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Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

A quick guide
to
academic
writing.

Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Features of academic writing


Introduction
Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central
point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of
argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform
rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written form
of the language. There are six main features of academic writing that
are often discussed. Academic writing is to some extent: complex,
formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible.

Complexity
Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language.
Written language has longer words, it is lexically more dense and it has
a more varied vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verbbased phrases. Written texts are shorter and the language has more
grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more
passives.

Formality
Academic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an
essay you should avoid colloquial words and expressions.

Objectivity
Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It
therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader.
This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that
you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you.

Explicitness
Academic writing is explicit about the relationships int he text.
Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it
clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related.
These connections can be made explicit by the use of different
signalling words.

Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Hedging
In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make
decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of
the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in
different ways.
A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by
linguists as a hedge.

Responsibility
In academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to
provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make. You are
also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any source
texts you use.

A check list
Here are some useful questions to ask yourself about your essay:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Does the essay deal with the topic that was set?
Does the essay answer the question that was set?
Does it cover all the main aspects and in sufficient depth?
Is the content accurate and relevant?
Is everything in the essay relevant to the question?
Is the material logically arranged?
Is each main point well supported by examples and argument?
Is there a clear distinction between your ideas and those of
other authors?
9. Have you acknowledged all the sources you have used?
10. Is the length of the essay right for its purpose?
11. Is it written plainly and simply, without clumsy or obscure
phrasing?
12. Is the grammar, punctuation and spelling acceptable?
13. Is it neat and legibly written?

Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Contents:
What do you want to know?
Page
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6
7.
8.
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

How to write an Essay


How to write a report

Pg 5
Pg 9

Understanding the
question
How to research your
essay
How to use paragraphs
correctly.
Avoiding Plagarism
How to report ideas in
your work
How to reference
Quick guide to referencing
Referencing different
media
Referencing weird
sources
Citing your sources in
your work
The correct language to
use when citing
references
Reporting, quoting and
concluding
Notes on punctuation

Pg 11
Pg 14
Pg 16
Pg 19
Pg 21
Pg 22
Pg 25
Pg 26
Pg 31
Pg 32
Pg 35

Pg 37
Pg 30

Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Essays.
The aim of the essay should be deduced strictly from the
wording of the title or question, and needs to be defined at
the beginning. The purpose of an essay is for you to say
something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for
you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. The
emphasis should be on working with other peoples ideas,
rather than reproducing their words, but your own voice
should show. The ideas and people that you refer to need to
made explicit by a system of referencing.
Your essay should have the following sections:
Preliminaries

Title page

Main text

Introduction
Main body
Conclusion

End matter

References

Preliminaries
Before you start the main part of your essay or assignment,
there should be a title page. The title page should contain
information to enable your lecturer and departmental office
to identify exactly what the piece of work is. It should
include your name and course; the title of the assignment and
any references; the lecturer it is for etc. Check with your
department for clear information.

Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Main text
English essays are linear:
- they start at the beginning and finish at the end, with
every part contributing to the main line of argument, without
digressions or repetition. Writers are responsible for making
their line of argument clear and presenting it in an orderly
fashion so that the reader can follow. Each paragraph
discusses one major point and each paragraph should lead
directly to the next. The paragraphs are tied together with
an introduction and a conclusion.
An essay has three main parts
1. An introduction
2. A main body
3. A conclusion
1. The introduction.
The introduction consists of two parts:
a. It should include a few general statements about the
subject to provide a background to your essay and to
attract the readers attention. It should try to explain
why you are writing the essay. It may include a
definition of terms in the context of the essay, etc.
b. It should also include a statement of the specific
subdivisions of the topic and/or indication of how the
topic is going to be tackled in order to specifically
address the question.
It should introduce the central idea or the main purpose of
the writing.

Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

2. The main body.


The main body consists of one or more paragraphs. Each
paragraph develops a subdivision of the topic. The
paragraphs of the essay contain the main ideas and
arguments of the essay together with illustrations or
examples. The paragraphs are linked in order to connect the
ideas. The purpose of the essay must be made clear and the
reader must be able to follow its development.
3. The conclusion.
The conclusion includes the writers final points.
a. It should recall the issues raised in the introduction
and draw together the points made in the main body
b. and explain the overall significance of the conclusions.
What general points can be drawn from the essay as a
whole?
It should clearly signal to the reader that the essay is
finished and leave a clear impression that the purpose of the
essay has been achieved.
End Matter
At the end of the essay, there should be a list of
references. This should give full information about the
materials that you have used in the assignment. See Writing
a list of references for more information on the reference list.

Stafford College.

I. INTRODUCTION
General Statement
Organisation Statement

Learning development Unit.

Structure of
an Essay

II. MAIN BODY


A. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence

B. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence

C. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence

III. CONCLUSION
Recall issues in introduction;
draw together main points;
final comment.

Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Reports.
Many students, particulary science and business students,
will at some time be expected to write a report.
Your report should have the following sections:
Title page
Preliminaries Abstract
Contents

Main text

Introduction
Methodology
Findings/Results
Discussion
Conclusion

End matter

References
Appendices

Preliminaries
Before you start the main part of your report, there should
be a title page. The title page should contain information to
enable your lecturer and departmental office to identify
exactly what the piece of work is. It should include your
name and course; the title of the assignment and any
references; the lecturer it is for etc. Check with your
department for clear information. A report should also
normally include an abstract and a contents page

Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

End Matter
At the end of the report, there should be a list of
references. This should give full information about the
materials that you have used in the report. See Writing a list
of references for more information on the reference list.

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Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Understanding the question.


Introduction
Students often do worse when writing assignments in English
in the UK, not because their writing skills are weak or
because their knowledge of the subject matter is
insufficient, but because they have not fully understood
what they have been asked to do. To score high marks in an
examination or an essay, it is important to fully understand
what a question means and how it should be answered. In
order to understand the question it is useful to analyse the
questions and to search for certain components. The
following technique is very useful (Swales, 1982).
The components of a question
Most essay titles or examination questions contain the
following components:
1. Subject matter or topic. What, in the most general
terms, is the question about?
2. Aspect or focus. This is the angle or point of view on
the subject matter. What aspect of the subject
matter is the question about?
3. Instruction or comment. This refers to the
instruction word or phrase. These instructions tell
the student exactly what to do.
Some questions also contain the following components:
4. Restriction or expansion of the subject matter. This
is the detailed limitation of the topic. What, in
specific terms, is the question about?

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Learning development Unit.

5. Viewpoint. This refers to the requirement, in the


question, that the writer writes from a point of view
dictated by the setter of the question.

Analysing the question


To analyse the title, it is useful to follow the following steps:
1. Identify the topic.
2. If the topic has a restriction or expansion, identify
it.
3. Search for the aspect. This is the angle or point of
view on the subject matter. Often, the aspect is a
phrase ending in 'of', e.g. 'the importance of', 'the
contribution of'. Be sure you are clear about how the
aspect relates to the subject matter. It can be an
example of it, a stage in its sequence, the cause or
effect, one of the solutions to it as a problem etc.
4. Identify the instruction (which often comes at the
beginning) and decide what it means and what it
requires you to do.
5. Check whether there is a viewpoint and if so, if it the
same as your own.

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Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

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Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Researching the essay


When you have understood the question or what you are
expected to write, you will need to do some reading to find
out what has been published in your field of study. It is most
unlikely that you will find the information you need about
your topic in just one specific section of the library. You
need to think and look as widely as you can about possible
subject areas that may be relevant to your topic.
Many sources are available in several formats - as hard copy,
on CD-ROM, and on-line via the Internet. In the last few
years there has been a great increase in the amount of
information that can be found on-line. Using the Internet, it
is possible to search for the details of books, journal articles
and conference proceedings, as well as for data such as
statistics, maps, diagrams and so on. The number of
periodical titles that you are able to access on-line is growing
rapidly. Internet gateways and subject databases can also
be good starting points for your research.
You will probably start by looking at secondary sources, for
example dictionaries, encyclopaedias, bibliographies, indexes
and abstracts that you can use to help you to find the
primary sources - the full text of articles, books,
government and company reports, etc. that you need to read
for your essay.
Use the library computer catalogue to find useful material
for your topic. Choose the: Search the Catalogue option on
the main menu.

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Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Start with the Keyword option and identify the names and
call numbers (see Dewey for more information) of the
sections of the library that might hold useful material for
your topic.
Use the Author or Title search option on the Search the
Catalogue menu of the terminal for the details and class
numbers of some relevant books and journals.
If you need more information from the library, look for
Information Databases and Catalogues for your subject.

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Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Writing paragraphs
Introduction
Essays are divided into paragraphs. If your essay is one
continuous piece of text, it will be very difficult for any
reader to follow your argument. Therefore essays need
paragraphs.
Essays are divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way. A
paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one topic or
idea. The topic of one paragraph should follow logically from
the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to the
topic of the next paragraph. The paragraphs have different
functions, but all develop an idea - that is, they add
information, explanation, examples and illustrations to the
central theme or idea until the theme is fully developed.
Topic sentences
This main idea of each paragraph is usually expressed
somewhere in the paragraph by one sentence (the main or
topic sentence). This sentence is usually found at the
beginning of the paragraph, but can come at the end or even
in the middle of the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph
generally expands the theme contained in the main sentence,
and each idea round the main theme is supported by
information and evidence (in the form of illustrations and
examples), and by argument.

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Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Examples
The population as a whole was unevenly distributed. The
north was particularly thinly settled and the east densely
populated, but even in counties like Warwickshire where
there were substantial populations, some woodland areas
were sparsely peopled. There was already relatively dense
settlement in the prime arable areas of the country like
Norfolk, Suffolk and Leicestershire. Modern estimates of
England's total population, extrapolated from Domesday
patterns, vary between 1 and 3 million.
(Asa Briggs, (1983). A social history of England, p. 58)

Atoms of all elements consist of a central nucleus


surrounded by a "cloud" containing one or more electrons.
The electrons can be thought of as occupying a series of
well-defined shells. The behaviour of a particular element
depends largely on the number of electrons in its outermost
shells. Other factors, such as the total number of electron
shells, also play a part in determining behaviour but it is the
dominance of the outer electron configuration that underlies
the periodic law and justifies the grouping of the elements
into groups or families.
(The sciences: Michael Beazley Encyclopaedias (1980), p. 118)

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Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Identifying topic sentences


Look at the structure of the following paragraph.
Flow of information in paragraphs
In order for a paragraph to be easy to read, the information
in it must flow easily from one sentence to the next. To do
this it is important to structure your information clearly and
signal exactly what you want to say by the use of signalling
words.
Information structure.
Most sentences in English have two parts a theme(or topic)
and a rheme (or comment) (McCarthy, 1991, p. 55). The
theme is what you are writing about - it is shared
information and it has been introduced to your reader. The
rheme is what you are saying about the theme - it is new
information, what you want to tell your reader.
Look at the following sentences:
1. The M1 goes from London to Leeds.
2. The motorway from London to Leeds is called the M1.
The theme in sentence 1 is "the M1". The reader has been
introduced to the M1 but does not know where it goes and
therefore needs to be told. In sentence 2, the themeis "the
motorway from London to Leeds". The reader knows there is
a motorway from London to Leeds but does not know what it
is called.

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Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Avoiding plagiarism
Definitions

The concise Oxford dictionary (6th edition) (1976)

Plagiarise - Take and use another person's (thoughts,


writings, inventions) as one's own.

The Cambridge international dictionary of English (1995)

Plagiarise - To use (another person's idea or part of their


work) and pretend that it is your own.

The Oxford advanced learner's dictionary (5th edition)

(1995)
Plagiarise - To take somebody else's ideas or words, and use
them as if they were one's own.

Collins COBUILD English language dictionary (1987)

If you plagiarise someone else's ideas, or part of a piece of


writing or music by someone else, you use it in your own work
and pretend that you thought of it or created it.

Funk and Wagnalls' new standard dictionary (1921)

Plagiarism is the act of appropriating the ideas, writings, or


inventions of another without due acknowledgement;
specifically, the stealing of passages either for word or in
substance, from the writings of another and publishing them
as one's own.

Collin's pocket English dictionary (1987)

Plagiarism is the taking of ideas, writings, etc. from another


and passing them off as one's own

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Learning development Unit.

Plagiarism is taking another person's words or ideas and


using them as if they were your own. It can be either
deliberate or accidental. Plagiarism is taken very seriously
in UK Higher Education. If even a small section of your
work is found to have been plagiarised, it is likely that
you will be assigned a mark of '0' for that assignment.
In more serious cases, it may be necessary for you to
repeat the course completely. In some cases, plagiarism
may even lead to your being expelled from the university.
Advice
Plagiarism is the representation of another person's work as
your own.
There are three main reasons why you should not do this.
1. It is not helpful.
If you plagiarise, you are saying that something is
your work when it is not. This is not good and will not
get you good marks. In order to do well in higher
education, you need to be responsible for the ideas
and facts that you use.
2. You need to come to your own conclusions.
You need to show that you have understood the
material and come to your own conclusions on the
basis of what you have read and heard. Therefore
copying from textbooks, or pasting text from the
Internet into your own writing, is not good enough.
3. It is against the regulations.
You must not use another person's words or ideas as
if they were your own. This is against university
regulations and is regarded as a very serious offence.

20

Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Reporting: Paraphrase,
summary & synthesis
One of the most important aspects of academic writing is
making use of the ideas of other people. This is important as
you need to show that you have understood the materials and
that you can use their ideas and findings in your own way. In
fact, this is an essential skill for every student.
Spack (1988, p. 42) has pointed out that the most important
skill a student can engage in is "the complex activity to write
from other texts", which is "a major part of their academic
experience." It is very important when you do this to make
sure you use your own words, unless you are quoting. You
must make it clear when the words or ideas that you are
using are your own and when they are taken from another
writer. You must not use another person's words or ideas as
if they were your own: this is Plagiarism and plagiarism is
regarded as a very serious offence.
The object of academic writing is for you to say something
for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to
present ideas you have learned in your own way. You can do
this by reporting the works of others in your own words. You
can either paraphrase if you want to keep the length the
same, summarise if you want to make the text shorter or
synthesise if you need to use information from several
sources.

21

Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Writing a list of references.


At the end of all pieces of academic writing, you need a list
of materials that you have used or referred to. This usually
has a heading: references but may be bibliography or works
cited depending on the conventions of the system you use.
The object of your writing is for you to say something for
yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to present
ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should
be on working with other peoples ideas, rather than
reproducing their words.

The ideas and people that you refer to need to be made


explicit by a system of referencing. This consists of a list of
materials that you have used at the end of the piece of
writing and references to this list at various points
throughout the essay. The purpose of this is to supply the
information needed to allow a user to find a source.
Therefore, at the end of your assignment you need a list of
the materials you have used - a bibliography or a reference
list.

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Learning development Unit.

Examples of references.
Barr, P., Clegg, J. & Wallace, C. (1981). Advanced reading skills.
London: Longman.
Chomsky, N. (1973). Linguistic theory. In J. W. Oller & J. C.
Richards (Eds.), Focus on the learner (pp. 29-35). Rowley,
Massachusetts: Newbury House.
Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1983). An introduction to language.
London: Holt-Saunders.
Guiora, A. Z., Paluszny, M., Beit-Hallahmi, B., Catford, J. C.,
Cooley, R. E. & Dull, C. Y. (1975). Language and person:
Studies in language behaviour. Language Learning, 25, 43-61.
GVU's 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000,
from
http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/usersurveys/survey1997-10/
Kinsella, V. (Ed.). (1978). Language teaching and linguistics:
Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lipinsky, E. & Bender, R. (1980). Critical voices on the economy.
Survey, 25, 38-42. Oller, J. W. & Richards, J. C. (Eds.).
(1973). Focus on the learner. Rowley, Massachusetts:
Newbury House.
Longman dictionary of contemporary English. (1978). London:
Longman.
Smith, F. (1978). Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Stern, H. H. & Weinrib, A. (1978). Foreign languages for younger
children: Trends and assessment. In V. Kinsella (Ed.),
Language teaching and linguistics: Surveys (pp. 152-172).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Learning development Unit.

NOTES ON REFERENCING.
1. Use heading: References.

2. Page numbers should be included for all articles in


journals and in collections.

3. Use italics (or underlining in handwriting) for titles of


books, periodicals, newspapers etc.

4. Use alphabetical order. Alphabetise works with no


author by the first significant word in the title.

5. All co-authors should be listed.

6. Indent second etc. lines

7. Use (n.d.) if no date is given.

8. If the author of a document is not given, begin the


reference with the title of the document.

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Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Referencing Books.
a. One author:
Smith, F. (1978). Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
b. Two authors:
Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1983). An introduction to language.
London: Holt-Saunders.
c. More than two authors:
Barr, P., Clegg, J. & Wallace, C. (1981). Advanced reading skills.
London: Longman.
d. Edited collections:
Kinsella, V. (Ed.). (1978). Language teaching and linguistics:
Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oller, J. W.
& Richards, J. C. (Eds.). (1973). Focus on the learner. Rowley,
Massachusetts: Newbury House.
e. Book, corporate author:
British Council Teaching Information Centre. (1978). Pre-sessional
courses for overseas students. London: British Council.
f. Book, no author, or editor:

Longman dictionary of contemporary English. (1978). London:


Longman.

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Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

Referencing Periodical articles


a. One author:
Abercrombie, D. (1968). Paralanguage. British Journal of
Disorders of Communication, 3, 55-59.
b. Two authors:
Lipinsky, E. & Bender, R. (1980). Critical voices on the economy.
Survey, 25, 38-42.
c. More than two authors:
Guiora, A. Z., Paluszny, M., Beit-Hallahmi, B., Catford, J. C.,
Cooley, R. E. & Dull, C. Y. (1975). Language and person:
Studies in language behaviour. Language Learning, 25, 43-61.
d. Review of a book:
Carmody, T. P. (1982). A new look at medicine from a social
perspective [Review of the book Social contexts of health,
illness and patient care]. Contemporary Psychology, 27, 208209.
e. Review of a book, no title:
Maley, A. (1994). [Review of the book Critical language
awareness]. Applied Linguistics, 15, 348-350.
f. Magazine article:
Gardner, H. (1981, December). Do babies sing a universal song?
Psychology Today, 70-76.
g. Newspaper article:
James, R. (1991, December 15). Obesity affects economic social
status. The Guardian, p. 18

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Learning development Unit.

h. Newspaper/Magazine article, no author:


Acid attack scarred girl for life. (1986, October 21). The
Guardian, p. 4.
(In the essay use a short form of the title for citation:
("Acid Attack." 1986))
i. Newspaper article, letter to the editor:
Hain, P. (1986, October 21). The police protection that women
want [Letter to the editor]. The Guardian, p. 4.
j. Journal article, in press:
Johns, A. M. (in press) Written argumenation for real audiences.

TESOL Quarterly.

4. Referencing selections from


edited collections
a. One author:
Chomsky, N. (1973). Linguistic theory. In J. W. Oller & J. C.
Richards (Eds.), Focus on the learner (pp. 29-35). Rowley,
Massachusetts: Newbury House.
b. Two authors:
Stern, H. H. & Weinrib, A. (1978). Foreign languages for younger
children: Trends and assessment. In V. Kinsella (Ed.),
Language teaching and linguistics: Surveys (pp. 152-172).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Stafford College.

Learning development Unit.

5. Referencing CD ROMs etc


a. Newspaper or magazine on CD-ROM:
Gardner, H. (1981, December). Do babies sing a universal song?
Psychology Today [CD-ROM], pp. 70-76.
b. Abstract on CD-ROM:
Meyer, A. S. & Bock, K. (1992). The tip-of-the-tongue
phenomenon: Blocking or partial activation? [CD-ROM].
Memory Cognition, 20, 715-726. Abstract from: SilverPlatter
File: PsycLIT Item: 80-16351
c. Article from CD-ROM Encyclopedia:
Crime. (1996). In Microsoft Encarta 1996 Encyclopedia [CDROM]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.
d. Dictionary on CD-ROM:

Oxford English dictionary computer file: On compact disc (2nd


ed.) [CD-ROM]. (1992). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Learning development Unit.

6. Referencing documents
obtained from the Internet
All references begin with the same information that would
be provided for a printed source (or as much of that
information as possible). The WWW information is then
placed at the end of the reference in the same way as
publishing information is given for books. It is important to
give the date of retrieval because documents on the Web
may change in content, move, or be removed from a site
altogether. The object of this is the same as all referencing
- to supply the information needed to allow a user to find a
source. If you do not know the author or the date and it does
not have a clear title, think carefully before using it. See
Evaluating Sources.
a. An article:
Jacobson, J. W., Mulick, J. A. Schwartz, A. A. (1995). A history
of facilitated communication: Science, pseudoscience, and
antiscience: Science working group on facilitated
communication. American Psychologist, 50, 750-765.
Retrieved January 25, 1996, from
http://www.apa.org/journals/jacobson.html
b. A newspaper article:
Sleek, S. (1996, January). Psychologists build a culture of peace.
APA Monitor, pp. 1, 33 [Newspaper, selected stories on-line].
Retrieved January 25, 1996, from
http://www.apa.org/monitor/peacea.html
c. WWW Document:
Li, X. & Crane, N. (1996, May 20). Bibliographic formats for citing
electronic information. Retrieved March 10, 1997, from
http://www.uvm.edu/~xli/reference/estyles.html

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Learning development Unit.

d. WWW Document - corporate author:


World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). (1995, May 15). About the
World Wide Web. Retrieved December 30, 1996, from
http://www.w3.org/hypertext/WWW/
e. WWW Document - corporate author:
American Psychological Association (1996). How to cite
information from the world wide web. Retrieved March 17,
1997, from http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html
f. WWW Document - no author:

A field guide to sources on, about and on the Internet: Citation


formats. (1995, Dec 18). Retrieved February 7th, 1996, from
http://www.cc.emory.edu/WHSCL/citation.formats.html
g. WWW Document - no author, no date:

GVU's 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000,

from
http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/usersurveys/survey1997-10/

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Referencing weirder sources.


a. Government report:
National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and

behaviour: Ten years of scientific progress and implications


for the eighties (DHHS Publication No. ADM82-1195).

Washington DC: US Government Printing Office.


b. Publication with no date given:

Malachi, Z. (Ed.). (n.d.) Proceedings of the International


Conference on Literary and Linguistic Copmputing. Tel Aviv:
Faculty of Humanities, Tel Aviv University.
c. Unpublished dissertation or thesis:
Devins, G. M. (1981). Helplessness, depression, and mood in endstage renal disease. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
McGill University, Montreal.
d. Unpublished conference paper:
Howarth, P. (1995, March). Phraseological standards in EAP. Paper
presented at the meeting of the British Association of
Lecturers in English for Academic Purposes, Nottingham.
e. Film or videotape:
Maas, J. B. (Producer), and Gluck, D. H. (Director). (1979). Deeper
into hypnosis [Film]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Citing sources
One of the most important aspects of academic writing is
making use of the ideas of other people. This is important as
you need to show that you have understood the materials
that you have studied and that you can use their ideas and
findings in your own way. In fact, this is an essential skill for
every student.
Spack (1988, p. 42) has pointed out that the most important
skill a student can engage in is "the complex activity to write
from other texts", which is "a major part of their academic
experience." For this reason, any academic text you read or
write will contain the voices of other writers as well as your
own.
In your writing, however, the main voice should be your own
and it should be clear what your point of view is in relation to
the topic or essay question. The object of academic writing
is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of
the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in
your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other
peoples ideas, rather than reproducing their words. If your
view is not clear, you will be told you have not answered the
question or something similar. It is essential therefore that
it must always be clear whose voice is speaking.

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Two ways of citing work


There are two ways in which you can refer to, or cite,
another person's work: a) by reporting or b) by direct
quotation.
a) Reporting
This simply means reporting the other writer's ideas into
your own words. You can either paraphrase if you want to
keep the length the same or summarise if you want to make
the text shorter. See Reporting: Paraphrase & Summary for
more information. There are two main ways (Swales, 1990, p.
148) of showing that you have used another writer's ideas:

integral
According to Peters (1983) evidence from first language
acquisition indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as
unanalysed lexical chunks.
Evidence from first language acquisition indicating that
lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks
was given by Peters (1983).
OR non-integral
Evidence from first language acquisition (Peters, 1983)
indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed
lexical chunks.
Lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks
(Peters, 1983).
depending on whether or not the name of the cited author
occurs in the citing sentence or in parenthesis.

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If you want to refer to a particular part of the source:


According to Peters (1983, p. 56) evidence from first
language acquisition indicates that lexical phrases are learnt
first as unanalysed lexical chunks.
(At end of essay)
References
Peters, A (1983). The units of language acquisition. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
b) Direct Quotation
Occasionally you may want to quote another author's words
exactly. For example:
Hillocks (1982) similarly reviews dozens of research findings.
He writes, "The available research suggests that teaching by
written comment on compositions is generally ineffective" (p.
267).
(At end of essay)
References
Hillocks, G. (1982). The interaction of instruction, teacher
comment, and revision in teaching the composing process.
Research in the Teaching of English, 16, 261-278.
If you do so, keep the quotation as brief as possible and
quote only when it is necessary. You must always have a good
reason for using a quote - and feeling unable to paraphrase
or summarise is never a good reason. The idea of an essay is
for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the
subject; you present ideas you have learned in your own way.
The emphasis should be on working with other peoples ideas,
not reproducing their words.

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Your paper should be a synthesis of information from


sources, expressed in your own words, not a collection of
quotations. Any quote you use should not do your job for you,
but should add something to the point you are making. The
quote should support your point, by quoting evidence or giving
examples or illustrating, or add the weight of an authority.
It should not repeat information or disagree with your point.
Reasons for using quotations:
1. quote if you use another person's words: you must
not use another person's words as your own;
2. you need to support your points, quoting is one way to
do this;
3. quote if the language used in the quotation says what
you want to say particularly well.
Reasons for not using quotations:
1. do not quote if the information is well-known in your
subject area;
2. do not use a quotation that disagrees with your
argument unless you can prove it is wrong;
3. do not quote if you cannot understand the meaning of
the original source;
4. do not quote if you are not able to paraphrase the
original;
5. do not use quotations to make your points for you;
use them to support your points.
If you decide to use a quotation, you must be very careful to
make it clear that the words or ideas that you are using are
taken from another writer.

Language

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Reporting - Paraphrasing and


Summarising
Reporting uses paraphrase and summary to acknowledge
another author's ideas. You can extract and summarise
important points, while at the same time making it clear from
whom and where you have got the ideas you are discussing
and what your point of view is. Compare, for example:
Brown (1983, p. 231) claims that a far more effective
approach is ...
Brown (1983, p. 231) points out that a far more effective
approach is ...
A far more effective approach is ... (Brown, 1983, p. 231)
The first one is Brown's opinion with no indication about your
opinion. The second one is Brown's opinion, which you agree
with, and the third is your opinion, which is supported by
Brown
Here are some more expressions you can use to refer to
someone's work that you are going to paraphrase:
If you agree with what the writer says.
The work of X indicates that ...
The work of X reveals that ...
The work of X shows that ...
Turning to X, one finds that ...
Reference to X reveals that ...
In a study of Y, X found that ...

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As X points out, ...


As X has indicated ...
A study by X shows that ...
X has drawn attention to the fact that ...
X argues that ...
X points out that ...
X makes clear that ...
If you disagree with what the writer says.
X claims that ...
The work of X asserts that ...
X feels that ...
If you do not want to give your opinion about what the writer
says.
According to X...
It is the view of X that ...
The opinion of X is that ...
In an article by X, ...
Research by X suggests that ...
X has expressed a similar view.
X reports that ...
X notes that ...

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Quoting
Sometimes you may want to quote an author's words exactly,
not paraphrase them. If you decide to quote directly from a
text, you will need an expression to introduce it and
quotation marks will need to be used:
As X said/says, "... ..."
As X stated/states, "... ..."
As X wrote/writes, "... ..."
As X commented/comments, "... ..."
As X observed/observes, "... ..."
As X pointed/points out, "... ..."
To quote from X, "... ..."
It was X who said that "... ..."
This example is given by X: "... ..."
According to X, "... ..."
X claims that, "... ..."
X found that, "... ..."
The opinion of X is that, "... ..."

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Concluding.
After quoting evidence you reach a conclusion:
The evidence seems to indicate that...
It must therefore be recognised that...
The indications are therefore that...
It is clear therefore that ...
Thus it could be concluded that...
The evidence seems to be strong that...
On this basis it may be inferred that...
Given this evidence, it can be seen that...

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Notes on Punctuation.
The sentence and the full stop
The full stop is the most important punctuation mark. It shows the end of
the sentence. The English language also uses capital letters at the
beginning of sentences.
For example:
The first schools in what is now British Columbia were established by the
Hudsons Bay Company in about 1853 on Vancouver Island. The present public
school system originated with the Public School Act of 1872. Education is free and
compulsory for children ages 7 to 15. Schools are funded by the provincial
government and local property taxes. The provinces 75 school districts are
administered by locally elected boards.

The comma
The comma is the most important punctuation mark after the full stop. Its
main use is for separating parts of sentences. Commas function in four
main ways:
1. Before or after adverbial clauses and phrases.
2. Before various connectives to join two independent clauses.
3. To separate some non-defining phrases from the rest of the sentence.
4. To separate words, phrases and clauses in a series.
5. To separate adjectives that separately modify the same noun.

1. Before or after adverbial clauses and phrases


For example:
Recently, the number of service enterprises in wealthier free-market economies has
grown rapidly.
Subsequently, the aircraft underwent numerous design changes before it was
incorporated into the Type 4 jet aircraft.
To visit his brother, he drove through the night.
After dinner, he walked around the town.

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2. Before various connectives to join two independent clauses


(and, but, or, so nor, for yet)
For example:
What we require is a National Emergency Government, but no two men I meet can
agree how this can be formed.
The house badly needed painting, and the roof needed repairing.
Lord Knollys was not particularly pleased with these proposals, nor were other
members of the Cabinet.
A loose stretch would wrinkle too easily with successive washes, or might even
wrinkle on a damp day.
There was no Canadian Consulate in Paris at that time, so we had to go to the
American Consulate for ours.
It was clearly not an all-party government, yet it was something more than
a mere Conservative front.
These experiments led to theories about how development was controlled
in terms of cell and tissue properties, but it was very difficult to link these
theories with gene action.
3. To separate certain phrases from the rest of the sentence
For example:
Malaria, once a widespread disease, is under control.
Day-to-day television, in its regularity and its availability, seems regulated by
repetition and modulated by acceptable difference.
Mr Clinton, the President, said that he would give his full support to the proposal.
The Conservatives, who had gained more votes than Labour in the 1929 general
election, were only the second largest party.
The chairman, getting to his feet, began to describe his plans.
The opposition parties, however, were unwilling to accept any programme of
economies which did not involve a cut in the standard rate of benefit.
to leave the country to play in Italy and elsewhere.
4. To separate words, phrases and clauses in a series
For example:
Many U.S. firms attempt to tap emerging markets by pursuing business in China,
India, Latin America, and Russia and other Eastern European countries.
Life-support machines are no different in principle from medicines, surgery, or
other treatment.
A policeman has to be able to work at night, at weekends and on holidays.
The industrial power generator, electronics, and appliance manufacturer
Westinghouse Electric Corporation purchased media production company CBS
Inc.
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries manufactures a large variety of industrial products and
machinery, including ships, steel products, power plants, transportation systems,

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5. To separate adjectives that separately modify the same noun.


For example:
Critics praise the novel's unaffected, unadorned style.
It was conceived of by all those who participated in it as a temporary, emergency
government.
He walked with long, slow, steady, deliberate strides.

Common mistakes.
A comma can not separate subject from predicate. The following
sentences are not possible:
*A man of his great abilities, would always be successful.
*The number of service enterprises in wealthier free-market economies, has grown
rapidly.
*Only occupants of the deep oceans or the darkest recesses of caves, will escape
such rhythmic influences.
*Experience indicates that, these rhythms do not result wholly from our life-style.
A comma can not be used to join grammatically separate sentences. The
following sentences are not possible:
*London is a very cosmopolitan city, there are people from many culture living
there.
*Learning a new language is like learning to swim, it takes a lot of practice.
*International students face many problems, for example, they have to cope with a
new culture.

The apostrophe
The apostrophe has two main functions in English, but only one in
academic writing. It is used mainly to show possession or relationship. It is
also used in informal writing to show contraction or letters left out.
Possession or relationship. The apostrophe precedes the 's' in singular
words and plurals that do not end in 's'. It follows the 's' in plurals that end
in 's'. The apostrophe is not used with the possessive pronouns 'hers',
'yours', 'theirs' and 'its'.
For example:
The provinces 75 school districts are administered by locally elected boards.
Modern estimates of Englands total population vary between 1 and 3 million.
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Two years earlier, The Economist had described gambling, as Britain's second
biggest industry.
The annual per capita consumption of sugar, between the Queen's accession and
1860, rose to 54 lb. in 1870-99 and 85 lb. in 1900-10.
Newly married, neatly permed and wearing the very latest in expensive Western
wedding garb, they head for the groom's sleek sports car under a hail of rice.
By then Leonardo's expertise with paint brush and palette, pen and pencil was
already well advanced.
In contrast to the all-inclusiveness of other countries' socialised medical services,
40m Americans have no coverage at all.
The intention of this new alliance is to make the fight against the administration's
policy on cryptography a populist issue and to derail potentially threatening
legislation.
Hemp's environmental credentials are indisputable.
The third and main reason is the process of extracting fibre from the plant's stem.
The weather's unpredictability makes this risky - farmers can easily lose their
whole crop.

Quotation marks.
In academic writing, quotation marks are used to show that you are quoting
directly from another author's work. The quotation marks should enclose
the actual words of the author and all bibliographical information must be
given.
For example:
Hillocks (1986) similarly reviews dozens of research findings. He writes, "The
available research suggests that teaching by written comment on compositions is
generally ineffective"(p. 167).
For example, McCawley stated in 1968, "... a full account of English syntax
requires a fairly full account of semantics to just as great an extent as the converse
is true" (p. 161).
Hatch (1978, p. 104) wonders whether a more accurate portrayal might be that the
learner "learns how to do conversation, how to interact verbally and out of this
interaction syntactic structures are developed".
Note the punctuation before the quotation marks:
When a reporting verb is used to introduce the quotation, a comma is used.
He stated, "The placebo effect, ... disappeared when behaviours were studied in
this manner" (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviours were
studied.
When the quotation is integrated into the structure of your sentence, no
punctuation is used.
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Colon.
Colons are used to add extra information after a clause. This can be
divided into three main categories.
Lists
A colon can introduce a list.
We need three kinds of support: economic, moral and political.
The Labour government found itself under pressure from three directions:
from the left wing, from the TUC, and from Sir Oswald Mosley and his
supporters.
Explanations
A colon can be used before an explanation.
We decided not to go on holiday: we had too little money.
It was conceived of by all those who participated in it as a temporary,
emergency government, formed for a single limited purpose: to balance the
budget through drastic economies and increases in taxation.
It was something very rarely seen in Britain, or in other democracies: an
emergency government.
Quotations
A colon is used before a quotation when the quotation is independent of the
structure of the main sentence.
Miele (1993, p. 276) found the following: "The placebo effect ... disappeared when
behaviors were studied in this manner."
Note
Do not use a colon directly after a verb or a preposition that introduces the
list, explanation or quotation.

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Capital letters.
Capital letters have two main uses in English: they are used at the
beginning of sentences and for proper names.
At the beginning of a sentence
If football was a business, it was a very peculiar one. Clubs did not compete with
one another to attract larger crowds by reducing their prices. Nor did they make
any serious efforts to derive income from a huge fixed asset, which was used for
only a few hours a week.
Proper names
Personal names: John, Ms Smith, Dr Brown, Mr Gates, Elizabeth,
Titles: Mr, Ms, Dr, Colonel, Professor, President, Prime Minister, Judge
Geographical names: Argentinian, Europe, China, Mount Everest, Lake
Michigan Skye, Borneo, London, Bangkok, the River Thames, the Pacific Ocean,
the Panama Canal, Baker Street, Cambridge Road, Raffles Hotel, St George's Hall
Company/Organisation names: Shell, Woolworths, Microsoft, Boots, World
Trade Organisation, World Health Organisation, Federal Trade Commission,
British Broadcasting Corporation
University/School names: Oxford University, University of Hertfordshire, Royal
College of Music
Religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam
Days, months, festivals - but not seasons: Monday, July, Christmas, summer,
Magazines: Newsweek, Vogue, The Times, New Scientist
Languages: English, Hindi
Nationalities: English, French, Spanish, Japanese, American
Try these exercises: Exercises 4 & 5
Now do this exercise as a summary: Exercise 6

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Fletcher, M. & Hargreaves, R. (1973). Defining and verbalising. London: Evans.


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Greenall, S. & Swan, M. (1986). Effective reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Grellet, F. (1981). Developing reading skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Haarman, L., Leech, P. & Murray, J. (1988). Reading skills for the social sciences. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1989). Spoken and written language (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hamp-Lyons, L. & Courter, K. B. (1984). Research matters. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House.
Hamp-Lyons, L. & Heasley, B. (1987). Study writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Hargreaves, R. & Fletcher, M. (1978). Making polite noises. London: Evans.
Hargreaves, R. & Fletcher, M. (1981). Arguing and discussing. London: Evans.

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Harman, C. & Freeman, R. (1972). How to study effectively. Cambridge: NEC.


Harmer, J. & Arnold, J. (1978). Advanced speaking skills. Harlow: Longman.
Heaton, B. & Dunmore, D. (1992). Learning to study in English. London: Macmillan.
Herbert, A. J. (1965). The structure of technical English. Harlow: Longman.
Hewings, M. (1993). Pronunciation tasks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hewings, M. (1999). Advanced grammar in use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hill, J. & Lewis, M. (Eds.). (1997). LTP dictionary of selected collocations. Hove: LTP.
Hogue, A. (1996). First steps in academic writing. London: Longman.
Holschuh, L. & Kelley, P. (1992). Academic reading. London: Macmillan.
Hopkins, A. (1989). Perspectives. London: Longman.
Hopkins, A. & Tribble, C. (1989). Outlines. London: Longman.
Hopkins, D. & Nettle, M. (1993). Passport to IELTS. London: Macmillan.
Hornby, A. S. (2000). Oxford advanced learner's dictionary of current English (6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Howe, P. (1983). Answering examination questions. London: Collins.
Huckin, T. N. & Olsen, L. A. (1991). Technical writing and professional communication for non-native speakers of
English. New York: McGraw Hill.
Huddleston, R. & Pullum, G. K. (2002). The Cambridge grammar of the English language. Cambridge: Cambridge
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Inglis, J. & Lewis, R. (1979). Clear thinking. Cambridge: NEC.
Ingram, E. (1977). Basic Concepts in Testing. In J. P. B. Allen, & A. Davies (Eds.), The Edinburgh Course in Applied
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International English Language Testing System (1989). An Introduction to IELTS. London: The British Council.
International English Language Testing System (1995). The IELTS handbook. London: The British Council.
James, D. V. (1992). English for academic purposes - Medicine. London: Prentice Hall.
James, G. (1992). Interactive listening on campus: Authentic mini-lectures. Boston, Heinle & Heinle.
James, K. (1984). Speak to learn. Glasgow: Collins.
James, K., Jordan, R. R. & Matthews, A. J. (1979). Listening comprehension and note taking course. Glasgow: Collins.
Jarvis, H. (2001). Internet usage of English for academic purposes courses. ReCALL, 13, 206212.
Johnson, D. & C. M. (1992). English for academic purposes - general engineering. London: Prentice Hall.
Johnson, K. (1981). Communicate in writing. Harlow: Longman.
Jolly, D. (1984). Writing tasks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jones, L. (1981). Functions of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

50

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Jordan, R. R. & Nixson, F. I. (1986). Language for economics. Glasgow: Collins.


Jordan, R. R. (1980). Looking for information. Harlow: Longman.
Jordan, R. R. (1982). Figures in language: Describe and draw. Glasgow: Collins.
Jordan, R. R. (1984). Active listening. Glasgow: Collins.
Jordan, R. R. (1990). Academic writing course (new ed.).Walton-on-Thames: Nelson.
Jordan, R. R. (1999). Academic writing course (3rd ed.).London: Longman.
Kayfetz, J. L. & Smith, M. E. F. (1992). Speaking effectively: Strategies for academic interaction. Boston, MA: Heinle &
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Kayfetz, J. & Stice, R. (1987). Academically speaking. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Keller, E. & Warner, S. T. (1988). Conversation Gambits. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
Kenny, P. H. (1991). Studying law. London: Butterworths.
Kitto, M. & West, R. (1984). Engineering information. London: Edward Arnold.
Kwan-Terry, A. (1988). Interactive writing. London: Prentice Hall.
Laird, E. (1977). English in focus: English in education. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Latulippe, L. D. (1992). Writing as a personal product. London: Prentice Hall.
Lawrence, M. (1972). Writing as a thinking process. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Lebauer, R. S. (2000). Learn to listen: Listen to learn (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.
Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (1975). A communicative grammar of English. London: Longman.
Leki, I. (1998). Academic writing (2nd ed.). London: Cambridge University Press.
Leki, I. & Carson, J. (1997). Completely different worlds: EAP and the writing experiences of ESL students in university
courses. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 39-69.
Lewis, R. & Inglis, J. (1982). Report writing. Cambridge: NEC.
Lewis, R. (1983). How to write essays. Cambridge: NEC.
Lillis, T. (1997). Essay writing. In S. Drew & R. Bingham (Eds.), The student skills guide (pp. 53-76 & 195-221).
Aldershot: Gower.
Light, R. L., Xu, M., & Mossop, J. (1987). English proficiency and academic performance of international students.
TESOL Quarterly, 21, 251-261.
Lynch, T. & Anderson, K. (1992). Study speaking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lynch, T. (1983). Study listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
MacKenzie, I. (1997). English for Business studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Maddox, H. (1963). How to study. New York: Fawsett Premier.
MacLachlan, G. & Reid, I. (1994). Framing and interpretation. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press.

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Madden, C. G. & Rohlck, T. N. (1997). Discussion and interaction in the academic community. Ann Arbor: The
University of Michigan Press.
Mason, A. (1983). Understanding academic lectures. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Matthews, C. & Marino. J. (1990). Professional interactions: Oral communication skills in science, technology, and
medicine. London: Prentice Hall.
McArthur, T. (1973). A rapid course in English for students of economics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McArthur, T. (1984a). The written word 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McArthur, T. (1984b). The written word 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McCarthy, M. (1991). Discourse analysis for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McDonough, J. (1978). Listening to lectures: Biology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McDonough, J. (1978). Listening to lectures: Government. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McDonough, J. (1978). Listening to lectures: Sociology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McDowell, J. & Stevens, S. (1982). Basic listening. London: Edward Arnold.
McGovern, D. (1994). English for academic study series: Reading. London: Prentice Hall.
Mead, R. (1985). English for economics. Harlow: Longman.
MELAB (1994). MELAB technical manual. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan, English Language Institute.
Menasche, L. (1997). Writing a research paper (Rev. ed.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Methold, K. & Blatchford, R. (1983). Summary. London: Hutchinson.
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Moor, C. (1981). Answer the question. Cambridge: NEC.
Moore, J. (1979). Reading and thinking in English: Discovering discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Moore, J. (1979). Reading and thinking in English: Exploring functions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Moore, J. (1980). Reading and thinking in English: Concepts in use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Moore, J. (1980). Reading and thinking in English: Discourse in action. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Morrow, K. (1980). Skills for reading. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mortimer, C. (1985). Elements of pronunciation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mountford, A. (1977). English in agriculture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Murphy, R. (1985). English grammar in use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Neufeld, J. (1987). A handbook for technical communication. London: Prentice Hall.
Northedge, A. (1990). The good study guide. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press.
Northedge, A., Thomas, J., Lane, A. & Peasgood, A. (1997). The sciences good study guide. Milton Keynes: The Open
University Press.

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Northern Examinations and Assessment Board (1995). University entrance test in English for speakers of other
languages. Manchester: NEAB.
Nuttall, C. (1982). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. London: Heinemann.
O'Brien, T. & Jordan, R. R. (1985). Developing reference skills. Glasgow: Collins.
O'Connor, J. D. (1980). Better English pronunciation (new ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Open University. (1979). Preparing to study. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (1991). Writing academic English (2nd ed.). New York: Addison-Wesley.
Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (1997). Introduction to academic writing (2nd ed.). New York: Addison-Wesley.
Payne, P. (1983). Punctuation. London: Hutchinson.
Pechenik, J. & Lamb, B. (1994). How to write about Biology. London: Longman.
Phillips, E. M. & Pugh, D. S. (1987). How to get a PhD. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Pilbeam, A., Ellis, M. & O'Driscoll, N. (1982). The economist: An English language guide. Glasgow: Collins.
Pincas, A., Hadfield, G. & Hadfield, C. (1982). Writing in English 3. London: Macmillan.
Pirie, D. B. (1985). How to write critical essays. London: Routledge.
Pitman Examinations Institute (1988). Examinations in English for speakers of other languages: A guide for teachers.
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Porter, D. (2001). Check your vocabulary for academic English. London: Peter Collin Publishing.
Powell, M. (1996). Presenting in English. Hove: LTP.
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Longman.
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Reid, J. M. (2000). The process of composition (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
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Romanoff, M. R. (1991). Language and study skills for learners of English. London: Prentice Hall.
Rooks, G. M. (1988). Paragraph power: Communicating ideas through paragraphs. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
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Rosenthal, L. & Rowland, S. B. (1986). Academic reading and study skills for international students. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Rouse, S. (1978). Writing essays in social science. Cambridge: NEC.
Rowntree, D. (1976). Learn how to study. London: Macdonald.

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Ruetten, M. K. (1986). Comprehending academic lectures. New York: Macmillan.


Russell, F. & Locke, C. (1992). English law and language. London: Cassell.
Salimbene, S. (1982). Strengthening your study skills: A guide for overseas students. London: University of London
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Seal, B. (1997). Academic encounters. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sellen, D. (1982). Skills in action. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
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Sim, D. D. & Laufer-Dvorkin, B. (1984). Vocabulary development. Glasgow: Collins.
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Smith, M. & Smith, G. (1988). A study skills handbook. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Spack, R. (1988). Initiating ESL students into the academic discourse community: How far should we go? TESOL
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Sullivan, T. (1979). Writing. Cambridge: NEC.
Swales, J. (1971). Writing scientific English. Walton on Thames: Nelson.
Swales, J. (1982). Examining examination papers. English Language Research Journal, 3, 9-25.
Swales, J. M. & Feak, C. B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Swales, J. M. & Feak, C. B. (2000). English in today's research world. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Swan, M. (1975). Inside meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Swan, M. (1976). Understanding ideas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Thompson, G. (1994). Collins COBUILD English Guides 5: Reporting. London: Harper Collins.
Thurstun, J. & Candlin, C. N. (1998). Exploring academic English. Sydney: NCELTR.
Todd, F. (1981). Focus listening. London: Macmillan.

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Tonkyn, A. (1995). English language proficiency standards for overseas students: Who needs what level? The Journal
of International Education, 6(2), 37-61.
Toulmin, S. E. (1958). The uses of argument. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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Tucker, M. (1984). Spelling. London: Hutchinson.
Turabian, K. L. (1987). A manual for writers of term papers, theses and dissertations. Chicago: University of Chicago
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Turk, C. & Kirkman, J. (1989). Effective writing. London: E. & F. N. Spon.
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number 14.1: Appendix II. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire.
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Vaughan James, C. (1989). English for academic purposes - Business Studies. London: Prentice Hall.
Walker, T. (1992). English for academic purposes - computer science. London: Prentice Hall.
Wallace M (1980). Study skills in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Walter, C. (1982). Authentic reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Waters, M. & Waters, A. (1995). Study tasks in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weissberg, R. & Buker, S. (1990). Writing up research: Experimental research report writing for students of English.
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White, R. & McGovern, D. (1994). English for academic study series: Writing. London: Prentice Hall.
Widdowson, H. G. (1971). English studies series 8: Language teaching texts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Williams, G. (1982). Learning the law. London: Stevens.
Williams, R. (1982). Panorama: An advanced course of English for study and examinations. London: Longman.
Williams, R. (1984). A cognitive approach to English nominal compounds. In A. K. Pugh & J. M. Ulijn (Eds.), Reading for
professional purposes (pp. 146-153). London: Heinemann.

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Winter, E. O. (1982). Towards a contextual grammar of English. London: George Allen and Unwin.
Woodward-Kron, R. (2002). Critical analysis versus description? Examining the relationship in successful student
writing. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 1, 121-143.
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Yates, C. St. J. (1992). English for academic purposes - Agriculture. London: Prentice Hall.
Yates, C. St. J. (1992). English for academic purposes - Economics. London: Prentice Hall.
Yorkey, R. C. (1982). Study skills for students of English (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Zimmerman, F. (1989). English for science. London: Prentice Hall.
Zwier, L. J. (2002). Building academic vocabulary. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

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