Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Academic Referencing Guide
Academic Referencing Guide
A quick guide
to
academic
writing.
Stafford College.
Complexity
Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language.
Written language has longer words, it is lexically more dense and it has
a more varied vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verbbased phrases. Written texts are shorter and the language has more
grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more
passives.
Formality
Academic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an
essay you should avoid colloquial words and expressions.
Objectivity
Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It
therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader.
This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that
you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you.
Explicitness
Academic writing is explicit about the relationships int he text.
Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it
clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related.
These connections can be made explicit by the use of different
signalling words.
Stafford College.
Hedging
In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make
decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of
the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in
different ways.
A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by
linguists as a hedge.
Responsibility
In academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to
provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make. You are
also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any source
texts you use.
A check list
Here are some useful questions to ask yourself about your essay:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Does the essay deal with the topic that was set?
Does the essay answer the question that was set?
Does it cover all the main aspects and in sufficient depth?
Is the content accurate and relevant?
Is everything in the essay relevant to the question?
Is the material logically arranged?
Is each main point well supported by examples and argument?
Is there a clear distinction between your ideas and those of
other authors?
9. Have you acknowledged all the sources you have used?
10. Is the length of the essay right for its purpose?
11. Is it written plainly and simply, without clumsy or obscure
phrasing?
12. Is the grammar, punctuation and spelling acceptable?
13. Is it neat and legibly written?
Stafford College.
Contents:
What do you want to know?
Page
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6
7.
8.
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Pg 5
Pg 9
Understanding the
question
How to research your
essay
How to use paragraphs
correctly.
Avoiding Plagarism
How to report ideas in
your work
How to reference
Quick guide to referencing
Referencing different
media
Referencing weird
sources
Citing your sources in
your work
The correct language to
use when citing
references
Reporting, quoting and
concluding
Notes on punctuation
Pg 11
Pg 14
Pg 16
Pg 19
Pg 21
Pg 22
Pg 25
Pg 26
Pg 31
Pg 32
Pg 35
Pg 37
Pg 30
Stafford College.
Essays.
The aim of the essay should be deduced strictly from the
wording of the title or question, and needs to be defined at
the beginning. The purpose of an essay is for you to say
something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for
you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. The
emphasis should be on working with other peoples ideas,
rather than reproducing their words, but your own voice
should show. The ideas and people that you refer to need to
made explicit by a system of referencing.
Your essay should have the following sections:
Preliminaries
Title page
Main text
Introduction
Main body
Conclusion
End matter
References
Preliminaries
Before you start the main part of your essay or assignment,
there should be a title page. The title page should contain
information to enable your lecturer and departmental office
to identify exactly what the piece of work is. It should
include your name and course; the title of the assignment and
any references; the lecturer it is for etc. Check with your
department for clear information.
Stafford College.
Main text
English essays are linear:
- they start at the beginning and finish at the end, with
every part contributing to the main line of argument, without
digressions or repetition. Writers are responsible for making
their line of argument clear and presenting it in an orderly
fashion so that the reader can follow. Each paragraph
discusses one major point and each paragraph should lead
directly to the next. The paragraphs are tied together with
an introduction and a conclusion.
An essay has three main parts
1. An introduction
2. A main body
3. A conclusion
1. The introduction.
The introduction consists of two parts:
a. It should include a few general statements about the
subject to provide a background to your essay and to
attract the readers attention. It should try to explain
why you are writing the essay. It may include a
definition of terms in the context of the essay, etc.
b. It should also include a statement of the specific
subdivisions of the topic and/or indication of how the
topic is going to be tackled in order to specifically
address the question.
It should introduce the central idea or the main purpose of
the writing.
Stafford College.
Stafford College.
I. INTRODUCTION
General Statement
Organisation Statement
Structure of
an Essay
B. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence
C. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence
III. CONCLUSION
Recall issues in introduction;
draw together main points;
final comment.
Stafford College.
Reports.
Many students, particulary science and business students,
will at some time be expected to write a report.
Your report should have the following sections:
Title page
Preliminaries Abstract
Contents
Main text
Introduction
Methodology
Findings/Results
Discussion
Conclusion
End matter
References
Appendices
Preliminaries
Before you start the main part of your report, there should
be a title page. The title page should contain information to
enable your lecturer and departmental office to identify
exactly what the piece of work is. It should include your
name and course; the title of the assignment and any
references; the lecturer it is for etc. Check with your
department for clear information. A report should also
normally include an abstract and a contents page
Stafford College.
End Matter
At the end of the report, there should be a list of
references. This should give full information about the
materials that you have used in the report. See Writing a list
of references for more information on the reference list.
10
Stafford College.
11
Stafford College.
12
Stafford College.
13
Stafford College.
14
Stafford College.
Start with the Keyword option and identify the names and
call numbers (see Dewey for more information) of the
sections of the library that might hold useful material for
your topic.
Use the Author or Title search option on the Search the
Catalogue menu of the terminal for the details and class
numbers of some relevant books and journals.
If you need more information from the library, look for
Information Databases and Catalogues for your subject.
15
Stafford College.
Writing paragraphs
Introduction
Essays are divided into paragraphs. If your essay is one
continuous piece of text, it will be very difficult for any
reader to follow your argument. Therefore essays need
paragraphs.
Essays are divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way. A
paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one topic or
idea. The topic of one paragraph should follow logically from
the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to the
topic of the next paragraph. The paragraphs have different
functions, but all develop an idea - that is, they add
information, explanation, examples and illustrations to the
central theme or idea until the theme is fully developed.
Topic sentences
This main idea of each paragraph is usually expressed
somewhere in the paragraph by one sentence (the main or
topic sentence). This sentence is usually found at the
beginning of the paragraph, but can come at the end or even
in the middle of the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph
generally expands the theme contained in the main sentence,
and each idea round the main theme is supported by
information and evidence (in the form of illustrations and
examples), and by argument.
16
Stafford College.
Examples
The population as a whole was unevenly distributed. The
north was particularly thinly settled and the east densely
populated, but even in counties like Warwickshire where
there were substantial populations, some woodland areas
were sparsely peopled. There was already relatively dense
settlement in the prime arable areas of the country like
Norfolk, Suffolk and Leicestershire. Modern estimates of
England's total population, extrapolated from Domesday
patterns, vary between 1 and 3 million.
(Asa Briggs, (1983). A social history of England, p. 58)
17
Stafford College.
18
Stafford College.
Avoiding plagiarism
Definitions
(1995)
Plagiarise - To take somebody else's ideas or words, and use
them as if they were one's own.
19
Stafford College.
20
Stafford College.
Reporting: Paraphrase,
summary & synthesis
One of the most important aspects of academic writing is
making use of the ideas of other people. This is important as
you need to show that you have understood the materials and
that you can use their ideas and findings in your own way. In
fact, this is an essential skill for every student.
Spack (1988, p. 42) has pointed out that the most important
skill a student can engage in is "the complex activity to write
from other texts", which is "a major part of their academic
experience." It is very important when you do this to make
sure you use your own words, unless you are quoting. You
must make it clear when the words or ideas that you are
using are your own and when they are taken from another
writer. You must not use another person's words or ideas as
if they were your own: this is Plagiarism and plagiarism is
regarded as a very serious offence.
The object of academic writing is for you to say something
for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to
present ideas you have learned in your own way. You can do
this by reporting the works of others in your own words. You
can either paraphrase if you want to keep the length the
same, summarise if you want to make the text shorter or
synthesise if you need to use information from several
sources.
21
Stafford College.
22
Stafford College.
Examples of references.
Barr, P., Clegg, J. & Wallace, C. (1981). Advanced reading skills.
London: Longman.
Chomsky, N. (1973). Linguistic theory. In J. W. Oller & J. C.
Richards (Eds.), Focus on the learner (pp. 29-35). Rowley,
Massachusetts: Newbury House.
Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1983). An introduction to language.
London: Holt-Saunders.
Guiora, A. Z., Paluszny, M., Beit-Hallahmi, B., Catford, J. C.,
Cooley, R. E. & Dull, C. Y. (1975). Language and person:
Studies in language behaviour. Language Learning, 25, 43-61.
GVU's 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000,
from
http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/usersurveys/survey1997-10/
Kinsella, V. (Ed.). (1978). Language teaching and linguistics:
Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lipinsky, E. & Bender, R. (1980). Critical voices on the economy.
Survey, 25, 38-42. Oller, J. W. & Richards, J. C. (Eds.).
(1973). Focus on the learner. Rowley, Massachusetts:
Newbury House.
Longman dictionary of contemporary English. (1978). London:
Longman.
Smith, F. (1978). Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Stern, H. H. & Weinrib, A. (1978). Foreign languages for younger
children: Trends and assessment. In V. Kinsella (Ed.),
Language teaching and linguistics: Surveys (pp. 152-172).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
23
Stafford College.
NOTES ON REFERENCING.
1. Use heading: References.
24
Stafford College.
Referencing Books.
a. One author:
Smith, F. (1978). Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
b. Two authors:
Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1983). An introduction to language.
London: Holt-Saunders.
c. More than two authors:
Barr, P., Clegg, J. & Wallace, C. (1981). Advanced reading skills.
London: Longman.
d. Edited collections:
Kinsella, V. (Ed.). (1978). Language teaching and linguistics:
Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oller, J. W.
& Richards, J. C. (Eds.). (1973). Focus on the learner. Rowley,
Massachusetts: Newbury House.
e. Book, corporate author:
British Council Teaching Information Centre. (1978). Pre-sessional
courses for overseas students. London: British Council.
f. Book, no author, or editor:
25
Stafford College.
26
Stafford College.
TESOL Quarterly.
27
Stafford College.
28
Stafford College.
6. Referencing documents
obtained from the Internet
All references begin with the same information that would
be provided for a printed source (or as much of that
information as possible). The WWW information is then
placed at the end of the reference in the same way as
publishing information is given for books. It is important to
give the date of retrieval because documents on the Web
may change in content, move, or be removed from a site
altogether. The object of this is the same as all referencing
- to supply the information needed to allow a user to find a
source. If you do not know the author or the date and it does
not have a clear title, think carefully before using it. See
Evaluating Sources.
a. An article:
Jacobson, J. W., Mulick, J. A. Schwartz, A. A. (1995). A history
of facilitated communication: Science, pseudoscience, and
antiscience: Science working group on facilitated
communication. American Psychologist, 50, 750-765.
Retrieved January 25, 1996, from
http://www.apa.org/journals/jacobson.html
b. A newspaper article:
Sleek, S. (1996, January). Psychologists build a culture of peace.
APA Monitor, pp. 1, 33 [Newspaper, selected stories on-line].
Retrieved January 25, 1996, from
http://www.apa.org/monitor/peacea.html
c. WWW Document:
Li, X. & Crane, N. (1996, May 20). Bibliographic formats for citing
electronic information. Retrieved March 10, 1997, from
http://www.uvm.edu/~xli/reference/estyles.html
29
Stafford College.
from
http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/usersurveys/survey1997-10/
30
Stafford College.
31
Stafford College.
Citing sources
One of the most important aspects of academic writing is
making use of the ideas of other people. This is important as
you need to show that you have understood the materials
that you have studied and that you can use their ideas and
findings in your own way. In fact, this is an essential skill for
every student.
Spack (1988, p. 42) has pointed out that the most important
skill a student can engage in is "the complex activity to write
from other texts", which is "a major part of their academic
experience." For this reason, any academic text you read or
write will contain the voices of other writers as well as your
own.
In your writing, however, the main voice should be your own
and it should be clear what your point of view is in relation to
the topic or essay question. The object of academic writing
is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of
the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in
your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other
peoples ideas, rather than reproducing their words. If your
view is not clear, you will be told you have not answered the
question or something similar. It is essential therefore that
it must always be clear whose voice is speaking.
32
Stafford College.
integral
According to Peters (1983) evidence from first language
acquisition indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as
unanalysed lexical chunks.
Evidence from first language acquisition indicating that
lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks
was given by Peters (1983).
OR non-integral
Evidence from first language acquisition (Peters, 1983)
indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed
lexical chunks.
Lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks
(Peters, 1983).
depending on whether or not the name of the cited author
occurs in the citing sentence or in parenthesis.
33
Stafford College.
34
Stafford College.
Language
35
Stafford College.
36
Stafford College.
37
Stafford College.
Quoting
Sometimes you may want to quote an author's words exactly,
not paraphrase them. If you decide to quote directly from a
text, you will need an expression to introduce it and
quotation marks will need to be used:
As X said/says, "... ..."
As X stated/states, "... ..."
As X wrote/writes, "... ..."
As X commented/comments, "... ..."
As X observed/observes, "... ..."
As X pointed/points out, "... ..."
To quote from X, "... ..."
It was X who said that "... ..."
This example is given by X: "... ..."
According to X, "... ..."
X claims that, "... ..."
X found that, "... ..."
The opinion of X is that, "... ..."
38
Stafford College.
Concluding.
After quoting evidence you reach a conclusion:
The evidence seems to indicate that...
It must therefore be recognised that...
The indications are therefore that...
It is clear therefore that ...
Thus it could be concluded that...
The evidence seems to be strong that...
On this basis it may be inferred that...
Given this evidence, it can be seen that...
39
Stafford College.
Notes on Punctuation.
The sentence and the full stop
The full stop is the most important punctuation mark. It shows the end of
the sentence. The English language also uses capital letters at the
beginning of sentences.
For example:
The first schools in what is now British Columbia were established by the
Hudsons Bay Company in about 1853 on Vancouver Island. The present public
school system originated with the Public School Act of 1872. Education is free and
compulsory for children ages 7 to 15. Schools are funded by the provincial
government and local property taxes. The provinces 75 school districts are
administered by locally elected boards.
The comma
The comma is the most important punctuation mark after the full stop. Its
main use is for separating parts of sentences. Commas function in four
main ways:
1. Before or after adverbial clauses and phrases.
2. Before various connectives to join two independent clauses.
3. To separate some non-defining phrases from the rest of the sentence.
4. To separate words, phrases and clauses in a series.
5. To separate adjectives that separately modify the same noun.
40
Stafford College.
41
Stafford College.
Common mistakes.
A comma can not separate subject from predicate. The following
sentences are not possible:
*A man of his great abilities, would always be successful.
*The number of service enterprises in wealthier free-market economies, has grown
rapidly.
*Only occupants of the deep oceans or the darkest recesses of caves, will escape
such rhythmic influences.
*Experience indicates that, these rhythms do not result wholly from our life-style.
A comma can not be used to join grammatically separate sentences. The
following sentences are not possible:
*London is a very cosmopolitan city, there are people from many culture living
there.
*Learning a new language is like learning to swim, it takes a lot of practice.
*International students face many problems, for example, they have to cope with a
new culture.
The apostrophe
The apostrophe has two main functions in English, but only one in
academic writing. It is used mainly to show possession or relationship. It is
also used in informal writing to show contraction or letters left out.
Possession or relationship. The apostrophe precedes the 's' in singular
words and plurals that do not end in 's'. It follows the 's' in plurals that end
in 's'. The apostrophe is not used with the possessive pronouns 'hers',
'yours', 'theirs' and 'its'.
For example:
The provinces 75 school districts are administered by locally elected boards.
Modern estimates of Englands total population vary between 1 and 3 million.
42
Stafford College.
Two years earlier, The Economist had described gambling, as Britain's second
biggest industry.
The annual per capita consumption of sugar, between the Queen's accession and
1860, rose to 54 lb. in 1870-99 and 85 lb. in 1900-10.
Newly married, neatly permed and wearing the very latest in expensive Western
wedding garb, they head for the groom's sleek sports car under a hail of rice.
By then Leonardo's expertise with paint brush and palette, pen and pencil was
already well advanced.
In contrast to the all-inclusiveness of other countries' socialised medical services,
40m Americans have no coverage at all.
The intention of this new alliance is to make the fight against the administration's
policy on cryptography a populist issue and to derail potentially threatening
legislation.
Hemp's environmental credentials are indisputable.
The third and main reason is the process of extracting fibre from the plant's stem.
The weather's unpredictability makes this risky - farmers can easily lose their
whole crop.
Quotation marks.
In academic writing, quotation marks are used to show that you are quoting
directly from another author's work. The quotation marks should enclose
the actual words of the author and all bibliographical information must be
given.
For example:
Hillocks (1986) similarly reviews dozens of research findings. He writes, "The
available research suggests that teaching by written comment on compositions is
generally ineffective"(p. 167).
For example, McCawley stated in 1968, "... a full account of English syntax
requires a fairly full account of semantics to just as great an extent as the converse
is true" (p. 161).
Hatch (1978, p. 104) wonders whether a more accurate portrayal might be that the
learner "learns how to do conversation, how to interact verbally and out of this
interaction syntactic structures are developed".
Note the punctuation before the quotation marks:
When a reporting verb is used to introduce the quotation, a comma is used.
He stated, "The placebo effect, ... disappeared when behaviours were studied in
this manner" (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviours were
studied.
When the quotation is integrated into the structure of your sentence, no
punctuation is used.
43
Stafford College.
Colon.
Colons are used to add extra information after a clause. This can be
divided into three main categories.
Lists
A colon can introduce a list.
We need three kinds of support: economic, moral and political.
The Labour government found itself under pressure from three directions:
from the left wing, from the TUC, and from Sir Oswald Mosley and his
supporters.
Explanations
A colon can be used before an explanation.
We decided not to go on holiday: we had too little money.
It was conceived of by all those who participated in it as a temporary,
emergency government, formed for a single limited purpose: to balance the
budget through drastic economies and increases in taxation.
It was something very rarely seen in Britain, or in other democracies: an
emergency government.
Quotations
A colon is used before a quotation when the quotation is independent of the
structure of the main sentence.
Miele (1993, p. 276) found the following: "The placebo effect ... disappeared when
behaviors were studied in this manner."
Note
Do not use a colon directly after a verb or a preposition that introduces the
list, explanation or quotation.
44
Stafford College.
Capital letters.
Capital letters have two main uses in English: they are used at the
beginning of sentences and for proper names.
At the beginning of a sentence
If football was a business, it was a very peculiar one. Clubs did not compete with
one another to attract larger crowds by reducing their prices. Nor did they make
any serious efforts to derive income from a huge fixed asset, which was used for
only a few hours a week.
Proper names
Personal names: John, Ms Smith, Dr Brown, Mr Gates, Elizabeth,
Titles: Mr, Ms, Dr, Colonel, Professor, President, Prime Minister, Judge
Geographical names: Argentinian, Europe, China, Mount Everest, Lake
Michigan Skye, Borneo, London, Bangkok, the River Thames, the Pacific Ocean,
the Panama Canal, Baker Street, Cambridge Road, Raffles Hotel, St George's Hall
Company/Organisation names: Shell, Woolworths, Microsoft, Boots, World
Trade Organisation, World Health Organisation, Federal Trade Commission,
British Broadcasting Corporation
University/School names: Oxford University, University of Hertfordshire, Royal
College of Music
Religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam
Days, months, festivals - but not seasons: Monday, July, Christmas, summer,
Magazines: Newsweek, Vogue, The Times, New Scientist
Languages: English, Hindi
Nationalities: English, French, Spanish, Japanese, American
Try these exercises: Exercises 4 & 5
Now do this exercise as a summary: Exercise 6
45
Stafford College.
References
Abdulaziz, H. T. & Stover, A. D. (1989). Academic challenges in reading. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Adams, W. R. (1986). Think, read, react, plan, write, rewrite. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.
Adkins, A. & McKean, I. (1985). Text to note. London: Edward Arnold.
Alderson, J. C., Krahnke, K. J. & Standfield, C. W. (Eds.). (1987). Reviews of English language proficiency tests.
Washington, DC: TESOL.
Allan, D. (1992). Oxford Placement Test. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Allen, J. P. B. & Widdowson, H. G. (1974). English in focus: English in physical science. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Allen, J. P. B. & Widdowson, H. G. (1978). English in focus: English in social studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ALTE (2002). ALTE adopts Common European Framework levels. ALTE News, Spring 2002, 1.
American Psychological Association (1983). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (3rd ed.).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
American Psychological Association (1994). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (4th ed.).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
American Psychological Association (1999). Electronic reference formats recommended by the American Psychological
association. Retrieved June 6, 1999, from http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html
Arnold, J. & Harmer, J. (1978). Advanced writing skills. Harlow: Longman.
Bachman, L. F. (1986). Reading English discourse: Business, economics, law, & political science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Bailey, R. (2003). Academic writing: A Practical guide for students. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
Barnes, R. (1992). Successful study for degrees. London: Routledge.
Barr, P., Clegg, J. & Wallace, C. (1981). Advanced reading skills. London: Longman.
Barrass, R. (1978). Scientists must write. London: Chapman and Hall.
Barrass, R. (1982). Students must write. London: Methuen.
Belbin, R. M. (1981). Management teams: Why they succeed or fail. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Belbin, R. M. (1993). Team roles at work. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Bell, J. (1999). Doing your research project. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Berry, R. (1994). The research project: How to write it (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.
Biber, D. (1988). Variation across speech and writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S. & Finegan, E. (1999). Longman grammar of spoken and written English.
Harlow: Longman.
Bloor, M. (1994). English language proficiency in British universities: Monitoring quality and raising standards. The
Journal of International Education, 5(1), 22-32.
46
Stafford College.
Blue, G. & Weir, C. (1985). What do English language test scores mean? Language Testing Update, 1, 18-22.
Bool, H., Dunmore, D. & Tonkyn, A. (1999). The BALEAP guidelines on English language proficiency levels for
international students to UK universities. Bath: BALEAP.
Bradney, A., Fisher, V., Masson, J., Neal, A. & Newell, D. (1986). How to study law. London: Sweet and Maxwell.
Braine, G. & May, C. (1996). Writing from sources: A guide for ESL students. Mountain View, California: Mayfield
Publishing Company.
Brieger, N. & Comfort, J. (1992). Language reference for business English. London: Prentice Hall.
Brieger, N, & Comfort, J. (1993). Developing business contacts. London: Prentice Hall.
Brieger, N, & Comfort, J. (1994). Advanced business contacts. London: Prentice Hall.
British Council (1994). English language requirements in British higher education (3rd ed.). London: British Council.
Brown, H. D., Cohen, D. S. & O'Day, J. (1991). Challenges: A process approach to academic English. Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Burgmeier, A., Eldred, G, & Zimmerman, C. B. (1991). Lexis: Academic vocabulary study. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall Regents.
Buzan, T. (1971). Speed reading. London: David and Charles.
Buzan, T. (1974). Use your head. London: BBC.
Buzan, T. (1981). Make the most of your mind. London: Pan.
Byrne, D. & Holden, S. (1978). Note taking. Harlow: Longman.
Campbell, A. F. (1983). Organise your English. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
Carol, B. J. & West, R. (1989). ESU framework: Performance scales for English language examinations. London:
Longman.
Chafe, W. (1982). Integration and involvement in speaking, writing, and oral literature. In D. Tannen (Ed.), Spoken and
written language: Exploring orality and literacy (pp. 35-53). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Chambers, E. & Northedge, A. (1997). The arts good study guide. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press.
Chaudron, C. & Richards, J. (1986). The effect of discourse markers on the comprehension of lectures. Applied
Linguistics, 7, 113-127.
Clanchy, J. & Ballard, B. (1992). How to write essays. Melbourne: Longman.
Clapham, C. & Wall, D. (1990). Report on a BALEAP questionnaire to British universities on the English language
testing of overseas students. Language Testing Update, 7, 2-24.
Clarke, M. J. (1966). English studies series 2: Anthropology, psychology, education, language, philosophy. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Coles, M. (1995). A students guide to coursework writing. Stirling: University of Stirling.
Collinson, D. J. (1982). Writing English. Aldershot: Wildwood House.
Comfort, J. (1995). Effective presentations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cook, V. (1997). Speech and writing. Retrieved February 16, 2001, from
http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~vcook/OBS13.htm
47
Stafford College.
48
Stafford College.
49
Stafford College.
50
Stafford College.
51
Stafford College.
Madden, C. G. & Rohlck, T. N. (1997). Discussion and interaction in the academic community. Ann Arbor: The
University of Michigan Press.
Mason, A. (1983). Understanding academic lectures. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Matthews, C. & Marino. J. (1990). Professional interactions: Oral communication skills in science, technology, and
medicine. London: Prentice Hall.
McArthur, T. (1973). A rapid course in English for students of economics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McArthur, T. (1984a). The written word 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McArthur, T. (1984b). The written word 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McCarthy, M. (1991). Discourse analysis for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McDonough, J. (1978). Listening to lectures: Biology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McDonough, J. (1978). Listening to lectures: Government. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McDonough, J. (1978). Listening to lectures: Sociology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McDowell, J. & Stevens, S. (1982). Basic listening. London: Edward Arnold.
McGovern, D. (1994). English for academic study series: Reading. London: Prentice Hall.
Mead, R. (1985). English for economics. Harlow: Longman.
MELAB (1994). MELAB technical manual. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan, English Language Institute.
Menasche, L. (1997). Writing a research paper (Rev. ed.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Methold, K. & Blatchford, R. (1983). Summary. London: Hutchinson.
Modern Languages Association (1998). MLA style. Retrieved December 18, 1998, from http://www.mla.org/
Moor, C. (1981). Answer the question. Cambridge: NEC.
Moore, J. (1979). Reading and thinking in English: Discovering discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Moore, J. (1979). Reading and thinking in English: Exploring functions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Moore, J. (1980). Reading and thinking in English: Concepts in use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Moore, J. (1980). Reading and thinking in English: Discourse in action. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Morrow, K. (1980). Skills for reading. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mortimer, C. (1985). Elements of pronunciation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mountford, A. (1977). English in agriculture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Murphy, R. (1985). English grammar in use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Neufeld, J. (1987). A handbook for technical communication. London: Prentice Hall.
Northedge, A. (1990). The good study guide. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press.
Northedge, A., Thomas, J., Lane, A. & Peasgood, A. (1997). The sciences good study guide. Milton Keynes: The Open
University Press.
52
Stafford College.
Northern Examinations and Assessment Board (1995). University entrance test in English for speakers of other
languages. Manchester: NEAB.
Nuttall, C. (1982). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. London: Heinemann.
O'Brien, T. & Jordan, R. R. (1985). Developing reference skills. Glasgow: Collins.
O'Connor, J. D. (1980). Better English pronunciation (new ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Open University. (1979). Preparing to study. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (1991). Writing academic English (2nd ed.). New York: Addison-Wesley.
Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (1997). Introduction to academic writing (2nd ed.). New York: Addison-Wesley.
Payne, P. (1983). Punctuation. London: Hutchinson.
Pechenik, J. & Lamb, B. (1994). How to write about Biology. London: Longman.
Phillips, E. M. & Pugh, D. S. (1987). How to get a PhD. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Pilbeam, A., Ellis, M. & O'Driscoll, N. (1982). The economist: An English language guide. Glasgow: Collins.
Pincas, A., Hadfield, G. & Hadfield, C. (1982). Writing in English 3. London: Macmillan.
Pirie, D. B. (1985). How to write critical essays. London: Routledge.
Pitman Examinations Institute (1988). Examinations in English for speakers of other languages: A guide for teachers.
London: Pitman Examinations Institute.
Porter, D. (2001). Check your vocabulary for academic English. London: Peter Collin Publishing.
Powell, M. (1996). Presenting in English. Hove: LTP.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (1985). A comprehensive grammar of the English language. Harlow:
Longman.
Raimes, A. (1999). Keys for writers: A brief handbook (2nd ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Reid, J. M. (1994). The process of paragraph writing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Reid, J. M. (2000). The process of composition (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Reinhart, S. M. (2002). Giving academic presentations. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Rignall, M. & Furneaux, C. (1997). Speaking. London: Longman.
Roguski, C. & Palmberg, E. (1990). Academic mini lectures. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Romanoff, M. R. (1991). Language and study skills for learners of English. London: Prentice Hall.
Rooks, G. M. (1988). Paragraph power: Communicating ideas through paragraphs. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
Regents.
Rosenthal, L. & Rowland, S. B. (1986). Academic reading and study skills for international students. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Rouse, S. (1978). Writing essays in social science. Cambridge: NEC.
Rowntree, D. (1976). Learn how to study. London: Macdonald.
53
Stafford College.
54
Stafford College.
Tonkyn, A. (1995). English language proficiency standards for overseas students: Who needs what level? The Journal
of International Education, 6(2), 37-61.
Toulmin, S. E. (1958). The uses of argument. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Trzeciak, J. & Mackay, S. E. (1994). English for academic study series: Study skills for academic writing. London:
Prentice Hall.
Tucker, M. (1984). Spelling. London: Hutchinson.
Turabian, K. L. (1987). A manual for writers of term papers, theses and dissertations. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Turk, C. & Kirkman, J. (1989). Effective writing. London: E. & F. N. Spon.
Turley, R. M. (2000). Writing essays: A guide for students in English and the humanities. London: Routledge/Falmer.
Turner, J. (2002). How to study. London: Sage.
ULEAC (1991). Certificate of attainment in English: General information. London: University of London Examinations
and Assessment Council.
UMESPP. (1980). Skills for learning: Foundation. Walton on Thames: Nelson.
University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (1995). English as a Foreign Language examination, certificates
and diplomas: Regulations 1995. Cambridge: UCLES.
University of Hertfordshire (1 September, 1996). University policies and regulations: Applications and admissions,
number 14.1: Appendix II. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire.
University of Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations (1994). The Oxford-ARELS examinations in English as a foreign
language. Oxford: Oxford Delegacy.
Ure, J. (1971). Lexical density and register differentiation. In G. E. Perren & J. L. M. Trim (Eds.), Applications of
linguistics: Selected papers of the Second International Congress of Applied Linguistics, Cambridge, 1969 (pp.
443-452). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Vaughan James, C. (1989). English for academic purposes - Business Studies. London: Prentice Hall.
Walker, T. (1992). English for academic purposes - computer science. London: Prentice Hall.
Wallace M (1980). Study skills in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Walter, C. (1982). Authentic reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Waters, M. & Waters, A. (1995). Study tasks in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weissberg, R. & Buker, S. (1990). Writing up research: Experimental research report writing for students of English.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
West, M. (1953). A general service list of English words. London: Longmans.
White, R. & McGovern, D. (1994). English for academic study series: Writing. London: Prentice Hall.
Widdowson, H. G. (1971). English studies series 8: Language teaching texts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Williams, G. (1982). Learning the law. London: Stevens.
Williams, R. (1982). Panorama: An advanced course of English for study and examinations. London: Longman.
Williams, R. (1984). A cognitive approach to English nominal compounds. In A. K. Pugh & J. M. Ulijn (Eds.), Reading for
professional purposes (pp. 146-153). London: Heinemann.
55
Stafford College.
Winter, E. O. (1982). Towards a contextual grammar of English. London: George Allen and Unwin.
Woodward-Kron, R. (2002). Critical analysis versus description? Examining the relationship in successful student
writing. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 1, 121-143.
Wong, R., Glendinning, E. & Mantell, H. (1994). Becoming a writer. London: Longman.
Xue, G. Y. & Nation, I. S. P. (1984). A university word list. Language Learning and Communication, 3, 215-229.
Yates, C. St. J. (1988). English for academic purposes - Earth Sciences. London: Prentice Hall.
Yates, C. St. J. (1992). English for academic purposes - Agriculture. London: Prentice Hall.
Yates, C. St. J. (1992). English for academic purposes - Economics. London: Prentice Hall.
Yorkey, R. C. (1982). Study skills for students of English (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Zimmerman, F. (1989). English for science. London: Prentice Hall.
Zwier, L. J. (2002). Building academic vocabulary. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
56