte) deja a$ezatepe masf,. UrmAtorul etaj se
constdie$tell1acelaqimod.
Se ajunge la un etaj alcinrir din 3 pahare,iar
dasupmacestomeste eqiul alcdtuit dintr-un
singu pahar(figuraaldturati).
Considednd ir seDsinveN nivelelei nivelul 1
format dintr-rm pahar, nivelul 2 format din 3
paharEet'., glsim c5 ruedrul total de pahare
dintr-o asdel de pirarnidn esre dat de fonnula
1r

P(t)=:lk'+6\

3kz | 2tl. undeI estenumrrul

I

de nivele alepiramidei.Careesteuunirul de pahareutilizatein piramidi, daci acestea

are:1) 5 oivele;2) 10dvele?
9. ECUATN ALGEBRICE DE GRAD ST'PERIOR

De-finitie.Se nume$tecua{iealgebricd de necunoccut:l, o ecuatieale

foma /(r) = 0, unde/esteun polinomnenul.
Gradd l,olinomului/di gradule!.ualieialgebrice.Dac6tf:
Xn + an_txn-l +... +a0
an
atunci ecualiaarc gadul 4 iar coeficienlii4r,dr_1,-,d0 se numesc
-0,
cofldnfi cua$et algebrice. Dacd coeficienlii sunt numercreale, atunci ecualia
algebricdse spunece estecu coeficientirealit dacdpolinomdlarecoeficientitionali,
atunciecualiasenurnegtecu coeficien$rationalietc.
O ecuariecare nu poale fi redusbla o ecu4ie algebricdprir opentiile de: adunarc,
fumu4ire, ddicare la putere etc. se nurnegteocualie tran8cendenti (de exemplu
ecualiile:
sinr: x2 -1-r,1gr+r-1=0). Noi ne vom ocupain cele ce unne:uade
ecuafi algebrice.

241

Deltnlfe. Se spunec! dC ostcsolutle(saurtrdtrclntr)

[ ecualiei
dacepungndr=d ln ecuatie,aceasta
se
verificd,
adici
"f(x)=0,
(4):0
"f
S[ observdmctr dacl a esteddicinb a cualiei / (.r) : 0 , atunci d este rdddcineti
pcntlu polinomul / $i recip{oc. hin ulmarc rezultatelestabili6 penru .{decinile
polinoamelorrtrmanvalabile9i penuuecu4iile algebricealefiniiedeacestea.
A rcrolva o cuaFealgebric{ lnseamni a-i deternlna solutiile. Am vdzut cum se
$rofv6 ecuaFifede gadul in6i ta(-b-O,arOt,
de gradul at doilea
(ai +bx+c=0,a-O). EcuaFilealgebdcede grad superiorvor fi aceleecuafl
tllebrlce avand $adul mal mare sau egalcu trei.
PontruecuaFade gmduluei malemalicianul
ilatianTanagliaa derermhatformulade
rEzolvale.iar matematicisnulitalian FerrariI delerminatformula de rezolvarepentru
ocualiadegradulpatru(in secolulal XVI-lea).
Atet pentruecuatiade gradulhei cat $i pento ceade gradulpauu formulelecaredau
rldlcinile ecua]iilorseexpdmecu ajutotul radicalilor.Ecualiilegenemlede grad srricr
m|i rnarcdecetpatrunu lot fi rczolvafeprin radicali(rezultattlatomtrnatematicienilot
H. Abel (norvegial) $i A. Ruffini). in continuarevom rezolva ecuatii de grad mai
mercdecgtpahu ln cai,ud particulare(de fapt am rezolvat,deja, ecuatii binome sau
lrinosmecareaugmdulmai maredecattlatru).

ToremI. 1) Rudtrcinile
eruatieibinornezt - d : O suntnumerclecomplexe

(s,

r2tr\
- ?.rl
z *' l(,
{ rlc
1 (aolsl i - - l +

. . la+2llr)l .

isinlj:-ll.

ln particular,rbdiicinileecuatiei z'=l
ale udti$i.

k:0,n - 1.

se numescrtrdtrclnlle de otalin a

2) knaginile geometriceale rtrdilcinilor zk, ft = 0,n - 1, $mt varfurile unui

poligon regulatcu n laturi inscdsln cerculde centruO (origineareperului
carte an\{r de$2A 4l; (lA | : {; ) .
In panicular,imaginile geodetrice ale ridtrcinilor de ordin r ale unirEtii
stmt varfrrrileunui poligon regulatlnscris ln cerculunitate(de cenuu O !i
.az[ l).
In Fig. 1 amrepreantatlDagiuile geomerricepentru a: I Qih:3, n= 4 .

l) Ecustlt binome, Ecuatii bipltrate

Rcomintimdin clasaa X-a, ufintrtoarele:
Dfinifit.1) O ecua$ede forma zt-a:0zeN*,n22,aeC
nume$tecualiebinomi.
2) O etualiede formaaz4+*
$enume$iecuatiebipitratd.

se

+c:0, a4cC, a-0,nM

Fig.r
Metodi de rezolvarepentru ecualis binomi. Sescdeecuatiasubfurma az : o, iar
numilrulcomplexa se pune sub fonna trigononrtricA(a se vedeaclasaa X-lr
d

r(co:,q-isinq).qe[0.2n).r=Jl

t)2 dacaa -,r-i).

Aie tocunneloarea:

Eremplu.st !e rezotveccradtlebimm: tr zs = r : z.t zJ =

,
r!:i
R. 1) Aven 1=co60+islnn A nd fiditciiilc ea&dei ri'oDe (sur rrdndntb

uDt$g)ru'r, ="*f
"o

+;s"f , t=di

ordin 5 de
're
2n
sausile dedt.uratz^=r.2,=sos! 1",s,DTi
s

="o,f+r,n1!,'.
=*'f *,"m.$,".
=*f *r,r"f
",

242

u3

Itl|ldnllo 3.omcid.e ric ocedornul|tft o

!) of'ft.vrm*

i#--,,

vartudlo pcntigout'tl rcgutaatrucdr rn c.rcnt ur taio

*" -r=*"5*r*'*

1*.*l l*.*l

.r r.slr
rt -

"-f

Trbclul d6 dlr.udc estt c.l de tnrl Jof (tuncfle de s.tnn'rt expBllo.

- sotuftb@udtt bh^e turtl

qpularc 4=ca2x +rstrr

--fr

3 J+r3ht-4j,0=qr: "*
+rd"f . Irr"BiDe seorrtric"
d acstorrldndni

RIdIdDne eculflel ln)

.chll.l.nl lNcrft ln cdc'n uritot! ( lr4 = r ).

r (0,1)

+
'n

Reuniuneaacestorsolulii conslituie

,r ={li{*,f +r"r'f}, r =0.r.

z.
INcrli. datdaretolulttlet,L,t,L, k = 0,1,2.

A,,=r,r,=!2,s,=-'("i-t).

244

t iC, i=1, 4

a - 0 , d a c dn = 3 ;

. ai +ua +J +" ? +br +@ :o,a+o dac dn:5.

Mfodtrde rezolvare! euaFilor rclprcce.Daceeladul ecuatieireciproceeste
atunciea glnite solutb_.r=-1, iar remlvareaacesteiecuatiist;d;a; h
@,
rezolvarea
ecu4iei, + I = 0 (cusolulia{ : - I ) ti a uneiecuafiirciproce
degradpar.
Rezolvarea
eauatieirecipmcede gradpatrusefaceirntrfuindecualiaprin x2 c6nd
oblinem(sepoatetnp[4i prin 12, deoarece
r = 0 nuestesolutiea ecua$ei):

(D.
,1,,
*{J*,[,*ri*":0,

Acumse notaztr
r11= y caad* +\=

6 n.

+2ln-1\t+n*2=0pentru

=y2.
r"* *n *'"tt 1s =y1,x2
"2

rrrR,r3,4C

. or- + bx' + cx' - bx - a :0, a +O, ddcl n = 4 i

rN"uqrre,3=-r,;3=3
u"""",'pu"="*{"Y'J*,*p@,
*"*u"
',
],r=nr,,u'

R. Notlm .r2-J rf avDcuadrde gradul.iotfi t:nf

r1'2R,r3,4 e C

Dendfe. O eruatiedeforea anxn+ar-1x"-l +,,.+ a1x+ao:0, an+o

peDtru
careon-i=4i, 0<t<n (tennenii
egalidepettati
de extremiau
coeficientiiegrli)senunegreecuasoreclproctrdegraduln.

. af +bx'+bt+a=0,

Rlv.nlnd h .ubdtufe,vm de rerolrst cusliile 12 = 1, 12 = 3 ,

}dmr ocurtl. orsolusl rl,2 = *r, iff a
cuaFaaresotlrdiler =+15.
'loua
Icaafadt.da sotutiitet+r,+\E lt)Notrm.t3=, rl obltnn
ecurtlaJ2-2y -3=0 cusolude Jr=-1,J2=3.

,'"d+21- -r).r2 +,a -)= O,

.rr,2 R, rt,4 C

Iati formaecuatiilorreciprccepe cal le rezolvdmi

lix(|l||plc.t. SI s. rczotvc
cu4tite:
a) 14-4r2 +3=0 ib) 16-2r3 - 3=0.
R..) S6notelrtr
12=J rt avenJ2-4r+3=O,cu$olugterl=r,f2=3.

2. Sl r. de.endreDaturrrIdl"tflo..-rga,

I,.y2 R' Jr = 0'J2< 0

Jt'J2 n,I <0,J! <0

xtpC

2) Ecur$l rrclproce

cusoMile I,y2 C, dupa

c0lc Bcrezolv[ ecuatiilebltorrc zn = y1,zn : y2 erc.

E{urtl! deg.adulht!t: J +r=0

I,J2 e R, tt > 0,.v2< 0
q,J2 R, J1>0,J2<0

r,), R,,r > o,t2< o

e(\2,

n>2

Sfmifgrserzolv,ecualiatxinofisazzn+b,zn+ c:0.

Scnotcazd
zn:1 qiseoblineecuagia
ay2+ry+c:o

0
0

Mlaodl de rezolvar pentru ecuatla btpltrstn. Se rr(/leaz| z2 : ! $i se rezolv,

0cu4i8 ay'+r),+c=0.
Se oblinsolutiile)1,,2 C. Se revinela substitutie
$i se
|.t|mlvdecuaFilebinonE z':I.z'-)2.
mul meadesolutiia ecuatieidate.

Rld!.lnne ecualleltn r

Jl,Jt e IR,.tr< o,J,< o

1fr -.1fr,
={s?+rsn?,

sut verftrdle unul triorghl

A, , pJ , S),):

carc

y,

"f1l

t +:-:

+ty+"*Zo=
t\, x +:-:

y2-z ti (l) se scriein tuncliede

cu solutiileyl,)2. Revenim
la substitulie
$iremlvimecuaFile

y2. ToatesolutiileacestorecuatiisuDtsoluFileeaualieidate.

245

|,8lt

Puncm.t+f=),itdeaici 12+.j;= f -2.

tt

rcrolvoecue$llereclproce:

f) trr + 3.r2+ 3r + 2= 0 ; b, z'4+zt3+tx2+7r+2=q c) zf+a"arz'3+t2+u+:=0.

L. r) S! obocrv,h cdcsteo e.uatiereciprccAdegradimpar.
tutnlvato! !i s rduce la rcnlv@a ecualiei,+l=0
(cend!=,1) 9i a uneiecuatii(reciproce)
dc
nl
doile4
Pdtru
gtui
a
c@Ecislii
aestei
e.u4ii
utilizan $hm lui Homr (coeficienJiidnr
Indul
ultlm! llnl6 cu rogusuntcoeficientiic.!ur4i).

(*) devine2r2 + )-3=0

Cuacestea
ecuatia

cusolutiileyl =t,!r=-1

|
EcuEiile
r-:=I,

|
1
r. ----; usoturiih4.,- I+i\6 qircspectiv
";''
rj.a- -l,i"E
l'"
rtiJT
Etuati.daLa,. $tutiik: -r l=l.

2. sI sercrolremrla 14-:J - t0r2 + 2r +4= 0.

l. FnrI a fi o e$afie Miprcc5 d gradulpam! udli@az!pent rzotvN o tehnic!asennntuoee_
Se

l)lnichcmr,rezDltd
e.uariafu2+r+z-O

curao.U;te

impane
m4is prin 12 qi sesciiesuutornal-4-1,
r'

l+jG.

l=]:!,
EMtia dalaaresotuiitet

?l-'o=0.
x)

s" no,"* ,-l=

",".

txJt.

., . 8;

-'i''''

E atta.tatttat. sotutiit.t-L
b) Btlo o ccDaliesiproci

de gmdul patru.Tebnicade rczolv.re a aces!iaested a tmpn4i eoalia prin

I Numirul de exemplaredeziar $i ecualiile). Valoareay (in mii ) a unui ziar vandut

ln anul , estedatdde formulaV(n):n3 -612 qltn*4. Deteminatianii in care
valoareavllnzarilora fost de l0 mii .
R, Punandmoditia y(r)=10 se ajungela rezolvareaecualieide gradul trei

12 , cllndovemr

tl ,t , l l *rl, n1l*o=0
.,.,.
xl
\

r'i

Xourn r + -L- y . iaroeaiciprinridicdel. panar?

fbu|th (.) dcvinc212+ r:0

I-

r'-2.

@ $luliile I = 0, ]2 = -2.

qi avemecoag,r"
Rlvcnln h substirutie
'+1=q.r+1:

* *r"f r" 4,2=+i

ei respecrv

''\6 .*^*^u*"*t n.' .'t. 17Jn.

(locllcicnlii din Dltimalinie a scherei (cDroqu)sunt coeficientiiecualieireciprocede

sradul patru.Deci
0vcnrdc rezolvaiecDalia:2x4+ x3 + i2 + t + 2 = o.
I

r' J

r)

'.

246

n' - 6n' +lln-6:0,

Solutiileei suntry :1, 12 =2, q:3.
(Parapetul
2
de prolecFeti ecualile) O firgoneta love$teparaperulde proteqje de pe
panea de deplasare determinaLnddeformarea d (in cm) dald de formula:
d(t): tsr(rr - 6l - 91. r ftind tiflpul exprimatin secunde.
Dupi ceresecunde
de ta
impactpa&petulva rcved la pozilia inilial[?

0) Fxualia propu!!, esle rciprocnde glad impd. Prin urmfie rczolvareaei se reduce la rezolvarn
lcLrolici .r + 1: 0 i a unei ecuEii rccilr@ de gradpatru,ai cn ei coeficienli se detemint din schenr
hn HoDcr ccrAndc! r = - I s! fie ddd.ine a ecualieidare.

l n rmp. q,ccu
e r,',r .zl,' * 11-[-* ]l -

3) Ecualii in probleme practice

u.

(. , .

R. Se impuneconditja d : 0 . careconducela rezolvarea

ecualiei13 6t-9:0. Se
obtinesoMa (neb.nald,r>0) r=3. Deci,duper:3,t, aleforrrMrea
esrezero.
planeci$ ecua{iile).O planega SoaEluisenrcllzEte.Ternperaurra
3 oncalzirea
Z (n kl) a
planetei&ptr n milioanede ani esredattrde formula T(n):16l .loryr2 1y7gn-1g.
Dupt ced ani se va topi gheafade pe planet6?Duptr cef ani va lncepe o noue eri
glaciarl?
R T(r) = 0 + n:1 miliondead; f(3):0 + dupd2 nnlioanedeani.
4 (Topireaghefaruluiqi ecualiile). Volumul unui thetar tractat din Antaftica spre
Africaarevolumuty dup, n zile,datde fo*u,u u:!98(ZOOO -t00n + 2on2-nJ).
Dup[ ceGzile seva topi completgheta$l?
R- Y -0 d a c [n : 20 .

241

a (|iscinr'$i ccual;;lc).
de 150m lungimeti 80 m ldlimearc
O curtcdnptunghiuhrtr
In Intorior o piscin[ drcptunghiul0r[,avAndlarudle paralelecu ale cu4ii $i situsttrla
dlat0nla.' de margini. Aria piscinei este egah cu ada po4iunii rlmase din curte.
Dotaaminolivaloarealui r.

R .( l 5 o-2r)( 8 02-r) =6 0 0+r= +.

dEptuDghiccu laturile t,-r+1,t+2
6, O cutie are forma rmui paralelipiped
(orpdmatein m).Sesedetermine.r
asdelincarvolumulcutieisi fie egalcu 24 m3.
y(r):
r(r + lxx + 2) . EgalitateaV(r) = 24 conduce
ll, Volumul cutiei areexpresia

=o c\ unicasoluliereald
h ccustia,(r+ lxr+ 2):24 + ] +zJ +zt2 m,3 m,4 m.
r 2 m.Decicutiaarcdimensiunile:
?. Sc considelIfunctia /:R+R, f(r)=45 +4r2 -x-1. SI se determine
punctclcdcinterseclie
alegraliculuifunctieicuaxaOr.
Ecualia
R. Punctclegmficului situatepe axa or au coordonaele(.',t(.'):o).
:1. De"ipuncr.le
'
x1:-1,x2:-r,x3
cdur.lesunt:i-1,0),
,f(x)= 0 aresoluliife
,

REZUMATTJLCAPITOLULIJI
DdddL Prwdetid
Isl

hDIdt{It.

Df

Md.rol (4,+.) te
\t (4,+) t 8rup

1
I
(

\, (,{,r.sEnomtdt {, fMr) . stessodrdvl

lt. ..t fttdbudvnft lMy'' lddteerenx|'t tr3'sm
. ie

Drdhplur

{.r(D}
]ru+zl=rt+E
'
lx +!k =E+v"lqr,t.zeA

la fotmaS -2tz -x+2<O $i seconsideru

funcfiacontinu!
R. Sclduccinecuatia
pe
semnconstant
O asrfelde funcliepaslreaze
/ :]R- R, /(rr: 13- 2x2- x
-2.
Vomdeteminavalorilein carefiuctia seanuleaztr,
unlnlcnal pecarenusearuleaza.
(x)= 0 . Glsimsolutiib)ct: -1, ,2:1, 4:2.
rozolvAnd
ecuatia
"f
'l'rbcluldesemnal furctieieste:

Ddci /(n) <0 dacdre(-oo,

0 + + ++ 0 .

- 4ulL2l.

,I|r3dc. dordn 4 n > 2, ctrdennta

dn C.
l) (z',+'.) ) lndul d.ldor dEttri
tr,zNr>2.
nodulo

t, \zlil'+'.)zlil=ta+ula'bezl
'
xtc hdul lltrrgilu

M Gault

t) (z'+,.),12[i]'+,.) *ttu'de hteerc

l) (r,+r) urde .{ = {, : {0,1}-+ R} ,
*e lnelcrrdvlrort ai lui um ft rdRnr,ft'/(0) = 0, /(1) = 1,t
-0,
8(0)=ri a(r)=0,s *0.Atun i

Hdhtcsm(firI
lhd.lldz.ro)

18=o(tsxo)=t(o)8(o)=o
(,fs)0)
= t(r)so) 0)i (26,+,.)
-

Dccp
]|tpkn|l (r,+,, ede
Kr){x,+,.) serDd
Kl ali.te

d.||Dbt'

Dnnl

Ir r etel[venff|
thdt!plu!.
NIn

f (x)

D (2,+,.)- tudulnulnrdorftlFesl
l) ('{4 (c),+r) = lt'd'n mahtcdor

llr) ' estec0ntadvn

L1.'1.
t1.rl.
r, 2 J 12 J
N.S[ serezolve
inecuati
u ] + z 3 *12,- t\ .

EiemDle

Notad

Gt + e{e $ododd
c, + e$ecomtrdvl
G!) + dnlt! lenrtDu[u
G.)ortclden ddr/4 lrc uD
opustall rt t

.tiet

t) (4,+,.)= cor[d nurercrorEt'onare

e*eerur aremu
[(x,+)
q) l(K -tol,.) stegrup
<,
."s" air*ttoti"l to
lal

de
.tm,l.rnJ

0 +++

l) (Zr,+,:1, p.ln, ceorp'd d{6lor

dI p2,t ez,p.|
, lQdi r,+,.1,
q1.,tr;= 1o+a.,/71,p
e q1
"o.r
1a=1"+yJil-,r e zl,+'),

]) Mo(ftrlE delnde
:corpod)

(a,+,.),
(,{',o,o)

D (n,+,.)= corFornunerdorrtare
t {q+'.)= corp'nDurErdorcomplxe

0 t(i+J)= /(r)s/(/)

f',

.,\l

'llr',zl.+.1
r)t(: ' r) =/(r) o /O),{v).r,rI lA'=ll;.,
t\-, -4
I )
t

mnislldelele

tl
! te+ e',1s ay " Q1=l j x)

l) l'omrftn| delrde

esirDrfsm dmc:

\zt

,. f(r+r)=/rrrO/u)
r, !Q\+22\=JQi+ !k)\zt,z2e^
" l/(r'r)=/rrro/ur(v)'..ya
=
,+
zr = rr + !r\li, .2 12+ r|\ti,

248

249

Explldaur.Norndl

t) It e't l'{.cflvr
d. W..lc

+ \+.2= \+12+ot+ lz)nE

L,seKlxl,c 'o+(3t)qr e KIxl l ) ! = x 4 + 3 x t + 2 x - s ,

sf.llnca! / =a4+r,
e= x2 -tx , l,cenlxl
gnd(r) < gnd(s)
f+
t*+zx-slx2 -tx
r= rtdrnp{4a$8:ltry!.Stonn,

t*,.",=1,1;;;u
;jyil=
1;;A.{:;,;J='o,*r,"'

[/ e3telurJ.ctlvl

D.d r = 0, atDd I dlvldepe/

2)J k$2\ = ! Qr\J k),2r,.2 e a.

=J('tp2+2rpr+{,//2

_(\x2+2hr2 r r+.r2rI_
l2\\t2 + r2h) \r2+ 2hr2l-

=ao+alx +d2X2+
=
-,+a,Xn
aix" (ddotro.tdupl pddle
,i
.L lri X)

o,'.
1:;,:l[;;, ro,,'
"i.,=

( 8l,f )

( t :s (' ,diiduF
'u
"s)

D Tefi8lf!firyl4dl
xlltdln l(ix] petnn
lorl podrooDeJs

pnm

x [x] =m,t6'"" no*o"n'r* *

X or co.ficien$
ln K

7 = oe zlxl

*o'+ =o' i 2a

t-@ ' J = u

sa(t fc) < mi{s!du),sadG)}

gnd(ts) = grad(t)+ srdc)

J = zo+arx+a2xz+ ,-+.nx",
deK + f (@=a{+otu+
-+dne.
(t +8Xd)= t(d)+r(o)

=-f(os(c)
(vt 8r[x] ,
o?xc)
Fu4lr polllloDbll

J tx --+K,
lQl=ao+af +,,.+d,r[,

xa+tx2+zx-s=l x2-vl .

zx2+i
iDplrflta prtn X-4

r..d rnp&fdt polinonr{ui t*0

rin X-a tecsdor t(a)

xt +)x +i=lx2 +ilx +)x

ll
t17 =x2 -zqwlxl, x = Jt ea
.!!fidnI a luitdo're

I =2x + x3 - 3x4, gl:ad(J,= 4 i

71nE7=z-z=o
t:)J = xt +rec.[x],
d'
'=i

t = 0,.snd(f ) = -oo .

ddndDnr ld/deoarec

,( r ) =i 2+t= - r +r =o
=l+x + x2 + x3,d,=i C.+
t(t)=1+i +t2+i3=t+i-l-i=0

li
!6toa)tse ddde pritr
X-a

+ J@)=0<,f =(x -a\e,

t,8 eKIxl

t: R -+ & t(r) =a.+r,d,, R

t:R-+R, t(r)=ar2+rr+c,
-0,

eletuDc(iadesradutrl

r=4

6te r{dIdd

=
=
-f x3 -1, /(t) o +.
+,f = ({ -1)(x'z+x +1)

z\f =xa -16lo\=0"+

,+J =6 -2r\x3+2x2+4X+s)
x=r d rndndnndeordin2 pentru
polinon
!l J=X3-3X+2
doar.ec

+o ertefimclie desrrdtil ht6i.

dr,r [,4

de

Drdr", ? N',pentn

<+f :(x -a)e ti t/(x -")P+r

250

tzxz+2x
_tzxz+3ax

{x2+rxtrz)+:rx-s.
DI - x3+)x+i,c= x2+i,
!,ceqlxl
x3+ 2x+i

=do K,suDtpdlnoan
"f

l = {& +
eraarT

l*+x*an

38x 5=t

r =|-:x'+fxr eo1x1
-1x2+x -ienlxl
! ="nx" +a*rx"-r + .,+ai +aor =
^Ftxa
pui.rile d.scnsclt{orc
l( {Q,n,c,zr},
r =J3nlxl,r =i alxl,
Ior|!| diohrtd r

-x4 +lx'
|
3x3+zx2

251

t{r) = 0,/11)-0, / "(r)- 0<+

i+ J =(x -r)2(x +2).

L8l n d6t rn no d, ,, c, d, . C .dfd hclt poltnoEuull fle ogatcu polnor[ut g ln crzurlr

ll !
,l !
i),f
at f
l) !

- x2+3x+6f =d+r(x -4+c(x -rF +/(x -1f ;

-2x3
x3+(d- 2bJx2
+lb+k)x +a+b+2a,s=(x
-tF(x +3)r
x3-sx2+sx+r,t =\a+b)x3-lb+2. -d)x2+lb-.lx +a+bi
2x2-(b+clx+r.c =bx3+(. +b+ clx2+(jb- clx+c+b I
-(d +r)x3+
+tx3 +cx2+tIX+c,g= i1<4
4 6;y3y6*2 +ctx+d ,
-axa

I.il.!cllc

lec t+a rl t. sln c'todte:

\ ! - +x + Ji,s= 2x2+.i5x,"f,8r[x] r
S1X=lt ai)x2-zx +t-i, r= ix +1-i,/,s clxli
.t I *i,x +3,s=ix2+3x+\ J,Eez4Ixl,
t17 =txz+2xai g =ix3+ix2+i, f,c ezslxl.
polnoane:

t, 1=l^2-z^+zlx'+(^2-+^+tlx, +(^2,t)x+et
t 1 =1.'1
- t)xa+l^a-r)x2t x t
rr r =(i.2+6,"+3)x3+(-+3)x,+(i-+3)x+3
zjlxl,,,,ezj.
4.fle ,,solxl,r=(,,3-zlf +^x +s,s=(-6-rlxa+(, -\x3 +znr2+r. p"otco v.loil ele lui r pollD(lmele au reLti

grad?

s,rI. /,s,rc[x],t = x4-x2 -r! e =xa +ix2*t r'=/.s. Srsecalcutle

](1+4-r{r-4,
./

\/

r) (x - r){x+r)lx"+rl(x.+t]...lx.+rlr
^'

(x,-zx *r)r -(xr+x-r)r= r.

ll. SI sr dct4nr ne polinoDd J R[X] ik gradul.l doile{ asrfelhce. pe rend: l, /r- t r = t .
l@r= -4, J0)= -21 2) t[\-r, JOr=2, t(3r=3 t 3) JG)= J(4 = 2,l\3) = _2,
12.Penar ce wlod rede sle par.mHtor p tl { potinonul X4 14X3 -2X2 + pX +q eareun
plhat pefe.t.
coctlrrerea.r. c asfeltn tr poriromt t ="lxt
rr. si sedcternrDe

, zx)-t(x3 *ex -rl-

+c{xl + :xl +:) * nem ot pcrrcr.

l\ !
-3xz -sx +6,t=-3x2 +2x -3,f,g ezlx]i

.r ln raportcu pornmetrutn aistuta6g.raU urnrto*id

10.Sl sdot.rmlm doul pollmsmedegradd lnlSt /,g RIX ] ast?elIncnrl

I
l r {x r*x + t) l x'-x +r l l x a-x 2 r r}...[y :"r
- x :' * rl .
t,
7.]'fpotfnormlq
/ = t0xr0+9,Y9+6x8+-.+2X2
+ X, g =tmxr@ +99xe + 96Xs+...+
+2x7 + x ,
r) Crlculd /(r), /(-r),s(lt x.(-r).
b)Afloll(lencl.nful
tul Xrr0 qicoeficiordhixt@ aioy.g.
t. Sf.c determtre
,n n lstrllnctt /(1)=0,undeJ = X3+mx2+2X +m-1.
t. r'lo/ c C[x], / = X4+ d,{3+aX2+ lx +r. Srseaetenne4,, dacrt(i)= /(-j) = 0.

ra.sI !e deilrdle pdlnoobel".f RIx I a5rtellncst0i r"e,D:/(r +t)-/{rr

ts. Sl .e detarblDepolho.|Delc:
1)detrrdol rl dollea/ Rixl pcntrucllc pcr6rdl

= (} + t)2.(v)x c R.

r' /(r.')= (r(r))-,(vFR I

bJ/(r)/r- r, = /(r2), (v)r R.
2rd. smdural trdles ,f R[x] altfelh{et /rr) It-xt= I\,2]l.
16.Dr.I ,f n{x], crad(,f)=', arurciftucdapolnon ru s(')= /(r+2)-2l(.r+t)+_f(r),
r R es|. o tumtic lollnonddi d. gradul {r - 2).
cI6lI mdt'nea polhorDelor/pe .u calt 8(') = 12 + r + L (v)r R.
rT.SI.e dererDlre
r R{x].s."at,rr = r aorarnch Jtlt+ Jt2t4 ....1/(,)-/4.{v)nN,
rs. tlltnordmtl esdi..tirc den l*"."

(r e f ),

d (x +zx'+rxi +-.+ox,)6 -rf ="x"+2-(,ttlx,+t+xi

xl
b) | +-iJ+rx
(x+rl+-.+.-x(x+ t)...{x
+, - t)=;i(x+r)...{x
+,).

p.intau za{x]srseoeteiTi
or f =axz+bx+. *ir"rrnot{ix, + ix +3)y= i.
20. St s lnte .I dacj ,f RIx], 8rrdt,r, = r . lruDci etisra Nmerete reate *.";.-",

*"

.'tfrlmt! f, = a4+o{ +a2xlx -rJ+...+ d,,x (x - 4...:1x-, + 4.

'terennrDrre
ttepolmalnete
2r.tu f Zqlxl,f=x3+).*+x+i. sr sedetennire
s=ax3+rx2+.xrd zalxl
cu propdetrt acI f=s

(Dde tiZarZa

6t ftDcti| ponnoln|alnesociatit!ir.

2ascorsfttrtftDrct'e/;25-+zsdennitnpdrt(6)=t,f(i)=6,r(t)=3,r(j)-A,r(i)
SI searrte cit5rc o tuDcSelotimndalt
. at Sr.o aratccI dscl tCIX].snd'/r>l..runcl

252

253
r-6-

poltDomi.t,
ft'|rcda
/:C+C

esre

b) C.r6 uuntpollnornel. / nlxld. srodlmprl r.nrru caretuncf! f rR,rR .{!0 surJecdv!?

c)'hl'lr / C[x]de g.adu)=' $.ttmlrtumla i: n -+ C snfltajedvr?
t,l. 8l $ d.t llIlne c8luld rc3ttnftryIrodl polnonuM/tr potimnul s tn caruritel

L,!
-rxt -2x2+sx+s, e=x-1, l,Eezlxl
tt ! =2x'-x 4+6 xt+sx2- ,
s =x +r, t,s ez l x l l
t')! =3x2-2x+3, s=2x-1, /,selx]l
.) /-iy3r(r-4x2+3x-i, s = x2-(i+r)x+3, ,f,sclxl,
t, ! =lxs +ix3+x2+i, g=x+\ 7,gezalxlt
c11 =2xa+ix2+ix +i g =ix +\ 1,gez5lxl;
i I = x' + x2+x +i , e =x 2+i T,gez al x l t
t, ! =Lxa+)x3+3x2+tx +\ e=tx2+ix+A,f,e ezllxl;
9t! = 16+|xa+ix2 +i, g= x3+3x2+i, y,gez1.lxl.
rrdt pornond/srsedivrd.prh potrnomul
n*".".rl|l' ortfer
a tocrzudre
1l;".11"T,:r**
r, ! = x3+ (d + r)x2- 2d'x+ 36- r, s = x - t, f ,t R[x],,' R i
2, ! =mx4+l2n-r)X. - 3nx+ n - 2,s= x +2,!,sRIx],' eR.
, J =\n +r)xt -(2a'+i)x2+nx +n-i,s = x +i "f,sc[x], c I
'
1l J = xr +mX2+ x +t\t = x +i, !.e eglxl
3)! = x6+4x2+nx, s=ix +2,!,e eclxli
0 I = xa+2x3+^x2 +n +i,s = x +i, !,s Eza[x],n ezai
1 7 =ixs 1(- +r)xa+ 3x2+\ e=x+i,J,cezslxl,nezs.

2c Sll detmineprrimetrulr qtfl bcetpolnonul/impl4it tapottnomut

g snderrcstutr itl
t; 1=rx3-(z-+l)x2+ sx -d, c = x -2, r =3 t
z17 =txa +(u -t)x3 +mx2+2m+i, g = x +i,r =r-3i i
rl y = 6x3+(,r+i)x, + in+2,,g=x +i,r=i,1,cezjlxl,n

ez1.

27.Sl * dtennlne
pann*rriiD,rr# crpoltnonnt=ZX3-lX2+-x+,
lm64ir"u x-r
x
2
6I
da
r3turi
gdnfpcdi co4 d cq- 5
+
tl
tlt. SI s! dei.rdllem,r,r drd trcft pdllrm{ , = X5 + r!X' + nx + p to'pl"F * x-r,x+t
d X -2 drr.studlel-r drlsD.dv4r.
,0.

r efctur hnplrd!!

uF|Ir

si s &tennine reatul iDplrddl

t) .f = xloo-lxe +s,g =(x -l)(x +r)l

2)/=x l@ + x + l , r = ( x +4 (x+2 )
! \ !=x s + x 4 + x t - x - r , s = (x -0 (x +l xx - 2 )!

pollnolDutut/ h potinomut 8 tI

t) ! = xM + xtu+ x, s=xlx2 -r).

30. Un pdlmn ltnpl.fl prln X-l,X-3,X+l

dn restu.lle2,3 rl respectlv4. SI sesfle restul

lDprrdrlporlnonn
olp n (x-4(x-3Xx+r).
3r.ntRlx]unpolinoD
{t(r+1)+(r+2)t('+3)=2r3+r0,{v).'R.
prtn(x-s)(x+4.
sIsedterrnlre
reshlnlpl$r{ pofimnul'lt
dtlldbll prln X -o, X -b,azb,^t|u'r jtrst divizibil
32.SI serrde c! dad uir pollnomf,elae
pdn (x -d)(x -r). s! sdtenDlne
exFdr rshrlulhnpnrddl unBlpollnornoaftcareain C[x]
pdn (x-a)(x-r),d-r.
33.DeterDtrld vdortlparoelrtlor r, r dad poltrmutts dividecu polironul g in crzurtle:

1l ! =x6 + inxt + ax2+4,s= x2 -r,J,ce*.lx)i

2l I = xa+ x3+nxz-^2x +n,s= x2+ x, !,s enlxl.
3)t =Xs+nX +n,s=X2 -t, J,s enlXlt
4)f = xa+nxt +9x2+tt,s=x2-3x +2,J,sNlx)i
s17 =-x3 +("-rlx2 - x -2, e= x2 -1\f,seRlxji
= x2 -tx +2,J,seR.lxli
6)f = x3-(m+r)x2+(tn+z\x
-za,s
v 7 = xa+ax3+(a-zn)xz+sx -3n, s= x2+ x +2,.f,s RIx]i
8)I =2x4-4xt -4x2 +nx +n,s=x2- x -6, Ls..P.lxli
st ! =dx4+ax3- t " t =( x - l ) ', /.8 El x l :
1:0\
f = X4+l, s= X2+nX +4,f,c n[X]i
rr, t = x4+ x3t x2+dx 1n, g= x2a x 1|t,7,gez5lxl.
valor e I'rt,r,
34.DetannlDAF

',,

dicn pollDomuu!indde cu polnomurI h mile:

r) I = xa tsxs + nx2+a71p,g =(x az)\x2

+t),1,ee nlxlr
2-)! = xs +-x4 +zx'+nx2 -3x + p,s= x3 +t\ !,seRlx)i
3, ! =xa +nxl+x2 +nx+ p,s= x3+zx2+tx +4,f,s nlx]i
4)! = x4+sx3+
+"x + p,c =\x2 -tl? +s),J,ce R[x]r
^x2
s, f = x3+(^ -r)xz+2* + p,g=lx2- a\1x+t),J,s m[x]t
O f = xa +m x+ n,e=x 2+px +t,J ,eeQl x l t
3s. SnsaratecI rlacl t e ZIX ] I rdnjte doul rldlcini lrtnsi de parl$f dredte, atunci t([)
c!.pd ortc.t ar fi * 2.
36. Dac{ poltnonul t ZIX] arc trd rldlctDl lntrsi clle dsu relrud dlferttela lmp!$ra cu
iI4 ltuncl sltseollte cI pdru orice t Z, /(n ) estmultlpludehel.
37. Arlrrll cl rtrcI valorllepollnorDuld/ a[X ] pentruortcnunlr ra$onalc sunt mtionale,
rh'nrr/'

Qlxl.

255

nuDcrcronplcxo lllledte, c\,ct..-,cn+r'n+ I numorocomplexc

-r,i Ffo rr, rrp,r,+l
onrccare.Sr6earorecrexhi!ununlcpollnom/Clxldfelbc6t/(ri)-ci.i=1.;;J.
Je.ArIr!! canu qlsil pollnom/desndul dol carepcntruodceldoal c n - Q' /(.) Q .
40.Sn6e.febmimD, z dsl prinimpd.SMpolnomdult =nX3 +nX -l V*r g=X2 -3X +2
4r.Pdn lmplr(ir! d r6a a polinoNlui/lr g avemealttata / = g{ + r. Deierntn?i rcshnpriD
l|nplrtlrer:
l) pollDom'nui
12 r^s, d*, r =1X3 - X + I rl sradG)= 7;
2)pollnorruIul/la 92, dacn/ = 2,lar rcstullalDplrfrea M /' la g2 estesslor 4t
3)poflnomului/lr{, drcl a =2Xt + x +3 lt =4x4 +2x2 +1.
N * poatedecompunetu factori irEducttbll pesteZ,lD
42.Ar{raF c! poliron"r tZlx]

2\J = xa++x3- x'- x +2i

4 \ f=X a +a x3 -x2 -nx+ 2,neN' i
3tJ = (x -r f 6 - 2 f + r ;
5)J = xa+nxt +n7x2+r3.x-1, r N'.
I t J = x 4 +x+ l i

43.DeconpunedpolmnurtltrractortittductlblltpteRttEspecliYClncrzudle:

r ) .f = x 3 - 8i
2 )f =x3+a l
3) .f =x4-16i
6\ J-X 6 -n ;
4 r != x 4 + 16
5 ) -f=xa-x2+ri
9\ J=x4 + 6 x 3 + g x z -9 t
8)/=xE -6xa+9;
7 , ! = x 6 +2 7t
lo) J =xa -llxt +1sx2-6.
14.Arnb! ct polfnomulJ = xa + X2+ieZsIXl sterqlucdbilp5teZs , drr nu areric-lo
rldlclnl in 25.
as.DAcompune(iir fsctorl feducdb

pollDoa|lle:

r) ! = x3+ixz +4x+ae4lxlt

D ! =ixa+sxt+3x2+ix +iez|lxlt

3\ ! = x 3 + X + i eZ2 lx]l 1

4\ I = x4+ieztlxlt

s )! = x3+xz+ x +i e z .l x l

o f=x 4+reK lx l, K = R, K = c , K = 2 4 .

46.ArltsticI poftronul! = Xa+ Xt +iezzlxl(5,tctrtituctib !ta 22.

4z.s! {tternine',n23,n-0,ostretlmttpoltmmul! =nx'+nx +i,ez3lxl srfle
'e

Inductlbll peste 23.

a3.nepofinonur
/ =i3+ix+ie4[x].
cupropdetate{
t= F.

Deierdnsdpodnoandc
s =n8'+nx2 +p)a+qe\Ixl

5!.Si nr dokr|nh$ csl trul tiore {Ivlror comund ccl mal mlc multlDlu(otrtu'rd pdhtlrmolor/' g
ttr c4rtr ln urmlloorc!

t ) f = x , . . -2 x 2 - s x + 6 g = x 4 + 4 x t + ! x 2 - 4 x - 4 i
2 ) f = x a + lx 3 +z x 2- 2 , g = x t + 2 x 2 + 2 x + l i
3 ) ! = 2 x 4+ 5 x 3- s x 2 - s x + 3 , g = x 4 - x 3 - 7 x 2 + x + 6 1
g=x4 +2Xx+ x2 -lt
4) J = x4 +2x3-x,
s, ! =2xE+x4 -lxt +xz +6x-5, g =2x4+ x3 -tlx2 -nx +zi
6 ) l= x 6 -2 x 4 + 2 x 3+ x 2 - 2 x + t , g = x s - x t + x 2 t
7 t ! = x a + x 2 + i . s =x 3 + x . ! , e t z 2 l x l l

a,f = x3+ x +i e= xr +ix2+ix

J.sezdxl.
-i'
, J = x a+ a f + i x, g = x3 + i x2 + 3 i ,7 ,g e z5 l xl n, ! = xa+3x'+2x2+ix +i,c=xt +ixt f,eeztlx).
52.S! !e rrd cn umltoarele polinoame, a sut prlne intr ele:

t\ J = sx3 - zx2+x +2, e=x 3- z x 2+z x 'tt

2l f =X4+ zxt - x 2 - z X, g=x s - z x 4+3x 3- 6x 2+2x - 4i
3y7=x3+i, c = xa+ xt + x2,t,c eztlxlt
q J = xt + Ax2+ax+\. s =x 4+x 3,J ,s ez 6l x l t
s\ ! =x3 + 2x2+ax +i , t=r aai v l ',2x '+i x +i ,!,c eql x l '
capolhoonelet =2x3 -7x2 +oN+3' e=f -sxz +V +t
53.sf3. iietenDhea I P as1f,l
desraduldol'
sI
atbl uDdidzor comn
''i*
-ie;iIa
conunal polinmneio.l, & atuncideterninsl o rcra$eltniffn
iit
":,i.
-"n"rnr'tur
ln
ctludre:
Itetorna d=d+Es
g=xt+tx2-zt
t, f = xa +txt -zx+2,
g=xs-ti
2, J =xs -xa +xl-x2+2x-2,
c=x4-2x2-t'
3) J =lxs +6x4 +lx3 - x2 -2x -t,
potlnonul/ sedh'idePtu polromul s h caruile:
,, iSbl seane
"e
.
,.

1 1 = lx 2- x r rf - x,s= x"r r

3 ( zx2- x+ zf , c= x2+ t;
t t = ( z x ' + x+z) +
g= x2t sx +r, oex*.
It I = (x + r)b-r + (-rI (x + z)o+r,
56.St 3ernt

n,,Z! lstfellncatpollnonult=X3+rX+nehlxl
4g.I)terniDati
Zj . DsconpNtt in latortlreductlbtltpolma[lle ertfelob$nute.

pste
d fie rcducdbtl

Za.
so.Dete.ndmtipolinoimele
f = X2 +nX + a ezalxl iftductttnbpere

2 r t= ( xz+ x+ '9r J- x' s= xz- r l

ca pofiDonul/le dir'lde cu polboDul g

X2 - X

l tu cazudle urmlto'rc:

; 2)/ =xe-1+x +l,r r' i

ry 1 =x(x2tr)tu+r+x3n+2,relt
3, J = xh + xb+r + xs+2,r,n,te N 4)/=(x+1)6o+1+x6'+2,rNi
s1y = lxl +rf+2 + xa+t,o e x.

256

257

t7. SI m oroi.cl pollnomuus.dlvldocupollnomula = x'-

r) / = (x - lf+3 + x2i+3,, N i
t) / =(x -lf+2- x2('-r),'N*,

x + lln coru.lt$urmlhrral

2)/=(x-1F +1+ (-rf+r x,+1,tre *i

g= X 2+ X
! i. P$ n rd cev do. i alelul r N ' p o u D o m u l fs e d l v td e c u p o l l nomul

f ) / = ( x + 1 ) '+xr + 1i

I t,i trcl zur e

\r+ l

2 )t = ( x- r f +x' + r ,

rr r =(x'+r[ +(xa+r)'+r;

4) J=xh+xa+1 .

1=x&+J +xe+2 +x r! o N s'Iili'le or polDon l a=ld+X2+x+r.

"l
61.!) Sr Eeuate c! dfn frDc1ispotimDirll p. C -+ c, p(r) = /(r3)+ r'zs{I3 )(ude /,s ntxl)
rr1lrldddd o solude
a c'l|afel.12+r+l=0,aturci t(r)=a0)=0.
r') tre t:a-Jqi(r)=/{'!)+'s{'3)+fi('3),

9)(l+t'f *(r-irf

r,s,tnlxl

crre arcarr'trciDipe 1, ,2

_r +;./i
unde -:=i:- .Saseamtecl
/{lt.8rll= }(l!=0.
nenult,s,L QiXl, SI s. .rat cn dacl tuncfa polmnttdl 8: C -+ C ,
62,+ Ftc polinoamele
ahncl
o zeroudrndnchtlcecuafiei
f(r) = /('3) + ry('3) +
'6-5'3+8=0,
'2r,("3) "*
pollnornele/,a,n s dieiilcupolimmulX2-6X+E.

63.sr s arr.ecnpotromury=(ar..yo)h+l+(x4+x2+t)tu+l+x10,+s+t

s. dlrtdcu

Fllnonul a = x4 - X3-t X2 - X +! (V)z,pN.

pofiDon'rl7=lx\+xl-x"-x3,,tetf.srsedetelrnlne,'astfelhcet(pc
i 64.se coruide.n
r)Jsn nedvubn pdn x2 +1i b)/sl fiediviribilprir x4 + x2 +t.
65.Demomtrrtiegatltata
ile pollnol|nel

68. SI srezolYe.ua{fle

s)(1+,zr
+o-i.r =[f +lf

' " {i*f

=i:*', eE'7)zb=zi a\zn-1zl'

3) 18+4.!a+3=0i

z) rlo-3r5-l=oi

t) r4*5r2tl=oi

4) +r9r3 -216= 0; st /m-(l+4rs0+,=0.

'6
?1,Snsedetemir rstura rldlcitrilor cua$ilor:
r\ t4 -(2n -r\ttt +m2 -1=o i2) (t' -rr,a +2(m -1r'2 +m=0:.3, x4 - '2 +n +1=n,
4\ xa+w2 -n =o,5) xa+(zno-l\r2 +^2 -.=0, ctnd,n4 .
7r" SI serzolveecu4ile
,
,, ,4
-.1

rt l' -1 1 ' " lr-' f l = r ,

2J (
2t
t
ll Q' -lJa+(zr-s)a =z i

z r r : " 3 r a + ( r - s r a. t o :

4)2t-6r+5=0.

73.Snserrolvsefrile rcdpro@:
at U 3r! +::2 +zr+.1-0:2r rl - 5r! -5r+ | -0i
altt 3r4 I zrr -ttt2 +2x +3=0i2) 2r4 +x3-2t2 | !+2=0i
c) r) 2.!5+.r4+ ri +12 +r+2=0 i 2) 3.r'+t4 -3r3 -3t2 + r+3=0.
reale:
74 S! sedtcmtu; palameEurntl a sstfeltuc6icoaf e dematjossI aibntnater4dnctDlle

seaivneun s=(x2+x+r)2.
polrmnd ,f n[x] plhuc{rEsrcIm qrlitqtta {f (r - 1)= (r - 26)/(r),
2)sr !0 derermlne

(v)r R.

-. 'r2 lt

66.1)
Arltatic! polinom!=x1+ax|+6x2+;x+r

'(x+')'(v),'tf

-^(r

ll

",T*-t=,'tT-;j,

67. S! B. rerolve ecurl le:

6) 4r4 +613 'lor2 - 9.r-9 = o.

2\ x e = -ri

258

suni

soluClee.uageizd- t=0.
70.sI serzolveeotfil8r

1) ;r4+3r3 +o2 +3r tt =oi4 x4+3x3- ht2 +tx +1=oi

3) 3r4-5r3 +412-5r t3 = o.
75.S! srrolvee.u.{i e:
2) 14- 5r3 + 1or2-10.r +4 = o i
1) 2.r4-21j3 t?4r2 - l50r t50 = 0 i
4) t4 +3t3 -2x2 -6t+4=oa
, 2'4 - l3x3 - 6A'2- 52x+32= Ot

,\ '
,( +r) , '-,x (x +4...(x i -, _x,x(
rr
2t
", -=-(x+tf

l ) re= l i

=0.

9) z'= Z,r N* , 10)1+z +.2 + -.+ z" =oill].l-.+22 -z' +...-z|n-r i z2n=o'
69.Dacn ,,t N,(D,z)=d, atuncisoludileonune areeutttllor t'-1=0,2'-1=0'

poti-*,t

dl.lt"g

0 (,+1)r
-(r-r)'=o!

lt-

dlvidecu polimmula=x!-x+l,lncrtudle
!9, Ponlrrtcevdori de lui ,l N poliromultE

+x'+ri

ot'"=l+'S'

J=l;rf
r'r
''0---!-id:z'
l',r,"=1'*'1,n,
"=ij,r,
r)

2) J=xn+xn+r+xn+2 .

3 )/=l xr-x - rJ + t x '- x - 2 J - r .

l ) /= (x -lf

n S = - l+ t$ ;

s\ x4=!1jr4-l

259

t.'.$l m fiJzolio ecu4lltc:

t.
l) ErJ + r0r2 *3, - f = 0 t2) zt3 -tt!2 +2t\ -zn=n;
t) 10.!'+ lrrr + 1312+ lrt + 3 = 0 i 4) 9r4 -!I! +7 tt -3x -2=o t
a, x4 - zx! - 4r2+2x+3=0; O 2.r4-13 -7.r2 t3.I +3 = 0,

lt.

l) 3't!-llr2-r+l=0,.l!c{arcrtdnciE

rr = 2+!5;

t) rl-3.xt-5r+7=0,dff{'IeddrciDa

rr =1-2Jt j

d) Sl !{ !ru10cl oo rllll. & mrl lor au cartrdlcfi numerelIn0.rlo.ln drcptullor!

rl r3+r{fu
-u-qr=ffilJ-ffi1,

z1r! -rr -r= o,r =$ffi+ $lS;

3) rJ -9r -2J3r =0,.!={J31+2+ i/J3r-2.
e)lll,a rr{a cI urn torslelumre fontlrrtiedl

1){$+2-Vr/r-2t2) i3A+Jr{43+ V3E-Jr44s

i

rrSiiF+S-7F.

!) r' - 2.}3- 2r - 1= 0, drc! rr rndlciDair =l-!6;

a) r'-6.!l +8r2 -2r-1=0, dsr atErldrdn
i+\6.
'1=
In.

0 Sl E n olv. tl db.uaoecurtllbdupl vrlodhp$.netruld re.l al

t, rt -ar2-(a +llx +zzt-la =Ot
2t ,t -ld + 2')r2
+(2a+l)x-c'-a
i
-0
(o
t3
+ -3tr2+2r+o2-ln=o,
,

ll xt -lx4 ' t3 +7r2 -2r -2= 0, drcr 8 rartrctne \=-.,8,\2=t+J,

i
t) r! -l0r'+3r3-3Er'+6;+4=0,rrlcrarcrrdrilmne \=2+ Jr, x2=2+ \E t
!) x6-10J5+32"4-30'3-$r2+40'-14=0,drcnarrndncinile.rr=2-!6,,2=s-alt-

78. Sl ! r.tolv. curdlle!

I.
1, rs -2x4 -11x3 +iat2 + 9.r- lE = 0, dact.r. rftirdn. rt = Jt+\i3;

tv.

4 xs - 3x1- Ax3 + 72t2 + 4r - 12= 0, rtrc{ sre rldcLr q = \,ry-.,6 ;

= -Jr-- G.
I r5+r{-rrl-tor2+4r+4=0,d.clrrrldrdtri
"r
II.
t) :5 + l,t! + rr2 +lgr + 14?= 0, rtacl aI rld&lns 11= r,6 + 2t i

l) t3 + r + 10= 0, drct$r rldrdnr rr=|-2r:

tl t3 - 5x2+7 t + 13=O dacl sr rldlcitrr rt = 3 + 2i t
3) r' - 613+ 7:r2+ lEr - 3tt= 0, dacnaredidrcirs .!l =3+t i
1) zxa+ x3 - r'+r- J 0.{trcnsle.ndlcira
rr =i.
1) 16-4r5+10x4-1013-12ttl"-10=0,daoo*.IiEcrnile jt =1+tr2 =1-2i ;
2, x6' 2; + x4 + 2r3- 4\2 t4.r - 4 = 0, dlcr arrtdndrite 11= t,r2 = t*i.
77..) 8r .e rzolveecurl le dnri jodrcnau cElputir o ddtdnn redr:
lt .3 + (2- l)zt' (2i+ rs)z+lii = 0 i
2) z3+(3-i)22 -(1+Ai)z -3i-3= 0 t
(i
X) .' - tz2+ - 7)z+ 6i - c = o ; 4) za+ k3 + (-6+si)22 + (-17 + tsr)z+ lo(i - l) = 0 i
3l .4 - (2+ i)23+ (-l+ 2i)22+(z+ itz- 2i = t .
b) S! !. rnlv ecortilleumatoarc ilnd cI adDit celpqin o rndrciDnhtrersn:

f ) 13-(s-JJ)'2r2d3-Or+1$-{sJJ=0; 2)'. +(Jt -3)x2+(2-3J5)"r2,/J=o

;
!) fs'! +{l - J5),2+(-4-2G)r+4=o.
c) Sr m rrrlve .u4lle demri jG rtilrd cI adDit rldlct l idependrreder:
l) rJ +tD + 2).r2,(D- S)r-6m -6= 0;
2\ -2'3 +(n+1r'2 - (7n +!4)t +r4n +t\ = o i
!) 13 -(3r,, + r)r2 + (3r, - 2)r + 6,' =0;
q ta -ln + 2rx3-(2'n2-3n+rF2f 2(n2+l)r+a'(rr-r)=0
3) ,4 -ln -lrt3 -(Ln2 +n +2)t2 - (2'e2_2/lt')r+482 =o.

260

z1 xs - ta - *3 4 ex24 t6r - 16= 0, dlcr rre rrdlciDr rt = J5 - i,

79. SI sedotermlDlqrlmetr rrfomdl m, n y' 3nsanzolve e.us$ilede nai j06 dicl acstesau
soludtlelndlcrt tu drcptd ficireh:
l\ x' +(it +2t'2 -(r-rr'+130, .' =1-Jt i
2Jx3 +(n +l)tz +nt-1=q , =r+ ;
=o, r =Ji +nE t
- 3'a - 3(lrr+
+ tz'2 + (^ '5
"lx -tz
')'3
4\'6 -(2rn+ntx4+2jJ2 +1n -2n=0,, = J, -Ja.
80. SI sedetermlnepsradrrii redi D, r ti sI serezolvecuatille&cn acestesau solutiileindicrte
h .lrptd ffecnletal
l) t4 -2xt t4x2 +httr -r= O, =l+t:
2) ra -rax3 + 24n+n)tI+4r-20=0,r=1+3i i
3)

:) .ra-zr3+rar2+(a+t)r+5=0, r=1-2i !
4, 16-(2s +3'txs +14t4-12t1 - 5t2+l8x +ztn-t|t=o r=2+t,l=l-t.
81.SI !e r*lcrdDe porarEtrliredi D, r s!{l bcet ecurile deltraiJ6 sn;ihd.dt&is &rri indicrtn:
tt xa -nxt +2nt2 +Qn.+r)r-r+4:0,r=-ri
2) 13+12 +ml -a=0, r = -t:
3) 3x4+(,r-r)rr+(r+D'2

-2nt +2n-m=t,x =-tl.

{)'a-(r'+').r3+(rr+5\t2 -t|'. +n =o,' =3.
E2.St m d.rolrtE Inl'nEtrii rqliD,a/ dltlc t (tut'fledennijocsIaib{rddeirurtid iidicatn:
l) .r4 I tl.rr (n+3)r2+(r+p)r+p-3=0,r=ri

261

t) .rn I itrj

,,r2 t.(a.1"2)!
|p I
,ll .r4 ,rrr - r+ r,= 0rr r I i
{f rr'l

r3

(r+r)r2+(p+2)x

o,t

2) x4 .r,r I t
2n)t2+Itu+h)'+r7=lli
3) ra 4rJ I (,,1r)r2+{D-r)x+52=0.

ti

2=o,r=la

l) ra I nr3+nx+p=0,r=-1.
It.r. l'cDlm flecue din c.uatiile de tnai jo8 si se $Iculeze s|lmle indicate(ri fiind rldlcinilc
l) rr l2r2+3.r+4=0i

87.Sr$or eclrndncinilecuetietr'+3(r-,4)r2+(s-6'4)r+3-.lt=0 suniinprcgresie

sitDeii.I rl sI scrzolyecunlia.
88. sI s .leterniDeparametrulreal ,n dacdrlddclnile rcale ale ecualiilor dc mri j6 sunt in
proBrsie
geometdcn:
*(2n
=o t 2) 13+ 3,,r2+ (sn - 1)r+ E= 0 i
r\ 13
+5)'2 +(4n+r'-n
3) 13 - 31.12
+ t55r -rn -5 = o.
E9.Sns detemincpmametrulrealn tl snsrzolveecuatitlede [|at jos, dacninft rndncinia.

n rl; e'r-f
,
"' r:,i,r":'i,or'f , a'r'i r"rr-L,
rt
rtrl
ri
rd(ll xd(2)
'd(3)l
rr) f,d(2)ro(3) ro0)1,6s3,
rd{3) ro(r) ro(2)l

I
t, zx3+ x2 -t3r +n =0, xrx, =|;

lt xr

3) xt,mr2 +2ot -r=o,D'i=ot

2) xt -tat2 -4r +2=0,\+

lr2+2t-6=oj

l' | ):r i: h rrx i I c rt x f r d )tl :e r t+

11

Ii

.l ) x J

4) .r3+nr2 +ttr+n =0, t1+ t2= tl ;

2. lr'r,
5)ru3-(n+2)r2+9r
t_0,

;o r-1=

12

5x2+ 3r-1 =0 i

rd(2)
1"3o,

'o(3)l

"r>,i rr'rr*i ,. :'f ,atr1,., rr, ,n t-I. ,,l*,r, ,ra6) id(ul.

lrorJ)

roo)

16(2)l

.lt 13- 2 I2 + 3r - 1= 0;

n)r-ri i h' Ixi i c)i t-: d, t+ : ert+ I

xi
xi
'r
&. s{ * calcurap(.tr)+"(rr)rp(r3)Dd .ri 6unlrrdd{tnleecuafei,
tar p rcpr'inln
ur
Itstl!trtr datin $zurile:
fr rr t\-f
o.P x4,213-xt+Jx-2i
..l:0,
zt 2r1.t3r
l:.x5 +3xa -2x3 + x2 - x + 3t
p:
.r)rr -4r + 2 =0,
x5 -2x4 -4x3 -4x2 +5x -6,
85. sn s. doicrmineprEmetrul real r ti snserezolvcuaftlettllnd cn rndndntlerealesunt ln

z) x3-n? -zn* +t=o:

It rr -1,,'2+(z- r)r+sn=0;
t) x4+(m,s)r],znr2 +zn t=ot
st rf .-(,u+,t)t3+s(- + r)x7-(am + }Jx+4n =0.
l t lt - l 2 x2+ t ut - 28: lt

$6 Si sc determincparsnetrii reali u, n pentru csre .Idnciril. m.tiilor

rr

'4

x2=Oi

r.r r {2ra-n)r2+(r

de mi jos sDt in

rt

t3

6\ x3-(n +2:)x2
+ (2n+r)" -. = q 111=
xl

t2

3
2t3

IL
tt r4 -nr3 -Jr! -,tr +l = 0. f,l=12. rt =14:
2\ ,4 - 2r3 + N2 + 8r +12=0, \t2=-4 i
3r t4 - 4x3+N2 + 4r -3=0, rt+r2=r3+r{,
4Jt4 -2r3 -zt\2 -l2x+m=0, \rz=!3x4t
s) x4 -tt -zx2 +nx+m+2=0, \+x2=t3\a.
90. Snsedete.DiDeprt2mtrul !e.t n dacl iot! .ndncinileecuarillorde nai jos distn o relatie
L
l) 13 -(n +lJt2 +2t +m -2=o i
tl rrr2 rrlrJ+r2f,J >(xr+x2+f,J,2i
,

".
". '2 :
3 . )t ri rrt , rit
_/< : r 'r i-i .:. :
\
-

r.t ri,:i

-t

{ E}ftf <zt'r+'z+,i;

:",,,1 r.,

,.r11*1*-l
(rt

rri>rn-lrl.l-,1

I:

r 3Jlru,

'l]

.l-'",

fl rf + rl + '1 2 t"1+ '2 +,3t3.

3a)r+41:0;

263

lt rr.t

-r2.r"r+n

-t =0,

t'r(r'1)'?
5 r"f r
r"11.-r;5];.3y1,
$ Dry<rtr

z'\zn(x4)2
+x,filn2*ti
,1 r*rir,,,

o$.fla de gmdd p!t.u dc rIdIrlDI:

l) 0 ; - rik &

2 )- 3 i - t l i 3 i

[x.tvtz=z

rt l'r-tz+u=-Lt

l]

l) rl -nr2 +lr -n + 2 = 0,

2")D,12
<(D,rF;

,"rr-L>r'-ar*,

o rq3>(r'r)(E,ijr

!) rti<o;

6")E:f>(n,r)3-r.

,,":"

j;r; si rrrrrrz.

[,- ,- ..,

2rl'.,:Fj=1.

l*=-z

tr (r'r)lr-Lj<s;

3 )- 2 i t i 2 i 3 ; l ) j ; l i

9-r.Uullrlrd e@dtle de grrdul trl sI serezotvcststemtestnetrie de ecuiit:

ct (r,r)(r,i)>r,i.

,t. Sl * ftnnre

ltlxt+tz

xz=-+;

[,,n,,*...,

I'r*:rr"

[ rt r+ z = o
[i+r+z=10
=ti
+
y
2
+
s
r
z
2
]'2
I'l+y2-22=u
[r! +y3 +23= r
lra+ya +za -zzz.
-la. n""l,1,r2,r, surl ddndritecua$el
h t,,a
+

;ua$l

a) r! -(m - l).r2+ 2rr -l = 0,

t'r(r,r)(lrrrz)<rrr'r zr r'f >(r,f)(rq)rs"l(r,r,z)(r,r)>r+.

fr} de rftt{ciDi q,r2,J2

Intru

+ zr2+ 3r - z =o, utuncl

sn slomea

crr$rile de nat Josr,

r"))r = +,s;J, = q +'3r13= rr +r2i xl ,r=#N,

'2
,-Itl_^tII
.)
tI=-i t2=it

y3= -i

rr=#i,ro

-;jl;,

4',Jl=_-rJr=_.iJJ=_-r

lL
l l r4 + (n - l ) . r 2- r . r + l= 0,

o r=ffi;rr=ff'rr=Ii?,

rf
,',(:,iJ(r,i)>:1,
r,{i,t}[r-!-,J.-lr+J
r',
, --i+
>rri
txi

n',
["1]'>r{,

sr (r,f)'<(r,;)'*r;

2) x4 i.(n + t)t3 - 2rx +r +3-0,

t'1 (;

+
'1)2 5"r2 2,r,2,3rn(5q:2r3);

rr .-(:',')<r,i ;
J) ra

sr(t',)[r+]>Dl.

(n + t)r2+n =0,

r " ,l): rrr2 rzl rr i

4)rxi >rrf r

'iJ

'r

3')tri >trr I

=r,i++-, r
D rr=;;fi;r rr=G#+13,)3
.
,0,,,_='i +'3.'' - "i+'3
.
". xt -"",-,?*,1
xt
{

3) r3 .- 2r-1=0, t =a4-a+t.
96.SI $ rtete ne p.Ia|ntml rerl d pentrucrre euaftte de lnri jos au o stngurnrldncirl rcat{

ri

l .l,l,r,

"3+x2-zt+o,1=0.
2, t2 +(t+l)r-2=0i 2r3+c2 -r-t=

0;

3) 12f 3r+a-2=ft :3+2r2+ar+8=0.

97.51seileterDtnepa.smtnl rola pertru carecultiile de |naijos su o sir$rn rndnciDnrsald

s")D+<r+.
ri

2) -2toiri

s 1 x t='{y r =4;y e='tt

l\ tz +@ -2=q

z ,,r,i , r.i s 11,

', r Sns hrmze suefiite de smdul rEi av6nd rndjcinill

l) -fif;:ri

t1 yr =x!;y= $1y " =tl s

95.Iracl a c!!e o rldldna a ecurflelr, atund !i ! deterr necuaftadegrad r njm tn J, ca.are

c! rldlcl expr.lh lul J hdlcatt tn flc6rcar:
1) .r3-r.-1=0,
2l x3-x+t=0,
l=b2-a;
t=a6+2a-tt

zl (r"r i[r]l>:a,

4,){r"rf <Dri ;

fl y=Atz=iit yt='3
;

4)_s,!s;

5) 2i 4t6.

l) 13-612 +1Lr+a=G r. +q? +t+a=n i

2)13+ar2 ' r-t= q 13+ar - z = o.

9ti,lllr+doto.Dlnc
.,, Z lln.loI.curttttc.tr+2rr+^+,=O,rJ-rrt.rr+a=0odmlr
o rldlclnl com|lnllntror8l.
99.SI |c datemlnpo.enehulrcd a lcntru crr+ecuafnednal jo6sI atbl dordrldtdnt comune:
l) rt - ar2+ r+a = q 13+.!2 -(a+t)r -4= 0 i
t) rr + (a+ zlx2+.r -o= o; x3 -la -zrx2+2t -s+a =ot
J) rl -.r'-(a + r0)r+:-t= q :3-ar2+r+6=0.
llxL Sl ic debrndnepal?rnbiircaXa., prnFucsF eruadleulmltoaF ,u doui rndEcinicomrne:
t) rr -q2 -tt=orrl-at.u=o;
I),r{'-zr! .:+a=0i14
J) JJ+at

.4t! + 6t2 -st+b

r=0; 14+Jrx+a=0.

-oi
?+e+l=0.

l0l.,8I se.rate cn dacnecu{title15+ar2+rr+t=0, rs+n

au o ridncinn
d[bll comuDl,atuncieleau rastr{dlcidle co|nune
lll2. SI 34deternilNnunerelertale a, t, . astfelincereclutiiteunnnt@Est aibi ,@Iea!irndnciDi:
f) rJ +(2r+l)r2+(r-.),+b+c=U
2,3 +(2a+2b)x2
+(d c.)x+?a=0,
7) xt + (a+ brr2- (b+c)x + a +a =U,,3,(2., + 3c)x2+(u - c)x+2. -a +3=0. .
3l xt + b'2 + (2a- b)x, q +c =u, 13+(a,crrz + (2c+ b)x+ b +a =o
\l0J.SIneslslsclu[nuntrrrslnetrutaprrncafteo,t'ra13+(-4+j),2-(r+i)r+d=0
rr. o rldlclnt eitt.
trl,4.
Sl scoratocI ecuafiarr! +x2 -all +a =O Duaitm nid o rftUcin{rsaln.Ircna C_R.
t05.sr seante cn ecuatirxa Fla+l)rl+la2 - " *lJl+rr'.=0.d.r,.e
' '
2
r

R arecelmutr

l'cstr dc evrluare
TEST'ULI

VARIANTAA

VARIANTAB

r.P nruld|Er Z dofinlDls a dcampod$e

rlr=r+J-3,
r T ] =ry -3(r+r)+12,
(v)',] z . tuns1 ci (Z f, r) .de u|l lner
iolsn n deternlnadelNnmtele
lrve.sdrle
ore|neloluL
2. Fte d,r,ct. Pe n d.frim l8le de
cotrfpotifer..LJ=at+rr-2,
tT !=O'-qr+r)+c, (v)'d R.
l) SI s. dLrmhed, r,..lilel hc3t (&!l
lI ||e corpi
2) tunrF cI erdsttun ironodlsm de corpuri

l. IIe.r-{/:ll-}R}tmFun! cu oprrfilc:
(t +sXr)= /(x)+e(t),(/s)(r)=,f (r)c(r)
(v)rn. sn soa.stecp (f,+,) 6te rDe
comotadvcu dlr,lzoriai lui rerc.
2. Sn se rnte cil slructudle de lnel dlinile

(n,r,r), ,(r)=@+4.e0R.
.f . (n,+,.)-+

D,n,plR

3. a) Sn 6e d.t rmlne aZ!

b) Snsetirtemift

stfl trc6t

prrnnurrrnirea={'*rJi]',rez}
t =[' +
3.

a)

ip.' ez] Nsur ramorre

S!

1 =.x a+

se

^x .

a|ate

cI

+( z ^2+r ) +

polinomul

"x

+t ,

arc celmdt d@I rn{bciDi reale.

rN*

anfd ihcStpolinonnj

t.\3n' .\"

podronut

=2x" +la+ 2lx +lez.Ix)

"
sI tretulducdbl p Z! .
b) Sn se rrolve dstmol urmitor ln Zs:

rs
,.=tx'+rJ +tx'+xJ s. sedivida
poliDmdg-Xi

x2+1.

4.s)sls'rateclecoaia (r+if +(r-,f =0,

,t N,, >2 eretrete rfthcinile rat.

13'+2r=3
[2r+3r=2.

b) fie cultis t4 -zr3 +r2 r=0,

",
r{rl{cfrdlerl,r2,rj,J{ it J = X6+SXs

a.Sconslde{fulcdr t:25 -+Zs defiritr

prln
con Ft: t(O=4td)=a,
'ifnltorde

-2x4 + x5 - 3x2 +t. sl secrtcutez:

t(rr)+t(r2)+/('!)+/(x4).
5.Sn* nrolYeEisleneledee.1ra1il:

i, rtir =i. snsedcrarmine

rtil =i r<31=

tunctirpotr[odr|!.

5. SI 6edetnDlrepftalnetnd llar a fffl

lmlt ecuafar4+z:3tat2+2r+1=0
rl
tlbl tootar||udD e rale.
6. a) ScoDd&rl dlhdrul drcrhr dreptcu
rorr bor.l r d ftrnli|H t'. Ds.l arh tdrln esie
3{Oi of, hr rolm{ edede 500,Eod, s! s

f, + t +z =- t
[2" +i i " +" =+
+ t2 + z2=s ur ]'+32=i
"t.1t2
['r +r 3+23=- r l i b'+1r +i =i
b z n.

b) SI seremlveeoatia 13 + U < x(r tr4) .

uui shelsl hactal dln

6. d Vduul
Allaltdca sprAfrica e$ d v dupn u zil dal

=$(ro+ oa+oa2-n
* r..-rn v<.1
).
Dupn catezile seE topi cdnplel ghelrnl?
b) sn 6ere?rlve coaFa 3G + r = G=
.

266

267

mgTUL 3 (8rlh)
VARIAMA A

l'[sTUL 2
VARIANTAA

VARIANTAA

VARJANTAB

r.Fle a,b,c,n,^eZ.Pe Z dtldml e de

com0odtte
r*J =d+rr+c,
r.r=jr+nG+r\+n.
a) Sn s d(emire d,t,c,m,, asdl inctt
(2,.,, s{ ffe lnel.

l. Pc Rxt !e dfircr. lestlde compotllle

x ! ! =u tb! -2,rT !=xr-4r+!)+6
4 * 0, rr, R , varodb ht a, , pentrucole
tdpltul (n,.I,T) $te lolcoNtativ suntl
.) d =, =-1; b) a =r=1i c) nu exis||,

2.n. nuldnal={"x+al",aen}. re

b) f,steinelul (2,*,t corp?

a n. c()={.*rJzl",aeo}
*

r c r[x] coislderln opele$ade a.ruDArc

ottFdu I oper.ib ,, *.. definftnstr I dac!
,4,, .{, rtund /*8 est restulftnpnrdrlt
lrl !'sls x2-r,
d 8l.c orrL cl (A,+,*,) slbel cor rlriy
.u dlvlmrl d lul rrmt

c) Arnt4i cI irelol (2,+,, elre doneniu de

t.IL a=1" ^le i42lz2). Sr $ esre cil

tr 0j
frnlim.a K=IO2,I2A, A2l rqztsrratt cu
ol|.nilL
dc rduns.e rl l[nuuft
&le
|r|ldc.lor lorneazl un cory

b)r.b 9:(4r.)-+(4,+,.),qd+bt=a+u
hollortlm delrcl?
l. 8l rc delcompfiI h frctorl lredocdbtlt
pollnoahalcr

r, !
-xt +2x2+ix +iazslxli
b)/ x. +1elxl (pc,re
e).
4.r) SI co&ftt rIndrlc.:

8l .c l]{te cI .4 esr. tlv.rssblll d !I .e

b) 8l rc nrolve h Zs d8rnd:

lz"+t+fu=i
t^
^

13t+2!+z=4.
[ 6 . r + 4 r + s =r

5. Sl !e tteLndne pormllrul rtql d Fnrru

htierilste ironorl cu (2,+,.).

2.St sede.enir psranetrii a,4 n ,srtel
hcat ecmlia .Ia+ .t3 +a+, = 0 $nrdmitn
o rndndrl tdpH renil.
3. S co$lderI ecu*Sr r3-r+o=O
cu
rldlcldL q,.r2,.B. Snreder.rndre4R

asdd
ftrcnrf+ rt +r5 >,f +*l*,J.
4. Se coEldern lolnodul

co coflclen$ rEalt

I =xa +zx3+nx2+tx + p,

.) SI34 dcEm nc pErur|etrlt re-rll ,r,n,,

.3f.l lnctt pollnomul/lnp!$t lr .f, -1 sl
deer.8tul -15 , lar ecru& .f(r) = 0 6I elbl
o rftltdnl q =-l+i i
b) Sa !e lEzolveectlrf. t(r)=0, peniru
,n,r,p deteudm$ lr .).
5.PemUrFne dcfrxlqle x*r!314 -1,
t" r = 2(tr - x - r\+c, r,J en,d,D,cn.
Si ra det nDlneptamtdlr,r,c lslfelbctr
(Be)!rne corpcorutafv r,onoi{ cu (R+.),
Eijrttun frorDorffmdftm. l@\= px +c.
5.s)sI sn orrcrDestaf'.,{i 3iz.tj, relt;
b)Slse rE dwdld|tn)l:

o""

Ja*/-a-* a,J t*-n=o

""*Pru
.uodrtudrftltrd
rcrllmmni

Ir2 + 4t +ll=2G'

6..) Sr re rcrolveecurd!

268

aduun ri lrmoltlrea natdcelor 6le:

a) n|d cu dtilmri ai lul ,!Io; b) corptc) dcl

'rna
legile
de
compodfie
sedennec

2. Pe nxn

x Lr =x +r - 2dx r t=i - ;( r +) ) +3

$te lzontornrmdecorpurlpenirul
.) o=2 i b) o=Jt i c) s=3

s, /rr)=r-;

=l:, :)
r,(uJzr,*)-r(.u+,.!/,-tJt
3. Fle t = x3 +axurrx +c e B[x],
q!

lldlddlo

\,rr4

Aqrncl

,, J ClR. Atunct (n'-I' T) stecorpizomorf

(R,+,, p n tzmortsnuldatrre/:n-+R:

"' -

rb) t{r,=;(x-1)

rr''=111'-rl.
212

l
inpftltrit Dolnomulul:
3. R61ur

*n*,*, f =t+ x2+x4+..,+xts+xn

s=7fo*7ifo*7ifo
d0i b)1rc)-r.
a. lolh{|'I /=.f *2qx] ed.Fducdb
a)perteZIb)p.'t Q; c)pdc n.
s. Po ltomd | =xa -axt +ex2 +ax +t
, rfulrtGprh pdromd 8 =x2 -lx +3, ooclr
r) z=r=3t b) o=r=--{tc) d=-4r=3,
6. nldrd k ecugtct .C+31-x+m=0,
gft.le rrltDedcl dacl:
t'n luthp
=2.
r) r'=3;b),r=-3ic)
'''
z. I'tc drr.Drl deccuaftftr 25 :

[r *r*.=i
lL +3r+z=i
p ' +i r+& =i
cusolutb(.'0,]on0).Ihcr

polnomul:
hpoHnotnul
/ =x2-x est
c) t = lsx +1, b)t= 15X-1i c)r = rsx .
4. Pornon' / =x3+3x2 +2x +iezslxl
pstezs .
r) lftducdhlpeste25 ; b)rrducdbn
s. Polnonul/ =.1tux3 +tx +c,ab,ceB
!c dlddeprh polhonurg = x3 - x, dlcrl
c) a=0,r=r,c =-l; b)nuexistni
.) a =-1eb =O,c=1.

6. Ite c|'4h r3 + r+1= 0 cu rldnddh

tr,tz,aaeC'

+d,

E. fhxlfa 13 -612 +dr -E=0,a e R sre

toor. rldlddle ltde tt poddve dlcl:
r) a = 12 i b) c = r 0 ic) ! = - r 2.

b)Sl * deaenrtEpr|trldertfinerrectle
.le 8t!.
||d"l ru'Efd /: R -+X,t(r) =613-?l +t

1,0.1

-=ft l)r"r.o]

"=S,+ro2
!h|d: r) a=a; b) a=3 | c) o= i.

dzz'
+r-'l-sJils' +c-,1=
o.
\/\,

o ol k c l o
r . M ur dm s
^4=]M
z
=l
o
l
c
0aj
I
I

Aau|tcl A=

,rl
I'r 'z
11 rrl
f3 13 rrl
l.r2

.st galcu: a) 1; b) -li c) 0.

7. DrcI a,4c su|rtr.roudb ftrncid pdlnwdde
E - p, h,n,p en,
/ :R-+n,/(r)=J-m'z+
.*' = ^ tb+c)bc \c+o).d t (a+b)ab

/\r , '

t' ,r )

r t", '

s) S=nib) S=n+tric) s='t+r+p.

26l)

Ji0al
.rrr i
a=ji i 0le.,rz"rz.,r ri. slsbnx!de<ntrr: l, , rriiy
rar=.a o
"rr"
li..
I o2J

lx +4r+. = o'

cocffcistfin4s.recod@ibil n deteninat

dscn:
trr(r = i i l') oe{0,i};c)nuxlstr
o,
a eti,3t.
r0. lrc (4,+,.) utr tnet cu propritatea ala e{i,i)rtt a et5,3};ct

fi 6 " l

d r . /,(v)4 R. A r uDc t :

e.r.rabicea
,=ld

{) 4 .!tc lnel comrtadv d2 = --{ ,

l'l $le Inelne.omuradv
ri a+z =q (V)al.
^ (t
r)4
lnel@mrtetivqt a+a =0,(V)a <A.

14

i ?1.*t r"u """

3 lJ

a; q= 2;61 q= j;6y a= l.
r0. rb (,4,+r) inelin carea6 = a, (v)a .1 .
a)d2=a,(y)aeat
b)a2*a,(v)a e a t
c)a +a z o,\Y).e a,a zo.

INr)t(AtIl sl RAst'trNstrtrl
Capltolul1.Grupurl
Part
strbilI.6. .}e It <+I < r < 3<+-l < r -z<la+ N-4<tt 7. r =4+cr,
y=4+p,oqp>o+
+xIt=4+sdp>4i
r:. fl eRt n *a, r <H=> 2r =.t +r,3r,
-, nr,- fl . CumIt esre
peDtru
=
tldfl (l)t*i
carir it . Dsid r = 0. DectII={0}. DacnIi stepartestabi|nin
rapo.tcuhmuldre-r,atucl dln : II + r2,r3,...,r'... Ir . DiD}i firftr (!)t < j cu *,='i
,ar j{l-rrla,
* aar = 0,r = l ssur =-1. DeciE ={-t,0, 1}sautI={0}, Ir=0}, fl={-lr}i
"*"
r3, A4=E,B=A2,c =A3,F =AD,G=a2D,H=AsD 7s./ | k,@)-+ k,@), ./(x)=0 +r)x+J ;
,<-l+
/ &d. de la -oo la./(a) rl rcestcsz tru 6t bu; J>-1.+ / d.fioarcrt
,(a) >a (VJJ>-1. I)cl0 +rk+J >4 <+.J(4+1)>O (V)y) -l. Rezultlo = -l i 20.l) a > 6 i
2), =1 i2r*. Veztprublna12.
f rl
A$dsd!it{te!. 2. Torkio. D e {0.1}: 7. d
r't. a=r=lr c = 3 :
lq;l
Conotaddb0ea.
2. 2. 3 E 3 + 3 * 2= 4 ; ?. TsNr lgi,est!shetdc! Ir mpoft cu diagonara
principaui
8. Aa Ab=4b = Abo= Ab,ah:,I.
t*r = J.,r.(v)t,t
b = 2o. lar dln aso(iarlvirare
11
q=4=0=f r*J=')'i a2=;,b2=1+ r*J=r)+'+J; 13. d= ,:r;
+q=0'a2=;t
14.c)i r5. A)a =s i b) d = 2 i 16.l) d =, {0,1},c R i 2) s = 2 i,3) a = b e I*2,31t 4)a = r2i

O at7,- 61r 6) r .=r =- 2.

Elementnutn|,r
.
1o2=3*2o1=!(1.2).1=2+td(2ot)=0,e=0i6.
* r>2+
t,!>2+,
=3tn
=6t,a.
+(r-2)(r-2r+n-4>2+n>6i
c
Dinssociatiyitate
rezuftn
dl=0.a2=1\
d = 0 + r. J = -rJ i, = -l i a = I + rrJ=.r*J- ry. ? = 0 ; 9. c=l a=l : t0.Acociurlvitarea
+d=b $ a2=a+c t x,,=x,(V):+a+e=r
Elenensfftd'fc.t. e=1.1-r=15-r-5. a.

{ I e+c =o it2. a =s,b-n,e ='.4.

"=-:.'

,,iGt
.

:,r. !<Ha.!a!l

,,r
.,

. =0,r ' =.r | ?.H= IX,x ',x '.x '=t4l .ti L=t4.x - '=x r ,\x z J^ ,- t

^,

yi

" ',( r 'J

8. e = :, r' = I - r (0,1r; 9. 4. Ag= A4$, A4= | 2 H.,ta-I=,a-c.

Gdpurl.2.a=l,r'=2-r!3.
8. .=0.r'{l-arr=-r.

"=q1

=--11-1;4.
r-I

r-Or"

-x >llo. r*r.r'
r-l

Drci r =l +r,fl -d) =-t+r'=--IeZa-

270

2'11

b) .t'=(.r-tf

rO:

I {!r}-a Ctt,ll.

IhcI r =0, ecuatta

r'(2r-1)=r Dr sresoluliir'eZ,\V)r eZ.}.JI]i a=0+x'=-rZ
acestcaz (2,.) fdt 8mp abenni e. a;) ,,>2i

"*

ri in

+L (v)z N, inrucrivi

.-1r'=-+>lrr1 e=,, +1,; =!:4!Il.rr.

t I rir,(vrr o+.=_1.d

,.-*," =r',=-#ii

=2 !git,,,,=_r.

r r.=r , (v )r C + D, -2 . , |, --3 ,
Dfn .t rs=,'f r=,, (v)xec +a = 0,

eGi.r2.
o=b=1.
la a-b=rir4+.

r. e= a.;

r, (v)r =+
+ t . r , . = 1 - a >t( + a<0 1
I c =a2_o. Dtr ti"s = a 2 i-2 6 1 o 2 _ a > t , (v ). r= +
+4n ( r 2 + r 4 r +a 2 - ar =a2r4+t>l =.a(o+l)>0. C\ m c < 0 + a
+ r < 0 + a S _ r.
h.l

d<-1, **u

.r>r,(v)r>r+y1a*2.6,1o;r>1, frt& r6ci a=_1,

'=f
lq t) D..l nddaaG.s+0.rtmd 2{.3c..-c+G hidt bl&Ihd c4l
{=rf=r3=.r4=0.
.dhl d=r=c=d=0i 2)DscI o*0,dd, sbrd o2,c!...ec. Ct_
d ."tunntt!e obfm
ql-t.Cum l<4 rtatltlDedru,t=l,C={D
g 11= 12= 13= 14= I , .8tuto=_4,b=6,
. r -a, d = t. perb|rt = 2 at.NnC= {_t r}, erc21,O,{r)A(J)=A{r+,_2rrir _2ry*
+J
:,
I

1n1'y-efr-o;k)" lr ad M(a\Mft)=
n[!tLl, r. =,uror,
rr
-\

\r+abl

= lljgl:ll:jl,
"_ rl+4)'+O-d),'

a o-{b,t a1,rJ ;x. n

Deur'u
* obrtne
FDhr, =, =c=0.runrnrraeenneue
eoe27;
-"m,r
x. Iz- A(6\A-rk)=A(-xtin. * =tF =c2=ta=rc=oeq;g116={1r,,1a2,
-,ee};

(.r rnn,rdrrrr"d.* r!) 3y}r-ryr1,r.r) ro,E(.!,)-

f/l=,+fll1.t+fli-ryt

y-lr-l
p,(V)r,y eO 1 :) (ry)-l r-ry-l +3 y-ly-try 4 r = y-l.vy9 yr o ry I
!) *(J-r)-l
+ry-1rry1-l+(ty)r=r, Ald hour r*12 d
-J-1r-1+;y -y-lr-r
ohdlrm16 lUd y=r. dgl Cdn .ra-r.tttd r2-r,(V).reO,
-r
8uh!uFd.r. r,r tr + ry F, dcorrt. lryl
= t.r. 4 r e a + r-l ll puntn
-l:llyl
"l
tr,
||t
r

l'-l-lN'H=i-t+

a fl.ttzll:l>4,cr'd 0gH 14b)&dtrdhbt.to

ruherupu

6 g!}trqur{. rudt (.}, {.,o1},(., s2},{.,4}, {r, oI, !r, ot} ts. EvtrtoaL g 6.. !. d. cl ortc
!.rurt|rt.n tlodu d. fiuEod (r), tun (g)-oJXUXU) .s drdu..ct o f, , 6dcr &q'lt

r0 Atu&bll tr|tlduH12..) <1>={r},

<-1>=(-U t-rfl=t-r,* <r>*ft|* eZ}={+trrl r U

<3>-{r3lrez}- {6,t,i, e,6,fb,n,ii} | or < i >. {irlrez}- {i,r,3,a}

.) <r>={t{l e z} = {,{,2At5^,4}A,I t16.,',2+ A,=1.14zlA)=&},a*3+l6l=s,

h 2 3l 11 r r lh r 3)
cor lfrv' Dd zlAnr=A', n>4,ztA")=l.l
r Ai
'!f|n
[r : rJ'{z I r]'{r r :l
'lt
nduc.f.
h.burdi1?.D..t PcI(,d|nd Hux=x,tn.dr4t rcIt,|fi|'d xulr=E I
d.d XUrJ .4. ritsr{S Rldprlg tl|d t{UX ..b.|rlSlupi.turd

!t !E!upu!n

!r.tn.t6ud cl

E/x. j Ly'n, c..r {. br&|nr .t er

xer",s/x d dr Jx;J/r. cun
t,tHUx!t:rtUI+ryn
nu ry x , Ih.t .xye n , cllnr ea (+.r-l e x)+

i,s);o(ard+F0r},{ii4, + r-l(rJ)= J E,t||!,A!do&dr rJX,JeX:r(ry)J-r=rN, fita

"*'-'*',, r, o(i,6,0);2)(ia,i);s){a,
ljil
:]..-y
i
Dtodd. tl hanodlo d. fruFd, l. 2)larhu r l||ob| d/.do norton sedtucugpatrucaari dupl
(0il),(i,i{,(ar1{;
ror
(i13),(+i3),(i
a,q,{r,6,{;
rir(i09,{ria)r
rr rnxa=rii,irr

lO tr'r,r) = {i, i AJI rO a i J,} r) Eorathnu a't soruE,r{orce

tutftr dgDrturab c8rft5'e
='(o)
+.(r:)
<5(e(r)F= -l {+ I = -r. hbr b)seour! lot'ft d. rorms, =[
; : ;l
2
3
1]
2
3
4
)
.n. l l t. r l o r ulle r =l,a=1 .=1,=0,,,=[t
.. -. lr
''-'
12 I r rJ''z={r I 4 2j'v'$!e'ol'di
n a'il & colcdlnt!.uDgn'p L r) (ryf =" =. .s=.J. )3 +,rwyj =f
f + py = *t2 = t2,2 +
+.yr=rr;3) x'+2y"+2= loSa+rt,- ,r+lJ'+Iry +
ryr+1- )tr+r, i anslog
rr+lrr+1 _
xt = xntoxt + xto=l'r;yr+rr=rr+1=oir=r,xr+rx=ry:z
G=lq,xz,_r,l
-(q)"
d rG llifbrr. Atund x4,82,-, ns eG i.rr,+.rrj,t+j.Ded d={*t,82_,.tI,},
Ih .ld.sl*
-r,r!3rr;

..-r3'=rf2;.n mu/(rrr2..rtr)= qr2-.r, sour' = e 3. rzr=,r',2n/l!f

;
r2r=rr*

,S=

y3,ty=11x=t (nmft!rug. drl, or

l))t
,3d rd ad udnzar

Dorthta I'd d,'2i2. g t(2)=-r+d=-3t3.

,2) (r,2tt7.D ltc-+n,t(r)=trrr&

b) !lrr=o+a=li4.

X61=l+n=21

c)rm/=(1ooltql,r(r)=\it=t>,=l,tardtn

a =r;e. b) /:c-+n,/Lc)=a;c)q ={"-l,e O},e,q

Jo=O sedcrrucr
10.r, f) r=r=l"s= -ri
ffin

ll. 4 !tc|i;b,!\,t=x+r-a
=c.=(n1..).* g,{n*,.)r(n*J,x,,=r,

2) /(r)='+l;

rd.r). pr6r ,=o*c.

13 Aa.At=Aq+g,f tlq,.)-+(q,), /(cca+rdno)=,ao:

derErd DcuE{i1,r,)-l = e,- : A,

-Cel,*]=,,

t* @ut!un

sre izo,,ffnmr

ld ,) 1) at.a!=AD,4=r2

I R' +c. /tr)= ar ! b; =1, te 1t2, p"62.g,u516"

"

4m;rz. r1c = {r., e, e'll,I,e -.ar, fltr)=17(r)= ,J(A2)-l r 2F Reari,rl

rabbr
op.rfor p.nau
I eiidfdrf'oDod& supudi
l& b) !tG_-+z,l6G)l=x+r,^lrrec
re. G=lI4,A.^',A"l,!$-+q,f

i=..JTt=at,ttA2

273

t=6r, lt A! t= a3.pentlu
a ir{r!

3l rD grup octolzomorfc! uD trup d. p6rmuUrtrecomrndtmtccrrrn ultnot grcr^i

dt tdadc.t2r.
/IR-+c,/(r):.aL:,.4,Ot22.A2=3A,82=38,Ant=BA=qtMrM.=M_i,
t fi -+ n' t ! (Mtr = -t t 23.Pntruode), C {kll.4 cu tenEl|tut4rr = ), tll oldrtb nd
rthl lhdt /(1) = J I 24,r) E. 4,*,4,*, e ,u.ltu-t ,{r*..t,}, =,42@,a.,
t eLtrrt rl naubu

,-

^tr ",t

2) p=l\,lkedf cvrf

[;.1 )

+btl
'r*O.,f1r,, l=ht 2s.! tc -, c., Itasnt=a

l;,]

e=l$,teqpea2l;qx(n4c, t(:..rr)=ABi
rs".rt a<el=i+c={r",4 e2,t3,ta,f},
t 0 rl

t {u

't !.e Gvcuore,

Tertuf
1.Vrdrni!A.r. dxia n=lil
a=l'b=-li{ A=IZ4LS=2+4=6
'fe
B=oi3.r\ A(ar'A(br=
A(a+b\| D ltM-+n,t(a@r)=c;s)erla;=,l1aa);cl= 3a+!,

a = 21,s =G,(i,t,zl=\i,0,0)=+v = i ;'r.raurredr.

4t t.d(r(4Tt))=r-t(1ra,,rr1-t)=r.(o+Du)="r-r(zrm+rzrm)=r,roo.,,*
;
zd. 8. f|npul! Aa= rt, xt = | + t = t = -X t, a,t e2, e3l zo f (r&)=i,* =dJ,
{t
r. P.nhrrrod.dvli.oe
udlrsflturcfr calgcrertrdct
!x.M -+l0,rl,lx!l=r
dscr ,x ,l
,/x;zg,t) f,.!^=!^.h=J|nn,f
tl-+G,f(,t)=r, e$t ol|lo srluti
'la{d
Jli. r) Pdn.ducno
la rhux4 pllsupumncneder t morfsnut /,(O+)_{d,.J,fe+rl=fr,yOt
,fr(r)=0

(v)r,r
!. anDd
e t,0)=
/(.,=i {;. ;}=/{;J/[i]={rE)]"n
*"t
"r,.o.
nu.|t..urlecdvli b) Prln rducerear! lbffd. Aem/(1) = I d r=to =t(_1x_1t=/(_t)/(_t)
d0 ald /(-r)=1,

c.a ce amln cn t nu t Inj.drt c) p n EirucIerr alsunt Drr

Jr'tr=rlvr'{rj-l./-t{riJ

>0+t

nu3.e
lurjcrirdr
dr e+ edt numrEb.' r'r R. esir

jt*. /:(! -+ z rr d z filr +.11),e,

nor'umrrobllli
_
-f(r)=4.rN4,(j)) e cu ,, r.+
4 ltnr)= 4ltr)= f(x\<a+'la,(v)'N*+d=0; 32-.r,*tnf (i)=, ez.c'l* r(0)=o+
0- !(i) = J li)=na + d =ni
=2Jd)= t, 33a.! tz6 -+ zn. notm lrit=a,ttol=6.
^2)
0=t(0)=/(;)=,'1i =fr.+nah,
etc-3a.D e=6! ,a=(id I=t6,il"=ti,il,
^vo'n
a+a=b+b=.+c=.,a+b=c,b+c=a,a+.=b, ffi
z2xz2.5nsgrup& rip Kttni
2t I tzhn --rzixzn,@,,r)=1" t(t)=(t,t) 6t biDe,rfi.fta,
adcndac{ ;=t, atund
(i.-.idi-i)(dr-r+nl'
yrr,l*-r). erm: Tror=rd.0ri tG+rt=!1,+lt=
=f+,';flj=(r't)+(r,i)=r(t)+,r(t).

runclir/.seldetiyrd.oettce
dint(;)=/(t)+

:f i = i ql ; =i. Deatd
$ zlr_r, dici ,',,|r_J,(,,,,)=r. rhd ;= t. oun
'lr-,
Z rn, zr xLn ru ac.larlnurnr!deerenrl'",iart deidecfrd,ssdeduacnJ e!t! ,i sud.dvl
Jii. f ) ,tr,r.4'l =/t:rn,ri, , A\o=12,A;,t = L",-, t2) eO,tl=t,e ={tr, t,..., era}
-Zrr;

.16..
cf,cr NDr*"-"

o" o=li 1l o or.or=ru,t1".2t

li del
^a.i.\b=A,n

274

B.r, al-llulo,oo)r
a d{0,r}i3. a=l=o *u a=I.l=rr 4 q=ls2=4;
VsI|rIta
5. 1) .4(r).1(J):t(r+r); a t:c -+R,t(,{r))=x; t1 tn Oll trz,t\
t c a=i,s=ir
7, T'bhle[.
v.rfeDt!A.l.l) Drt4.=:=:i3)
Teitul2.
rt !,'lb=f4b,h=r!,f;r=Jr
VadinlaB.r.3) z=::iL

neo

z=tt3..=7,h=a2i

d,'>4 i5 x=3.J=-lr6

) ! tai\ -+ u, l@)= loi 7. ord(A)=1,

iA a{0,1}ia.ct>mis,.=3,.*o=3=+q=1,a2=3+

6 2)rltief Lstlorla relshudurate/(n)=\ t(tz)=e t(tz)=e

+s=4.{{-4i
Tesn!|
3G a).varlsrs A.r. b':2.c)t3.ar:d brr5.or:6.a)r7. r).
VadmrsB,r. r)i a b): 3. c);d b)i 5. !); c bI 7. b),

t t ord(r) = 6.

Capitolul2. Ineleti corpuri

Dlstlihutivlrlhr

unei lgi lD raport cu altl leg.l. s) ,, * " erte leg comutetivl ti se Yrlllc! pfln

orcursaritet
(Y)r,r,z.2. la r*(r"z)=(r+r)"(t*z), (v)r,J,z
{ r.(J.z)=(r,))"(rrz)
a=b=i,c=-l
ii
sefrce r=qJ=r,z=0+a=b
r=y=1,2=n+a-b=2i3.
$
^pol
4.a=c=o,b=&-c.o.R,Ind.r.hel:1),3)(.t!cnD=rt4),5),7),8),10FD;elmDte
lnvercablle:
t), Sl,8) ltr l. -li 417rt0|. lJr ode trmnr oenul:12, Fl.-

| tlnel.subinell:

inversabib:r)
[1),2r,11), 3)], [s);6t,[7), o],110),st etc.i2. rrere onutltire: s) - r6)i elemente
Inatrictleclle su deterndnrn.ulgalcu - I sru li 2) -4) orict nltri@ cu d&nntnadul nenuris)
12,- 12r 7) oricmr'Iice cu determlnanhrl
nenul;8) 12, 12, diiiari ai lui zem:1)- 4) generali
lt" ol rtr ol
-\t - -r-l.a+0trsr l: :l.l: .l,a.r'0:elc: tiDelsubinerl:
de m'triceoenurer
trr l- -l.l
at
ta a) \4
tu u, to ,,
[9,O],iD, st,[4 6t etc.;3.ElmntEiDveBabilserfln ir ftcar lneli dlvizori ai lui zro srfln
lDineleh:lr.2r.4r.sl,/rrr-r2+rl:l,srrr=t2-rlxl-/.s=0r.l.Elementein'emabile:
D (Lr), (t,-r), (-14, (-r,-1)r 2)-4) (10),(-1,0)! dlvt'oriai tui ze.o:1) k,0), (0,r),4,, '.0 t
2J (a,a!, @,-a), a * n t 5, e = eleneri mutn iD.apo.t cuprimalegeet! elementneurruin
-

275

lloolt or I dou.l.pt l) ..t,a-at .l.rud. btrfirblL r-{

r.l dnd r'-4 .l
r,T.adv
r'-rt ,) ,.-$rr-rt
.htr|nt.hyxr.blt.r--trrr-4
o|nar'-_! rf

|liL{v trr-at l) , r -1{ r -lt .labarlt.lnv. blL rE-l,rE-!

clfil rrr_l .l
rflD lv r'- -t I t) , r0r0.lr rt; j1p615111eqr.btt.
U(?{rl)-{+t+rr]r Zl til . c s.
l- ll t hful rr dfrfrod.l
ld rr., t.{d}, ,
AS*=Ii,&l
,i, ,
-s
-Oz,
(i Dltll. trdm.dclt ?. r i -t r+ l -t r+ -{r}+
I + t = ()*.r(1^nD
+ t) 0 r+ r +, E 0,(V).r ti
$r al +(t+J)r ! r+, {+r, +ry+;r+yl
l+ry+.F=0r+.'+0o+}r)-Jc r+.d,rri
-,r+y !{r,r+f,l+d!,t+r}. gtnr.t.rrnblo,
i. r'r a l + 1+r tl+ ri,l = 10,t,.,r, c,d,.l+.{
rb|o.rd +0+t+.+,.,+.-l+0+l)+-+(1+.)+q..,{t10. r)
-r-}r.h.nLi.
'|l
I r f l. 0tr +l -+ r + r' + rl = 0 t .15+ ra 0ira + r = 0 rl ra + 12. 0=+
t
-r -,
11 ,( r + *) ' - r +.r + :2 + r z-''2Lx2=,rs+x+si12. d x M+ I -, / t t
rl x iI -,
(r t - r + rl r - r2 + i = r - r :+ , 0:+ 0 = t) t*=t-ry f.r, * aononotc
uf,rr.
h
b)
dd
l eb dlgondh&eporan,Aud Dftrl||ut.a.1, h! d|ct ,, r-, rr,
tot lntD. Frd{;
I r)s(t-r)-r -rl = r-* =0 I d.d Fnfurdl@.d.0i14*.a)o=r4a =Ja!+r-r+t-r +.-r =

.f-t(r-11r1y-t)-r-r(r+t+r)=a-ra=r ;rs.r) (r2*3.rif r2r3r1x1r3r1

=
-

r{rp3)(qx2r3)r1=r2r3.0.rr=0+4r$l=0;b).!.logqr.}c)

Jr = rret, rl = L 13=13
do.fllcl
JrJrJr=0i16*.R.hlhdrrrd.vlm Jyary=yr+yr.xd,.pur.
(-r) tn
L{tlt lult tl ltddtl r2y-.ry=,p2-yr, carc$ !a1d.dlnF.crd.st i1?*.In rse12 * tecc
ls*. (r-rr=(1-r)+l+}=t-':rr+.'=1=+(r+rf
=r+
-t-+*,t{l-+:,r-l-+ri
+rr +rl +:l +12=1+ (r+ x)+(l+ x)= r + r+ r+r+ (.!+;)+ (r + r)=r.
Corfori Notlrr prlr ! d l, et|Dntate
n utrt h lrport cu pdna,l l.spcddv. dou, legite

cotrrpodlG
=
r.2), =0=0+0JJ,
-pfu-ffi,o
', r=11sJ3,,-r

. =*, =,,

Morn|Ir d ttomorttsmc
dctnded corpurt1..) /(i+i)=a(t+i)=

G+ 6 = /(i)+.f (t),

d /(r)r(i)=4i4i=16ii=rc6=6 t K4r(/)={re26lr(r)=0}

/(rt)=/(i)=c

={;eap=o}={0ri},r-r={r(;N;ea}={{o),y(il"r(s)}={a,ia
a 1,,1,,ez;
u.x"1r1={re
c6-rrrlr[ri]=o],
:.r * ." ,"r"*,,(r;14,0)+(a,4
"' /k,0)=rk,4=4i
s.t(2)= 0,/(3)
0=149=-2+ tQr= x -2 t,6.1)/(-1)=l J(0)= 2+' a=\p=2+
+ t G t = r+ 2-1+
i2 , J 6 l = u , l V ) = | + f ( x + I ) = t ( x ) f t ( r ) = n + / { x + y ) =
',
= f[[_'z
r).d nry=t+2t. Dlo!
e('lrde+ r] +yr = -2+i +
,Jl=t*lt.
'iour

(r+r)ei(r+r,r),(r,r+r[.
w.m'Idlr lorutue
xr=/-trt*a=[ 1J,",=rtc,{_:;)
"".
i x2l-f-r(l),rvz=!-rlr+D i p.@u.cur!!/(x)-a+'t-(a-zl+Ory -6+nt=O+
q=z,t 2=2+t,ut=-it+ xF !-r(2), x2- !-r(2+4,x3=.f-r(-3r)|7.! tAa,4'

r) tG+r"t)-(;

lj r

j.r3i s.o)/(,,t,)=
rrr,t={arl"ec},r'c-+,4,
f(4)=

e. r, ! tE -+1ta!(.+d+or*)=

o*d,
[

loro

:]flJ'

0] lo

0l - l 0
.u+ bl+ct+dK.,&a=r
- -,,r
'"=l - 1 90
oo

l0

'*.

[; ;]'

M.rrrc!6 lcdc lub rorms

'

orol
00r l

loo

orl

- 100- r 0l

- r l ''=l - r o o o l '" =lo r o o l '

0]
00J
[00r
l0-l
l-r 0 00,
cnftwrjitcregdtffl:12=]2 =X2=It,It =-,lr =x,JK =-N =r, e =-IK =ttJ tM-+ E,
'f
dI tuonornrdutdecorpudir2*./estr morrlsmile grupuri,
lau +A +ql +e)=a+fr+d+4

l,(1+l-+lzp+)t,!(D=a+tbr=a,a=!0rr=f tr',fcJ=;2
,J tz-+4, te)=A a2=a
e|'rtrttu lcl'',rE r =r, r eiiii it=+pooo'*t"*; rs*.ttil=oeZo=tt6l=rdl=ru+
"o+r"o'-'=F**rLT-@*4,,.rt"=a,=,o,.,=fJ-*]1;,,-*1,
+a =0:+/ =0 i r4..7$1=a;=y1i.it=1<itt6r=azi
fd)=fr, a2=a,j(ir=at=s+
=12=/t{, Ad =A.td+g),+[azdt); s, . =4, x=
4lt
4rz, 4-r=4rc" ; srrb qJz
+ie t0.i3,itrrs+./(ir=t, /(i)=;,;' =a g,fr=o,yort fi pentru
-o2,u
n=4.n=61
4 A rmid.ile c.rt apff to d.(ttse DtDrjbt. lgli pfl rlu.... .+ A-l = r, f -l = 4i J. p !t z
nftrt doranic rcutr. ln rrpod cu prtDa tt respdv a,iour Wr tr e = 4 u = S 2) . = t u = e
i
i
3, .=\a=;ta,
e=r0,!=lR; g .=!o,u=hiO
.=t,u=(
-r)itnr7) .=o,u=t;

r = (1,0)r
{. tF2), = (0,0),
s- a =L=r,e=2,t=3t 6. c=o2,u=r2ij. z=orv=u

276

1'

16.c =l.a=., f(X)=r,!(1)=e:+a=p=I r r7.e=0,u=! t(0)= 0,/(t) =r+ a=t, F=ot

re. t:(4,r,.)-+(4,@,o),
t(r)=ar +pt zo.e=t,t="111r1=tu
7(r)="3+o=0,-=lt
,

l-

,l

^,
-lta, ttK''+a,slr)=a
:r'tt rp+rJsJ=fi,
24!tc."+M.
| 6r"f,rc'-+R./{Ar)=}:

IQJ=-.At25.

qta-+ R, e(j) =/(r).

271

Inol.d0polnmme
cucoeidenfhtr-u !r,A oll bdv.l,1, d=rub=1,.=td=2r2:, d=9,b=4
'
o a -3 i 3, a = -2,b = 3,. =0 i -t. 1) n =r+./ =6+ grad(/):qn =2+8md(/)= 2 r
,' R - {r,2}+ 8rad(/) =3 izr ," =+1+ l =lx + grad(/)=r; m *+l + c$d(t)=a I
*rt
t. nQ+D3 +2+s.d!f)=3 r slrdG)=3+n =-1; <.oi e, u) xy'+r -r; t) *y'u ***t
,f, . = 3,r= 2 r l0. t - Jx + 5,g = -3x +4 i tt. l) ! = 2x2 ^ 3x - 4 | 12.p = -12.q =9 |

x -zf tu. t
+d,deE i rs-risJ | =+xz i
rJ.(x +r)3,(-2x r1)3,(
-sxt -|x2 -Lx
617t = x2, 7, = x2 - x, h = x2 + x + l, la = x2 - x + l t r7,J = 4x3- 6x2+ ex -t i
g9,1=if+!x+3;21. rarrupotlnoanei
:2, t=3x3+x2+4x+2i 24.1,q-3xt + x +6r =1t
7\ q=zf -tx3+qx2
-4t +\r=--1t4) q=ix,.=(3-3i\x-ii s, q=ixa+x3+x2,r=i;
s' d --zll)ii 6'
l) / { 2 r= 3 + D= 3 : 2 1 .J lb : 4 ,
t l / t r r =O- r =- Ii
'=i:2(
' ! . =S+n =-6, =lli
1& /(r)=! J(-r)=-1, !(2)= 4r,>n =3,n=o,p=-3r :t. se
ll-2')
"
=-2ln rdltiei
puno
1, n=g a =1 2) n=g n=0 sn,t = 0, n =
3) tt=-r6 t =0i
t=qr

33.

-l i

, r) /t-2r=0,/{ir =0+ n=,=3. p= 2t2t n= -3,n=Lp - 2t 37.! eqxf s"ff r=o '+
v
x\x -r)
X(X l)...(x-z+r):l
u' lc l a l , = 4 0 + d r
+a2
1 .-1 a,::::--:::::---- (l) d i C,i = 0, ,
3r, It||l.ertuceE

h ab6ur.li 41. l) rtt

r!

2J 2t 3) -6X+1i
--

42. Ptln redlcere la absur.li

r) r{6t+2i&eN}t fl). orldLlt! ! lul 3.+c3+d2+o+l=o

'

6! a, prd=0/{dr+l-'-t'u'

rt ca=t+/(o)=ot

- \2

I r,dt=o*f,l)+d8tlr=0(+2trrr

-8rl)-i\|ls(r,-0 <+

0)+ /O) =s(1)=0 i 62* J =y +y2-oy+t=0+

}(2761,961-q.f38G1=

!r=2, J2=4-.

+\=Xr,'2=Xat s(xr)=o.+ JQ) +{rsQ, +3Jihtzl=0.+ ! (2)=h(2)= s(2J=0 (d@rect

JO, td2),s(2)Q);6s.Indu4il|truitclj 66.1)a.ndnein!pnhuX2+x+4 /:lX2 +X +rl- a+

. . -x ] . / - e x ( x - 4 . . ( x 2 5 ) : 6 e . . . e -4
<+t(q) = J'(d)=0,/"(d) +0;2)Sei' J {0,1,
sofuiie
a ecuafie
I =!rr= af ,n=ry,d+d=14)"' =r, { =({)q =r+zo *rugea eusfie
a ecuatior t =1\t =1.
n = np + a =\4)' =t, * =\4)- = r +20 sorurie
I = t n = ara,

l) 2t 4. tt4) r=r-I;zL

r.-r.l

r-5"-!\2t

t
'+4=r
rcal
reah6t! si alblradncini
*/,rr=o (uada

ctmunla ecsriiilor/=1'{=r,eret72.1)
u.+"Sei, ?.k=ztrndnc.lnn

rle+l'>0<+,;-4>0=+
t'"!=4,*=tuZ sI albtraillcirile
+Ar>0 rt ecua$tle

a1 r'11=(x -z)lxz+zx+4)(tuRlxl)=(x - z)(x+ r+ iJ5)(x+r-;Ji)(tnc[x]);

(-oo,-16i;?s.r)
1)(-oq-s]t2)I4,@);3)
+re (-oo,-2lU[2,6)i
'+1=t:2,

+ r ./ r6r=i *d ./r i r= 3 -1i , = i , l ri t=i . l ti r= i , r = ( x ' z+ ix + i) ( x ' I1 x r i) ,

3 1 ,11 =y , 1 1 ' .- 3 = y,o i - l = y,o :' - != y, v.u rn l - *t*+ 1 4

+lz3+k2-Ez=0

i
x +i,x3+i,
zx' +2x + i I
h s bourd
4 ?i .^ = i , "=
" *^ =i ," =i t4 s.
sl, x' +i, x2+ x +i x2+ix +i, x2+i. x2+2x+ z.xz+ x +3,x2+ix +i, x2 + i x + i i
sr . t ) x 2 + x - 2 i 2 \ x 2 +x+ti 3 ) x2 -ti 4 ) x2+x- tt s3. q=2,p- - r ;
("/, r)= x' : - 4 x + 3 r s 4 .rtd
-x! t x. z I f + f(x + r ) er ss,l) 12+ | = 05 j - +i i

= o ;'2 =s
.. e Q + (r3 - s'2 - 6' +108= 0 ri,2 r2r - 4E= 0)=
'1

_
* oz_ _or{cr)} _ cr2= _c2+ c= 0:
-crz*2 a(_af'+r r as. or = o{_o111_o1r]r"
s?. l'lc a rrdlctnl a hl g'+o2-c+l=o

+o2".d=P.o6+&Ft)=&
lo2\"'3

ti 03=-1,

1) ytc)=(c-f+3

+crto+3=

a tuis+;+a+r=o
-& =o; s8.o ridndDr

dadt|cu$crrorllen el&,6k +1,(* +16k+ 31i 1) tr{6t+2}'lN! 59.ne o

d[.{DIo lul a+ a2-a+1=0,c3 =-l tlsh ,, {6},61+ 1,6]t* 2,61+ 3},1 N ;

03=l

218

a + sl r = o '

-z+ts=o)+"r=
-s rrd..im comunni>r2 -(3+i)z+3i =0=+
"2
=' z2=t, zJ=-i : 2)-1. -r. r I i i zr-2. J. i - l i b,rJ 6'2-6*+ lmr (r! | r-{s)JJ 0.

^ ,2
+ 3)(x + i)r rr rrcauctitrr:
46.Prirreducere
rs. rr (x + i)(x + i)(x + l), zr 3(x + i)'(x

!(lt=o+! e)=7it=otst Fica ddtdnrahis d lcr t< d d=t, tt/tq=a{d+llGr r

'+?=tt

15, 13= -r-16

c) r) 13+2'2-sx-6+(-'+'-r)--0,(v;-=('3+2,2-s"-o=0,"2+,-c=o)+
+xt=-3.'2=2

rld-{drlcomum:rJ =-n +l:21 3,a,1:1,31 -It }Jd: dr Vertfica

red
el""riauru"ot+-3+3r-l=o @E casolutie

atctl; elrt r=ffi+z-ffi-z

x =r t 2:)4t t 3t D 1)\=a-\

? - x -b =ot 2)q=a +1\rz - t +a = 0 i 79.1) n = -t t =0 i

nt=1,n = 31,al.1) =!," =+,
^
r'p=r.
l\ n=27,8=4n,p=-8,2J n=-3'n=

2) 1t=-2.1=-3 t 3\ n =6 t=2 isa.r\ n=-Zn=4i2\

2) rd=-1,n=113) n=9,r=-ri8t.

&. 1)a)-b)
-1 c)rEid)- 22il -j; O-fr r sr -r; h) -10, 2)r) s;b)27icls9rai I r el -| I

219

O f rrl-ro r

8 a . r ) r 2 t2!!r
) 8 s.l )l rl rstt4 7 i 2 ) D= 3,- 2i!4r 86.1) ,=*?{ ,

r--!9;r-3ni!;2a"( i 8s.r)
n =-q -! 4 ei2),r=-1tr-41;,0.19- = _1:1*,

t
2,^-=-t,
f,,'=6-r,t r,--ira-4 j; r r',=r rr-A-2;n=-4-q-q12,
ru E*2i- ri3i e0.r.
r)1r(-r-o -r+u) ; zr
!t9), a
n rt
[r{,1, o l!-{,
",
9f.D J-3r2-r+3=0i2r 13+12-2r=0i l:,tr r4 - 2f - x2 -2r =oi 9J.lt{;.r,J}=
2) r =J=z= 3t, (t,r,zl=(-?r,At %.r) r=-2-y;y31lyi1ly+r=0;
-t-1'1'2Ii
D r
+#+6J+1=0 i 3")r =1, 2J3-3J2- 2, -r=o i 9s.\ ; =a+r+ 12=rs?
-#,4r3
-4,
+ga-ti t =ztz -4, t2 = x2 _t+o2 = t!!,o
=2r2 +r +t + o2_ lof +
-b2
+y l - 4 y 2 +9 y- U=0 ;2) J3-2J!. / -l=0 i e6.lja= -lr= _ li
2 1. = 0 , . t = 1 r 9 ? .
l) .r 0,tr = 0i a2= -6, 12= I i 9s, aZ
dtdm
cdnudlit) c=0+rcr=0r
t') s-2+l{l4,bezt,
a=-2+'=-4,b=-git)
o=.4,tDDodr,n.
99.r) a=g.q=-I,
ar-tt 2) a=-irr=I,12=-Z;
t) a=\b=\r2 -2t +6=Oi l. o rtdtdDrdotu
100.
lr

( v) x,yr r3. r ) Er l =- * r 2- z <oi b) ,t=2* +1,tN i 4.r =j ]f=+r o=- r

b)t({)=t6ri-13r?+?rr+12=+t/(rr)=68!s.OEcurrad.gradutrrdhrire
esrar
,3+r2-&-4=q(-2,1-1) rl lflmusdlqb) laialr u.n n=so aq 6yflilT=r,
JFJ=v,r =r ;

Tdul 2.V. i . A. r. Secolsrrddc t ltLL Lgloq 2. s) t = X -tr S= X+r,.f ,S*0 tl J +g = 0 i

b) 9 errcuJccdvri
(/+s)=(.f)+(s)

d.r 9(/ *s)rd/)sG);3. f =(x+i)(x+i){x+

"1

b)ln&.dto;a.)
n(4=3rnwr:eur
tn26,rr,{-1

eo+n=nt'-mt

(v)d n t rft. r0=!+r',lr0l= r+6=!-r

!.!lotule=+y:(r-16)(.r-4)+a = 1r =l;
t=Lt=ti t08.t{.x2=0='rl+12,12+r!.rr+x!>0+.-rr=rr*rrr_0,
r0?.8.tlcc

.rcnr1s,.se
tnpi.plrn
d

n*" , =nr,r.[-;.1], uo.l D(rr- 2J2

=r r
4=$
2)dhr) + (r,-2F<1+-r <{ -2 < I, eta-i
nr.l,l<rl,rl< pl<r, l"l<r.+rlcl<z
;
2.+r tZ 4}t
rr=2,dT=ji

T osodrtivl+c=5i

2) /(0)=2+ F=2,/(r)=3.+a=r ; 3.a), =i ; u (d,i),(iO),

(i i),(S,l),
(a$ ; rr *
tnd(,f) {r,2}D|l.d!rl;t="x3+tx2+x+a eza[xl+1=ix3 +x21ix+2' 5. aI-.sI
6.r)t=10,n=5;b) r(oo,-r)U(43),
vrltant{
B, r. t(r)=r dacrr<0,t(r)=0 dacr

r:0f t(.t)=0 drcf r<0,a(r)=-1,drcl t >0, !,s +o+

ls =o,2.prin ftducrsla absu.d;
I
A-+
D,l(x+
I
rlrl= r+JJ3, / btfccdvret/(!+,)= t@)+^,\(v)w e^,dar f(w.)*je4f@\

280

ax=a
(ti3),{33q,{Ar1tb,

.rta rtl|tdhdvllitl de ,,*r.+n=c! c) t(0)=-.,t(1)=r+

".4
c=L p= -f r z.c= -:t rr = t2 = t! = _:,,4 = :, a = _;., = _16_
r r.,et_-*_rlUl
1..j,
q. da=-2,n= p=-8t s. a=b=1 . =1"x'=2-t,c =4
lli. rr= !(x)+ l0),t('.r)=
= IQ)f O)+ r =q=46..) r {5,67}ib)r(I,2, 3}.
T3tulIGrlU).V.d$trA.1.a=,=1ib)i2.r)j3'.)i4.c);s.c);6.b)i7,a)iE.di9b)
VarlrntrB.1..)i 2.c);3.rI 4.b)is. b)i 6.c)i7..)i 8.b)i9.r)i 10.b).

t02.r)a=3'r=r,c=1 2)a=r,b=gc=-1, lm.x=t,a=4; 1n5.

!Ir2=_{o2-c+rl<0,

2.1) J- comutsdyl:+a=4I $odrfivl:+c=li

"*n{n

- >2; b) r | ) /r l (10);vrd.',s B.r. a) =, = I I

(303)rs. . {l.e};6.s) 3'+3-'=r
[-i,0J, [;.0J.
'

o,-nr =+(d+od+m+r)-(d+'d+,,c+r)=o+d(o-n)+cp-r)=o+a=ar,a=n
;

1.vrdrnt{ A. L ra =3,ar =4,r Tr,=4+r,=31-f

I t"todceveluare.T.stul

or .

281

CUPRINS