Early Jesuit Missionary Methods in the Philippines

Author(s): Nicholas P. Cushner

Reviewed work(s):
Source: The Americas, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Apr., 1959), pp. 361-379
Published by: Academy of American Franciscan History
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EARLY JESUIT MISSIONARYMETHODS

IN THE PHIlIPPINES
tN

1565,when Spainwas sdll on the ascendingarc of its colonial

ventllres,thefirstpermanent
settlement
in thePhilippines
wasmade.
The subsequentdecadeswitnessed,not only a militaryconquest
by Spanishconquistadores,
but a spiritualconquestaswell. The efforts
of Salcedo,Legazpiand the otherswere, so to speak,the firststage,
usheringin the missionaries,
". . . the realconquerors,
who withoutany
Otherarmsthantheirvirtues,gainedoverthe goodwill of the islanders,
. . . and gavethe king two millionsmoreof submissive
and Christian
subjects."
1
The taskof the missionaryin the PhilippineIslandswas, firstand
foremost,to spreadthe CatholicFaith. Since Christianitywas the
foundationstoneof Westerncivilizationandit was the acknowledged
duty of the Spanishstateto extendthe Faith,it followsthatfromthe
standpointof both stateand Churchit was the missionary's
firsttask
to convertthe heathen.2But the statebenefitedfromthe missionary's
laboras well as the Church.For,justas in New Spain,the missionary
served,not only to christianize
the frontier,buthe alsoaidedin extending, holding,and civilizingit.3
The Jesuitmissionaries
in the VisayanIslands,a centralgroupin the
Philippinearchipelagocomposedprincipallyof Leyte, Samar,Cebu,
Negros,andBohol,effectedthe extensionand civilizationof the new
Spanishfrontierthroughmissionschools. TvheJesuitterritorywas
dividedinto districtsand each districtprovidedelementary,
andlater,
secondaryinstruction,for the nativechildren.4
In the followingpageshowever,we will be concernedwith the
primarytask of the missionary,
that of " christiamzing
the frontier,"
implantinga new set of religiousprinciplesin placeof the old; and
1Thomasde Comyn,Stateof the PhilippineIslands,wans.WilliamWalton (London,
1821),p. 209.
' HerbertE. Bolton,"The Missionas a FrontierInstitutionin the SpanishAmencan
Colonies,"The AmericanHistorica]Review, XXIII, no. 1 (October, 1917), 4647,
Althoughthe authoris speakingof the missionaryas a politicaland socialinfluenceon
the North Americanfroniier,such was also the case in the PhilippineIslandswhere
often the missionarywas the sole representative
of cross and crown.
Ibid.
4 For the influenceof JesuitIIiissioneducationin the Philippines,see Horacio de la
Costa,"JesuitEducationin the Philippinesto 1768,"PhiZippine
Studies,IV, no. 2 (July,
1956),127-155.
361
8

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362

JESUIT
MISSIONARY
METHODS

moreparticularly,
with the meansby which this was accomplished.
It is the purposetherefore,of thisarticle,to set forththe typicalJesuit
methodsused in the variousphasesof their missionarywork. For
froma consideraaon
of missionary
methodswe may obtainan insight
into the natureof the " spiritualconquest" and therebybe one step
closerto an accurateunderstanding
of the complexrelaiionship
which
existedbetweenthe spiritualandmilitaryconquestsof the Philippines.
In 1595,fourteenyearsafterthe arrivalof the Societyof Jesusin
the Philippines,
the Jesuitsbeganwork amongthe inhabitants
of the
VisayanIslands,the territoryassignedas their sphereof missionary
activity.6The Augustinians
had been in the Visayasever sincetheir
arrivalwith Legazpiin 1565. For the mostpart,however,theirwork
was confinedto the peopleof Cebu.7But aroundCebuwere several
large,well populatedislands,whose inhabitants
were not being instructedin theFaith.It wasamangthesepeoplethatJesuitmissionaries
workeduntiltheirexpulsionfromthe King'sdomainsin 1767.
MISSIONARIES
ANDTHENATIVE
DIALECTS
The Jesuitmissionaries
in the VisayanIslandsusedthe nativedialects
as a mediumfor teachingthe doctrinesof the CatholicChurch.There
wereseveralreasonsfor this,the mostcogentof whichwasthatit was
mucheasierfor one missionary
to learnthe languageof an areathan
for all the peopleof that areato learnSpanish.Besides,the teaching
of Castilianposedseveralimpraciicalities.8
In addition,the impression
6Robert Ricard'sclassic study in the field of missionarymethods,La "conqueAte
spirituelle"da Mexigue,essai sur l'apostolatet les methodesmissionairesdes ordres
mendicantsen Nouqnelle-Espagne
de IS23 a IS72 (Paris,1933), has provideda model
on which similarstudiesmay be profitablypatterned.As is obvious,this brief study
has made considerableuse of its large-scalemodel.
6 In a communicaaon
dated April 27, 1594,Philip II orderedthat the Philippinesbe
dividedamongthe four residentreligiousgroups,the Dominicans,Augusiinians,Franciscans,and Jesliits. The reason for this parationwas the speedierinswction and
conversionof the Filipines. See E. H. Blairand J. A. Robertson,eds., The Philippine
Islands(55 vols.; Cleveland,1903-1909),IX, 120-121.
7 An Augustinian
Father,Alonso Velasquez,worked for a short time in Leyte. He
withdrew,however,whenthe territorywas givenover to the Jesuits.D. FelipeRedondo
y Sendino,Bresc Resena. . . de lo que es la Diocesisde Cebu (Manila,1886),p. 35.
Ricard,op. cit., pp. 69-70;also EvergistoBazaco,O.P., History oJEducation
in the Philippines(Manila, 1953), p. 58. Through the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuriesa steadystreamof royal decreesurged the use of Spanishin giving religious
instruction.For the mostparthowever,the missionaries
"obedezian,perono cumplian."
In Mexico,the famousJesuitmissionary,FranciscoPiccolo, once broughttwo Indian
lads to the bishopto help in his plea for alms. The bishopaskedwhetherthey knew
their prayers. They recited them perfectly, but could only do so in their naiive
8See

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NICHOLAS
P. CUSHNER

363

madeupon the Filipinosby a strangerspeakingtheir languagewas

extremelyfavorableand went far to insurethe missionary's
success.
This is well illustrated
by Fr. GabrielSanchez'saccountof his visitto
the islandof Negrosin 1599. The peoplewereastoundedto hearhim
speakin theirown tongue,andwithina month400 hadbeen to confessionandsomehadreceivedCommunion.9
When Fr. PedroChirino,alongwith threecompanions,
inaugurated
Jesuitmlssionaryactivityin the Visayasin 1595,he was alreadyacquaintedin somedegreewith the regionaldialects.He hadcatechized
on Panayin 1593.His priestcompanions,
however,JuandelCampoand
CosmedeFlores,werenot,so uponarrivalatLeytetheybeganthestudy
of the language.They realizedthat if any lastingwork was to be
accomplished,
it wouldbe throughthe dsalects.It didnot takelongfor
Floresto becomeproficient
in thelanguage,
for Chirinowrotethata few
monthslaterFr. Cosmede Floresshowedgreat fluencyin Visayan
and he ". . . spokeit with masterlyskill."10 We are also told that
Fr. Flores'rapidmasteryof the local dialectwas matchedby that of
Fr. MariinHenrlquez,who not only learnedthe dialectof his areain
threemonths,but alsoprepareda collectionof Sundaysermonsanda
treatiseon confessionwrittenin thenativelanguage.l1
The use of the nativedialectsbecameso universalamongthe Jesuit
missionaries
thatby 1602the AnnualLetterreportedthatin themission
stations" allthefathers(excepttwo or threewho aretoo oldor engaged
in governmental
work) know the dialects."
12 Fr. Chirino
alsowrote
that:
. . . the facilitywith which manyministersof the Lord in the four
religiousorderslearnedthe languageusedin their respeciivemissions,
even so as to preachand hearconfessionsin them,seemsa gift from
heaven.The most tardystudentof them,if he applyhimselfmoderately, spendsno more than six months;and one of ours, [JesviitRedialects. Piccolo receiveda severe reprimandand was orderedhenceforthto instruct
only in Spanish.E. J. Burrus,S.J., "FranciscoPiccolo, Pioneerof Lower California,"
HispanicSrzericanHistoricalReview, XXXV, no. 1 (February,1955),61-76. For the
ideasof the Jesuitfounder,IgnatiusLoyola,on the nativedialectsand the missionaries,
see Jesus MariaGranero,S.J., "La accion misioneray los metodosrnisionalesde San
Ignaciode Loyola,"BibliothecaHispanaMissionum,VI (Burgos,1931),143-150;209-210.
9The account of Sanchez'strip is relatedin Pedro Chirino'sRelacionde las Islas
Filipinas,an English translationof which is in Blair and Robertson,op. cit., XIII,
151-152.
lbid., XII, 284.
lbid., XII, 222.
WilliamC. Repetti,S. J., History of the Society of Jesusin tSe PSilippineIslands
(2 vols.; Manila,1938),II, 326.
12

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JESUIT
MISSIONARY
METHODS

364

ligious] Fr. Cosme de Flores, learned and masteredthis language, so

that he could preach and hear confessions,in selrenty-fourdays, to the
astonishmentof our people, as well as of the Indiansthemsellres....
In truth, these languages are not very difficult, either to learn or to
pronounce-and more especially now, since there is a grammar, a
vocabulaw, and many writings therein.18

The use of the nativetongue,however,broughtits problems.In its

lirnitedvocabularywere not to be foundthe wordsnecessaryfor an
adequateteachingof the principlesof the Faith. Such concepts,and
corresponding
words,for God, grace,redempiion,Holy Spirit,etc.,
were foreignto the natives,and consequently
not foundin theirlanguage. The questionarosethen:how weretheseideasto be expressed,
whatwordswereto be used?
This problemwas by no meansan entirelynew one. It had been
met 2nd solvedin New Spaindecadesbefore. There the Friarssaw
two possiblesolutionsto the perplexing
problem;
eitherintroduceEuropeanwordsintothe nativevocabulary,
or paraphrase
the requiredconcept in the nativetongue,a ratherroundabout
process.14
The first solutionseemedto take from Christianity
its universality
andconfineit to certaincivilizations.The secondwouldseemto avoid
this,but it requireda thoroughunderstanding
of the languagewith all
its intricaciesand flexiblevocabulary.Likewise,the first alternaave
avoidedthe dangerof heterodoxyas well as confusionandmisunderstandingon the partof the neophyte.For if the nativewordswere
retainedtherealwaysremainedthe possibilitythatthe ideasthey connotedwere not orthodox.16
St. FrancisXavierencounteredthis very
diflicultyin Japan.le
A cedulafromValladolid,datedSeptember
22, 1538,warnedagainst
this samedanger.It orderedthat a catechismin the nativedialectbe
closelyexamined,lest the termsit usedadmitof a differentmeaning
m t le natlvetongue.
*

. . . E adveriid mucho en que los que la examinarenque miren los

vocablos no traigan incovevenientes (sic) para la doctrina y religion
cristiana,por las significacionesque los indios en su lengua les dan.l7

The danger,therefore,wasa veryrealone andso hadto be faced.

8Blairand Robertson,op. cit., XII, 234-235. l' Ricard,op. cit., pp. 72-73. l61bid.
16Ibid.;When St. FrancisXavierfaced this difficultyin Japanhe used for God only
the Portugueseword Deos in order to avoidequivocalexpressionsthen currentamong
the Japanesesects. The Bonzeshowever,arguedthat Deos and their Dasuzowere one
and the same thing. Actually Dauzo meant a " Great Falsehood."The difficulty
arose,not from nlalice,but from a completemisunderstanding
of the two concepts.
17 Ibid.

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NICHOLAS
P. CUSHNER

365

The solutionwhichthe missionaries

of the Philippines
preferredwas
thesameasthatadoptedby theFriarsof New Spainyearsbefore.They
simplyaddedto the vernacular
languages
the wordswhichthey needed
to explainthe conceptsof Christianity.In the Visayanversionof the
Hail Mary,for example,gracia,Dios, Santa,wereusedfor grace,God,
andholy. The ente prayerreadsas follows:
Maghimayaca Maria napono ca sa gracia An Guinoon
Rejoice thou Mary, full thouof grace; the Lord
Dios anaa canimo. Guirayeg ca uyamot sa babaihun
God is withthee. Exalted thou much among women
tanan ug prayeg man an imon anac Jesus. Santa Mana
all and exalted also he thy son Jesus. Holy Mary
inahan sa Dios, iguiampo
mo canii
mother of God. Lerus be interceded
for by thee us
macasasalaonia ug sa amun camatai. Amen. Jesus18
sinners, now and in our death.
Likewisein the Tagalogversionof the Doctrina Christianathere
appeara numberof wordswhich are simplytransplanted
from the
Spanishinto the localdialect.Someof themaregracia,Dios, Espiritu

Santo,
yglesia, catholica,sirgen,
cruz,infierno,
confesar,
comulgorr,
domingo,fiesta,sacramentos,
confirmar,
extrema
uncionand orden
sacerdo.l9

SincetheJesuitmissionaries
usedVisayanasa mediumof communication, it was necessarythat therebe availablein the missionsomeaids
for learningthe language.What was probablyusedin the earlydays
of the Visayanmissionwas the Introduccion
a la Lengua
Bisaya
of
Fr. Christ6bal
Jimenez.The greaterpartof the learIiingprocess,however, was carriedon vivaqJoce
betweenthe learnerand a IIiissioner
alreadywell versedin the dialects.This methodpossessedthe added
advantageof being able to acquaintthe newcomerwith the slightly
differentvarietiesof Visayan,as spokenin the differentislands.This
was important,in view of the fact that the missionaries
frequently
movedfrom islandto island;and more often than not, a changeof
islandsmeanta change,howeverslight,in dialect.

l9Blair and Robertson,op. ck., XU, 239.

19 Doctrina C^TiStiABas A facsimileof the copy in the LessingJ. Rosenwald
Colleconon;
with an introductoryessay by Edwin Wolf, 2nd. (Libraryof Congresss1947),passim.

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366

JESUIT
MISSIONARY
METHODS

DISTRIBUTION
OFTHEMISSIONARIES
Prior to the visitationof the Visayanmissionsin 1599-1600,the
missionaries
theremoreor lesschosetheirown fieldsof labor.2When
threefathersand one lay brotherwere sent to Leyte by the Jesuit
superior,Fr. AntonioSedeno,to beginmissionwork in that region,
they established
on the islandtwo residences.One was at Carigara
on
the northerncoastof the island,andthe otherwas at Dulac,about50
milessoutheast,also on the coast. Not only did these well situated
coastaltowns affordthe possibilityof relativelyconvenienttrips to
nearbyislands,but also the encomenderoat Carigara,Cristobalde
Truxillo,was well disposedtowardsthe Jesuitsandhadhimselfbegun
the spiritualinstructionof his encomendados.2l
The missionaries
were
fortunatein havingsuchfavorableassistance,
for althoughthe Spanish
Crownhad clearlyoutlinedthe spiritualrole of the encomenderos,
theirreligiouszealoftenfailedto matchtheirpecuniarypursuits.
Leyte,in theearlydaysof themission,wasthequasi-center
of activity
in the Visayas.Lateron Cebuassumedthis role. But by the end of
July, 1595,Fr. MateoSanchezwas aloneat Carigara,
andFrs.Alonso
Humanesand Juandel Campowere in Dulac. Fr. Chirinoand Bro.
Garay,who werein thegroupsentto Leyte,hadbeenorderedto Cebu
whereFr. Sedeno,the superiorof the Philippinemission,was dying.
The typeof workin whichthemenatDulacandCarigara
wereengaged
is describedby Fr. Chirino:
FatherAlonsode HumanesandFatherJuandel Campowere the first
to instructthe dwellersin and aboutDulac. . . In the time that they
spent together,they erectedthe frst churchin Dulac; establisheda
schoolfor children,manyof whomthey baptized;andformeda long
list of catechumens,whom they preparedand baptized,with great
solemnityandrejoicing,to the increaseof reverencefor the holy sacrament. Besidesthis, FatherJuandel Campo,travellingthroughoutthe
district,gainedthe good will of all those villagesand marvelously
influencedthemto receiveour holy faith....22

FatherAlonsoHumanesalso reportedon the work being done at

Dulacin thisearlyperiod:
2A visitation,as referredto here, is an inspectionof the religiouscommunitiesin
a given area. It is usuallyconductedby a religiousappointedby the superiorof the
order.
FranciscoColin,Laborevangelica,ed. by Pablo Pastells?(3 vols.; Barcelona,19001902),II, 12.
a2Blairand Robenson,op. cit., XII, 282-283.
21

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P. CUSHNER
NICHOLAS

367

In September1595, he [Humanes]and Fr. del Campospent a few

daysat the riverof Palowherethey fouxldthe peopledocileandwilling
to hearaboutCatholicity.Carewas takento instructapt childrenwho
wouldreturnto theirhomesandtell theirelderswhatthey hadlearned.
Arrivlngin Dulac, they gatheredthe people of three encomiendas,
who were livlngthere. Specialattentionwas
assistedby the Spaniards
paidto the menandFr. Campogot in touchwith the headmanof each
barrio,an importantpoint,becausethe peopleof the barriofollow the
lpadof the headman. Beforethe comingof the Fathersno one had
preachedCatholicityand the only Chrisiiansamongthe nativeswere
who had heardMassandconfessedin
a few servantsof the Spaniards
Cebu... 23

doctrinewastaught
A churchandschoolwereopenedandChristian
thereon Sundays.However,manydid not ask for baposmand the
Fathers,on theirpart,werenot eagerto baptizeuntila betterknowledge
of the native languagewould enablethem to providebetter preEve, 1595,that the
instruction.It was not until Christmas
baptismal
firstsolemnbaptismswereheldin Dulac. Over40 adultsandchildren
werereceivedinto the Church.24
to expand
In 1596an increaseof personnelallowedthe missionaries
in nearbySamar
themselves
theirfieldsof operation.They established
In all of
andBohol,andundertookthe conversionof theirinhabitants.
The
was
used.
of
evangelization
theseislandsthe samegeneralmethod
missionstations,usuallycoveringa wide
foundednumerous
missionary
area,and in thesestationshe catechizedand baptized.A stationwas
largenumberof peoplecouldbe inducedto
erectedwhena sufficiently
live in one accessibleplace,whichwasby no meansan easytask. The
stationwasalsoknownasa visita,sinceit hadno residentpriest,butwas
visitedperiodically.At least once a year a stationwas visitedby
the priest.25Somestationswere fortunateenoughto be visitedonce
a month.26Such a methodwas by no meansconsideredtotallyadearguedthat when the
quateand it had its critics. Somemissionaries
priestrevisitedhisstationeithertheirchargeshadsunkbackintopaganism,or they had forgotteneven how to blessthemselves.What was
in a given area. Only this
neededwas a priestresidingpermanently
couldinsurea well instructedChrisnancommunity:a priestat hand
to guardagainstany possiblerelapseinto paganism.27
in 1599by Fr.Diego
Vice-Province
The inspectionof the Philippine
Repem,Op. cit., II, 21-22.
Ibid.,II, 22-23.
26 Colin,op. cit., II, 122.
28

26
27

Ibid.,, 123.
Ibid.,II, 301.

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JESUIT
MISSIONARY
METHODS

368

Garc1a,S. J., who cameas the officialvisitor,resultedin a numberof

importantchangesin the distribution
of Jesuitsin the VisayanIslands.
Aftera thoroughtourof theVisayashe orderedthateachof the
islands
was to be dividedinto seciions,andeachsectionwas to haveits
own
centralresidencewherefive or sig FathersandBrotherswereto live.28
Fromthesecentralresidencesthe Fatherswere to maketheir
salidas,
going out two by two, "in imitationof the apostles."The
change
wasenactedin orderto expeditetheirwork,returnthe Fathersto
form of communicylife, and certairllyfor companionship. some
Hitherto,
the missionaries
hadspreadthemselves
thinlyovera wide area,whereas
now they weremorecentralized
andtheirmonthlyandannualsalidas
coordinated.As a result,the new Christianscould be visitedmore
frequently.On July 7, 1600,Fr. Garc1areportedthe recentchanges
to Fr. GeneralAquaviva:
. . . conformably to the orders of your Paternity, the
residenceshave
been reduced so that six of ours may live together. Dulac
and Palo
have been united and there are three Fathersand two Brothers
to whom
anotherFatherwill be added. Another residencehas been formed
from
Carigaraand Alangalang. Those who ordinarilyreside in Ormoc
have
been subordinatedto Alangalangwith ordersthat the Fathersbe
changed
every two months....29

The centralization
of the men:s
and residencesis strikinglyapparent
whenwe comparethe respectivecatalogues
of the missionfor theyears
beforeandafterthe changes.
1598:

Residence
Cebu
Alangalang

Fathers
Brothers
6 (residents)
1

Ogmuc

Palo
Dulac
.

Tlnagon

Bohol
1601:

Cebu
Alangalang
Dulac
.

Tlnagon

Bohol

4
4
3

3
3
4
4
35o

Ibid., II, 210-211.

Repem, Op. cit., II, 98.
80From the Annual Letters of 1598-1599and 1601-1602 in
the manuscriptcopy of
W.C. Repem's " The Society of Jesus in the Philippines,"
(7
vols.; Washington,D. C.,
28

29

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P. CUSHNER
NICHOLAS

369

to the revisionwas favorIn general,the reactionof the missionaries

FatherdelPrado,voiceda somewhat
able. However,theJesuitsuperior,
projecteven
opinion.He wishedto extendthe centralization
dissenting
further,desiringto staffone housein a givenareawith ten or twelve
the same. His plan,however,was
remaining
men,the otherresidences
since the missionwas sufferingfrom a manpower
judgedimpractical
shortage.So the onginalplanof Garclawas put into operation.The
AnnualLetterfor 1602reported:
Each day we experiencemore and more the importanceof the order
of your Fraternity (sic) to increase the number in our communities.
In some there are six of Ours, in others eight. Once a month, or a little
more, they come together for the space of a week during which time
their principal business is their own advancement. One or another
makes the exercisesso that all make them at least once a year. There
are exercisesof penanceand mortificationin the refectory, as customary
in the Society, and in addition there are praciices of humility such as
cooking, sweeping, etc....31

Two years after the visitationof Fr. Garc1a,Fr. Pedro Chinno

procurator.He
journeyedto Romein the capacityof Vice-Provincial
was to advisethe Jesuitsuperiorthereof conditionsin the islands.In
in the VisayanIslands,
his reportwas includedthe work undertaken
direcfor the Generalmentionedthe southernmissionsin a subsequent
tive.

The first potnt treatedby the Generalin this directivewas the

of residencesand doctrinasin the Visayanmissions.It
arrangement
seemsthat the reportto Rome partiallydescribedconditionswhich
visit,for the directivesaysthat:
obtainedpriorto Garc1a's
The Father Vice Provincial and other superiors and Fathers of the
Philippineshave given the informaiion that they can not, and ought
not, coniinue the manner of residencesand doctrinaswhich has been
followed up to the present, because of the objections they have presented to us, and discover each day.32

In view of this,it was suggestedby Romethatthe firstthingto be

effortto gather
in the Visayanmissionswasa concentrated
undertaken
the peopleinto towns in orderto expediteinstruction.Where the
peoplerefusedto be so gathered,they were to ". . . leavethemsolely
1945-1950),III, 154-176;V, 47-83. The writer wishes to thank Fr. Repetti for perrnission
to make use of his manuscript.
8 Ibid., II, 194-198.
al Repetti, History, II, 187.

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370

JESUIT
MISSIONARY
METHODS

in the handsof the Bishopfor conversion."It was foreseen,however,

thatthisreductionof thepeoplewouldbe opposedby theencomenderos.
If suchwerethecase,thekingcouldbe petitionedandtheencomenderos
madeto enforcethe movement.If they still remainedobstinate,they
shouldbe deprivedof theirencomiendas.
Theencomiendas
wouldthenbe leftto hisMajestyandwe wouldfind
theworkof catechizing
andinstruction
greatlyfacilitated,
ashasbeen
foundby experience
insuchencomiendas.
It willbeof greatimportance
for ourworkto securein the courtandcouncil,or in Manilafrom
the governorandaudiencia,
somecommutation
for the encomenderos
of ourresidences
andmissions
andleavethementirelyas the property
of his Majesty.33
The Jesuitsuperiorin Romealsoinsistedthat the Societyof Jesus
in the Philippines
was eventuallyto disposeof all the parishesit held,
since the administraiion
of parisheswas forbiddenby JesuitConstitutions. The surrenderof perpetualcuracieswas to take placeonly
afterthepeoplein themhadbeenwellinstructed
andconverted.Where
possible,the residences
of the parisheswereto be turnedinto colleges,
and the formermissionaries
were to find theirapostolatein this new
type of work. On no accountwerenew residences
to be opened,but
themainpreoccupation
of themissionwasto be schoolswherethework
of the pastten yearscouldbe broughtto fruitionin the instructionof
the youth. The Generalalso hopedthat from these schoolsnative
vocationswoulddevelop.34
In addition,a modification
was madein the existinggovernanceof
theresidences.Therewasto be appointeda superintendent
whoseonly
task was to diligently"watch over the most distantresidencesand
villagesof the Vice Province."
Thedutyof thesaidsupenntendent
willbe,ashasbeensaid,continually
to visit andinspect
thevillages,
notonlyasto whatconcerns
Ours,but
alsowhattouchesthe conversion
of the nativesandthe conservation
of thosealreadyconverted.He shallsee how the rules,ordersand
religious
discipline
areobserved.... The superiors
of the villagesand
residences
will be subjectin everything
to this superintendent
as to
an immediate
superior.But the superintendent
cannottransferthem
withoutan orderfromthe vice-provincial....35
Such an appoinenentwas a wise one in view of the fact that the
Vice-Provincial
residedmorethan300milesfromthe Visayanmissions.
'8Ibid.

84 Ibid.

*6

Ibid.sII, 197.

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P. CUSHNER
NICHOLAS

371

demandedthattherebe anothersuperiorwho
His very inaccessibility
would insurethe smoothworkingorderof the southernmissionsby
localproblems.
settlingimmediate
OFINSTRUCTION
METHODS
had to be met beforethe sacramentof baptism
Fourrequirements
to the newly instructed.He was expectedto repent
was administered
of the sins of his pastlife, afiirmingbeliefin the efl;cacyof baptism.
unionwas expectedof the marriedcandidate.Adult
A monogamous
convertswere to be ableto recitethe OurFather,Hail Mary,Credo
They also had to have some idea of the
and Ten Commandments.
and an awarenessof the principalobligationsof a
other sacraments
Christian.Childrenwere requiredto know from memorythe entire
catechism.86

to have their catechumens

The methodsused by the missionaries
fulfillthese conditionsvaried. In Ormoc,Leyte, the learningof the
ChristianDoctrinetook placeon Sundays.As manyclasseswere had
as therewere divisionsin the subjectmatterof the catchism,which
meantsix or seven. One grouplearnedthe Signof the Cross,another
the HailMary,andso on. Whena childor adultlearnedthe particular
classmatter,he passedto the nextclass,andso on uniil,as Fr. Chirino
The instruciionin
says,he ". . . took his degree,"andwas baptized.37
The pupils
decuriones.
of
help
with
the
on
carried
was
Palo,Leyte,
weredividedintogroupsof ten andthe moreadvancedstudentssupervised the lessons.38The practiceof allowingthe well instructedto
catechizeseemsnot to have been uncommon.Fr. Alonso Humanes
refersto two ninos abiles who instructedthoseof theirown pueblo.
andHumanesintendedreplacing
Theirofiice,however,wastemporary,
Fr. Chirinoalso
them as soon as enoughFatherswere available.89
mentionsthat it was the practicefor each residenceto have several
trainedcatechists.
In additionto the usuallrocalinstruciionof poteniialconvertsthe
use of visualaidsas well. Picturesdemadeconsiderable
missionaries
andusually
pictingthetruthsof theFaithwereusedto greatadvantage,
producedthe desiredresults.They were of great-aidto thosewhose
Insction and the Adnistranon of Baptism
86 See John L. Phelan,"Pre-Baptismal
in the Philippinesduring the SixteenthCentury,"The Americas,XII, no. 1 (July,
1955),6.
Blairand Robertson,op. cit., XIII, 96.
88Ibid.,XIII,t.
op. cit., IIs285.
89 Coi,
a7

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JESUIT
MISSIONARY
METHODS

372

knowledgeof the languagewas limited. The picturesfrequently

includeda largeariist'sconceptionof Hell, for it was to this motive
that the missionaries
frequentlyappealed.We are informedthat Fr.
Juande Torreswent severalstepsfurther.He once arranged
with his
coadjutorcompanionthat at the most ferventpart of his discourse
on Hell the Brothershouldlighta pitchfirebehindhim," with much
fireandsmoke,"to impressuponhis bearersthe horrorsof the punishmentwhichmightbe theirs.40The sensesas well as the intellectwere
appealed
to by themissionaries.
Sermonsto the neophytesusuallyrevolvedaboutfour basictopics:
1) Hell or Purgatory,2) Immortality
of the soul,3) Existenceof God,
and4) Rewardfor Christians
in thenextlife.
The methodof preachingthesetopicswasnot so muchby meansof
reasoned
argument
andcontinuous
discourse,
for thelisteners'
powersof
concentration
were not yet developedto the full. Sermonsconsisted
ratherof a seriesof shortspiritualconferencesin which one or two
importantideaswere presented.At the end of the conferencethe
preacherwouldreviewthe mainpointshe haddiscussedandby means
of questionand answerrepeatthem.utThe listenerswere thereby
relievedof the tediumof a long discourseandthey usuallymanagedto
retainthebroadoutlineof theconference.
Preachingplayedan importantpartin the life of a missionary,
for
when he went on a salidaor trip into a given area,almostthe entire
day was devotedto instruction.The morningwas taken up with
preaching
orshortdiscourses
to theChristians
in thepuebloandteaching
catechism
to the children.If the Fatherwerefortunateenoughto have
a Lay Brothercompanionwith him,he was assistedin the task. Frequently,though,hewasalone.Inthe afternoonhe visitedtheranchergas
or clustersof homeson theoutskirts
of thevillage.Herehe repeatedthe
sermonshe hadpreachedin the morning.Thosewho werenot Christiansandwho desiredto be so were instructedin the late afternoon.
The processwas repeatedthe followingday until the missionwas
satisfiedwith the progressof hisneophytes.
A missionary
tripto Barili,a town on the southwestcoastof Cebu,
affordsa view of a wpicalmissionary
salida.
We left Cebu on Monday, June 16, and arrivedin Barilion Wednesday
before noon. On Thursdaya large number,both Chrisiiansand pagans,
' Ibid.,II, 396.
41For detailed accounts of preaching methods used by the missionanes, see Blalr and
Robertson, op. cit., XIII, 62; Repem, Htstory,II, 121-124.

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NICHOLAS
P. CUSHNER

373

assembledin the church and after a prayer I gave a sermon in which

I exhorted them to receive Baptism,and taught them about God and
His work of creation. We told them to return on Sunday and they
went out to their fields in all directionsto distancesof one, two or three
leagues. The houses in the town are small because tlley are not used
much. The people began to come in on Saturdayand in the evening
we baptizeda large number of children. Sunday morning the church
could not hold everybody and after Mass I gave a sermon on eterni.
That was followed by a solemn baptism of boys. On Monday, the
feast of St. John the Baptist,there was anotherlarge gatheringand 29
adults, exclusive of children, were baptized. Among the adults were
some leading citizens and the chief principal who had held out against
baptism. His example influenced many others.... On Thursday we
set out with the reverend pastor of the district and came to a small
village namedCarlumand we spent Friday, Saturdayand Sundaythere.
Every morningand evening the people came to the church for instruction. On Saturdaywe baptized the children and on Sunday 28 adults.
On Monday we continued on to Agpile.... From there we went to
another town called Tuburan, around which there are two or three
smaller villages, the inhabitantsof which gathered in the town. The
people were peaceable and well behaved because their principal was
a good Christian. We were there ten days and morning and evening
we were busy prayingsteaching,catechizing,so that the people thought
of nothing else duringthat time. They could be heardreciting prayers
until midnight.... Besides children, 114 adults were baptized. The
confessions of the Christianswere heard because there had been no
priest there during Lent. The town was thus left purified by baptism
and confession, although the baptism of some had to be deferred to
another time, God willing, because they were not prepared. In our
journey we found many who had not been to confession for years
and some who had been Christiansfor many years but had never confessed. In most of the towns we gave a written form of Baptismto
some capable persons to use in case of necessity. We also instructed
the Christiansto commend themselves to God and how to have recourse to him in case of necessity in the absence of a confessor. The
recitationof the rosarywas taught and urged as a daily practice. Every
evening we had the Salveand Litany of our Lady after the instruction
or Baptismbecause we hoped that through this most holy Lady, the
Sun of Justice would shed His rays on this people just as the sun
risingin the east shedsits light over the world and dispelsdarkness....
On our return to Bariliwe passedthrough the two pueblos previously
mentioned and baptized 11 adults and three children. In Barili we
found 16 ready for Baptism, 15 of them being adults. We then ccle-

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374

JESUIT
MISSIONARY
METHODS
bratedthe feast of gloriousSt. Anne, to whom the churchis dedicated... 42

Once the Faithwas plantedandpagansbapiized,the problemarose

of how to helpthe neophyteskeepthe Faithandmaintaina Christian
modeof life. In a certainsense,it was not overlydifficultto convert
and baptizesince the Visayanswere peacefuland pliableenoughto
embracethe doctrinesof Christianity.
Butwhatwasmoredifficults
and
of weightierresponsibility,
wasto maintainthe new Chrisiians
in their
newlyacquiredFaith.We do not possessanoverabundance
of material
on how the missionaries
attemptedthis. Therewere,however,certain
standardprocedureswhich were introducedby the missionaries
to
thisend.
One of thesemethodswas the chantingof the catechismby young
andold. The timeandplacevaried.InCarigara
theChristians
assembled
in homeseach night and togetherchantedthe articlesof Faithand
the prayers.In Dulac the Doctrinawas chantedin churchby an
assembled
congregation
no lessthanfourtimesa day. In Palocas well
Doctrinalessonswere held daily. Someeven wrote theirprayerson
camas(stripsof reed) in orderto rememberand continuallyreferto
them.
. . . Not only do they, as good students,writetheirlessons(Doctrina),
mainlyin theirown characters,
andusinga piece of reedas a book of
memorandum,
andan iron point as a pen; but they alwayscarryveth
them these matenals,and wheneverone ceaseshis labors,whetherat
homeor in the field,by way of resthe takeshis book,andspendssome
timein study....43

These are by no meansisolatedincidentsbut are indicativeof a

generalmethodicalpractice.In fact, one of the firstinquiriesof the
missionaryon revisitinga villagewas whetheror not the Christians
werefaithfulin recitingthe doctrinesof the Faith.
In Tinagon,Samar,the Father'sassistant,
one Don Gonzalo,proved
to be of greatassistance
in maintaining
a Christian
amlosphere.
. . . The fiscalmaintains
with thema regularplanand order:morning
andevening,theirprayersandprocession;
andat nightbeforeretiring
andin the morningbeforedawn,they alsooffertheirprayers-sothat
the Spaniards,
their encomenderosaid,and the collectorsare notably
edifiedthereby. . . He [OonGonzalo]not only looksafterthe knowl*2 Repem,
History, II,274-276.
"Blair and Roberuon,Op. Ctt., XIIi,96.

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NICHOLAS
P. CUSHNER

375

edge and recitaton of the doctrine,but even trainsthem in good habits,

and punishesthem gently when they are at fault....44

Morgacommented
on thisvery methodof employinglay personsto
helppreservethe Faithamongthe newly converted.
In many districts the religious make use, in their visitas, of certain of
the natives who are clever and well instructed,so that these may teach
the others to pray daily instruct them in other matters touching religion, and see that they come to Mass at the central missions;and in
this way they succeed in preserung and maintainingtheir converts....45

In seekingprospectiveconvertsthe missionaries
tried first to win
overthe principorles andcorciques. If they weresuccessful,it wasthen
only a matterof time beforethe whole villagewould be convened.
The first baptismsin a villagewere usuallyperformedwith great
solemnityin orderto impressupon the people the importanceand
sacrednatureof the sacrament.The ceremonyoften took placeon a
specialfeast day. There was a choir,a brassbandwhich included
nativeandEuropeaninstruments,
arquebusiers
andthatcolorfulMediterranean
effervescence
whichtheSpanishso successfully
projectedinto
the Filipinoculturepattern.
However,not all the villageswere equallyreceptiveto the new
doctrine. Some were bitterlyhostile,and othersmildly indifferent.
What swungthe balanceitl severalcaseswas the persuasive
presence
of the encomendero.46
Beforeone was adrnittedto baptismalinstruciion,he was to give
ampleproof of his desirefor the sacrament.A set of questionswas
sometimes
put to the candidatewhichfollowedthisgeneralfoIm:
Priest:
Are you in earnestaboutreceivingthe sacrament?
Candidate: Yes, Father,I say this with my whole heart.
P.:
Does the love of God andyour eternalsalvationprompt
you?
C.:
Yes Father,nothingelse.
P.:
Are you determined
to leaveall of your falsegods and
to changethemfor the trueGod?
C.:
Yes,Father.
44

lbid., XIII, 64.

of Antonio de Morga,in Ibid., XVI, 153.

'6 One of the possiblereasonsfor oppositionto the missionaries
was that they were
confusedwith Spanishtax coHectors.
'6Sucesos

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376

P.:
C.:
P.:

JESUIT
MISSIONARY
1\/1ETHODS

Are you resolvedto servethe true God andbe a good

Christian,
or areyou merelyspeakingwords?
No otherdesireis in my heartthanto be a goodChristian.
Then you are to be congratulated,
I admityou as a
catechumen.4t

In spite of all the precautions,

however,manywere drawnto the
sacramentby less worthy motives. Fromthe time of Magellan,the
apparently
physicalcurativepowersof baptismenticeda certainnumber.48Whatfurtherenhancedthe medicinalpowersof baptismin the
mindsof the peoplewas the fact thatthe missionaries
frequentlyperformedthe servicesof the physician.The administration
of baptism
wasthusconfusedwiththeadministration
of curativeherbs,withwhich
some missionaries
were very skillful. During one epidemica great
numberof childrenwere broughtto the Fathersfor baptism,because
it was thoughtthatthe sacrament
wouldprovidea spiritualimmunity
againstillness.49
In additionto thesesupposedphysicalbenefits,it wasof distinctsocial
advantage
to becomea Christuan,
for Spanishlaw providedpreferential
treatmentfor Christian
natives.
DIRECTIVES
OF FATHER
DEL PRADO
Frequentcorrespondence
betweenthe missionary
residencesandthe
superiorin Manilawas an importantfeatureof missionmethods.It
enabledthe over-allsuperiorto obtaina fairly accurateidea of the
accomplishments
andproblemsof the variousmissioners,
andso it was
possibleto give generaldirectivesto the activemissionaries.
In 1596
and 1598FatherdelPrado,the JesuitVice-Provincial,
issuedsucha set
of directives.They were intendedfor missionaries
as well as local
superiors
andthey wereissuedonly aftercloseinspections
of the ViceProvince.The sectionsdealingwiththe Visayanmissionsarepresented
herein part.
Ordinationsof Father Vice-Provincial Raymundo del Prado,
in 1596.
2. They must not go to confess or visit the sick in the pueblos unless
with a companion,and much less to other distant pueblos; and if, in
some house, this can not be observed let them arrange to take some
47Colin,Op. Cit., II, 287.
48 For a discussion
of variousmonvesfor baposm,see J. L. Phelansloc.
4'Blairand RobertsonsOp. Cit.s XII, 88; Phela, loc. cit., p. 18.

Cit.,

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pp. 17-20.

NICHOLAS
P. CUSHNER

377

native as a companion. If not accompaniedby some other Father or

Brother they must by no means sleep in such pueblos, but return to
sleep in our central house, which should be well placed, arranging
to go out in the morning and return in the evening.
12. Baptismsshould be conferred with as much solemnity as possible,
having as many presentas possible,and on some Pascuaswith a sermon
in which the sacred mysteries and ceremoniesare explained.
14. Let some natives be instructed how to baptize in extraordinary
circumstances,especially the fiscales,
and how to prepare persons for
Bapasm.
15. Make special efforts to gain over the chiefs, becausetheir example
exerts great good or evil on others,and so we should respect them and
cause them to be respectedin their pueblos.
16. Holy Water should be used solemnly on Sundays and the Masses
and offices should be sung with the greatest solemnity possible.
18. Let the natives be paid justly for their work, likewise for their
favors and all that may be taken; likewise pay them according to the
just current price, and not like the King or aIcaldemayor,unless it
may be seen that it is a just price.50
That which the same Father ordered in his
nsitation of 1598 for the Fathers who are
in the Pintados.51
1. To the superiorsof the Residencesand doctrinas,they are enjoined
very exactly on the rule of the Rector that they must not incur debt or
borrow anything,nor assumethe account of alms of the encomenderos,
if it is not known and definite, even though it may be to give alms
and help to the natives.
They must regulate matters and act as conformably as possible to
what they have and no more, because in another year another Father
may succeed them in the Residenceand he would have nothing to eat
nor anythingto give to the poor, and it might be possiblethat he would
leave the Society and the latter would have nothing with which to pay
its debts.
Memorialfor Father Tomas Montoya, Superior
of Alangalang,and the other Fathersand
Brothers.
1. Your Reverence is very specially charged that in your pueblos,
6The Englishtranslationof these directivesis in Repetii, "The Society of Jesus,"
III, 10-17.
61The people of the Visayasand the islandsthemselveswere often referredto as
Pintados.They were so called becausethe nativesthere tattood themselves.

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JESUIT
MISSIONARY
METHODS

378

and more in those under your jurisdiction,the natives be instructed

in two things; one, how to bapiize in extreme necessity and that there
be many in all places who understandthis; secondly, how to turn to
God in case of necessity, and in the absence of those who administer
the sacramentsof baptismand penance,with true sorrow for their sins
and a desirefor baptismor confession.
2. Those who may be baptized are of three classes: some very old;
others,childrenand youth; and othersof middle age. It is not necessary
that the first know anything, or very little, by memory, but only that
they know the necessaryarticlesof our holy faith. It is necessarythat
the second group know the entire Christiandoctrine by memory. For
the third it will suffice if they know the Sign of the Cross, the Our
Father,the Hail Mary and the Creed, and this is what is ordinary,that
they may not be dispensedin this.
3. Do not put so much stresson the fact that they are baptizedas that
they may be bapezed well and are Christians,live as such and, although
few, that they be models in their pueblos. Two things must be insisted
upon with those who are bapiized;first, that they be well imbued th
the truth of our holy faith and the falsiw of the idols, believing firmly;
secondly, that they be attached to Chrisiiancustoms and life, telling
them especiallynot to make mangitos,
charms,sorceries,etc.
5. Take noiice of the Chrisiianswho attend Mass and those who are
not at the sermon; and that they be present at both with becoming
decency; and for this it will help that the Brotherbe among the naiives
to show them how to act, when they are to kneel, etc.
11. The boys of the schools must be treated with great kindnessand
must be allowed good periods of iime for play. To them, and to the
other natives,some camotes and tuba shouldbe given from iime to iime
to awractthem to Ours and to the instruciion.52

CONCLUSIONS

There are severalfactorswhich contributedto the rapidspreadof

Christianity
in the Philippines,
one of whichwas the presenceof large
numbers
of missionaries.
By 1604theJesuitsalonecounted69 members,
a considerable
increasefrom the originalfour who arrivedin 1581.
However,we mustnot forgetthatthe Philippines
wasa uniquemission
field,in the sensethatit was a 7000-island
archipelago
extendingover
115,000squaremiles.Travelbetweenthe islandswasdifficult,dangerous,andtimeconsuming.Consequently,
moremissionaries
wereneeded
6

Camotes

are the nativesweet potatoand tuba is a drinkobtainedfrom the coconut

tree.

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P. CUSHNER
NICHOLAS

379

thanwouldbe requiredfor one continuousfrontier,suchas wasNew

pam.
followed
The procedureandmethodswhichtheseJesuitmissionaries
were by no m-eansoriginalwith them. They drew heavilyon the
all of
Dominicans,and Franciscans,
experienceof the Augustintans,
whom worked long and successfully,both in New Spainand the
of
Philippines.What mightbe notedas originalwas the organization
the residences,as well as certainmethodsof instruction.And these
of theSocietyanditS contemporary
mightbe tracedto theConstitutions
methods.
Europeaninstructional
which so
In any case, the combinedeffort of all the missionaries
successfullyplacedthe greaterpart of the PhilippineIslandswithin
in sucha shortperiodof timewasnothingshort
thepaleof Christendom
And althoughwe maylook uponit assimplyan extenof remarkable.
sion of the spiritualconquestof New Spain,it remainsone of the
conquestsof Christendom.
outstanding

S.

S. J.
P. CUSHNER,
NICHOLAS
SanJoseSeminary,
Cagayande Oro,Philippines

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