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Chapter 03
Chapter 03
Measurements
Chapter Objectives
This chapter will help you to:
1. Understand the relationship between
schematic diagrams and physical circuits.
2. Use Ohms law to calculate the current,
voltage, and resistance in simple electric
circuits.
3. Calculate the power of a circuit when any
two of the three quantities voltage, current,
and resistance are known or can be determined.
4. Calculate the cost of operating an electric
device for a specified length of time.
5. Measure the current, voltage, and resistance in electric circuits without damaging
the meter or circuit.
6. Understand the relationship between
scales and ranges on multiscale, multirange meters.
3-1
Circuit Essentials
Simple circuit
Leaf spring
Metal case
Spring
On-off button
Metal reflector
Switch
Lamp
Cell
Cell
terminal
terminal
Insulator
(a)
(b )
3-2
Schematic
diagram
Thomas Edison
One of the inventions Thomas
Edison is well known for is the
light bulb. Through his experiments, he discovered that
electrons are emitted when the
filament of an incandescent
light bulb is heated by passing
an electric current through it.
(Encyclopedia of Electronics,
Gibilisco and Sclater, McGrawHill, 1990.)
Physical device
42
Symbol
Physical device
Symbol
Lamp
(light
bulb)
Cell
Fuse
(open)
Switch
(closed)
Insulated
conductor
Uninsulated
conductor
Direction of
current flow
Common ground
symbol
A schematic diagram of the flashlight illustrated in Fig. 3-1(a) is shown in Fig. 3-1(b).
Current can also be traced in the schematic diagram. The line with the arrowheads indicates
the direction of current flow. The electrons
(current) flow from the negative end of the cell
through the closed switch and the lamp and
back to the positive end of the cell. The conductor between the negative terminal of the cell
and the switch in Fig. 3-1(b) represents the
spring and the metal case in Fig. 3-1(a). The
contact between the positive end of the cell and
the light bulb in Fig. 3-1(a) is represented by
the long line in the schematic diagram. Notice
that lines in a schematic do not necessarily indicate a wire, but they do indicate a path for
current to flow through.
In this text, we will always use the direction
of electron flow as the direction of current flow.
For a voltage source like the cell in Fig. 3-1(b),
electrons flow out of the negative terminal
(a)
(b)
43
Electrical values
SPST
3 k
1/2 W
1.5 V
(D cell)
(a)
S1
B1
R1
Parts list
R1 Resistor, 3 k, 1/2 W
S1 Switch, SPST
B1 Cell, 1.5 V, size D
(b)
3-3
Ohms law
Calculating Electrical
Quantities
44
Ohms Law
The relationship between current (I ), voltage
(V ), and resistance (R) was discovered by a
German scientist named Georg Ohm. This relationship is named Ohms law in his honor.
Ohm found that the current in a circuit varies
directly with the voltage when the resistance is
kept constant. While keeping the resistance
constant, Ohm varied the voltage across the
resistance and measured the current through it.
In each case, when he divided the voltage by
the current, the result was the same. In short,
this is Ohms law, which can be stated as The
current is directly proportional to the voltage
and inversely proportional to the resistance.
Find:
Current (I)
V
I , 1.4 k 1400
R
Known:
Solution:
Answer:
R 96
V 120 V
Find:
Known:
V
I
R
V
R
I
120 V
I 1.25 A
96
The current through the lamp
equals 1.25 A.
V IR
Solution:
Answer:
2.8 V
I
1400
0.002 ampere (A)
Voltage
(V )
EXAMPLE 3-2
V
I
R
Given:
Current
(I )
Resistance
(R )
45
Given:
2.8 V
1.4 k
Find:
Known:
Solution:
Answer:
R 10 k 10,000
I 35 mA 0.035 A
V
V IR
V 0.035 A 10,000
350 V
The voltage across the resistor
is 350 V.
This expression reduces to 1 ampere 1 ampere, which shows that proper units were used.
EXAMPLE 3-3
Find:
Resistance (R)
V
R
I
Known:
Solution:
Answer:
120 V
R 150 ohms ()
0.8 A
The resistance of the lamp is
150 .
EXAMPLE 3-4
P IV
46
Now we are going to work with the relationship between current, voltage, and power. Since
current and voltage are easily measured quantities, you will be using this relationship quite often in electrical work.
Power is equal to current times voltage. Expressed as a formula, we have
Power (P) current (I) voltage (V)
or
P IV
Power is in its base unit of watts when voltage
is in volts and current is in amperes.
EXAMPLE 3-6
EXAMPLE 3-5
Find:
Known:
Solution:
The current flowing through a 10-k resistor is 35 mA. What is the potential energy
difference (voltage) across the resistor?
Answer:
or
P
I
V
V 1.5 V
R 10
Find:
Known:
Solution:
EXAMPLE 3-7
Answer:
How much current flows through a 120-volt,
500-watt lamp?
Given:
Find:
Current (I)
P
I
V
Known:
Solution:
Answer:
V
P IV, I
R
1.5 V
I 0.15 A
10
P 0.15 A 1.5 V 0.225 W
P
V
I
The procedure used in example 3-9 is a twostep process. If Ohms law and the power
formula are combined, the procedure can be
shortened to one step. The combining of Ohms
law and the power formula yields two formulas.
From Ohms law we know that
500 W
I 4.17 A
120 V
The current flowing through
the lamp is 4.17 A.
P
I
V
EXAMPLE 3-9
V
I
R
Substituting for I in the basic power formula
(P IV), we find that
V
P V
R
EXAMPLE 3-8
P 4 kW 4000 W
V 240 V
V2
P
R
Thus, we can solve for the power if we know
the voltage and the resistance.
From Ohms law we also know that
VIR
I
P
I
V
4000 W
I 16.7 A
240 V
The current drawn by the
clothes dryer is 16.7 A.
1.5 V
10
47
P I 2R
PI R
Thus, we can solve for the power, given the current and the resistance.
Example 3-10 is solved using one of the
above formulas.
EXAMPLE 3-10
V2
P
R
Find the power dissipated (used) by the resistor in Fig. 3-8 using the appropriate power
formula.
Given:
V 1.5 V
R 10
Find:
P
V2
Known:
P R
Solution:
Answer:
1.5 1.5
(1.5)2
P
10
10
0.225 W
The power dissipated by the
resistor is 0.225 W.
EXAMPLE 3-11
How much power is dissipated when 0.2 ampere of current flows through a 100-ohm resistor?
Given:
R 100
I 0.2 A
Find:
P
Known:
P I 2R
Solution:
P 0.22 100
0.2 0.2 100
0.04 100
4W
The resistor uses 4 W of power.
Answer:
Calculating Energy
48
You have just learned that power is equal to current times voltage. Thus, energy can also be determined by knowing current, voltage, and time.
Energy can also be determined if resistance
and voltage or current are known. Of course, it
is always necessary to know the amount of time
the power is being used.
EXAMPLE 3-12
W Pt, P IV
Solution:
P 1.5 A 12 V 18 W
W 18 W 2 h 36 Wh
Answer:
EXAMPLE 3-13
Solution:
Answer:
V 1.5 V, R 10
t 30 min
W
W Pt
V2
P
R
1 joule 1 wattsecond
1 min 60 s
(1.5)2
2.25
P
10
10
0.225 W
W 0.225 W 1800 s
405 Ws
405 joules (J)
The energy drawn from the
cell is 405 J.
Calculating Cost
The cost of electric energy can be determined
from the amount of energy used and the cost
rate. The cost rate is usually specified in
EXAMPLE 3-16
Find:
Known:
Solution:
Answer:
W 120 kWh
Rate 6 per kWh
Cost
Cost rate energy
Cost 6 per kWh
120 kWh
720 $7.20
The cost is $7.20.
EXAMPLE 3-15
Find:
Known:
Solution:
Answer:
P 100 W
t3h
Rate 6 per kWh
Cost
Cost rate energy, W Pt
W 100 W 3 h
300 Wh 0.3 kWh
Cost 6 per kWh
0.3 kWh
1.8
It costs 1.8 to operate the
lamp for 3 hours.
Cents per
kilowatthour
Answer:
V 120 V
I8A
t2h
Rate 9 per kWh
Cost
Cost rate energy
W Pt, P IV
P 8 A 120 V 960 W
W 960 W 2 h
1920 Wh
1.92 kWh
Cost 9 per kWh
1.92 kWh
17.3
The cost is 17.3.
Cost rate
energy
Notice the order in which the Known in example 3-16 is listed. The procedure outlined
below was used in developing the order in
which the Known formulas are listed.
1. Write the formula needed to solve for the
quantity to be found. Look at the
quantities to the right of the equals sign in
this formula. If one of these quantities is
not listed in the Given row, write the
formula needed to find it (W Pt).
2. Look at the right-hand half of the formula
just written (W Pt). If a quantity there
is not listed in the Given row, write the
formula needed to find it
(P IV).
3. Look at the right-hand half of (P IV).
The Given row lists both (I and V). The
problem can now be solved.
The above procedure should always be used
to reduce complex problems into a series of
simple steps.
49
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Ohmmeter
Wattmeter
Panel meter
Half-digit
3-4
Measuring Electrical
Quantities
50
ABOUT ELECTRONICS
Blackouts Can Be Costly In our technological society,
industries are dependent on machines controlled by sensitive
electronic devices. Because of this dependence, blackouts cost
businesses 3 to 5 billion dollars per year in production downtime and lost data.
Multimeters
Volt-ohmmilliammeter
(VOM)
Functions
Ranges
Scales
51
Digital
multimeters
(DMMs)
52
EXAMPLE 3-18
EXAMPLE 3-19
Answer:
Fig. 3-13 Digital multimeter with separate pushbutton switches for function and range.
(a)
Autoranging
Using Multimeters
All electrical quantities to be measured are applied to the meter through test leads. A typical
test lead is illustrated in Fig. 3-14. For most
measurements, the test leads plug into the two
jacks in the lower right-hand corner of the
meter shown in Fig. 3-11. A black lead goes in
the COMMON jack, and a red lead in
the jack. The black lead is negative and the
red lead positive when the function switch is in
the DC position. When the function switch is
in the DC position, the black lead (COMMON ) is positive. Of course, the red lead
also reverses polarity. The DC position
should be used except when special measurements are being made. In this way, the red lead
is positive. Red is the color often used to indicate positive in electric circuits.
Probe
(b)
Tip
Insulated handle
Insulated conductor
Banana plug
53
Ohms-adjust
control
Voltage
measurements
Measuring Resistance
When resistance is measured, the VOM must
first be ohms-adjusted. The ohms-adjust control
is labeled zero OHMS in Fig. 3-11. This control is rotated until the meter indicates zero on
the ohms scale when the test-lead tips are touching each other. The ohms-adjust control must be
adjusted for each range of the ohms function.
Thus, every time the range is changed, the leads
must be touched together and the meter adjusted
to zero. No such adjustment is needed with the
DMM.
The ohmmeter function of any multimeter
uses a cell, battery, or power supply inside the
meter housing. That is, it has its own source of
energy. Therefore, any other energy source must
be disconnected from any circuit in which resistance is to be measured. Never measure the
resistance of a load when power (the energy
source) is connected to the circuit. Doing this
damages the ohmmeter. Figure 3-15(a) illustrates the correct technique for measuring the
resistance of a lamp. Notice in Fig. 3-15(b) the
symbols used for the ohmmeter and the testlead connection.
The procedure used in measuring resistance
is as follows:
25.2
V-
mA
20
200
DC
2K
AC
20 K
COM
Open
mA
Cell
Fig. 3-15 Measuring resistance. Notice that the power source is disconnected from the load
by the open switch.
54
Switch
closed
1.535
V-
mA
20
200
DC
2K
AC
20 K
COM
Cell
mA
V
Fig. 3-16 Lamp voltage being measured. The switch must be closed.
mA
20
200
DC
2K
AC
20 K
COM
COM
Measuring Current
Current measurements are made much less frequently than either resistance or voltage measurements. This is because the circuit usually
has to be physically interrupted to insert the
meter. In Fig. 3-18, the circuit has been physically interrupted by disconnecting one end of
the lead between the cell and the lamp. The meter is then connected between the end of the
wire and the lamp. As shown in Fig. 3-19, the
meter can just as well be connected on either
side of the switch. All three meter locations in
Current
measurements
Switch
closed
108.4
V-
Cell
mA
Fig. 3-18 Current being measured. Current must flow through both the meter and the load.
55
56
A
A
Related Formulas
V IR
V
I
R
P I2R
V2
P
R
V
R
I
W Pt
Cost Rate energy
P IV
57
58
3-9. Explain what will happen to the power of a circuit if the source voltage is doubled and the
resistance is not changed.
14. Given:
Find:
Known:
Solution:
Lamp
Resistor
Conductor
Answer:
15. Given:
Find:
Known:
Solution:
Answer:
16. Given:
Find:
Known:
Solution:
Answer:
17. Given:
Find:
Known:
Solution:
Answer:
18. Given:
Find:
Known:
Solution:
Answer:
P 1000 W, V 120 V
I
P
I
V
1000 W
I 8.3 A
120 V
The current for the 1000-W toaster is
8.3 A.
I 2.2 A, V 12.6 V
P
P IV
P 2.2 A 12.6 V 27.72 W
The tape deck requires 27.72 W.
R 99 , V 6.3 V
P
V2
P R
(6.3)2
P 0.4 W
99
The power rating of the lamp is 0.4 W.
I 8 A, V 240 V, t 9 h
W
W Pt, P IV
P 8 A 240 V 1920 W
W 1920 W 9 h
17,280 Wh 17.28 kWh
The energy converted is 17.28 kWh.
R 100 , I 200 mA 0.2 A,
t 10 min 600 s
W
W Pt, P I2R, Ws J
P (0.2)2 100 4 W
W 4 W 600 s
2400 Ws 2400 J
The resistor converts 2400 J of electric
energy to heat energy.
59
P 3000 W, t 3 h,
rate 4 per kWh
Find:
Cost
Known: Cost rate W, W Pt
Solution: W 3000 W 3 h 9000 Wh
9 kWh
Cost 4 per kWh 9 kWh
36
Answer: The cost is 36.
20. Given:
I 0.5 A, V 120 V,
rate 8 per kWh, t 40 h
Find:
Cost
Known: Cost rate W, W Pt,
P IV
Solution: P 0.5 A 120 V 60 W
W 60 W 40 h 2400 Wh
2.4 kWh
Cost 8 per kWh 2.4 kWh
19.2
Answer: The cost is 19.2.
21. 6.6 amperes
22. 1900 ohms (19 100)
19. Given:
60
Chapter 3
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
40 milliamperes
F
F
F
Remove the power from the circuit, select the ohms
function, select the correct range, and connect the
test leads to the device or component being
measured. If a VOM is used, the meter must also be
ohms-adjusted.
Select the correct voltage function, select the correct
range, determine the polarity of the voltage, and
observing polarityconnect the meter to the
circuit.
Select the current function, select the correct range,
interrupt the circuit, andobserving polarityconnect the meter between the interrupted points.
F
They are provided so that test lead polarities can be
reversed without changing the lead connections to
the meter.
F