BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS

CHEMICAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

WRITTEN REPORT

COMPRESSORS

SUBMITTED BY:
LLANES, JENINA ROSA P.
SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. KRISTINE MAY H. ESCALONA

INTRODUCTION

The compressor industry has emerged from the decade of the 1980s right
sized, streamlined, and computerized.

Management trends include a broadening of responsibility for all departments

to order to satisfy these new responsibilities, maintenance, opeartions, and
engineering personnel need continuous review of compressor types,
classifications and applications.

DEFINITION AND OPERATION

Fans, blowers and compressors are machine designed to deliver gas at a

pressure higher than that originally existing.

Pressure rise, working pressure , specific speed and mechanical design form
the basis of differentiation and classification.

The methods employed to achieve compression are:

Trap consecutive quantities of gas in some type of enclosure, reduce

the volume, this increasing the pressure, then push the compressed
gas out of the enclosure

Trap consecutive quantities of gas in some type of enclosure, carry it

without volme change to the discharge opening, compressing the gas
by overcoming back flow from the discharge system and pushing the
compressed gas out of the enclosure

Compress the gas by the mechanical action of rotating impellers or

bladed rotors that impart velocity and pressure to the flowing gas.
Additional velocity energy in the gas is converted to pressure in an
adjacent stationary diffuser or blade

Entrain the gas in a high velocity jet of another compatible gas and
convert the high velocity mixture into pressure via a diffuser

FAN, BLOWER, COMPRESSOR DIFFERENTIATION

While differentiation of dynamic compressor types is possible, utilizing
dimensional analysis is more common to lossely classify these machines by the
pressure rise they produce.

Fans produce a pressure rise of 0.25 psi to 3.0 psi

Blowers produce a pressure rise of 1.0 psi to 8.0 psi
Compressors produce a pressure rise greater than 5.0 psi

COMPRESSOR
Compressors are used to handle large volumes of gas at pressure increases
from 10.32 kPa (1.5lbg/in2) to several hundred kPa (lbg/in2).
FUNCTION OF THE COMPRESSOR

Considered the heart of the refrigeration systems

Compressors are vapor pumps
Responsible for lowering the pressure on the suction side of the system
Responsible for increasing the pressure on the discharge side of the system
Suction gas from the evaporator enters the compressor
Refrigerant is discharged to the condenser

COMPRESSION RATIO

Compares pumping conditions for compressors

Defined as the high side pressure (psia) divided by the low side pressure
(psia)
High compression ratio can lead to overheated compressor oil
High compression ratio leads to reduced refrigerant flow through the system
Reduced refrigerant flow reduces system capacity

COMPRESSION RATIO EXAMPLES

R-12 compressor

169 psig high side, 2 psig low side

183.7 psia high side, 16.7 psia low side

183.7 psia 16.7 psia = 11:1 compression ratio

R-134a compressor

184.6 psig high side, 0.7 in. Hg. vacuum low side

199.3 psia high side, 14.35 psia low side

199.3 psia 14.35 psia = 13.89:1 compression ratio

TWO-STAGE COMPRESSION

Lowers the compression ratio

Utilizes two compressors
One compressor discharges into suction of the other
Also referred to as compound compression
Often used when the compression ratio of a single compressor system
exceeds 10:1
Often used in low-temperature commercial and industrial storage applications

TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
We can divide compressors into two major categories:
1. Continuous-flow compressors
a. Centrifugal compressors

b. Axal flow compressors

2. Positive displacemen compressors
a. Rotary compressors
b. Reciprocating compressors

CONTINUOUS- FLOW COMPRESSORS

Continuous-Flow Compressors are machines where the flow is continuous,
unlike positive displacement machines where the flow is fluctuating . Continuousflow compressors are also classified as turbomachines. These types of machines
are widely used in the chemical and petroleum industry for many services. They are
also used extensively in many other industries such as iron an steel industry,
pipeline boosters, and on offshore platforms for reinjection compressors.
Continuous-flow machines are usually smaller in size and produce much less
vibraation than their counterpart, positive displacement units.

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

The flow in a centrifugal compressor enter the impeller in an axial direction

and exits in a radial direction.
MECHANISM OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
In a typical centrifugal compressor, the fluid is forced through the impeller by
rapidly rotating impeller blades. The velocity of the fluid is converted to pressure,
partially in the impeller and partially in the stationary diffusers. Most of the velocity
leaving the impeller is converted into pressure energy in the diffuser as shown in
Fig. 10-73. It is normal practice to design a compressor so that half the pressure rise
takes place in the impeller and the other half in the diffuser. The diffuser consists of
a vaneless space, a vane that is tangential to the impeller, or a combination of both.
These vane passages diverge to convert the velocity head into pressure energy.

OPERATING RANGE
The compressors operating range is between two major regions as seen in
Fig. 10-74, which is a performance map of centrifugal compressor. These two
regions are surge, which is the lower flow limit of stable operation, and choke or
stonewall, which is the maximum flow through the compressor at a given
operating speed. The centrifugal compressors operating range between surge and
choke is reduced as the pressure ratio per stage is increased or the numbers of
stages are added.

SURGE
A compressor is said to be in surge when the main flow through the
compressor reverses its direction. Surge is often symptomized by excessive
vibration and a large audible sound. This flow reversal s accompanied with a very
violent change in energy, which causes a reversal of the thrust force. The surge
process is cyclic in nature and if allowed to cycle for some time, irreparable damage
can occur to the compressor.
TYPES OF BLADES AT THE EXIT OF THE IMPELLER
A centrifugal compressor impeller can have three types of blades at the exit
of the impeller. These are forward-curved, backward-curved, and radial
blades. Forward-curved blades are not often used in a centrifugal compressors
impeller because of the very high-velocity discharge at the compressor that would
require conversion of high velocity to a pressure head in a diffuse, which is
accompanied by high losses. Radial blades are used in impellers of high pressure
ratio since stress levels are minimal. Backward-curved blades give the highest
efficiency and the largest operating margin of any of the various types of blades in
an impeller.
Process compressors have impellers with very low pressure ratio impellers and
thus large surge-to-choke margins. The common method of classifying process-type
centrifugal compressors is based on the number of impellers and the casing design.
Sectionalized casing types have impellers that are usually mounted on the
extended motor shaft, and similar sections are bolted together to obtain the desired
number of stages. Casing material is either steel or cast iron. These machines
require minimum supervision and maintenance and are quite economic in their
operating range.

The horizontally split-type have casings split horizontally at the midsection and
the top. The bottom halves are bolted and doweled together
Barrel casings are used for high pressures in which the horizontally split joint is
inadequate. This type of compressor consists of a barrel into which a compressor
bundle of multiple stages is inserted.
COMPRESSOR CONFIGURATION
To properly design a centrifugal compressor, one must know the operating
conditions- the type of gas, its pressure, temperature and molecular weight. One
must also know the corrosive properties of gas so that proper metallurgical selection
can be made. Gas fluctuations due to process instabilities must be pinpointed so
that the compressor can operate without surging.
Some factors to be considered when selecting a configuration to meet plant needs
are:
1. Intercooling between stages can considerably reduce the power
consumed.
2. Back-to-back impellers allow for a balanced rotor thrust and minimize
overloading the thrust bearings.
3. Cold inlet or hot discharge at the middle case reduces oil-seal and
lubrication problems.
4. Single-inlet or single discharge reduces external piping problems
5. Balance planes that are easily accessible in the field can appreciably
reduce field-balancing times.
6. Balance piston with no external leakage will greatly reduce wear on the
thrust bearings.
7. Hot and cold sections of the case that are adjacent to each other will
reduce thermal gradients and thus reduce case distortion.
8. Horizontally split casings are easier to open for inspection than vertically
split ones, reducing maintenance time.
9. Overhung rotors present an easier alignment problem because shaft- end
alignment is necessary only at the coupling between the compressor and
the driver.
10.Smaller, high-pressure compressors that do the same job will reduce
foundation problems but will have greatly reduced operational range.
IMPELLER FABRICATION
Centrifugal compressor impellers are either shrouded or unshrouded. Open,
shrouded impellers are mainly used in single-stage applications are made by
investment-casting techniques or by three-dimensional milling. Riveted impellers
were used in the 1960s they are very rarely used now.
Materials for fabricating impeller are usually low-alloy steels. Monel K-500 is
employed in halogen gas atmospheres and oxygen compressors because of its
resistance to sparking. Titanium impellers have been applied to chlorine service.
Aluminum-alloy impellers have been used in great numbers, especially lower
temperatures.

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

Axial flow compressors are used mainly as compressors for gas turbines.
They are also used in the steel industry as blast furnace blowers and in the chemical
industry for large nitric acid plants. They are mainly used for applications where the
head required is low and the flow large

Figure 10-77 shows a typical axial-flow compressor. The rotating element

consists of a single drum to which are attached several rows of decreasing-height
blades having airfoil cross sections. Between each rotating blade row is a stationary
blade row. All blade angles and areas are designed precisely for a given
performance and high efficiency. The use of multiple stages permits overall pressure
incrases up to 30:1. The efficiency in an axial flow compressor is higher than the
centrifugal compressor.

The axial flow compressors used in gas turbines vary depending on the type
of turbines. The industrial-type gas turbine has an axial flow compressor of a rugged
construction. These units have blades that have low aspect ratio (R = blade
height/blade chord) with minimum streamline curvation, and the shafts are support
on sleeve-type bearings. The industrial gas turbine compressor has also a lower
pressure ratio per stage (stage = rotor + stationary blade), giving a low blade
loading. This also gives a larger operating range than its counterpart the aero axial
gas turbine compressor but considerably less than the centrifugal compressor.
The axial flow compressors in aero gas turbines are heavily loaded. The
aspect ratio of the blades, especially the first few stages, can be as high as 4.0, and
the effect of streamline curvature is substantial. The streamline configuration is a
function of the annular passage area, the camber and thickness distribution of the
blade, and the flow angles at the inlet and outlet of the blades. The shafts on these
units are supported on antifriction bearings (roller or ball bearings).
OPERATION
The operation of the axial flow compressor is a function of the rotational
speed of the blades and the turning of the flow in the rotor. The stationary blades
(stator) are used to diffuse the flow and convert the velocity increased in the rotor
to a pressure increase. One rotor and one stator make up a stage in a compressor.
One additional row of fixed blades (inlet guide vanes) is frequently used at the
compressor inlet to ensure that air enters the first stage rotors at the desired angle.
In addition to the stators, another diffuser at the exit of the compressor
further diffuses the gas and, in the case of gas turbines, controls its velocity
entering the combustor. The axial flow compressor has a much smaller operating
range Surge to Choke than its counterpart in the centrifugal compressor. Because
of the steep characteristics of the head/flow capacity curve, the surge point is
usually within 10 percent of the design point
STALL PHENOMENA
The axial flow compressor has three distinct stall phenomena. Rotating stall
and individual blade stall are aerodynamic phenomena. Stall flutter is an
aeroelastic phenomenon. Rotating stall (propagating stall) consists of large stall
zones covering several blade passages and propagates in the direction of the rotor

and at some fraction of rotor speed. The number of stall zones and the propagating
rates vary considerably. Rotating stall is the most prevalent type of stall
phenomenon. Individual blade stall occurs when all the blades around the
compressor annulus stall simultaneously without the occurrence of the stall
propagation mechanism. The phenomena of stall flutter is caused by self-excitation
of the blade and is aeroelastic. It must be distinguished from classic flutter, since
classic flutter is a coupled torsional- flexural vibration that occurs when the
freestream velocity over an airfoil section reaches a certain critical velocity. Stall
flutter, on the other hand, is a phenomenon that occurs due to the stalling of the
flow around a blade. Blade stall causes Karman vortices in the airfoil wake.
Whenever the frequency of the vortices coincides with the natural frequency of
airfoil, flutter will occur. Stall flutter is a major cause of
Positive Displacement Compressors
Positive displacement compressors are machines that are essentially
constant volume machines with variable discharge pressures. These machines can
be divided into two types:
1. Rotary compressors
2. Reciprocating compressors
Many users consider rotary compressors, such as the Rootes-type blower,
as turbomachines because their behavior in terms of the rotor dynamics is very
close to centrifugal and axial flow machinery. Unlike the reciprocating machines, the
rotary machines do not have a very high vibration problem but, like the
reciprocating machines, they are positive displacement machines.
Rotary Compressors
Rotary compressors are machines of the positive-displacement type. Such
units are essentially constantvolume machines with variable discharge pressure.
The volume can be varied only by changing the speed or by bypassing or wasting
some of the capacity of the machine. The discharge pressure will vary with the
resistance on the discharge side of the system.
Rotary compressors are generally classified as of the straight-lobe type, screw type,
sliding-vane type, and liquid-piston type.
Straight-Lobe Type
Such units are available for pressure differentials up to about 83 kPa (12
lbf/in2) and capacities up to 2.549 104 m3/h (15,000 ft3/min). Sometimes multiple
units are operated in series to produce higher pressures; individual-stage pressure
differentials are limited by the shaft deflection, which must necessarily be kept
small to maintain rotor and casing clearance.
Screw-Type
This type of rotary compressor is capable of handling capacities up to about
4.248 104 m3/h (25,000 ft3/min) at pressure ratios of 4:1 and higher. Relatively
smalldiameter rotors allow rotative speeds of several thousand rev/min. Unlike the
straight-lobe rotary machine, it has male and female rotors whose rotation causes
the axial progression of successive sealed cavities.
These machines are staged with intercoolers when such an arrangement is
advisable. Their high-speed operation usually necessitates the use of suction- and
discharge-noise suppressors. The bearings used are sleeve-type bearings. Due to
the side pressures experienced,
tilting pad bearings are highly recommended.

Sliding-Vane Type
These units are offered for operating pressures up to 0.86 MPa (125 lbf/in2)
and in capacities up to 3.4 103 m3/h (2000 ft3/min). Generally, pressur ratios per
stage are limited to 4:1. Lubrication of the vanes is required, and the air or gas
stream therefore contains lubricating oil.
Liquid-Piston Type
These compressors are offered as single-stage units for pressure differentials
up to about 0.52 MPa (75 lbf/in2) in the smaller sizes and capacities up to 6.8 103
m3/h (4000 ft3/min) when used with a lower pressure differential. Staging is
employed for higher pressure differentials. These units have found wide application
as vacuum pumps on wet-vacuum
service. Inlet and discharge ports are located in the impeller hub. As the vaned
impeller rotates, centrifugal force drives the sealing liquid against the walls of the
elliptical housing, causing the air to be successively drawn into the vane cavities
and expelled against discharge pressure. The sealing liquid must be externally
cooled unless it is used in a once-through system. A separator is usually employed
in the discharge line to minimize carryover of entrained liquid. Compressor
capacity can be considerably reduced if the gas is highly soluble in the sealing
liquid. The liquid-piston type of compressor has been of particular advantage when
hazardous gases are being handled. Because of the gasliquid contact and because
of the much greater liquid specific heat,
the gas-temperature rise is very small.
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Reciprocating compressors are used mainly when high-pressure head is
required at a low flow. Reciprocating compressors are furnished in either singlestage or multistage types. The number of stages is determined by the required
compressor ratio p2 /p1. The compression ratio per stage is generally limited to 4,
although low-capacity units are furnished with compression ratios of 8 and even
higher. Generally, the maximum compression ratio is determined by the maximum
allowable discharge-gas temperature.

Compressors up to around 75 kW (100 hp) usually have a single center-throw

crank. In larger sizes compressors are commonly of duplex construction with cranks
on each end of the shaft. Some large synchronous motordriven units are of fourcorner construction; i.e., they are of doubleduplex construction with two connecting
rods from each of the two crank throws. Steam-driven compressors have one or
more steam cylinders connected directly by piston rod or tie rods to the gas-cylinder
piston or crosshead.
Valve Losses
Above piston speeds of 2.5 m/s (500 ft/min), suction and discharge valve
losses begin to exert significant effects on the actual internal compression ratio of
most compressors, depending on the valve port area available. The obvious results
are high temperature rise and higher power requirements than might be expected.
These effects become more pronounced with higher-molecular-weight gases. Valve
problems can be a very major contributor to down time experienced by these
machines.
Control Devices
In many installations the use of gas is intermittent, and some means of
controlling the output of the compressor is therefore necessary. In other cases
constant output is required despite variations in discharge pressure, and the control
device must operate to maintain a constant compressor speed. Compressor
capacity, speed, or pressure may be varied in accordance with requirements.
The nature of the control device will depend on the function to be regulated.
Regulation of pressure, volume, temperature, or some other factor determines the
type of regulation required and the type of the compressor driver. The most
common control requirement is regulation of capacity. Many capacity controls, or
unloading devices, as they are usually termed, are actuated by the pressure on the
discharge side of the compressor. A falling pressure indicates that gas is being used
faster than it is being compressed and that more gas is required. A rising pressure
indicates that more gas is being compressed than is being used and that less gas is
required.

Constant-speed control should be used when gas demand is fairly constant.

With this type of control, the compressor runs continuously but compresses only
when gas is needed. Three methods of unloading the compressor with this type of
control are in common use: (1) closed suction unloaders, (2) open inlet-valve
unloaders, and (3) clearance unloaders. The closed suction unloader consists
of a pressure-actuated valve which shuts off the compressor intake. Open inletvalve unloaders operate to hold the compressor inlet valves open and thereby
prevent compression. Clearance unloaders consist of pockets or small reservoirs
which are opened when unloading is desired. The gas is compressed into them on
the compression stroke and reexpands into the cylinder on the return stroke, thus
preventing the compression of additional gas.
Motor-driven reciprocating compressors above about 75 kW(100 hp) in size
are usually equipped with a step control. This is in reality a variation of constantspeed control in which unloading is accomplished in a series of steps, varying from
full load down to no load. Three-step control (full load, one-half load, and no load)
is usually accomplished with inlet-valve unloaders. Five-step control (full load,
three-fourths load, one-half load, one-fourth load, and no load) is accomplished by
means of clearance pockets. On some machines, inlet-valve and clearance-control
unloading are used in combination
Nonlubricated Cylinders
Most compressors use oil to lubricate the cylinder. In some processes,
however, the slightest oil contamination is objectionable. For such cases a number
of manufacturers furnish a nonlubricated cylinder. The piston on these cylinders is
equipped with piston rings of graphitic carbon or Teflon* as well as pads or rings of
the same material to maintain proper clearance between the piston and the
cylinder. Plastic packing of a type that requires no lubricant is used on the stuffing
box. Although oilwiper rings are used on the piston rod where it leaves the
compressor frame, minute quantities of oil might conceivably enter the cylinder on
the rod. If even such small amounts of oil are objectionable, an extended cylinder
connecting piece can be furnished. This simply lengthens the piston rod enough so
that no portion of the rod can alternately enter the frame and the cylinder.
High-Pressure Compressors
There is a definite trend in the chemical industry toward the use of highpressure compressors with discharge pressures of from 34.5 to 172 MPa (5000 to
25,000 lbf/in2) and with capacities from 8.5 103 to 42.5 103 m3/h (5000 to
25,000 ft3/min). These require special design, and a complete knowledge of the
characteristics of the gas is necessary. In most cases, these types of applications
use the barrel-type centrifugal compressor.
Piston-Rod Packing
Proper piston-rod packing is important. Many types are available, and the
most suitable is determined by the gas handled and the operating conditions for a
particular unit. There are many types and compositions of soft packing,
semimetallic packing, and metallic packing. In many cases, metallic packing is to be
recommended. When wet, volatile, or hazardous gases are handled or when the
service is intermittent, an auxiliary packing gland and soft packing are
usually employed.
Metallic Diaphragm Compressors
These are available for small quantities [up to about 17 m3/h (10 ft3/min)] for
compression ratios as high as 10:1 per stage. Temperature rise is not a serious
problem, as the large wall area relative to the gas volume permits sufficient heat

transfer to approach isothermal compression. These compressors possess the

advantage of having no seals for the process gas. The diaphragm is actuated
hydraulically by a plunger pump.
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY
Four processes take place during the compression process
Expansion (re-expansion)
Piston is the highest point in the cylinder
Referred to as top dead center
Both the suction and discharge valves are closed
Cylinder pressure is equal to discharge pressure
As the crankshaft continues to turn, the piston moves down in
the cylinder
The volume in the cylinder increases
The pressure of the refrigerant decreases
Suction (Intake)
As the piston moves down, the pressure decreases
When the cylinder pressure falls below suction pressure, the
suction valve opens
The discharge valve remains in the closed position
As the piston continues downward, vapor from the suction line is
pulled into the cylinder
Suction continues until the piston reaches the lowest position in
the cylinder (bottom dead center)
At the bottom of the stroke, suction valves close
Compression
Piston starts to move upwards in the cylinder
The suction valve closes and the discharge valve remains closed
As the piston moves upwards, the volume in the cylinder
decreases
The pressure of the refrigerant increases
Compression continues until the pressure in the cylinder rises
just above discharge pressure
Discharge
When the cylinder pressure rises above discharge pressure, the
discharge valve opens and the suction valve remains closed
As the piston continues to move upwards, the refrigerant is
discharged from the compressor
Discharge continues until the piston reaches top dead center

PROCESS

PICTURE

Expansion

Suction

Compression

Discharge

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR COMPONENTS

1. Crankshaft
Transfers motor motion to the piston
Creates the back and forth motion of the piston
2. Connecting rods
Connects the crankshaft to the pistons
3. Pistons
Slide up and down in the cylinder
Used to compress and expand the refrigerant
4. Refrigerant cylinder valves (suction)
Durable, flexible steel
Located on the bottom of the valve plate
Open when refrigerant is introduced to the pump
5. Refrigerant cylinder valves (discharge)
Durable, flexible steel
Open when refrigerant is discharged from the pump
Located on the top of the valve plate
6. Compressor head
Holds the top of the cylinder and its components together
Contains both high and low pressure refrigerant
7. Mufflers
Designed to reduce compressor noise
8. Compressor housing
Encases the compressor and sometimes the motor