Final Exam Review

1. Definitions
(a) Least Upper Bound/ Supremum
s R is a supremum for a set A R if it meets the following criteria:
i. s is an upper bound for A;
ii. if b is any upper bound for A, then s b
(b) Definition 1.4.6 Cardinality
Two sets A and B have the same cardinality if there exists f : A B
that is bijective.
(c) 2.2.3 Convergence of a Sequence
A sequence (a n ) converges to a R iff for every > 0, there exists an
N N such that, whenever n N , it implies |a n a| < .
(d) Limit Superior of (a n )
lim sup a n = lim y n where y n = sup{a k |k n}.
(e) Cauchy sequence
a sequence (a n )is cauchy iff for all , there exists N N such that,
whenever n, m N , |a n a m | < .
(f) Ratio Test
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Given

a k with a k 6= 0, the Ratio Test states if (a k ) satisfies lim |

a k+/1
=
ak

r < 1, then the series converges absolutely.

(g) Open Set
A set O R is open if for every a O, there exists a V (a) O.
(h) Limit point
A point x is a limit point of a set A if every V (x) intersects A at a
point other than x.
(i) Closedness
A set F R is closed if it contains all its limit points.
(j) Compactness
A set K R is compact if it every sequence contains a susequence
which converges to a limit in K .
(k) Functional Limit
We say limxc f (x) = L if for every > 0, > 0 such that whenever
0 < |x c| < , it follows that | f (x) L| < .
(l) Continuity
A function f : A R is continuous at a point c A if, for every > 0,
there exists a > 0 such that whenever |x c| < and x A, it follows
that | f (x) f (c)| < .
(m) Uniform Continuity
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A function f : A R is uniformly continuous if, for every > 0,

such that |x y| < implies | f (x) f (y)| < .
(n) Pointwise Convergence
For each n N, let f n be a function defined on A R. ( f n ) converges
pointwise on A if for all x A, the sequence of real numbers f n (x) converges to f (x)
(o) Uniform Convergence
Let f n be seq of fns on A. ( f n ) converges uniformly on A to a limit f
defined on A if, for every > 0, there exists an N N such that | f n (x)
f (x)| < whenever n N and x A.
(p) partition
a partition of [a, b] is an ordered, finite set P = {a = x o , x 1 , x n = b}
(q) upper integral
let P 0 be collection of all possible partictions of [a,b]. upper lim of f
is U ( f ) = inf{U ( f , P ) : P P 0 }

2. Theorems and Lemmata

(a) Lemma 1.3.7
Let s be an upper bound for A R. Then s = sup A iff for every > 0,
there exists an a A such that s < a
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(b) Theorem 1.4.1 Nested Interval Property

For each n N, assume we are given a closed interval I n = [a n , b n ].
Assume also that each I n contains I n+1 . Then, the resulting nested sequence of closed intervals I 1 I 2 I 3 has a non empty subset;
that is,
n=1 I n 6= ;.
(c) Theorem 2.4.2 Monotone Convergence Theorem
If a sequence is monotone and bounded, then it converges.
(d) Theorem 2.4.6 Cauchy Condensation test
Suppose (b n ) is decreasing and satisfies b n 0 for all n N. Then
P

b n converges iff

2n b s n converges

(e) B-W Theorem

Every bounded sequence contains a convergent subsequence.
(f) Cauchy criterion
A sequence converges if and only if it is a Cauchy sequence.
(g) Cauchy Criterion for series
the series

a k converges iff given > 0. N N such that whenever

n > m N , it follows that |a m + a m+1 + a n | < .

Proof: since |s n s m | = |a m + a m+1 + a n |, apply CC for sequences.
(h) Theorem 2.7.3
If

a k converges, then (a k ) 0.
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(i) Comparison test

given sequences satisfying 0 a k b k , then if
does

a k and if

a k diverges, so does

b k converges, so

bk .

(j) Geometric series

P

ar k =

a
iff |r | < 1.
1r

(k) Theorem 3.2.3 Collections of open sets

The union of an arbitrary collection of open sets is open. The intersection of a finite collection of open sets is open.
(l) Theorem 3.2.5 A point x is a limit point of A iff x = lim a n for some
(a n ) A satisfying a n 6= x for all n N.
(m) Theorem 3.2.8 Closed and Cauchy
A set F R is closed iff every cauchy sequence in F has a limit also
and element in F .
(n) Sequential Criterion for Functional Limits
Given a function f : A R and limit point c of A, the following statements are equivalent:
i. lim f (x) = L
ii. For all sequences (x n ) A satisfying x n 6= c and (x c ) c, it follows
that f (x n ) L.
(o) Divergence Criterion for Functional Limits
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Let f : A R and c L(A). If there exists (x n ), (y n ) A with x n 6= c

and y n 6= c and lim x n = lim y n = c but lim f (x n ) 6= lim f (y n ), then we
conclude that the functional limit lim f (x) = L does not exist.
(p) Characterizations of Continuity
Let f : A R and c L(A). f is continuous at c iff any of the following is met:
i. lim f (x) = f (c)
ii. if (x n ) c (with x A), then f (x n ) f (c).
(q) Criterion for Discontinuity
If for f : A R and where c A is a limit point for A, there exists a
(x n ) A where (x n ) c but such that f (x n ) does not converge to f (c),
then f is not continuous at c.
(r) Theorem 4.4.2 Preservation of Compact Sets
Let f : A R be continuous on A. If K A is compact, f (K ) is too.
(s) Thrm 4.4.3 Extreme Value Theorem
If f : K R where K R is compact, then f attains maximum and
minimum values on K . Or x o , x 1 K such that f (x o ) f (x) f (x 1 )
for all x K .
(t) Sequential Criterion for Nonuniform Continuity
A function f : A R fails to be uniformly continuous on A iff, o >
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0 and (x n ), (y n ) A satisfying |x n y n | o but | f (x n ) f (y n )| o .

(u) Theorem 4.4.8 continuity on K
A function which is continuous on a compact set K is uniformly
continuous on K .
(v) 6.2.6 unif converge on cont functs
let ( f n ) converge uniformly to f . If each f n is cont at c A, then f is
cont at c A.
(w) thrm 6.3.3
Let ( f n ) de seq of dif funcs on [a,b] and assume ( f n ) converges unif
to g on [a,b]. If exists x o [a, b] is converge, ( f n converge unif. And
limit func f = lim f n is different so that f 0 = g .
(x) 6.4.2
assume

f n converges unif on A to f . then f is continuous on A.

3. Techniques for proving theorems and examples

(a) Density of Q in R
want to show c Q such that a < c =

n
m

< b for all a, b R and

n, m Z. Multiply by m and then archimed to choose n. then rearrange to choose m by arch as well.
(b) R is uncountable
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Contradiction. assume there is biject function such that x 1 = f (1), x 2 =

f (2). Set up interval which doesnt contain x 1 . divide into two and label that interval which doesnt contain x 2 . inductively construct I n+1
I n such that x n+1 I n+1 . if some number exists such that x no = f (n o ),
then x no I n so infinite intersection is empty set. contradicts NIP
(c) Order limit theorem
(i). Contradiction. Assume a < 0. COnsider particular o = |a|. Convergence guarantees for all n N , we can find |a n a| < |a|. But this
implies a N < 0 contradicting hypothesis
Alg limit thrm guarantees b n a n converges to b a. Say b n a n 0
and apply (i). (iii) a n = c for all n N and apply (ii).
(d) MCT
find s = sup A. By lemma 1.3.7, a N such that s < a N ; so then
s < a N a n < s < s + for all n N. So a n converges to s.
(e) Showing

P 1
covnerges
n2

1
+
Take series of partial sums (s m ). Notice s m = 1+ 212 + 312 + m12 < 1+ 21
1
32

1
1
+ m(m1)
= 1 + (1 12 ) + ( 12 31 ) + ( m1
m1 = 1 + 1 m1 < 2

(f) Showing

P1
diverges
n
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Notice
1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
s 8 = 1 + 1/2 + ( + ) + ( + ) > 1 + 1/2 + ( + ) + ( + ).
3 4
5
8
4 4
8
8
In general,
1 1
1
1
1
1
s 2k = 1 + 1/2 + ( + ) + ( + ) + ( k1
+ k )
3 4
5
8
2 +1
2
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
> 1 + 1/2 + ( + ) + ( + ) + ( k + k ) = 1 + k
4 4
8
8
2
2
2
which is not bounded.
(g) CCT
assume

2n b 2n converges. Theorem 2.3.2 guarantees t k =

2 k b 2k

are bounded. Fix m and let k be large enough to ensure m 2k+1 1.

Then s m s 2k+1 1 and

s 2k+1 1 = b 1 + (b 2 + b 3 ) + (b 4 + b 7 ) + (b 2k + b 2k +11 )
b 1 + (b 2 + b 2 ) + 4(b 4 ) + (b 2k + b 2k ) = b 1 + 2b 2 + 4b 4 + 2k b 2k = t k .
Thus s m t k M . by MCT,

b n converges.

(h) MCT
If M is the bounding value, construct [M , M ] and bisect into [M , 0], [0, M ].
Choose half which contains infinite number and label it I 1 . Then choose
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a n1 I 1 a n . Bisect I 1 and find the interval I 2 which contains an infinite number of elements of (a n ). Choose a n2 I 2 a n such that n 2 > n 1 .
In general, construct the closed interval I k containing infinite points
of (a n ) and then select n k > n k1 > n 1 so that a nk I k . Use NIP to get
x I k . Let > 0. Length of I k is M 21

k1

which we know converges to

0 by alg limit thrm and as shown before. Choose N so k N implies

length of I k is less then . then since x and a nk are in I k , it follows (how)
that |a nk x|.
(i) Cauchy Criterion
backward direction. BW to show subseq (x nk ) converges to x and
use as candidate. B/c cauchy, such that |x n x m | < 2 . Since subseq
converges, choose K such that |x nK x| < 2 . Use ineq to say |x n x| =
|x n x nK + x nK x| |x n x nK | + |x nK x| <

+ 2 since |x n x nK | is

rephrasement of cauchy sequence.

forward. Choose N given by convergence definition. Then let m, n
N . We can then say |x n x| < 2 , |x m x| < 2 . Then use triang ineq to
say |x n x m | = |x n x (x m x)| |x n x| + |x m + x| < .
(j) Theorem 3.2.5 x is a limit point of some sequence converges to it
forward. let x be limit point of A. Consider = n1 . Then by def,
for each n N, we can pick a n V 1 (x) A where a n 6= x. Then given
n

arbitrary > 0, choose N such that

10

1
N

< . Then necessarily |a n x| <

since the V 1 captures the a n close to x.

n

backward. practically definition of limit points when using topological version of convergence.
(k) Heine-Borel
forward. Contradiction. assume unbounded. try to find sequene
going to infinity, like |x 1 | > 1, |x 2 | > 2. Now because compact, find
converg subseq (a nk but notice a nk > n k meaning a nk is unbounded
but contradiction by Thrm 2.3.2. Let x n be a sequence in K where x =
lim x n . By def of compact, (x nk ) such that the subseq converges. by
therm 2.5.3, all subse of converge seq converge to same lim x. Since K
is compact, x K . THerefore, K contains lim points and is closed.
backward. since bounded, contains convergence subseq by BW. x =
lim x nk . by 3.2.5 x is limit point of K . since closed, x K . Therefore,
x n whose subseq converges to a point in K .
(l) Theorem 4.4.8 Continuity on Compact Sets
Contradict. try to satisfy criterion for nonunif cont. Choose (x n ), (y n )
K satisfying |x n y n | 0. Because K is compact, (x nk ) (x n ) which
converges to x. Also (y nk ) (y n ) converges but notice lim y nk = lim(y nk
x nk ) + x nk = 0 + x by how we chose (y n ), (x n ) and the fact that subseqs of convergent seqs converge to same limit. B/c f is cont at x,
Characterizations of Cont (iv) says lim f (x n ) = f (x), lim f (y n ) = f (x| so
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| f (x) f (x)| = 0 which contradicts the original assumption of nonunif

discont.
(m) Extreme Value theorem
Since c (a, b) we can construct (x n ) (a, c), (y n ) (c, b) such that
x n < c < y n for all n N. Because f (c) is a maximum, f (y n ) f (c) 0
for all n. And since we created (y n ) such that y n c > 0 for all n, we
invoke the order limit theorem (iii) to say lim
Likewise, lim

f (y n ) f (c)
= f 0 (c) 0.
yn c

f (x n ) f (c)
= f 0 (c) 0. Therefore, f 0 (c) = 0.
xn c

4. Mistakes made in Proofs

(a) Nested Interval Property
determined sup A but didnt consider particular interval I n . Show
s = sup A is contained in I n . Then show for every choice of n, as n
, s I n .
(b) Every convergent sequence is bounded
did not adjust for maximum values which bounded the tail of the
sequence l + . also did not show sequence was boundd below and
then could not generally show was bounded.
(c) Preservation of compact sets
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did not cite (iv) of characterizations of continuity to say (y nk ) would

converge to y.
(d) differentiation implies continuity
(e) HB backwards
said the arbitrary sequence in K was bounded without saying why.
Had to say, since K is bounded, x n K is too.

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