True Religion in a Globalized Society:

The Backbone for Peace, Equity and Human Capital Development

By
Akpobome Diffre-Odiete
Bison Seminary
Effurun, Delta State, Nigeria.
Email: akposdiete@yahoo.com

Abstract
The struggle for the practice of religion in a changing world and the universalization of certain
values, policies and experience mutually create negative impacts, such as conflict and insecurity
on people and their cultures. These impacts, in turn, hinder human capital development. Since
globalization can no longer be successfully arrested, a firm foundation or backbone is needed
upon which the global economy of the third millennium should be built. Such alone can help
curtail the negative impact of globalization. This paper identifies the duality of religion the
true or practical and the nominal, and proposes that only the true aspect of religion can foster
peace, equity and human capital development in a globalized economy. An unbiased assessment
of the effects of globalization should affirm that true religion is the needed backbone.
Furthermore, this paper examines the interaction and interrelationship between true religious
principles and the economic and political systems in fostering a peaceful and equitable global
society wherein human capital development reigns. It should be noted that with globalization
comes secularization which tends to undermine religion. Yet it is in religion itself that succour
from the effects of globalization on religion, culture and human capital development can be
found.
KEY WORDS: GLOBALIZATION, TRUE RELIGION, CULTURE, ECONOMY, HUMAN
CAPITAL, DEVELOPMENT

Introduction
Globalization has been identified as the first truly world revolution [1] as it cuts across
borders, customs and belief systems in an attempt to interconnect people and to ease their ways
of living. Yet in the very bid to ease the living standards of people, globalization has manifested
attendant problems of secularization, unequal distribution of economic resources, insecurity and
chaos. As these problems abound, reactions of all kinds have been experienced. These include
secular as well as religious responses. This paper, therefore, takes the religious approach to the
examination of the socio- economic effects of globalization and the way forward in the third
millennium. In an era where the secular approach has created more chaos, religious resurgence
is not out of place. However, if religion is treated merely as a nominal phenomenon, then its
resurgence can make no more positive impact than that made by secularization. Therefore,
religion must first of all be dissected and categorized according to the kinds and levels of socioeconomic results that people derive from it. So while the role and place of the humanities in
human capital development in the globalized world of the third millennia may be examined
epistemologically by the academia, religious devotees must go beyond the epistemological to
the practical level. In this way, the real place of religion, in particular, in the global society of
the third millennium can be positively identified and widely accepted.
This paper identifies the duality of religion. [2] On the one hand, there is the nominal
variety of religion. This one is worse than secularism because while it purports to be speaking
for a good God, it lacks the practical application of religious virtues in the socio-political and
economic systems of society. As such, it becomes the bedrock for social vice, violence,
terrorism and chaos.
On the other hand, there is an aspect of religion which is practiced inseparably with
peace, social justice, fair economics and other virtues in the spirit of love. This is true religion.
And since globalization has permeated borders, religions and cultures we need true religion as a
firm backbone for the restoration of peace and equity in the new global society of the third
millennium. This will help bring about effective human capital development. The longstanding
vicious impact of nominal religion should not be allowed to blind us to the positive realities of
true religion.

SOCIETY, CULTURE, GLOBALIZATION AND INSECURITY

The concept of society in the third millennium goes beyond the abode of communal
living and ethnic and national identity to that of a single human identity, regardless of or in the
midst of decaying barriers and differences in geographical borders, languages, religions, and
custom. If culture is the sum total of what any nation, people or tribe is all about, [3] then the
worlds national and ethnic communities hold their own unique and diverse cultures. These
include their languages, national costume, and belief and economic systems. But the trends of
globalization and the rise of a global society alters all these.
Globalization threatens the worlds diverse cultures. The worlds diverse languages and
dialects are a kind of reservoir of knowledge which has proven useful even to scientific and
technological development. However, the internationalization of a few languages and the
phasing out of most of the worlds other languages is a threat to real global development. As
Mayale Manenji puts it, to kill a language is to kill culture. [4] And [W]hen you lose a
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language, you lose a culture, intellectual wealth, a work of art. Its like dropping a bomb on a
museum, the Louvre.[5]
Traditional means of communication have not escaped the threat of Globalization. The
usual fellowship which accompanies the mouth-to-ear and face-to-face delivery of messages is
now decaying. Telephone and internet services are becoming global means of communication,
reaching out to even some of the worlds most rural areas and breaking both extremist religious
and gender restrictions. Yet these services promote social vice. Traditionally, a long-absent
husband and father would usually do his best to get back home to his family after the days
work. But with the aid of modern communication, a mere placatory phone call or email to his
family telling them how sweet they are could encourage him to stay longer at work or away
from home. Meanwhile, the telephone conservation or e-mail does not heal the emotional
wounds inflicted by the absence of his face and his physical touch.
The Western dressing pattern has eroded traditional moral codes in many societies and
has created in their place a certain mentality of liberation from moral thinking to secular
thinking. The television, the internet and the movie industries have served as agents of this
promotion. Now even married women in traditionally moral societies dress immodestly to
public places. And also, even in hot weather, men who have adopted the Western culture make
more use of coats with ties than their cultural weather-friendly attires. At the global market, the
promotion of and the demand for Western costume is surely working towards the closure of
local cottage textile industries.
Since September 11, 2001, it has become apparent how globalization can and has
facilitated the acts of terrorism and its accompanying vices. Romesh Ratnesar, writing for TIME
magazine notes:
Some of the manifestations of globalism have made it easier to
demonstrate against it: the internet facilitates exchange of protest
strategy, the English languages conquest of Europe [and
America] gives the polyglot protesters a common tongue, the E.Us
elimination of border controls means activists can more easily
hook up with foreign comrades, and free-markets competition has
slashed the cost of travel.[6]
More so, with the aid of the internet, terrorists can now recruit more suicide bombers within a
short period of time than before and they can now move and unleash terror anywhere in the
globe where the interests of their targets exist, without respect to geographical barriers. As at
2001, the al-Qaeda network alone is said to be operative in more than sixty countries. And it is
still growing despite the war against terrorism. [7] The Economist [8] mentions the terrorist attacks
of September 11, 2001 as an accelerator to the economic recession in America, Asia and
Western Europe, which eventually shook the entire globe. Another outcome of all these is the
use of anti-terrorism by authoritarian governments as pretence to haunt down dissidents,
thereby inflaming the anger that sparked militancy in the first place. [9] Furthermore,
international banking has greatly aided the financing of terrorists and their acts of terrorism. [10]
Threats to single nations have, by virtue of globalization, become threats to the entire world.

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And though globalization has not given birth to terrorism, it has nurtured its growth to full
maturity and internationalization.
Economic insecurity in some quarters has also been born by globalization. Local
industries have felt threatened by the expansion of big multinational companies.[11] Even
Western nations are affected too. Estimated millions lost their jobs in the United State alone in a
few years, while other countries which produce cheap labour seem to be benefiting as
companies move their operations there.[12] This economic insecurity and globalization in general
have caused the growth of anti-global activities around the globe. Jim Geiwitz, in a letter to the
TIME magazine writes,
THE COMMON GOAL OF THE NEW RADICALS was best
defined by George Soros in The Crisis of Global Capitalism. He
theorized that organizations like the WTO, the IMF and the World
Bank are trying to engineer a world based on market values,
whereas we antiglobalists want a world based on community
values. The well being of people should take precedence over
the well being of corporations.[13]
The benefits of globalization to third world countries or countries which produce cheap
labour are not holistic. In their report titled, The Challenge to the South The Report of the
South Commission, commission members lament saying, the integration of global markets for
money, finance, and technology, and the predominance in these markets of transnational
enterprise based in the north, have far-reaching implications for the world economy, as well as
for the south.[14]
Globalization has also been a contributory factor to the growth of inequality. The gap
between the rich and the poor individuals and the dependence of the developing nations on the
developed nations get more serious. The South Commission notes that global interdependence
is not symmetrical: the South is not an equal partner of the north but is in a position of
subordination. In international economic relations the south is not allowed a fair share but is
exploited. So far from participating in decision making at the world level, it is in fact
excluded.[15] The frequent G8 Summits testify to the problem of inequality among nations in
global economics. Why should trends that will affect world economy be determined by leaders
of just seven or eight countries? More so, the agenda of trade talks have been pushed by the
worlds largest multinational corporations, which traditionally have used the WTO secretariat
and negotiators of the worlds most powerful countries to write the rules of the global economy
in favour of expanding their profit margin. [16]
Globalization causes some communities to assimilate other cultures at the expense of
theirs. And the assimilation of a new culture which is not learnt gradually but suddenly superimposed by circumstances over a short period can hardly be controlled effectively. Thus, even
when such culture is being positively managed by its original owners, the new people upon
whom it is being imposed find it difficult to adjust so soon from their own culture to the new, or
even to strike a balance between both. This adjustment process of trying to strike a balance

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between original and new-found cultures results in certain insecurity in society. This process
causes a clash of civilizations
Local economies can do better if allowed to develop at their own pace, while adjusting
gradually to the trends of globalization. Before China joined the World Trade Organization in
2001, its local policies proved more effective in poverty reduction than those imposed by the
International Monetary Fund and World Bank on poor countries. And many of these same
[local] policies are those employed by the now-wealthy countries during their period of
development - such as high tariffs to keep out imports and significant subsidies and
government intervention to promote exports; tightly regulated foreign investment with
numerous performance requirements regarding domestic content and technology transfer, [17] e t
c.
The negative effects of globalization threatened local cultures, rapid change of
cultures, breakdown of family ties, terrorism and economic insecurity and inequality are
major contributory factors to human capital underdevelopment in Africa. Any approach at
effective human capital development must therefore help at curbing the negative effects of
globalization, not at promoting them.

TRADE TALKS: THE FAILURE OF SECULAR SOLUTIONS

The WTO experiment has failed. [18] The World Trade Organization, International
Monetary Fund, World Bank and other bodies have attempted to solve global economic and
other problems through secular forums and trade talks aimed at promoting globalization.
Daniel Benjamin [19] has identified problems that faced the G8, one of several economic
forums meant to shape global economy. These problems, among others, also face all trade talks
alike. One is the need to link theory with practice, meaning establishing deeper ties with the
developing world.[20] The inequality between the wealthy and the poor countries need to be
practically addressed. With this agrees the words of Kevin Watkins of Oxfam: the real debate
is about the policies needed to make globalization work for the poor. Developing countries need
less free-market advice and more access to protected northern markets; poor people need
redistributive policies that enable them to share more equitably in economic growth. [21] For
example, many poor countries feel they were short-changed by the Uruguay Round, and they
are not sure that more free trade will do them any good ., thereby suggesting that trade deals
be more of bilateral and regional in scope, like the proposed free trade area of the
Americas.[22] Thus, there has been one breakdown after the other, of trade talks and summits.
The underlying causative factor of these breakdowns is the growing rejection of the WTO and
more broadly of the corporate-led globalization model, by many people worldwide based on
this models effects on their lives.[23] This selfish agenda has slowed the growth rate of poverty
reduction in most parts of the world in the decade of implementation of WTOs policies.[24]
In an overreaction to the failure of secular solutions to the problems of globalization,
certain anti-globalists have caused chaos, violence and death. After the Davos 2000 World
Economic Forum, James Graff of TIME magazine notes that wherever government and
business leaders gather to talk about globalization, protest is sure to follow. [25] Some 25,000
people demonstrated against a summit of European Union leaders at Gothenburg, Sweden in
2001. Dozens of them were injured, three, including a 19-year old protester, got shot with live
5|Page

ammunition.[26] Violent protesters at the G8 summit in Genoa, Italy saw globalization as bad
news the triumph of giant corporations, the trashing of the earth, the end of self
government.[27] The violence shocked the world, yet Britains Prime Minister Tony Blair
deplored the idea that there should be no more Economic summits. If that were the result, he
said democracy would have capitulated to the mob[28] .
Another problem identified by Benjamin is the need to combat the U.S. unilateralist
approach to world affairs and to show team spirit.[29] Although, Benjamins proposed
solutions are also secularist, by way of amplification, team spirit should include giving room
for non- secular ideas. By analyzing the negative impact of nominal religion in society, the
secularist hastily relegates religion generally to be non-scientific sentimental and antimodern. Thus, this leads us to the main proposition of this paper the duality of religion and
the inseparability of the true aspect of religion from fair economics, peaceful co-existence and
equity in any form of society, local or global and how these can generate and sustain effective
human capital development.

BEYOND THE TALKS: RELIGIOUS RESURGENCE

The EU argues that the world needs trade rules that go beyond tariffs, and that rules on
competition and investment policy are the natural evolution of a multilateral trading system in
the 21st century.[30] A deeper implication of this argument is that a backbone or foundation is
needed for trade, competition and investment policy for a global society to be peaceful and
equitable. The economic and political systems of society cannot be rightly and wholly treated
without the concept of a backbone or foundation because they are not self- supporting. As Jean
Jacques Rousseau notes, it is impossible for any establishment whatever to act in the spirit of its
institution.[31] The foundation that is necessary for a society to be socially peaceful and
economically and politically equitable is a moral one. Again, Rousseau asserts that nothing can
take the place of morality in the maintenance of government. [32] And objective morality is both
born and nurtured by true religion. Thus true religion is the foundation for a peaceful and
equitable global society wherein effective and practical human capital development can
flourish.
The failure of secularism to achieve true peace and equity in any society has created
room in the minds of many for a re-consideration of true religious principles. However, great
care must be taken to properly differentiate between nominal and true religion in order to
prevent the re-birth of medieval history. When nominal religion is more widespread than true
religion in a society, the moral virtues needed for the peace, equity and prosperity of that society
may be overshadowed. Hence, true religious principles should not only be articulately
propagated and practiced by religious leaders, but should also be planted in the very political
and economic systems of society for their public promotion and practice. The experience of
communist Russia proves that no political economy can be successfully absolutely secular. Yet
this is not a call for the control of the state by some fanatical or materially-minded religious
leaders. If people are not wholly socially secular, then their economic and political systems
cannot successfully be. The Hebrew Bible, for instance, is a historical documentation of
accounts of a peaceful and prosperous political economy of the Jewish people when they
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allowed God to rule over them. However, it also contains records of national calamity when
they turned to nominal religion.
Moreover, it must be emphasized that the desired virtues are true and good only when
motivated by Godly love, as Thomas Aquinas holds that no strictly true virtue is possible
without charity.[33] Love is therefore necessary for the practice of true virtue and effective
human capital development in society. When practical virtues are motivated by love, a peaceful,
equitable and prosperous global society should be an obvious reality. With love for oneself, one
should be willing to patiently labour to produce high quality goods and services, not only for
ones personal use, but also for other users; not just for costumers satisfaction, but also for the
sustainability of ones work. And thus one works for ones individual well being and freedom
freedom from poverty, freedom from vice, freedom from irresponsibility, freedom from
inequality, freedom from insecurity and freedom from the bondage of idleness and potential
forced labour. With love for others, one would show effective compassion. This means helping
the needy to help themselves, and not spoon-feeding them to keep them in the bondage of
perpetual dependency. After loving oneself to the point of being of good service to oneself and
to others, if one then loves others as oneself, one would help them to develop and maintain the
same willingness to patiently labour to produce quality goods and services for themselves and
for others just as one does for oneself. Thus a virtuous circle will be created as mutual love on
the part of individuals, extended into the worlds institutions, will be a motivating factor for an
equitable and beneficial use of the earths resources (which God has commanded man to
subdue) by all people.
This relationship between virtue which is nourished by love and economic production is
also applicable to the political system. In many of the crippling political economies of the
world, the major problem is not incapability on the part of leaders, nor is it really over
population, but it is the lack of application of true religious principles in the economic and
political systems of society. As this happens, the result is pride, selfish political policies and
practices, refusal to govern with public interest in mind, and neglect for the plight of the poor.
But if those in the political system were to love their duties and the public to whom they owe
their duties, and if they were to put in true virtues into every act of their governance, the system
is sure to be stable and to result in a peaceful, equitable and prosperous political economy. In
this way, human capital will naturally be developed. In the Hebrew Bible, we see a case of the
ancient city of Nineveh which was spared because of the turn of events which resulted from the
moral virtue of her leaders after Jonah the prophet had declared an imminent national calamity.
On the other hand, the societies of Sodom and Gomorrah were eventually destroyed, not just
because of the level of vice in them, but because there were not enough virtuous persons in the
land. C. S. Lewis, the 20th century Christian apologist observes that if only people with true
religious principles were to be economists and statesmen, and that if the others were to be ready
to accept this, the solution to our social problems would come pretty quickly [34].
With love for ones society at large, one would put in selfless efforts at making it more
peaceful, equitable and virtuous. The more virtuous a society is the more prosperous it will be
and the more one would love it. And for it to be so, one must first put in virtuous acts with love.
Our reward for loving the society and putting this love into virtuous acts will not only result in
7|Page

improved economic productivity and political activities, but also we would enter into union
with God who so loved the world that He gave his only begotten Son for it. In agreement with
this Aquinas writes that the greater the charity from which our actions proceed, the more
perfectly shall we enjoy God.[35] Also, Rousseau says, wherever men love their country.and
live simply, little remains to be done in order to make them happy.[36]
Therefore, volumes of secular economic and political theories do not produce true
peace, equity, economic prosperity or human capital development without the practice of true
religion; for it is only true religion that declares real freedom without fear or prejudice. If God
makes one free, one shall be free indeed.

Conclusion
True religion is not incompatible with peaceful and equitable globalization. As someone
puts it in a letter to TIME magazine, Our world is becoming a smaller place in which to live
and we must keep our minds open to change while maintaining our heritage and culture.
Globalization will eventually come and theres no way to stop it. We have to prepare ourselves
now or be left behind.[37]
As earlier noted, true religion is practiced inseparably with social justice, just
governance, fair economics, effective compassion, dignified labour, and other virtues, in the
spirit of love, liberty, peace, patience, humility, honesty, mercy and truth. If this is so, and it is,
then true religious principles should set the rules and trends of human capital development in
our globalized society.
Having considered how true religious principles with morality that is motivated by
godly love can bring about good to the political and economic systems of society, it is worth
while to mention where and when to begin to practice them. Each one must start with himself.
Those that would teach good public morality must first lead lives worth emulating. So each one
must first cultivate the divine love in his heart and then let it manifest in every truly virtuous
effort that should be directed at fostering a peaceful, equitable and prosperous global society.
Aristotle says so much about the fact that virtues are not natural gifts, but are a result of habit;
thus we learn to do them by doing them; e.g. men become builders by building, so too we
become just by doing just acts; temperate by doing temperate acts. [38] If therefore it behooves
each persons habit to be virtuous, it would soon be obvious that each one is doing to others as
he would do unto God.
The resurgence of religion is a welcome development in the process of globalization in
rd
the 3 millennium. The humanities in general and religion in particular, have a great role to play
in the process of globalization and human capital development in the 3 rd millennium. The
academia has seen the need for it to be so. Through the Project on Religion, Culture and
Globalization, the University of Maryland, plans to bring together faculty, staff, students, and
community members to encourage research, dialogue and the sharing of resources on academic
issues that traditionally have not been addressed by the campus community. The primary
purpose of adding religion as a category of analysis is to provide a heretofore untapped
opportunity to understand the deep-rooted and typically unspoken assumption on which
individuals and peoples base their worldviews.[39] The University of San Franciscos August
8|Page

2007 symposium on Globalization and Its Discontents: Modernization, Culture and Religion
is another example. The aim of the symposium was to offer a comprehensive frame work for
addressing prospects for the peaceful evolution of people and societies in the third millennium.
The organizers knew that by the third millennium, there is a remarkable resurgence of religion,
along with national and ethnic communities which seek to retrieve traditional sources of
individual
and
group
identities
in
a
world
of
future
shock,
punctuated by the successive waves of the agricultural, industrial, and post-industrial
revolutions. [40] Also, the 2010 Faculty of Arts Annual Conference of the Nnamdi Azikiwe
University, Nigeria slated for May 2010 was tagged: The Humanities and Globalization in the
3rd Millennium. Religion, as a major part of the humanities, was given a place. And now,
religion forms two sub-themes for the 2nd International Conference of the Delta State
Universitys Faculty of Arts. The academia is playing its role in projecting the usefulness of
religion in a secularized global society. It is now up to religious leaders and devotees to put the
principles of true religion into daily practice.
Finally, the economic and political systems of the global society of the 3 rd millennium
need a moral backbone or foundation that will set the rules which will secure, sustain and
promote global peace, equity and human capital development. Since religion is the seed-bed of
morality, love which is the greatest religious principle should propel each person to apply all
virtues to equity in the economic system, the stability of the political system and general good
of society. And it is the duty of religious leaders to place themselves among the most articulate
apologists and practitioners of this proposition. As Augustine puts it, for one to love oneself and
others as one would love God is true religion. [41]

End Notes
1.
2.

3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

James Kurth, Religion and globalization May 1999. 10 April 2010.

< http://www.fpri. org/fpriwire/0707.199905.kurth.religionglobalization.html>.
This is a revision of my theory which I first proposed while studying at the
Nigeria Christian Bible College, Ukporn Abak as True Religion: The Backbone for a
Free, Virtuous and Prosperous Political Economy.
Donald R. Taylor, The Christian Confronts Culture, in Gospel Advocate,
June 1994, p. 42.
Fridah Muyale-Manenji, The effects of globalization on culture in Africa in
the eyes of an African woman 10 April 2010. < http://www. oikoumene org. 1998
the effectsofglobalizationoncultureinAfricaintheeyesof an African
women.html>
From the obituary of Kenneth Hale, former teacher of linguistics and master of
languages, published in The Economist, November 3, 2001, p. 89.
TIME, July 23, 2001, p. 26
The Economist, October 27, 2001, p. 20
The Economist, October 27, 2001, p. 11
The Economist, October 27, 2001, p. 46
The Economist, October 27, 2001, pp. 76, 79

9|Page

11.

Cecille S. Visto Globalizations Bad Effects Discussed 12 September, 2002.

14 September, 2005 <http://www.globalpolicy.org/Ngos/role/globalization/int. inst/
2002/0912/globalize.html>.

12.

12.
M. Benjamin and J. Perry The New Job Reality. U.S. News and World
Report 135, No. 4 (August 11, 2003): 24, in Bettina Lankard Brown Effects of
Globalization on Careers: Myths and Realities No 29 2003. 14 September, 2005.
<http://ww.cete.org/acre/dogen. html>
Jim Geitwitz , Letters in TIME, May, 22, 2000, p. 16
The South Commission, The Challenge to the South: The Report of the South
Commission. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing, 1993, p. 283
The South Commission, 284
Lori Wallach and Deborah James Why the WTO Doha Round Talks Have
Collapsed and a Path Forward 14 August 2006. 05 April 2010.
<http://www.commondreams. org/ views06/081433.htm>
Lori Wallach and Deborah James
Lori Wallach and Deborah James
Daniel Benjamin was a former TIME correspondent and a senior fellow at the
Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington DC
TIME, July 23, 2001, p.29
The Economist, November 3, 2001, p.26
Special Report on World Trade, The Economist, July 28, 2001, p.24
Lori Wallach and Deborah James
Lori Wallach and Deborah James
TIME, February 7, 2000, p.16
TIME, July 23, 2001, p.26
The Economist, July 28 2001 p.29
The Economist, July 28, 2001 p.14

13.
14.
15.
16.

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.

32.
33.

34.
35.
36.
37.

TIME, July 23, 2001 p.29

The Economist, July 28, 2001 p.25
Jean Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse on Political Economy, Trans. G. D. H.
Cole, Great Books of the Western World, vol. 38, Ed. Robert Maynard Hutchins.
Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952, p. 372b
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Thomas Aquinas, The Summa Theologica II Trans. Fathers of the English
Dominican Province, Great Books of the western world, Vol. 20 Ed. Robert Maynard
Hutchins. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952, Pt. 11-11, Q23, A7, ANS, 488b-c
C.S. Lewis, Mere Christianity. New York: Macmillan, 1960, p. 79
Thomas Aquinas, 506b-c
Jean Jacques Rousseau, 377b
TIME, May 22, 2000, p.12

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38.
39.
40.

41.

Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics in The Works of Aristotle II. Trans. W. D

Ross, Great Books of the Western World, vol. 9, 348d 349a
The University of Maryland, Project on Religion, Culture and Globalization
01 April 2010 <http://www.amst.umd.edu/PRCG/about.html>.
University of San Franciscos Symposium on Globalization and its
Discontents: Modernization, Culture and Religion August 2007. 01 April 2010,
http://ww.jis3.org/symposium 2007-htm
Augustine, The City of God. Trans. Marcus Dods, Great Books of the Western
World, vol. 18; Bk X, ch. 3, 300d

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