Professional Documents
Culture Documents
IT Discretemaths PDF
IT Discretemaths PDF
UNIT I
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
PREDICATE CALCULUS
SET THEORY
Basic concepts subsets algebra of sets the power set ordered pairs and
Cartesian product relations on sets types of relations and their properties
matrix representation of a relation graph of a relation partitions equivalence
relations partial ordering poset Hasse diagram Lattices and their properties
sub-lattices Boolean algebra homomorphism
UNIT IV
9
FUNCTIONS
GROUPS
and group codes basic notions of error correction error recovery in group codes
TEXT BOOKS
1. Tremblay and Manohar R, Discrete Mathematical Structures with Applications to
Computer Science, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2003.
2. Kenneth H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and its Applications, 6th edition, Tata
McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2008.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Bernard Kolman, Robert C. Busby, Sharan Cutler Ross, Discrete Mathematical
Structures, 4th Indian reprint, Pearson Education, New Delhi, 2003.
2. Ralph P. Grimaldi, Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 4th edition, Pearson
Education, New Delhi, 2002.
UNIT I
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
PROPOSITIONS
LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS
CONDITIONAL AND BICONDITIONAL PROPOSITION
TRUTH TABLES
TAUTOLOGIES AND CONTRADICTIONS
CONTRA POSITIVE
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES AND IMPLICATION
DEMORGANS LAW
NORMAL FORMS
PRINCIPLE CONJUNCTIVE AND DISJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORMS
RULES OF INFERENCE
ARGUMENTS
VALIDITY OF ARGUMENTS.
INTRODUCTION
LOGIC:
PROPOSITION:
It is a declarative sentence that is either true or false not both.
The area of logic that deals with proposition is called propositional calculus.
Example: Raju is coming everyday in time --- True
Madhu is an animal --- False
APPLICATIONS:
Design of computer circuits.
Construction of computer programs.
Verification of correctness of programs.
System security.
CONNECTIVES:
NEGATION: Let P be a proposition. The statement it is not the case that P is
another proposition, called the negation of P. It is denoted by P.
Example:
P = Rose is red.
P = Rose is not red.
Truth Table:
p
T
F
F
T
Truth Table:
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
F
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
T
T
F
q
T
F
T
F
q
F
T
T
F
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
IMPLICATIONS: Let P and Q be propositions. The implication P
proposition that is false when P is true & Q is false and true otherwise.
Example:
Q is the
Truth Table:
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
F
T
T
q
T
F
T
F
q
T
F
F
T
NORMAL FORM:
The solution of decision problem may not be simple & construction of truth
table may not be practical, even with the aid of the computer. We therefore consider
other procedure known as reduction to normal form.
DISJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM (DNF): A formula which is equivalent to a given
formula and which consists of sum of elementary products is called a DISJUNCTIVE
NORMAL FORM of the given formula.
CONJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM (CNF): A formula which is equivalent to a given
formula and which consists of product of elementary sums is called a
CONJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM of the given formula.
PRINCIPLE DISJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM (PDNF): For the given formula an
equivalent formula consisting of disjunction of min terms only is known as
PRINCIPLE DISJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM. Such a normal form is also called the
S.O.P canonical form.
PRINCIPLE CONJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM (PCNF): For the given formula an
equivalent formula consisting of conjunction of max terms only is known as
PRINCIPLE CONJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM. Such a normal form is also called
the P.O.S canonical form.
INFERENCE THEORY
Valid Conclusion: Let A and B be two statement formula. We say that B logically
follows from A or B is a valid conclusion of the premise A if and only if A B
(A B is a tautology).
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
(P R)
(P R)
5) ABSORPTION LAW:
P (P Q)
P
P (P Q)
P
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
6) DE MORGANS LAW:
(P Q)
P
(P Q)
P
Q
Q
IDENTITIES:
1) P F
P;
P T
2) P T
T;
P F
3) (P Q)
( P Q)
4) (P
Q) (P Q) (Q P)
5)
( P) P
6) P P
P ; P P
7) P P
8) (P
P) Q
9) (P
P)
10) P P
Q
T;
Q
Q
P P
(Inverse Law)
IMPLICATIONS:
1. P Q
2. P Q
3. P
P Q
4. Q
P Q
5.
(P Q)
6. Q
(P Q)
7.
(P Q)
8.
(P Q)
9. P, Q
P
Q
P Q
10. P, P Q
11. P, P Q
12. Q, P Q
10
PART A
1. Define statement or proposition with example.
A statement or a proposition is a declarative sentence to which it is
meaningful to assign a truth value true or false but not both simultaneously
Eg:
2. Define conjunction of the statement and draw its truth table. Give example.
The process of joining two statements p and q using and produces a new
statement denoted by p q, which has the truth value T whenever both p and q have
truth value T, the truth value F otherwise. The statement p q is called the
conjunction of the statement p and q.
The truth table for p q
P
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
F
F
F
Example:
The conjunction of the statements
p
: Today is Sunday
q
: Government offices are working
is p q : Today is Sunday and government offices are working.
3. Define Disjunction of the statement and draw its truth table. Give examples.
The process of joining two statements p and q by or produces a new
statement. The new statement is disjunction of p and q denoted by p q.
11
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
T
T
F
Example:
If
then pvq
: It is raining
q
: 9 is a prime number
: It is raining or 9 is a prime number
4. Define Negation of a statement and draw its truth table and five examples.
The negation of a statement p is the statement obtained from p by prefixing the
words It is not true that. The negation of p is denoted by p and read as Not p.
The truth table of p
p
T
F
p
F
T
Example: The negation of the statement is the statement John is playing football
It is not true that john is playing foot ball
or simply John is not playing football.
5. Define a conditional statement and draw its truth table.
Let p and q be two statements.
The statement if p then q is denoted by p q has the truth value false when q
has the truth value false and p has the truth value true. Otherwise p q has the
truth value true.
12
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
F
T
T
q
P
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
q
T
F
F
T
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
F
T
T
q)
(q p)
q p
T
T
F
T
(p q)
(q p)
T
F
F
T
13
p q
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
F
(p q)
F
T
T
T
p
F
F
T
T
( p
q)
F
T
F
T
(p q) ( p
F
T
T
T
q)
T
T
T
T
9. Define Tautology.
A statement formula which is true regardless of the truth values of the
statements which replace the variables in it is called us universally valid formula or
a tautology or a logical truth.
10. Define contradiction
A statement formula which is false regardless of the truth values of the
statements which replace the variables is it is called a contradiction.
11. Prove that the conjunction of any two tautologies is also a tautology.
Proof: let A and B be two statement formulas which are tautologies.
If we assign any truth values to the variables of A and B, then the truth values
of both A and B will be T.
Thus the truth value of A B will be T. So that A B will be a tautologies.
i.e., The conjunction of any two tautologies is also a tautology.
12. Define Equivalence of formulae.
Let A and B be two statement formulae and let p1, p2, ...... pn denote all the
variables occurring in both A and B. Consider an assignment of truth values to p 1, p2,
...... pn and the resulting truth values of A and B. If the truth value of A is equal to the
truth value of B for every one of the 2n possible set of truth values assigned to p1, p2,
...... pn then A and B are said to be equivalent.
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
14
13. Prove p
q by truth table
p q
p p q
p q
T T
F
T
T
T F
F
F
F
F T
T
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
The column for p q and p q in the above table are identical.
Therefore p
q)
Solution:
p
(p
q)
(replacing
p
by
and
(distributive law)
15
q
( p
p
p
q
(replacing
q) is a required form.
by
and
q is a tautology
Solution:
q
q
since each of the elementary sums is a tautology the given formula is a tautology.
q
T
T
T
T
q, p
q, p
q and
16
(q
q)
Solution:
p
q
r
r
q
r
p
p
q
r
r
(distributive law)
r .
q
q
( commutative law)
q
p
q
r
r
p
p
q
p
r
17
28.
P
If
P,
P
Q
and
are
statement
R. Nov/Dec - 2006
variables.
Prove
that
(Q
F
R
C, we also have A
Assume that A B
C. To prove A
(B C) suppose that A is true and B
C is false. Hence B must be true and C must be false. Thus A B is true whereas C
is false, this contradicts our assumption.
Conversely assume that A
(B
C). Suppose that A
A is true and B C is false. This contradicts our assumption.
30. Using truth table verify that the proposition (P Q)
C is false. Hence
(P Q) is a contradiction
Solution :
P
T
T
F
F
Q
T
F
T
F
P Q
T
F
F
F
P Q
T
T
T
F
(P Q)
F
F
F
T
(P Q)
(P Q)
F
F
F
F
( P ( Q R)) ((Q P) R)
[Distributive Law]
(( P Q) R) ((Q P) R)
18
[Associative Law]
( (P Q) R) ((P Q) R)
( (P Q) (P Q)) R
T R
R
33. Give the converse and the contra positive of the implication If it is raining
then I get wet.
(AU May 2004)
Solution:
Contra Positive
Q
P
Q
: It is raining
: I get wet
Converse
Q
19
( P ( P Q))
Solution:
(P Q) ( P ( P Q))
(P Q) ( P ( P Q))
(P Q) ( P ( P Q))
(P Q) (( P P) Q)
(P Q) ( P Q)
((P Q) P) Q
((P P) (Q P)) Q
(T (Q P)) Q
(Q P) Q
( P Q) Q
( P (Q Q))
P Q
[P Q
P Q]
[Double negation]
[Associative law]
[( P P)
P]
[Associative law]
[Distributive law]
[P P=T]
[P T P]
[commutative law]
[Associative law]
Solution:
If P Q is an implication, then the converse of P Q is the implication Q
the contra positive of P Q is the implication Q
P.
P, and
36. What are the contra positive, the converse, and the inverse of the implication?
The home team wins whenever it is raining
Solution:
If it is raining, then the home team wins
If P then Q
P : It is raining
Q : Home team wins
Contra positive:
20
Converse:
Q P
If the home team wins then it is raining.
37. Write an equivalent formula for P (Q
well as conditional.
Solution:
P (Q
R)
P [(Q
R) (R Q)]
(ii)
P (Q P)
P [( Q R) ( R Q)]
(Q P)
P (P Q)
P ( Q P) [since Q P
Q P]
P (P Q) [commutative]
( P P) Q [Associative]
T Q
[Negation]
T
[since T Q
T]
P (P Q)
P ( P Q) [since P Q
P Q]
( P) ( P Q) [since P Q
P Q]
P ( P Q)
[Double negation]
(P P) Q
[Associative]
T Q
[P P
T]
T
[T Q
T]
From (i) and (ii), we get P (Q P)
P (P Q)
39. Write in symbolic form the statement The crop will be destroyed if there is a
flood.
Solution:
If there is a flood, then the crop will be destroyed.
P :
There is a flood.
Q : The crop will be destroyed.
If P then Q
i.e., (P Q)
21
q)
(( r
S)
t)?
(P )
Q) (P Q) (Apr/May 2008).
( P
Solution :
Truth Table
P
T
T
F
F
Q
T
F
T
F
P
F
F
T
T
Q
F
T
F
T
P Q
T
F
F
T
(P Q)
F
T
T
F
Q
F
T
T
T
P Q
T
T
T
F
( P
22
Q) (P Q)
F
T
T
F
PART B
1. a. Construct the truth table for the formula
P
Q
P
Q
P
Q
b. construct the truth table for
P
Q
P
(i).
P
(ii).
Q
P
Answer: (a)
P
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
P
F
F
T
T
Q
F
T
F
T
P Q
T
F
F
F
P Q
F
F
T
F
F
T
F
F
P
Q
Q
P
F
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
Answer: (b)(i)
P
T
T
F
F
Q
T
F
T
F
P Q
T
F
F
F
(P Q)
F
T
T
T
P
F
F
T
T
Q
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
Answer: (b)(ii)
P
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
Q
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
R
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
Q
R
T
F
F
F
T
F
F
F
P (Q
R)
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
(P (Q
R)
(P Q
)
P
R
F
F
F
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
(P Q)
(P R)
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
P
P
23
Q
Q
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
2. (a) S.T (P Q) (R Q)
(P R) Q
(b) S.T ( P ( Q R)) (Q R) (P R)
Answer: (a)
P
R
R
P
P
replacing P
B
R
Q
C
R
B
Answer: (b)
P
Q
P
P
T
Associative law
Distributive law
Distributive law
3. Prove that
(i)
(P
(ii)
(P
Solution:
P
Q
Q)
Q)
(P Q)
(P Q)
T
R
(P Q)
( P Q)
Q
P
P
P
Q
P
P
24
Q
F
P
Q
Q
Q
Q
Answer: (a)
P
Q
P
P
P
P (P Q)
( P Q) is a tautology.
P
Q
P
T
T
and
P
P
P
So P
T
T
T
P
P
P
Q
25
ii
Answer: (b)
Q
P
Q
P
P
( P
Q
P
R)
Solution: (b)
P
P
P
P
R
Q
Q
P
R
P
P
R
P
R
P
Q
Q
Q
R
P
P
P
R
P
T
Hence the given formula is a tautology.
26
Q
P
Q
1
Solution (b):
P
P
P
Q
Q
Q
P
P
Q
Q
P
P
P
Q
Q
P
2
P Q
27
P
P
P
P
P
P
Q
Q
F
Q
Q
R
Q
P
using P
P
P
R
P
Solution (b):
P
P
Q
Q
Q
P
P
Q.
Proof: (a)
Assume that A B and B C. Then A B and B C are tautologies.
Hence (A B) (B C) is also a tautology.
But we know that (P Q) (Q R) P R
using this we get
(A B) (B C) (A C)
Hence A C is a tautology
Which means that A C
28
Proof: (b)
From our assumption we have
(H1 H2 Hm P) Q
The means
(H1 H2 Hm P) Q is a tautology
using the equivalence
P1 (P2 P3)
(P1 P2) P3
We get
(H1 H2 Hm) (P Q) is a tautology
which completes the proof of the theorem.
9. State and prove De Morgans laws
Proof: (i) (P Q)
(ii) (P Q)
(i)
P
T
Q
T
P Q
T
P
F
Q
F
F F
F
T
This shows that (P Q)
( P Q)
(ii)
P Q P Q
(P Q)
T T
T
F
P
F
Q
F
( P
(P Q)
F
Q
F
Q
F
Q)
29
10. Obtain the principal conjunctive normal for of the formula S given by ( P R)
(Q P).
Solution:
P
R
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
Q
Q
R
Q
by conducting
S, we obtain
P
Q
R
P
Q
P
R
R
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
R
P
30
P
P
Q
Q
P
R
Q
P
0,2,4,5.
R
R
R
R
P
P
P
Q
Q
R
R
P
P
Q
Q
P
P
Q
Q
R
R
1,3,6,7.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
P Q
P Q
Q S
P S
S P
P R
S R
S R
P
T, (1), E1 and E16.
P
T, (2), (3) and I13.
T, (4), E18 and E1
P
T, (5), (6) and I13
T, (7), E16 and E1.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
P
P
T, (1), (2) and I12
P
Solution: (b)
{1}
{2}
{1,2}
{4}
P M
M
P
P Q
31
R
Q
P
R
{1,2,4}
{6}
{1,2,4,6}
{1,2,4,6}
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Q
Q R
R
R (P Q)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
R P
R
P
P (Q S)
Q S
Q
S
R S
P
P (assumed Premise)
T, (1),(2) and I10
P
T, (3),(4) and I11
P
T, (5), (6) and I11
CP
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(C D)
H
H (A B)
(C D) (A B)
(A B) (R S)
(C D) (R S)
C D
R S
P
P
T, (1), (2) and I13.
P
T, (3), (4) and I13.
P
T, (5), (6) and I11
Solution (b):
{1}
{2}
{1,2}
{4}
{1,2,4}
{6}
{1,2,4,6}
32
Q)
(Q
R)
(P
R)
Solution:
To prove this we have to prove (P
P
P Q
Q R
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
(P
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
Q)
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
(Q
R)
Q)
(Q
(P Q) (Q R)
R)
R
T
F
F
F
T
F
T
T
R)
(P
Q
Q
P
P
R
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
(AU/NovDec/2006)
P
P
P
R
R
R
R
Q
P
P
Q) (Q R) (P R)
Let
P
P
(P
R) is tautology.
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
T
(P
R
Q
P
S
S
P
P
Q
Q
R
R
P
P
Q
Q
R
R
33
16. By using truth tables verify whether the following specifications are
consistent.
Whenever the system software is being upgraded user cannot access the file
system. If user can access the file system, then they can save new files. If users
cannot save new file then the system software is not being upgraded.AU/Nov
Dec/2006
Solution:
P = The system software is being upgraded.
Q = Users can access the file system
R = Users can save new files
The premises are P
Q, Q R, and R
Let S = (P
Q) (Q R) ( R
P)
P Q R
P
Q
T T T
F
F
T T F
F
F
T F T
F
T
T F
F
F
T
F T T
T
F
F T F
T
F
F
F T
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
The premises are consistent.
R
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
P.
Q
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
T
R
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
P
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
T
S
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
34
35
( P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R) ( P Q R)
( P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R)
This is the required PDNF (or) SOP.
19. (a) Prove that P Q, Q R, P R R by using indirect method.
(b) Derive P (Q S) from the premises P (Q R), Q (R S) by using rule
CP.
Solution (a):
Let us assume the R be one of the premises and arrive a contradiction.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
R
P R
P Q
Q R
P R
P
R
R R
False
Rule p
Rule p
Rule p
Rule p
Rule T, (3), (4)
Rule T, (1), (5) [ Q, P Q
P]
Rule T, (2), (6) [ P, P Q Q]
Rule T, (1), (7)
Solution (b):
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
P
Q
P
Q
Q
R
Q
P
(Q R)
(R S)
R
S
S
(Q S)
Rule p
Rule p
Assumed premise
Rule T, (1), (3)
Assumed premise
Rule T, (2), (5)
Rule T, (4), (6)
Rule CP
36
Rule p
Rule p
Rule T, (1), (2)
contra positive
Rule P
Rule T, (4), (5)
Rule P
Rule T, (7)
Rule T, (6), (8)
Solution (b):
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
P Q
P Q
Q R
Q R
R S
Q S
P S
Rule P
Rule T, (1)
Rule P
Rule T, (3)
Rule P
Rule T, (3), (4)
Rule T, (2), (6)
conjunctive
Normal
form
of
(N/D-2008).
Solution:
PCNF:
P R
Q
P R
Q P
37
statement
P Q R
S
P Q R
P Q R
P Q R
Q R
P
R
Q R
P R
P Q R
P Q R
P Q
Rule P
Rule P
Rule T,(1),(2)
Rule P
Rule T, (3), (4)
Rule P
Rule T, (5), (6) and P, P Q
23. Show that d can be derived from the premises (ab) (aC),
(Nov/Dec 2008)
(b C), (d a).
Sol:
Proof sequence
Steps
Premises
(1)
(AB) (AC)
(2)
A (B C)
(3)
(B C)
(4)
A
(5)
(6)
D A
D
Rule
P
T
P
T
A
P
T
Reason
Given premises
(1) (AB) (AC)
A(B C)
Given premise
(2),(3) (modus Tollens)
(B C)
(B C)
A
Given Premise
(4),(5)(P Q)
P Q
Disjunctive
syllogism
38
P)
Solution:
Let the formula S: ( Q
To prove: S is Tautology
P)
Q) (pR)
Truth Table
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
P
F
F
F
F
T
T
T
T
Q
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
T
R
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
Q
P
R
Q
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
Q
P) (
R Q)
T
F
F
F
T
F
T
T
(P R)
39
PR
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
UNIT II
PREDICATE CALCULUS
Predicates
Statement Functions
Variables
Quantifiers
Universe of Discourse
Theory of inference
Validity of arguments
40
INTRODUCTION
So far our discussion of symbolic logic has been limited to the consideration
of statements and statement formulas. The inference theory was also restricted in
the sense that the premises and conclusions were all statements. The symbols P, Q,
R P1, Q1 were used for statements or statement variables. The statements were
taken as basic units of statements calculus, and no analysis of any atomic statement
was admitted. Only compound formulas were analyzed, and this analysis was done
by studying the forms of the compound formulas, i.e., the connections between the
constituent atomic statements. It was not possible to express the fact that any two
atomic statements have some features in common. In order to investigate questions
of this nature, we introduce the concept of a predicate in an atomic statement. The
logic based upon the analysis of predicates in any statements in any statement is
called predicate logic.
Example:
Represent the following statements in predicate notations:
Sheela is beautiful.
Diana is beautiful.
Solutions:
The part is beautiful is predicate. Let us denote it by B. The above statements
in predicate form is B(s) and B(d) where s denotes Sheela and d denotes Diana.
Example:
Represent the following statements in predicate notation:
1. Pasupathy is a batsman.
2. Vijay is a batsman.
Solutions:
In the above statements the part is a batsman is predicate. Let us denote it by
B. The above statements in predicate notation is B(p) and B(v) where p denotes the
subject Pasupathy and v denotes the subject Vijay.
41
Universal quantifier
(b)
Existential quantifier
x)P(x)
(or)
(x)P(x)
42
Rule ES:
From ( x)A(x) one can conclude that A(y) provided that y is not free in
any given premises, and also not free is any prior stops of the derivation.
Rule EG:
Rule UG: From A(x) one can conclude ( y)A(y) provided that x is not free in any
of the given premises and provided that if x is free in prior step conclude
resulted from use of ES, but no variables introduced by that use of ES
appear free in A(x).
CONSISTENT:
A set of formulas H1, H2 Hm is said to be consistent if their conjunction has the
truth value T for assignment of true truth values to the atomic variables appearing
in H1, H2 Hm.
INCONSISTENT:
If for every assignment of truth values to the atomic variables, at least one of the
formulas H1, H2 ... Hm is false than the formulas H1, H2 Hm are called
Inconsistent.
43
Hm is true.
PART A
1. Define predicates.
Predicates is the part of the sentence which predict about the object. The logic
based upon the analysis of predicates in any statement is called predicate logic.
Example:
44
Example. If M(x)
X is a man
H(x) : X is a mortal.
45
Example:
(x)P(x,y)
There P(x,y) is the scope of the quantifier and both occurrences of x are bound
occurrences while the occurrence of y is a free occurrence.
8. Let P(x)
:
x is a person
F(x, y)
:
x is the father of y
M(x, y)
:
x is the mother of y.
Write the predicate x is the father of the mother of y.
Solution:
In order to symbolize the predicate we name a person called z as the mother
of y. Obviously we want to say that x is the father of z and z the mother of y. It is
assumed that such a person z exists.
We symbolize the predicate
( z)(P(z) F(x,z) M(z,y)).
9. Define universe of discourse or domain.
The variables which are quantified stand for only there objects which are
members of a particular set of class. Such a restricted class is called the universe of
discourse of domain of individual or simply the universe.
10. Symbolize the statement All men are giants
Solution:
Let G(x)
M(x)
: x is a giant
: x is a man
G(x)).
If we restrict the variable x to the universe which is the class of men, then the given
statement is (x)G(x).
46
11. Symbolize the following statement assuming the real numbers as the universe
of discourse.
(i)
(ii)
( x)( A(x))
(A(a1) A(a2) ... A(an))
(A(a1)) (A(a2)) ... (A(an))
( x)( A(x))
47
M(s).
Solution:
{1}
{1}
{3}
{1, 3} (4)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(x)(H(x) M(x))
H(s) M(s)
H(s)
M(s)
P
US, (1)
P
T, (2), (3), I11
Solution:
{1}
{1}
{1}
{1}
{1, 4}
P
US, (1)
US, (2)
P
T, (3), (4), I12.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(x)(y)(P(x,y) W(x,y))
(y)(P(a,y) W(a,y))
P(a,b) W(a,b)
W(a,b)
P(a,b)
P.
Solution:
{1}
{1}
{2}
{1,2}
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Q
Q
Q
P
P
T, (1) and E18
P
T, (2), (3) and I11
48
21. Find the truth value of (x)(P Q(x)) ( x)R(x) where P : 2>1, Q(x) : x>3, R(x) : x>4
with the universe of discourse E being E = {2, 3, 4}. (AU/NovDec/2006)
Solution:P is true and Q(4) is false. Hence P Q(4) is false. Therefore (x)(P Q(x)) is
false.
Since R(2), R(3), R(4) are all false ( x)R(x) is also false. Hence
(x)(P Q(x)) ( x)R(x) is false.
22. Write the following statement in symbolic form Everyone who likes fun will
enjoy each of these plays (May / June 2009)
Let L (x) : x like fun
P (x) : x is a play
E (x,y): x will enjoy y
The given statement can be represented as, For each x, if x likes fun and for each y,
if y is a play then x enjoys y.
Symbolic form: ( x) (
y) (L (x)
P(y)
E (x,y))
23. Determine whether the conclusion C follows logically from the premises H1
and H2 or not H1 : P Q, H2 : P, C:Q (Nov / Dec 2008)
H1: P
C
H2 : P
C:Q
H2
H1
Q
T
F
T
F
P
T
T
F
F
Q
T
F
T
T
49
PART B
1. (a) Show that {(P q) (r s), (q t) (s u), (t u), p r}
(b) Show that if p q, q r, (p r) and p r, then r.
Solution (a):
{1}
{1}
{1}
{4}
{4}
{4}
{1,4}
{1,4}
{1,4}
{10}
{1,10}
{1,10}
{1,4,10}
{14,10}
{15}
{1,4,10,15}
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(p
p
r
(q
q
s
p
t
r
p
p
u
( t
(t
(t
p
q) (r s)
q
s
t) (s u)
t
u
t
p
u
r
u
p
u)
p
u)
p
u)
P
T, (1)
T, (1)
P
T, (4)
T, (4)
T, (2), (5), hyp. Syll.
T, (7) and E16.
T, (3), (6), hyp. Syll.
P
T, (10), (3), hyp. Syll.
T, (11) and E18
T, (8), (12) and I14
T, (13), De Morgans law
P
T, (14), (15)
The third and last rule of inference is the rule of conditional proof, which we
call Rule C.P.
Solution (b):
{1}
{2}
{1,2}
{1,2}
{5}
{1,2,5}
{1,2,5}
{8}
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
p
q
p
q
r
r
p r
p r
(p
p)
r
(p r)
P
P
T, (1), (2) and I13
T, (3), and E16
P
T, (4), (5), distributive law
T, (6), (p
p) = F
P
50
{8}
{1,2,5,8}
{1,2,5,8}
{1,2,5,8}
{1,2,5,8}
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
r
r ( p
r)
(r
p) (r
r)
r
p
r
P, S
R,
Solution (a):
The desired result is P
S. Its negation is P S.
(P S
( P S)
(P
S) is tautology.
include P S as an additional premise.
{1}
{2}
{1,2}
{4}
{5}
{5}
{4,5}
{1,2,4,5}
{9}
{1,2,4,5,9}
{1,2,4,5,9}
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
P Q R
P
Q R
S
R
P S
S
R
Q
Q
P
P
P P
P
P
T, (1), (2), modus ponens
P
P (new premise)
T, (5) and simplification
T, (4), (6), modus ponens
T, (3), (7), I10
P
T, (8), (9), modus ponens
T, (2), (10) contradiction
P, S
R, P desired result is
51
Solution (b):
{1}
{2}
{1,2}
{4}
{1,2,4}
{6}
{1,2,4,6}
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
p t
t
p
p q
q
q
q q
P
P (additional premise)
T, (1), (2).
P
T, (3), (4), modus ponens
P
T, (5), (6), contradiction
The new premise, together with the given premises leads to a contradiction.
Thus ( q), p q, p t t.
The desired result is t, include t as a new premise.
Solution (c):
{1}
{2}
{1,2}
{4}
{1,2,4}
{6}
{1,2,4,6}
{1,2,4,6}
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
r
r
q
p
p r
r
r r
P
P (additional premise)
T, (1), (2).
P
T, (3), (4), modus tollens
P
T, (5), (6)
T, (2), (7)
q, q
r, p r, r
We note that the other premise (p r) will not yield a contradiction with r.
52
3. (a) Determine the validity of the following argument. If two sides of a triangle
are equal,
then two opposite angles are equal. Two sides of a triangle
are not equal. Therefore, the opposite sides are not equal.
(b) Determine the validity of the following argument. My father praises me
only if I can be proud of myself. Either I do well in sports or I cannot be
proud of myself. If I study hard, then I cannot do well in sports. Therefore,
if father praises me, then I do not study well.
Solution (a):
Let us indicate the statement as follows
P : Two sides of a triangle are equal.
Q : The two opposite angle are equal.
The given argument in the form
P
Q, P
Q
T
F
T
F
Q
T
F
T
T
P
F
F
T
T
(P
Q.
Q) ( P)
F
F
T
T
Q
F
T
F
T
Solution (b):
Let us indicate the statement as follows
P : My father praises me
Q : I can be proud of myself
R : I do well in sports
S : I study hard.
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
53
Q, R
Q, S
Q, R
From P and P
From Q and R
From R and S
Q, S
S.
S, assume that P is true. It is enough to verify
S.
Q, we have Q.
Q, We have R.
R, we have S.
(a) Show that the following system of premises is inconsistent: The contract
is satisfied if the building is completed by November 30. The building is
completed by November 30 iff the electrical subcontractor completes his
work by Nov 10. The bank loses money iff the contract is not satisfied.
The electrical subcontractor completes his work by Nov 10 if the bank
loses money.
(b) Show that the following set of premises is inconsistent. If the contract is
valid, then John is liable for penalty. If John is liable for penalty he will
go bankrupt. If the bank will loan him money, he will not go bankrupt.
As a matter of fact, the contract is valid and the bank will loan him
money.
Solution (a):
Let us indicate the statements as follows.
C : The contract is satisfied.
B : The building is completed by November 30.
E : The Electrical subcontractor completes his work by Nov 10.
L : The bank loses money.
The given premises are C
B, B
E, L
C, E
L.
54
Now
from C
from C
from C
B, B
E, we have C
E,
E and E
L, we have C
L,
L and L
C, we have C
C.
Which is a contradiction.
Therefore the system is inconsistent.
Solution (b):
We indicate the given statements as follows
V
L
M
B
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
L, L
V L
L B
V B
V M
V
M
B
M
B
B
B B
B, M
B, V M.
P
P
T, (1), (2), Hypo Syllogism
P
T, (4), Simplification
T, (4), Simplification
T, (3), (5), Modus Ponens
P
T, (6), (8), Modus Ponens
T, (7), (9) Contradiction
Thus the given set of premises leads to a contradiction and hence it is inconsistent.
55
x P(x)
Q(x)
x P(x)
statement.
(b) Show that x P(x)
Q(x)
x P(x)
Solution (a):
If ( x) P(x)
Q(x) is true, then for every c in the universe, P(c) Q(c) is true.
Therefore for each c, P(c) is true and for each c, Q(c)is true.
( x)(P(x)) ( x)(Q(x)) is true.
This shows that ( x) P(x)
Q(x)
Conversely, if ( x) P(x)
P(x)
Thus
Q(x) is valid.
P(c)
Thus ( x) P(x)
x
p(x)
p(x)
Q(x)
Q(x)
x
x
p(x)
p(x)
Solution (b):
We
know
that
p(x)
Q(x)
p(x)
Q(x)
is
valid
statement.
Hence,
P(x)
Q(x)
P(x)
Q(x) is valid.
If two statements always have the same truth value then their negation always have
the same truth value.
x
Hence
x
P(x)
P(x)
Q(x)
Q(x)
x P(x)
P(x)
Q(x) is valid.
56
P(x)
Qx
P(x)
P(x)
Q(x)
P(x)
P(x)
Solution (a):
Consider the case when
Q(x) is true.
P(x) and
If
P(b)
p(x) is true, then for every object b in the universe P(b) is true, and hence
Q(b) is true.
x
Similarly when
In both cases P(b)
( x) P(b)
( x) Q(x)
( x) P(x)
Q(x) is a
valid statements.
Solution (b):
Consider the following statement ( x) P(x)
Q(x)
where
Thus ( x) P(x)
(Qx)
( x) p(x)
P(x)
57
7. Which of the following preparation are equivalent over the universe of the
integers?
a) 0
b) 0
c) 0
n2
4
n3
8
n
2
Solution:
Let the universe consist of all integers.
Let
P(n) : n is an integer such that 0
n2
4.
3
Q(n) : n is an integer such that 0
n
8.
R(n) : n is an integer such that 0
n
2.
The statement P(n) has the truth value True only when n = 1, 2, -1,-2.
The statement Q(n) has the truth value True only when n = 1, 2.
The statement R(n) has truth value True only when the n = 1, 2.
The truth value of Q(n) and R(n) are same, hence the statement Q(n) and R(n) are
equivalent to each other.
P(n) is not equivalent to either Q(n) or R(n).
8. a) Verify the validity of the following argument?
Lions are dangerous animals. There are lions.
dangerous animals.
b) Give an argument which will establish the validity of the following inference.
All integers are rational numbers some integers are power of 2. Therefore,
some rational numbers are powers of 2.
Solution (a):
Let
L(x) : x is a Lion.
D(x) : x is a dangerous animal.
Then the inference pattern is : ( x) L(x)
D(x) ,( x) L(x)
{1}
(1) ( x) L(x)
{2}
{3}
(2) L(b)
(3) ( x) L(x)
ES, (1)
P
D(x)
( x) D(x) .
58
US, (3)
T, (2), (4)
EG, (5)
P(x)
R(x)
S(x)
: x is an integer.
: x is a rational number.
: x is a power of 2
x P x
R x
R x ,
x P x
S x .
x P x
S x
{1}
(1)
{1}
(2)
P b
{1}
(3)
P b
T, (2)
{1}
(4)
S b
T, (2)
{5}
(5)
{5}
(6)
P b
{1,5}
(7)
R b
{1,5}
(8)
R b
{1,5}
(9)
S b
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
P
ES, (1)
x P x
R x
R b
P
US, (5)
T, (3), (6)
S b
x P x
T, (7), (4)
R x
S x
( y)(M(y)
W(y))
M(z)
W(z)
(M(z) W(z))
( y) (M(y) W(y))
( y)(M(y) W(y))
EG, (8)
W(y)), ( y)(M(y)
P
ES, (1)
T, (2), E17
EG, (3)
(4), E26
59
W(y)). The
{6}
{1,6}
{1,6}
{1,6}
{1,6}
{1,6}
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
( x)P(x)
P
T, (5),(6), I12
T,(7), E25
Us, (8)
T,(9), E9,E16
UG, (10)
( x)Q(x).
Solution
We shall use the indirect method of proof by assuming (( x)P(x)
{1}
{1}
{1}
{1}
{1}
{1}
{1}
{1}
{1}
{1}
{11}
{11}
{1,11}
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(( x)P(x) ( x)Q(x))
(( x)P(x))
(( x)Q(x))
(( x)P(x))
( x)( (P(x))
(( x)Q(x))
( x)( Q(x))
P(y)
Q(y)
P(y)
Q(y)
(P(y) Q(y))
( x)(P(x) Q(x))
P(y) Q(y)
( P(y) Q(y)) (P(y) Q(y))
( x)Q(x))
P (assumed)
T, (1), Demargans law
T, (2), I2
T, (3), E26
T, (2), I2
T, (5), E25
Es, (4)
US, (6)
T, (7) (8), I9
T, (9), Demargans law
P
US, (11)
T, (10), (12), I9
Contradiction.
11. Is the following conclusion validly derivable form the premises given?
If ( x)(P(x) Q(x)), ( y)P(y), then ( z)Q(z)?
Solution
We use the indirect method, by assuming that the conclusion ( z)P(z) is false.
{1}
(1)
(( z)Q(z))
P (assumed)
{1}
(2)
( z) (Q(z))
T, (1)
60
{3}
{3}
{1}
{1,3}
{1,3}
{8}
{8}
{1,3,8}
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
( y)P(y)
P(a)
Q(a)
P(a)
Q(a)
(P(a) Q(a))
( x)(P(x) Q(x))
P(a) Q(a)
(P(a) Q(a))
(P(a)
Q(a))
P
ES, (3)
US, (2)
T, (4), (5)
T, (6)
P
US, (8)
T, (7), (9)
Contradiction.
12. Using CP or otherwise obtain the following implications?
( x)(P(x) Q(x)), ( x)(R(x)
Q(x)) ( x)(R(x)
P(x))
Solution
{1}
{2}
{2}
{4}
{2,4}
{1}
{1,2,4}
{1,2,4}
{1,2}
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
( x)(P(x) Q(x))
( x)(R(x)
Q(x))
R(x)
Q(x)
R(x)
Q(x)
P(x) Q(x)
P(x)
R(x)
P(x)
( x)(R(x)
P(x))
P
P
US, (2)
P (assumed)
T, (3), (4)
US, (1)
T, (5), (6)
CP, (4), ( )
UG, (9)
61
The statement is for all x, if x is healthy, and for all y, if y is a kind of work, then x
can do y. So a symbolic form is ( x)( y)(H(x) W(y)
D(x,y)).
Its negation is given by
ie.,
ie.,
ie.,
That is there exists a healthy person and there exists a kind of work such that x
cannot do y.
there is some healthy person who cannot do some kind of work.
Solution (b):
In the universe of people, let
A(x,y) : x admires y
Then the given statement is there is a person who is not admired by some person.
So it is ( y)( x)(P(x) P(y)
A(x,y)).
Its negation is
ie.,
ie.,
ie.,
ie.,
A(x,y)).
62
14. P.T
x P x
Q x
x P x
Steps
Premises
x P x
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Reason
Q x
Rule P
P (y) Q (y)
P (y)
( x ) P (x)
Q (y)
( x) Q (x)
( x) (P(x)) ( x) Q(x)
P Q
Hence proved.
15. Show that (x) (P(x)
2008)
R (x))
(x) (P (x)
Solution:
Proof Sequence
Steps
Premises
1
( x) (P(x) Q(x))
2
P (y) Q (y)
3
( x) (Q(x) R(x))
4
Q (y) R (y)
5
P(y)
6
Hence proved.
R (y)
( x) (P(x)
R(x))
Reason
P
US, (1)
P
US, (3)
T (2), (4) Hypothetical syllogism
(P Q) (Q R) P R
Rule UG, (5)
Premises
(x) [ P (x) Q (x) ]
P(y) Q (y)
(x) [R(x)
Q (x)
Rule
P
US
P
Q (x)]
(x) [R(n)
P (x)
Reason
Given premise
(1), (x) P (x) P (y)
Given Premise
63
4.
R(y)
Q (y)
5
Q(y)
R (y)
6
P(y)
R (y)
7
R(y)
P (y)
8
(x) [ R (x)
P(x)]
Hence Proved.
US
T
T
T
UG
Q, SVR, R, ( R
Q)
Solution:
Proof sequence
Steps
Premises
1
SVR
2
R
3
S
4
S
Q
5
Q
6
R
Q
7
( R Q) (Q
8
R Q
9
( R)
10
R
R)
Rule
P
P
T
P
T
P
T
T
T
T
Reason
Given Premise
Given premise
(1), (2) (P Q) Q P
Given Premise
(3), (4) modus pones P
Given premise
(6) ( P
Q ) (P Q)
( )P Q P
(P Q) Q
P
(9), ( R) P
Q, P
(Q
64
Q
P)
UNIT III
SET THEORY
RELATIONS ON SETS
PARTITIONS
EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
HASSE DIAGRAM
65
FINITE & INFINITE SET: A set is said to be Finite if it contains a finite number of
distinguishable elements. Otherwise a set is Infinite.
Example:
The empty set
and the set of letters of English alphabets are Finite
sets, whereas the set of even positive integers ,2, 4, 6, 8 } is Infinite.
NULL SET (EMPTY SET): The set that has no elements in it is called a null set or an
empty set. It is denoted by the symbol or { }.
Example:
Note: |
but
,0}
also
, }
66
Diagram which are used to show relationships between sets, are called Venn
diagrams, after the British logician John Venn.
(2) N = ,1, 2, 3 } be the set of all natural numbers, and Z = ,, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 }
be the set of all integers, then N Z.
Note:
(1). If A is any set then, A A. That is every set is subset of itself.
(2). Null set is the subset of all sets.
UNIVERSAL SET: A set is called a universal set if it includes every set under
discussion. A universal set will be denoted by E.
Note: For any set A, we have A E. Thus every element x
identically true. One could specify E in a variety of ways.
Example:
E = { x | p(x)
E, that is (x) (x
E) is
B and B
A.
Note: The following are some of the important properties of an inclusion. For any
sets A, B and C
67
A A
(A B)
(B
C)
(A
C)
(Reflexive)
(Transitive)
(1)
(2)
Example:
1. The following sets are equal
(i) {1, 2, 4} = {1, 2, 2, 4}
(ii) {1, 4, 2} = {1, 2, 4}
(iii),1, 3, 5 } =,x | x is an odd positive integer}
2. The following sets are not equal
(i) { {1, 2}, 4}={1, 2, 4}
(ii) { {1} } {1} because {1} { {1} }
PROPER SET:
is written as A
B and A
B. It
68
Example:
1. What is the power set of a set {0, 1, 2}?
Solution:
The power set P({0, 1, 2}) is the set of all subsets of {0, 1, 2}. Hence
P({0, 1, 2}) = { , {0}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {0,1}, {0,2}, {1,2}, {0,1,2}}
2. What is the power set of the empty set? (or) What is the power set of { }?
Solution:
The empty set has exactly one subset, namely, itself, consequently,
P( ) = { }
The set has exactly two subsets, namely and the set { } itself.
Therefore, P({ }) = { ,{ }}
Let A = {1, }
P(A) =
, 1,
, 1,
INDEX & INDEXED SET: Let J = {s1, s2 } and A be a collection of sets A = ,As1,
As2 } such that for any si J there corresponds a set Asi A and also Asi = Asj iff
si = sj, then A is called an index set, J the index set, and any subscript such as s i of Asi
is called an index.
An indexed family of sets can also be written as A = {Ai}i
OPERATIONS ON SETS:
INTERSECTION: The intersection of any two sets A and B, written as A
set consisting of all elements which belong to both A and B.
Symbolically,
B = { x | (x
A)
(x
B) }
69
B, is the
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
A=A
B = A wherever A B, in particular A U = A
B = B wherever B A, in particular A
= .
B A and A B B
B=B A
B) C = A (B C) Associative law.
B = { x | (x
A)
(x
B) }
A
A
A
A
A
(A
A=A
=A
U = U,
A B and B
B=B A
B) C = A
A = E
(B
(commutative law)
C) (associative law)
RELATIVE COMPLEMENT OF A SET. Let A and B be any two sets. The relative
complement of B in A (or of B with respect to A), written as A ~ B, is the set
consisting of all elements of A which are not elements of B, that is
A-B={x|x
B}
70
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
COMPLEMENT OF A SET: Let E be the universal set. For any set A, the relative
complement of A with respect to E, is E A and it is called the absolute complement
of A. The absolute complement of a set A is called the complement of A and it is
denoted by ~A symbolically, ~A = E A= {x | x E x A}
= {x | x A}
= {x | (x A)}
PROPERTIES OF THE COMPLEMENT:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
( A) = ~ ~A = A
~
=E
~E =
A ~A = E
A ~A =
~ (A
B) = ~A
~ (A
B) = ~A
~ ~
B
B
ORDERED PAIR: An ordered pair consists of two objects in a given fixed order.
Note that an ordered pair is not a set consisting of two elements. The ordering of the
two objects is important. The two objects need not be distinct.
CARTESIAN PRODUCT: Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B,
denote by A x B, is the set of all ordered pair (x, y) where x A and y B.
Hence A x B = {(x, y) | (x A) (y B)}
71
PROPERTIES OF RELATION:
REFLEXIVE: A binary relation R in a set X is reflexive if x
That is R is reflexive in X
(x)(x X
xRx).
(x)(y)(x X
y X
xRy
yRx)
(x)(y)(z)(x X
y X
z X
xRy
yRz
xRz)
72
(x)(y)(x X
y X
xRy
yRx
x = y)
PARTITION ON A SET: Let S be a set and A1, A2, A3 An be a subsets of S. A1, A2,
n
(i)
= S (ii) Ai
Aj =
i 1
X,
RELATIONAL MATRIX: A relation R from a finite set X to a finite set Y can also be
represented by a matrix called the relational matrix of R.
GRAPH OF A RELATION: A relation can be represented pictorially by a diagram,
called graph. If R is a relation in a set X = {x1, x2 xm} each element xi of X is
represented by a point or circle called node or vertex and is labeled by xi itself. If (xi
xj) R then we draw a directed arc from xi to xi. If xi R xi then we draw a directed arc
which starts from node xi, and ended at xi, such an arc is called a loop.
PARTIAL ORDERING & POSET
PARTIAL ORDER RELATION: A binary relation R in a set P is called partial order
relation in P iff R is reflexive, anti-symmetric and transitive.
POSET: A set P together with a partial ordering relation R is called a partially
ordered set or POSET.
HASSE DIAGRAM: A partial ordering on a set P can be represented by means of
a diagram know as a Hasse diagram or a partially ordered set diagram of (P, ). In
such a diagram, each element is represented by a small circle or a dot. The circle for
x P is drawn below the circle for y P if x < y, and a line is drawn between x and y
73
if y covers x. If x < y but y does not cover x, then x and y are not connected directly
by a single line. However, they are connected through one or more elements of P. It
is possible to obtain the set of ordered pairs in from such a diagram.
LATTICE: A lattice is a poset <L,
has a g.l.b and l.u.b.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:
A Boolean Algebra is a complemented, Distributive
lattices. Its a special lattice, both lattice theory and Boolean algebra have important
applications in the theory and design of computers.
NOTATION:
P
NOT P
P Q
P AND Q
P Q
P OR Q
where P and Q are statements.
STATEMENT ALGEBRA: Set of all statement under the operations , ,
is an
algebra called statement algebra. Boolean Algebra is a particular case of Statement
Algebra.
PROPERTIES OF LATTICES:
Let < L, > be a lattice. Let * denotes the meet and
denotes the join of the
above lattice. Then for any a, b, c belong to L. We have the following properties
(L-1)
a*b=a
(L-1)
a
b=a
[idempotent]
(L-2)
a*b=b*a
(L-2)
a
b=b a
[commutative]
(L-3)
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c) (L-3) (a b) c = (a b) c [associative]
(L-4)
a * (a b) = a
(L-4)
a (a * b) = a
[absorption]
74
75
1.)
(B, *,
identities:
2.)
(B, *,
(B, *,
(b
a)
0 a 1
a*0=0
a*1=1
(B-2)
(B-3)
a
a
a)
B, the following
1=1
0=a
5.)
a * (b c) = (a * b) (a * c)
a (b * c) = (a b) * (a c)
(a * b) (b * c) (c * a) = (a b) * (b c) * (c
a * b = a * c, and a b = a c
b=c
4.)
(L-1)
a a=a
(L-2)
a b=b a
(L-3)
(a b) c = a
(L-4)
a (a * b) = a
3.)
hold:
a*a=a
a*b=b*a
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
a * (a b) = a
a * a = 0
0 = 1
(a * b) = a
(C-1)
(C-2)
(C-3)
a * b = GLB {a, b}
a b
a*b=a
a b
a * b = 0
a a = 1
1 = 0
(a b) = a * b
on B such that:
a b=b
b a
b =1
76
JOIN IRREDUCIBLE: Let (L, *, ) be an lattice. An element a L is called Join Irreducible if it cannot be expressed as the join of two distinct elements of L. In other
words a L is Join Irreducible.
DIRECT PRODUCT:
Let (L, *, ) and (S, , ) be two lattices. Then the direct product of L, and S is
defined by (L S, +, *) where + and * are defined by the following manners.
(a1, b1) + (a2, b2) = (a1 a2, b1 b2)
(a1, b1) . (a2, b2) = (a1 * a2, b1 b2),
a1, a2
b1, b2
g : L
S is called
LATTICES HOMOMORPHISM:
Let (L, , *) and (S,
Homomorphism if
) be two lattices.
a, b
A mapping
L.
ISOMORPHISM:
Let <L, *, > and <S, , > be two lattices. If a homomorphism g : L
and onto then g is called an Isomorphism.
S is one one
ENDOMORPHISM:
A homomorphism g : L
L where <L, *,
AUTOMORPHISM:
An Isomorphism g : L
L is known as an Automorphism.
77
PART A
1. Define subset.
Let A and B be any two sets. If every element of A is an element of B, then A is
called a subset of B or A is said to be included in B, or B includes A. It is denoted by
A B, or equivalently by B A.
Alternatively, A
(x)(x
B)
A.
A, or symbolically.
B and A
B. It is written as A
78
(ii) x
A
A
A) (x B)}
x {x | (x A)
A ~B
(x
B)}
x B because A B.
B
(x)(x A x B)
(x)( (x B)
(x A))
(x)((x B) (x A))
~B ~A.
((x = u)
(y = v)).
79
11. If A =
C.
Solution:
A = {a1, a2, a3 ... a10}
B = {b1, b2 ... b10}
C = {a1, a2 ... a10, b1, b2 ... b10}
Clearly A B = A C, but B
C.
xRy
yRx
xRy
yRz
xRz
80
xRy
yRx
y .
17. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {<x,y> / x > y}. Draw the graph of R and also give its
matrix.
Solution:
The corresponding relation matrix for the relation R is
R = {<4,1>, <4,2>, <4,3>, <3,1>, <3,2>, <2,1>}
1 2 3 4
1 0 0 0 0
2 1 0 0 0
3 1 1 0 0
4 1 1 1 0
and Ai
i 1
Then the set A is called a covering of S and the sets A1, A2 . . . Am are said to
cover S. If, in addition, the elements of A, which are subsets of S are mutually
disjoint, then A is called a partition of S, and the sets A1, A2 . . . Am are called the blocks
of the partition.
19. Define Equivalence relation.
A relation R in a set X is called an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,
symmetric and transitive.
Examples: (i) Equality of numbers on a set of real numbers
(ii) Equality of subsets of a universal set.
81
20. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {<1,1>, <1,4>, <4,1>, <4,4>, <2,2>, <2,3>, <3,2>, <3,3>}
Write the matrix of R and sketch its graph.
1
1
36
24
12
82
> is
L.
P2
P2
P3
P3 where P1
a, b , P2
c , P3
d, e
83
30. Give an example of a set such that <P(X), > is a totally ordered set.
Solution:
Consider the singleton set S = {{i}}
Then P(S) = { , S}
Clearly P(S) is a chain
Hence a totally ordered set
84
PART B
1. (a) Show that for any two sets A and B
A (A
B) A B
(b) For any two sets A and B
(i) (A
B)'=A' B'
(ii)(A
B)'=A' B'
Solution (a):
For any x,
x
x
B)'=A'
A
A
x
x
B
x
A
A
B '
Thus (A
x x
(b)(i) For any x,
x
B
B
A and x
A' and x
A'
B
B'
B'
B'
Thus (A
B '
either y
A or y
either y
A' or y
y
A' B'
B)' = A' B'
B
B'
85
x
A
A
x
A
A
x
x
A=
x
A
A + B
B
x
A
B
86
(iv)
A
B - A
3. (a) If A
B
A
C prove that B
(A
B)
(A
C)
(2)
B
C [Disributive law]
C [Commulative law]
C [as A
[Distributive law]
[as A
B
B
A
A
C]
C]
RHS
C
(3)
From (2) & (3) B
C and A
A -B
87
Solution (b):
(i)
A'
A
(ii)
A - (B
C)
(A - B)
(A - C)
(A - B)
(A - C)
B'
B' C'
A
C ' [ A - B
[1]
A
B ']
B' C '
[2]
A -B
(iii) A
(ii)
(iv)
A ']
C '= A
[ B
Solution:
(i)
B C = {1, 2, 3}
A (B U C) = {c, d} {1, 2, 3}
= {<c,1>, <c,2>, <c,3>, <d,1>, <d,2>, <d,3>}
(ii)
A B = {<c,1>, <c,2>, <d,1>, <d,2>}
A C = {<c,2>, <c,3>, <d,2>, <d,3>}
(A B) (A C) = {<c,1>, <c,2>, <d,1>, <d,2>, <c,3>, <d,3>}
from (i) & (ii) A (B C)= (A B) (A C)
(iii) B C = {2}
A (B C) = {c, d} {2}
= {<c,2>, <d,2>}
(iv) From (ii), we have
(A B) (A C) = {<c,2>, <d,2>}
from (iii) & (iv) that A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
88
C)= (A B)
(A C).
Proof:
Now let us show that A (B C)
(A B) (A C).
(A B) (A C)
A (B C)
A (B C)
.
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
89
(i)
as x-x = 0.m
so x x(mod m) x .
Thus the relation is reflexive.
(ii)
(iii)
y(mod m)
90
xn = ym
(x,y)R(m,n)
(ii)
yRx.
(iii) Let xRy and yRz then x-y = r1 and y-z = r2 for some rational numbers, r1 and r2.
Now x-z = (x-y) + (y-z) = r1 + r2 is also a rational number
xRz
Thus xRy and yRz xRz.
So, the relation R is transitive.
As R is reflective, symmetric and transitive thus it is an equivalence relation.
91
Solution:
The required Hasse diagrams are given below.
(i)
{a}
(ii)
{a,b }
{a}
{b}
{}
{}
{a,b,c }
(iii)
{a,b}
{a}
{b,c}
{a,c}
{b}
{c}
{}
10. Every equivalence relation on a set generates a unique partition of the set. The
blocks of this partition correspond to the R - equivalence classes.
Proof:
It is enough to show that R - equivalence classes are disjoint and set of all
equivalence classes cover the whole set.
For any element x X, we have xRx because R is reflexive.
Therefore x [x]R.
Because of the symmetry of R, yRx and x [y]R
Now there is an element z [y]R, then z must be in [x]R because yRz, along with xRy,
implies xRz.
Thus [y]R [x]R.
By symmetry we must also have [x]R
[y]R
92
[y]R
It is shown that of xRy then [x]R = [y]R. Now show that if xRy, then [x]R and [y]R
must be disjoint.
By assuming that there is at least one element z [x]R and z [y]R
xRz and yRz xRy then from transitivity xRy.
This is a contradiction.
Therefore two R equivalence classes of X are either the same or disjoint. As
each element of X belongs to some R equivalence class, union of all R - equivalence
classes cover the whole set X and as all R equivalence classes disjoint, which can be
called blocks, the partition of X. The uniqueness of the partition is clear because R
equivalence class of any element is unique.
11. a) For the relation R = {<1,2>, <3,4>, <2,2>} and S = {<4,2>, <2,5>, <3,1>, <1,3>}.
Obtain the relation matrices for R S and S R .
1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 and MS
1 0 1 0 1 .
b) Given the relation metrics MR
1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0
Find MR S , MR , MS , MRoS
Ms R .
Solution (a):
MR
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
MS
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
93
MROS
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
MSOR
0 0 0 0 0
Solution (b):
1 1 1
MR
0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
transfer of MR
1 0 1
1 1 0
0 0 1
MS
0 1 0
1 0 1
transfer of MS
0 1 0
1 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
MROS
1 0 1 1 1
MRoS
1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
1 0 1
MSOR
0 1 1
1 1 1
MRoS
0 1 1
94
Proof:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
If R is reflexive, then
a,a
R so
Thus R S is reflexive.
If R and S are reflexive, then
R and
S hence
Thus R S is reflexive.
Assume that both R and S to be symmetric.
If (a,b) R S, then (a,b) R and (a,b) S
As (a,b) R and as R is symmetric (b,a) R
As (a,b) S and as S is symmetric (b,a) S
Then (a,b) R S (b,a) R S.
So, R S is symmetric.
Similarly, we can show that R S is symmetric.
S.
R S.
95
R
R
R
-1
as
is reflexive
(ii) R is transitive
RoR
RoR
R 1oR
as
RoS
S 1oR
is transitive
96
z [x] [y]
This is
(a
=b
= (b
= (a
= (a
= (a
=c
b)
(a c)
a) (b
c) (b
b) c
c) c
c)
c)
(by absorption)
(by hypo)
(distributive law)
(by hypo)
(distribution law)
(by hypo)
(absorption)
15. (i) Let P = {{1,2}, {3,4}, {5}} be a partition of the set S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} contract an
equivalence relation R on S so that the equivalence classes with respect to R are
precisely the members of P.
(ii) Show that chain with three or more elements is not complemented
(AU/Nov-Dec-2006)
Solution (i):
Required equivalence relation is given by
R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5), (1,2), (2,1), (3,4), (4,3)}
Proof (ii):
Let L be a chain with 0 and 1 Let 0 < a < 1, we show that a has no complement in L.
Let b L and b be a complement of a a b = 0 and a b = 1.
97
b, we have 0 = a
b = a.
Similarly if b a, 1 = a b = a.
But a < 1,
Hence a has no complement.
16. Establish De Morgans Laws in Boolean Algebra. (AU/Nov-Dec-2006)
Proof:
To show that x = y we need to show that x y = 0 and x
To show that (a b) = a b.
We need to show that
(a b) (a b) = 0 and (a b) (a b) = 1
(a b) (a b) = ((a b) a) ((a b) b)
= ((a a) b) (a (b b))
= (0 b) (a 0)
=0 0
=0
Similarly
(a b) (a
b) = ((a
b)
y = 1.
a) ((a b) b)
= (a a) (b a) (a b) (b
= (1 (b a)) ((a b) 1)
= (b a) (a b)
= (a a) (b b)
=1 1
=1
b)
A, a a = 0 (a, a)
R is reflexive.
98
UNIT IV
FUNCTIONS
INTRODUCTION
REPESENTATION OF A FUNCTION
TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
99
CLASSIFICATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
BINARY AND N-ARY OPERATIONS
PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTION OF A SET
HASHING FUNCTIONS
RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS
RECURSION
PRIMITIVE RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS
RECURSIVE RELATIONS AND SETS
PERMUTATION FUNCTIONS
100
INTRODUCTION
We have defined a relation R from X to Y as a subset of the Cartesian product
X Y and noted that domain R = {x X / (x,y) R for some y Y}. If a relation f from X
to Y is also to be a function, the domain of f must be equal to X and if (x,y) f and
(x,z)
f, then y must be equal to z. We will discuss the basic concepts involving
function required in discrete structures.
FUNCTION: A relation f from a set X to another set Y is called a function if for every
x X there is unique y Y such that (x,y) f.
If y is the unique element of Y assigned by the function f to the element x of X we
write f(x) = y. If f is a function from X to Y we represent it as f: X
Y or X Y.
Some times the term transformation, mapping or correspondence are also
use in the place of function.
If y = f(x), x is called an argument or pre-image and y is called image of x
under f or the value of the function f at x.
REPRESENTATION OF FUNCTION: A function can be expressed by means of a
mathematical rule or formula such as y = x3 [= f(x)] or a relation matrix (since a
function is a relation) or a graph
If Df = {a, b, c, d} and f(a) = 2, f(b) = 4, f(c) = 1 and f(d) = 2 then the
pictorial representations of f will be as in
a
b
c
d
1
2
3
4
TYPE OF FUNCTION:
ONE-TO-ONE:
A function f: X
Y is called one-to-one (1-1) or injective or
injection, if distinct element of X are mapped into distinct element of Y in other
words, f is one-to-one if and only if
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
101
a
b
c
d
1
2
3
4
5
ONTO: A function f: X
Y is called onto or surjective or surjection, if the range R f =
Y; otherwise it is into. In other words f is called onto if and only if for every element
y Y there is an element x X such that f(x) = y.
BIJECTIVE: A function f: X
Y is called one-to-one, onto or bijective or bijection or
one-to-one correspondence. If it is both one-to-one and onto
The function represented by is bijective
a
b
c
d
1
2
3
4
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS:
Functions can be classified mainly into two groups they are
Algebraic function
Transcendental function
102
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTION:
A function which consists of a finite numbers of terms involving integral and or
fractional powers of the independent variable (argument) a, connected by the four
operation +, -,
and
is called an algebraic function, three particular cases of
algebraic functions are the following
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION: A function of form a0xn
a1xn
a2xn
...
an
where n is a position integer and a0, a1, a3 an are real constants and a0 0 is called
polynomial in x of degree n.
EXAMPLE: 2x4 - 3x3 + 2x - 4 is a polynomial in degree 4.
RATIONAL FUNCTION: A function of the form
f(x)
, where f(x) and g(x) 0 are
g(x)
x3
2x2
2
3x 4
is rational function.
3x 1
x2
f(x) = 3
x
1
1
x
is an irrational functions.
x
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTION:
A function which is not algebraic is called a transcendental function.
EXAMPLE: The circular function, inverse circular function exponential function,
logarithmic function, hyperbolic functions are all transcendental function.
FLOOR FUNCTION: If x is a real number, the function that assigns the largest
integer that is less than or equal to x is called the floor function of x or simply the
floor of x and denoted by x .
If x = n, where n is a integer, than n x < n+1.
103
CEILING FUNCTION: If x is a real number, the function that assigns the smallest
integer that is greater than or equal to x is called the ceiling function of x or simply
the ceiling of x and denoted by x .
If x = n, where n is an integer, then n-1 < x n.
INTEGER VALUE: The integer value of x, where x is a real number, converts x into
an integer by truncating or deleting the fractional part of number and is denoted by
INT(x).
EXAMPLE: INT(3.25) = 3,
INT(-8.54) = -8
and INT(6) = 6.
-30 (mod 5) = 0,
-30 (mod 7) = 7 2 = 5
and -3 (mod 5) = 5 3 = 2.
CONGRUENCE CLASS: The set of all integer that are congruent to a modulo m
where a is an integer and m is a positive integer is called the congruence class of a
modulo m.
COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS: If f: A
B and g: B
C, then the composition
of f and g is a new function from A to C denoted by g of, is given by (gof)(x) = g{f(x)},
x A.
INVERSE OF A FUNCTION: If f: A
B and g: B
inverse of the function f iff gof = IA, fog = IB.
104
UNARY OPERATION:
When n = 1 the function f: S
S is called a unary
operation.
When n = 3 the function f: S S S
S is called a ternary (3-ary)
operation.
Usually a binary operation (function) is denoted by a symbol such as +, *, -, , ,
, , and the value of the operation by placing the operator between the two
operations.
CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTION OF A SET:
In this section, we shall deal with function from the universal set U to the set {0,
1}, using which statements about sets and their operations can be represented on a
computer in terms of binary numbers and hence can be deal with easily.
CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTION: If A is a subset of a universal set U, the
characteristic function A of A is defined as the function from U to the set {0, 1} such
that
1 if x
A
A
if x
HASHING FUNCTIONS:
When records (data) are stored in a direct access file in a computer, the computer
can retrieve a specific record without reading other record first. This is possible only
if the computer can identify the memory locations in which records in the form of
non-negative integers, called keys are stored. A transformation that maps the set of
keys to a set of addresses is called a hashing function. Even though various hashing
functions are used, we will discuss about one of the commonly used hashing
functions obtained by division method or congruence method.
HASHING FUNCTIONS: Hashing function is a function which maps the set of keys
into the set of 'n' addresses. If n is the number of available memory locations and k
is the non-negative integer representing the key, the hashing function h(k)
representing the address of the memory cell in which k is stored is defined as,
h(k)
k (mod n)
(i.e.) h(k) is simply the remainder when k is divided by n and it takes the values
from the set {0, 1, 2, ..... n-1} known as the address set.
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
105
106
N, where D
Nn is called a partial
INITIAL FUNCTIONS: The following functions that are used in defining other
functions by induction are called the initial functions.
(i) The function Z:
Z(x) = 0 is called zero function
(ii) The function S:
S(x) = x+1 is called successor function.
n
n
Ui (x1, x2 xn) = xi is called the projection function or
(iii)The function Ui :
generalized function
RECURSION: If a function f(x1, x2 xn, y) of (n+1) variables is defined, as given
below. In terms of the function g(x1, x2 xn) of n variables and the function h(x1, x2
xn, y, z) of (n+2) variables which are assumed to be known, the operation is called
recursion and the function f is said to be defined recursively.
(i)
(ii)
107
1.
Name
Sign function
Or
Non zero test
function
Short
Notation /
Symbol
Definition / Property
Sg(x)
3.
Predecessor
function
Sg(x
1)
Sg(x)
4.
1, if x
S Z U22 x,Sg(x)
1, if x
0, if x
Or
sg(0) S(0) and
sg(x 1) Z(x) 0
P(x)
P(x)
P(x
Or
Sg(0) Z(x) and
Sg(x)
Sg(x)
2.
0, if x
Pr(x)
Pr(x)
P(x
0,
if x
x 1, if x
P(0) 0
1) U12 x,P(x)
0, if x
0 or even
1, if x is odd
Pr(0) 0 Z(x)
1) Sg U22 x,Pr(x)
108
x
5.
Proper subtraction
Function
6.
Absolute value
function
||
7.
Minimum of x and
y
Min(x, y)
8.
Maximum of x
and y
Max(x, y)
9.
x 0
and x
x
Square function
Sq(x)
less(x, y)
y, if x
if x
U13(x,y, x y)
(y 1) P(x
x
y)
0,
y
0
(x
U (x, y, x
Compare function
y)
max(x, y) = y + (x y)
3
max(x,0) U(x,y,
max(x,y))
1
2
1
1
Sq(x)
Sq(0)
Z(0)
less(x,y)
gr(x,y)
gr(x, y)
x)
min(x, y) = x (x y)
min(x, 0) = 0 = Z(x)
less(x,y)
10.
y) (y
3
1
gr(x,y)
eq(x,y)
eq(x, y)
eq(x,y)
1
1
U(x)* U(x)
1, if x
0, if x
Sg(y
x)
1, if x
0, if x
Sg(x
y)
1, if x
0, if x
Sg(x
y)
1, if
x1, x2...xn
0, if
x1, x2...xn
where R
Nn and (x1, x2 xn) Nn.
Now a relation R is said to be primitive recursive / total recursive / partial recursive.
109
110
PART A
1. Define function.
Let X and Y be any two sets. A relation from X to Y is called a function if for
every x X there is a unique y Y such that <x,y> .
Example:
Consider the relation : X
111
x,z
Y and g: Y
/(x
X) (z
Z) ( y)(y
Y), y
Y be
f(x)
g(y)
Solution:
go = {<1,b>, <2,b>, <3,b>}
9. Let : R
R be given by (x) = -x2 and g: R+
R be given g(x) = x where R+ is
the set of nonnegative real numbers and R is the set of all real numbers. Find o .
Is go defined?
Solution:
fo f x
f f x
x2
x2
x4.
R and R is the
112
Solution:
( og)(x)
= (g(x))
= (x1/3)
=x
= Ix
(go )(x)
= g( (x))
= g(x3)
=x
= Ix
-1
then = g or g = 1
X,
A binary operation : X X
X is said to be distribute over the operation g: X X
X if for every x,y,z X
< x, g < y , z >> = g < < x,y>, < x ,z >>
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
113
A
A
~~A
(x)
~A
= 1-(1- A(x))
=
(x)
We have ~~A = A
17. Define primitive recursive.
A function is called primitive recursive iff it can be obtained from the initial
functions by a finite number of operations of composition and recursion.
18. Using recursion function define the multiplication function
g<x,y>=x y.
Solution:
Since
g<x,0> = 0
We write g<x,0> = Z(x)
g<x,y+1> = g<x,y> + x
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
114
given by
g(x, y
where
1)
is addition function
<x,y> = x + y.
19. Show that {<x,x> / x N} Which defines the relation of equation is primitive
recursive.
Solution:
Obviously <x,y> = sg (|x-y|). Defines a primitive recursive function such
that <x,y> = 1 for x = y otherwise <x,y> = 0.
Thus
recursive.
C is one to one
Solution:
If
(x) = (y) then
g( (x)) = g( (y))
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
115
(x,y) = xy with
(0,0) = 0 is primitive
Solution:
Since
(x,0)= x0 = 1 for x
f(x, y
1)
by
xy
x * xy
x * f(x, y)
g[U13(x, y, f(x, y)), U 33(x, y, f(x, y))]
where g is a multiplicative function g(x,y) = x * y
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
116
The given function is expressed in terms of initial and primitive recursive function.
Therefore (x,y) is primitive recursive.
27. Show that the function
Solution:
Define a function g: N N N by g(x,y) = |2y-x|.
This function is not regular because it is not possible to find a y N such that |2 y -x|
=0 x
Define (x) = y{|2y-x|=0}
The least y such that |2y-x|=0 is x/2 for even.
Hence is partial recursive.
117
PART B
1.
Solution (a):
Let x,y R
If (x) = (y)
1/x = 1/y
then x = y
So is one-to-one.
Let y be a nonzero real number then 1/y is a nonzero real number and hence 1/y
1
So, y
1
y
X.
118
-2x = -2y
x=y
so in onetoone.
Also given y R, y
Hence
( 2)
y
2
y
.
2
is a surjection.
g(1) = g(-1) = 0
Hence g is not onetoone
g is not onto since 2 has no pre-image in R.
For suppose g(x) = -2 then x2 -1 = -2 and so x2 = -1.
But there is no real number x such that X2 = -1.
Thus g in neither an injection nor a surjection
2. (a) Let : A
B be a function then -1 is a function from range of to A if is
oneto-one.
(b) Let be a onetoone function from A onto B then -1: B A is onetoone.
(c) Let be a onetoone function from A onto B then ( -1)-1 =
Proof (a):
Let us prove the contrary statement that
A iff is not onetoone.
-1
into
Only if: Suppose -1 is not a function from range of into A then for some b B, there
exist two pairs (b,a1), (b,a2) in -1 such that (a1) = (a2) = b.
If: Let be not onetoone. This means that there exist two distinct elements a1 and
a2 such that (a1) = (a2) = b (say).
So (b,a1) and (b,a2) are in -1
Hence -1 is not a function.
119
Proof (b):
Suppose -1(b1) = -1(b2) = a (say).
Then by definition of -1
b1 = (a) = b2
b1 = b2
Hence -1 is onetoone.
Proof (c):
Given that
is onetoone function.
-1
is a function.
We know that
is onetoone,
-1
is also onetoone.
-1
Thus the ordered pairs in ( -1)-1 are precisely the ordered pairs in .
Hence ( -1)-1 = .
3. (a) The inverse of an onetoone and onto function is one-toone and onto
function
(b) Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and a mapping : X
X be given by = {<1,2>, <2,3>, <3,4>,
2
<4,1>} from the composite functions , 3, 4.
Proof (a):
Let : X Y be a onetoone function from X onto Y.
As is onto, range of is B.
As is onetoone -1 exists and is a function from B
By theorem, -1 is onetoone.
Now we show that -1 is onto.
Consider a A.
Let b = (a) then a = -1(b).
Hence each element a in A is in range
-1
so
-1
A.
is onto.
120
Proof (b):
Given that (1) = 2, (2) = 3, (3) = 4 and (4) = 1
As 2: X X is defined by 2(x) = ( (x)) for all x in X.
We have
(1) = ( (1)) = (2) = 3
(2) = ( (2)) = (3) = 4
2(3) =
( (3)) = (4) = 1
2(4) =
( (4)) = (1) = 2
2
So is represented by {<1,3>, <2,4>, <3,1>, <4,2>}.
2
2
Now,
(1) = ( 2(1)) = (3) = 4
3(2) =
( 2(2)) = (4) = 1
3(3) =
( 2(3)) = (1) = 2
3(4) =
( 2(4)) = (2) = 3
So 3 is represented by {<1,4>, <2,1>, <3,2>, <4,3>}.
3
Now,
(1) = ( 3(1)) = (4) = 1
4(2) =
( 3(2)) = (1) = 2
4(3) =
( 3(3)) = (2) = 3
4(4) =
( 3(4)) = (3) = 4
So 4 is represented by {<1,1>, <2,2>, <3,3>, <4,4>}.
4
4. (a) Let : A
B and g: B C be function then
(i) If both and g are onetoone (go ) is also onetoone.
(ii)If both and g are onto (go ) is also onto.
(b) Let : A
B and g: B
C be both onetoone and onto functions then (go )-1
= -1og-1.
Proof (a):
(i) To prove that (go ) is onetoone we must prove, if
(go )(x1) = (go )(x2) then x1 = x2.
Let x1,x2 A then
121
g f
x1
g f x1
f x1
x1
g f
x2
g f x2
f x2
g is one-to-one
x2
f is one-to-one
(a) = b.
Thus for an element c C, we have shown that there in an element a A such that
(go )(a) = c.
go is an onto function.
Proof (b):
As and g are both one-to-one and onto, go is also one-to-one and onto from A
onto C.
(go )-1 exists and is also a one-to-one and onto mapping from C to A.
Let c be any element of C, we have to show that
(go )-1(c) = ( -1og-1)(c)
Let (go )-1(c) = a then (go )(a) = c that is g( (a)) = c.
So
Hence a = ( -1og-1)(c)
Thus we have shown that (go )-1=
g .
-1o -1
122
5. (a) If : A
B is one-to-one and onto mapping then
-1
(i) o = IB, the identity mapping of B onto itself.
(ii) -1o = IA, the identity mapping of A onto itself.
(b) Let : R
R and g: R
R when R is the set of real numbers be given by
2
(x) = x - 2 and g(x) = x + 4. Find ( og) and (go ). State whether these function
are injective surjective and bijective.
Proof (a):
Since is a one-to-one mapping from A onto B
B onto A.
-1: B
A
Hence
o -1
-1
-1o
(i)
(ii)
Proof (b):
Let : R R and
(x) = x2 - 2 and
g: R R are given by
g(x) = x + 4.
123
x A)
124
g(b) ( og = IB)
is onto.
is one-to-one.
(<a1,b1>) = (<a2,b2>)
<b1,a1> = <b2,a2>
b1 = b2 and a1 = a2
<a1,b1> = <a2,b2>
125
Clearly
A B
X such that g
Ix
(1)
(2)
126
Proof (b):
Let xL, xR be left and right inverse of a A then a * xR = e and xL * a = e.
xL * a * xR = (xL * a) * xR = xL * (a * xR)
e * x R = xL * e
xR = x L
x L = x R.
That is both left and right inverses are equal.
Now to show inverse is unique.
Let us assume that x and y are two distinct inverses of a.
Thus y = y * e = y * (a * x) = (y * a) * x = e * x = x.
This is a contradiction.
Thus inverse of an element a A is unique with respect to the binary operation *.
9. (a) Let g: R R R where R is the set of real number and g(x,y) = x * y = x + y xy. Show that the binary operation * is commutative and associative. Find
the identity element and indicate the inverse of each element.
(b) Let x * y = least common multiple of x and y where * is an operation on the
set of integers which are greater than zero. Show that * is commutative and
associative. Find the identity and the elements which are idempotent.
Solution (a):
Let g: R R
g(y,x) = y * x = y + x yx = x + y xy = x * y = g(x,y)
Therefore, * is commutative
g(g(x,y),z)
= g(x,y) * z
= (x * y) * z
= ((x * y) * z)
= (x + y - xy) + z - (x + y xy)z
= x + y + z xy xz yz + xyz
127
g(x,g(y,z))
= x * g(y,z)
= x * (y * z)
= x * (y + z - yz)
= (x + y + z - yz) x(y + z - yz)
= x + y + z xy xz yz + xyz
Thus g(g(x,y),z) = g(x,g(y,x)).
* is associative.
g(x,e) = x * e
= x + e ex
=x
e=0
Thus e = 0 is identity of *.
If y is the inverse of x, then g(x,y) = x * y = 0 = x + y - xy
y(1-x) = -x
y
x
x
Thus inverse of x is
where x
1
x
x
with respect to *.
Solution (b):
x * y = l.c.m(x,y)
= l.c.m(y,x)
=y*x
* is commutative.
Also (x * y) * z
= l.c.m(l.c.m(x,y), z)
= l.c.m(x, l.c.m(y,z))
= l.c.m(x, (y * z))
= x * (y * z)
Thus * is associative.
Clearly l.c.m(a,b) = b if b > a and a is a divisor of b.
Also 1 is only integer which divides all positive integers.
128
f x, y+1
= S U33 x, y, f(x, y)
Hence the given function is expressed in terms of initial function. Hence <x,y> = x +
y is recursive and as it is obtained by finite numbers of operations of composition
and recursion, it is a primitive recursion.
Solution (b):
We know that
x0
put x0
also xy+1
for x = 0
xy * x
As by definition
<x,0> = 1 if x 0
<x,0> = 0 if x = 0
129
* U33 x, y,f x, y
f x,0
f x, y
0
1
S(f x, y
* Sg x
S f x, y
Note That
Sg f x, y
0 if S(f(x,y))= x
1 if S(f(x,y))
130
x
2
x
.
2
x
is a partial recursive function.
2
x be the greatest integer
x primitive recursive.
x , show that
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
0
1
1
2
etc.,
x
if x is even
x
2
x-1
2
if x is odd
2
Thus the function should be related to parity function Pr, for odd and even function.
0
2
1
x
2
0
x
2
Pr x
131
Solution (b):
x
Let
=y
2
2y = x
2y x = 0 only for all even values of x.
Thus g<x,y> = |2y - x| is not regular as it is 0 only for even values of x, but not all
values of x.
f(x)
2y
x
0
y
x
Thus (x) =
for x is even is a partial recursive.
2
Solution (c):
Clearly
2
(y+1)
Sg
y+1
x
x
0 for (y+1)2
0 for (y+1)2
1 for (y+1)2
0 for (y+1)
As
Sg
x is
x
x
2
x-1
2
is primitive
when x is odd
recursive.
b. Show that the function <x,y> = x - y is partial recursive.
c. Show that the function (x)=x! is primitive recursive where 0!=1 and n!=n(n-1)!
Solution (a):
f(x+1) =
x+1
2
if x is odd
132
f(x
x+1
2
1)
1
2
x
2
x
2
x
2
1
2
if x is even
if x is odd
if x is even
1
* Sg Pr x defined by non-zero test function
2
and parity function for odd and even number is primitive recursive.
1)
f(x)
Solution (b):
Clearly for x,y N, the function is well defined only for x > y.
<x,y> = x - y for only x > y is partial recursive.
Solution (c):
Clearly
and
with
(0) = 1
(n) = n!
(x) = x * (x-1) for x 2
f(x) = x * f x-1 * Sg x
Sg(x)
Sg x
(x) = x! is primitive.
Note that, when x = 0, the 1st term is 0, and the 2nd term is 1, and 3rd term is 0 thus
(0) = 1.
When x = 1, the 1st term and 2nd term are 0 and the 3rd term is 1 and hence
For all values of x N with x
becomes
(1) = 1.
2, the 2nd and 3rd terms are zero and the 1st term
(x) = x * (x-1) * 1
= x * (x-1)
Which is true.
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
133
13. Find all mappings from A = {1, 2, 3} to B = {4, 5}. Find which of them are one-toone and which of them are onto. (AU/Nov-Dec-2006)
Solution:
1
2
3
f1=
1=
f3=
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
f5=
f7=
1
2
3
f2=
=
f4=
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
f6=
f8=
1 2 3 4
14. (a) If f
3 2 1 4
and g=
1 2 3 4
2 3 4 1
= f-1og-1.
(b) If R denotes the set of real number and f: R
f-1.
1
Solution (a):
1 2 3 4
f-1
3 2 1 4
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
134
1 2 3 4
g-1
4 1 2 3
1 2 3 4
f-1 g-1
4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4
(g f)
4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4
(g f)-1
g f
4 3 2 1
-1
f-1 g-1
Solution (b):
To show that f is one-to-one
(x) = (y)
x3 = y3
Both x and y are 0 or both x and y are negative.
x3 = y3
|x| = |y|.
If both x,y
0 then x = y.
is one-to-one.
To show that
is onto
0, but x
If y + 2 < 0, x
f 1(y)
2
y
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
hence -1 exist.
if x
if x
135
15. Let + denote the set of positive integers and denote the set of integers. Let
: +
be defined by
n
if n is even
2
f(n)
1-n
if n is odd
2
Prove that is a bijection and find -1. (AU/Nov-Dec 2006).
Solution:
Let (m) = (n)
n
so m = n.
2
1-m
1 n
Similarly if m and n are both odd,
so m = n.
2
2
If m and n are both even, then
We show that
(m) =
m
2
(n)
m
2
n
2
are m + n = 1.
f1 m
2n
1
2n
if n
if n
B and g: B
136
C be
Solution:
Let z
C, since g: B
Since :A
B is onto, and y
A such that
(x) = y.
C is onto.
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
g
is not onto.
17. Let X= {1,2,3,4,5,6,7} and R={(x,y)/x-y is divisible ley 3}. Show that R is an
equivalence relation. Draw the graph of R.
Solution:
Given x={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
Relation R={(x,y)/x-y is divisible by 3}.
R
1,1 , 2,2 , 3,3 , 4,4 , 5,5 , 6,6 , 7,7 , 1,4 , 4,1 , 1,7 , 7,1 , 2,5 , 5,2 3,6 , 6,3 , 4,7 , 7,4
137
Fig.
UNIT V
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
138
ALGEBRAIC SYSTEMS
Algebraic Systems
Properties
Semi Groups
Monoids
Homomorphism
Cosets
Lagranges Theorem
ALGEBRIC SYSTEM: A system consisting of a set and one or more n-ary operations
on the set is called an algebric system, or simply an algebric.
The operations and relations on the set S define a structure on the elements of S, an
algebric system is called as an algebric structure.
139
GROUPS: A group (G,*) is an algebraic system with non empty set in which the
binary operation * on G satisfies following conditions.
1. Closure
For all a, b
G,
a b
2. Associative
For all x,y,z
x*(y*z) = (x*y)*z
3. Identity:
There exist an element e G such that for any x
x e = e x = x where e is identity.
G,
4. Inverse:
For every x G, there exist an element denoted by x-1
x-1 x = x x-1 = e.
ABELIAN GROUP: For every a,b
abelian group.
G, if a
b=b
G such that
5. Distributive:
For any a, b, c I
a (b + c) = (a b) + (a
6. Cancellation:
For a, b, c I and a 0
a b=a c
b=c
COSET: Let < H, > be a subgroup of < G, > for any a G, the set aH is defined by
aH = {a h / h H} is called left coset of H in G. Similarly right coset can be defined
as Ha = {h a / h H}.
SUBGROUP: Let (G, ) be a group and S G be such that if it satisfies the following
properties
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
140
1. e S, where e G.
2. a S, a-1 S.
3. a, b S, a b S.
Thus (S,*) is called subgroup of (G, ).
GROUP HOMOMORPHISM: Let (G, ) & (H, ) be two groups. A mapping g: G
H is called a group homomorphism from (G, ) to (H, ) if for a, b G, g(a b) =
g(a) g(b).
KERNEL OF HOMOMORPHISM: The kernel of homomorphism g from a group
(G, ) to (H, ) is
Ker(g) = ,a G / g(a) = eH}
LANGRANGES THEOREM: The order of a subgroup of a finite group divides the order
of a group.
NORMAL GROUP: A subgroup (H, ) of (G, ) is called a normal if for any a G,
aH = Ha
aHa-1 = H
aha-1 H, for every h H.
RING:
An algebraic system (S, +, ) is called a ring if the binary operations +
and on S satisfy the following three properties.
1. (S, +) is an abelian group.
2. (S, ) is a semi group.
3. The operation is distributive over + ; i.e. for any a, b, c
a (b + c) = a b + a c and (b + c) a = b a + c a.
S,
FIELD:
An commutative ring (S, +, ) which has more than one element such
that every non zero element of S has a multiplicative inverse in S called as field.
SUB RING: A subset R S where (S, +, ) is a ring, is called as a sub ring if (R, +,
) is itself a ring with the operations + and restricted to R.
141
PART A
1. Define algebraic system.
A system consisting of a set and one or more n-ary operation on the set is called
an algebraic system or system on algebra. Denote an algebraic system by <S, f 1,f2...>
where S is an non empty set and f1,f2... are operation on S.
2. Define homeomorphism.
Let < X, > and < Y,* > be two algebraic systems of the same type in the name that
both and * are binary (n-ary) operations. A mapping g: X
Y is called a
homomorphism, or simply morphism from < X, > to < Y,* > if for any
x1,x2 X
g(x1 x2) = g(x1) * g(x2)
In such a functions g exists, then < Y,* > is a homomorphic image of < X, > although
g(X) Y.
3. Define endomorphism monomorphism and isomorphism
Let g be a homomorphism from < X, > to < Y,* >.
If g: X Y is onto, then g is called an epimorphism.
If g: X Y is one-to-one, then g is called a monomorphism.
If g: X Y is onetoone & onto, then g is called an isomorphism.
4. Define isomorphic.
Let < X, > and < Y,* > be two algebraic system of the same type. If there exists an
isomorphic mapping g: X
Y, then < X, > and < Y,* > are said to be isomorphic.
5. Define endomorphism and automorphism.
Let < X, > and < Y,* > be two algebraic system such that Y
X. A
homomorphism f from < X, > to < Y,* > in such a case is called on endomorphism. If
Y = X, then an isomorphism from < X, > to < Y,* > is called an automorphism.
142
M.
9. Define sub-monoid.
Let < M,* > be a semi group and T S. If the set T is closed under the operation,
* than < T,* > is said to be a sub semi group of < S,* >.
Similarly, let < M,*,e > be a monoid and T M. If T is closed under the operation
* and e T then < T,*,e > is said to be a sub monoid of < M,*,e >.
10. Define left coset.
Let < H,* > be a sub group of < G,* > for any a G, the set aH defined by
aH = {a*h / h H}
is called the left coset of H in G determined by the element a G. The element a is
called the representative element of the left coset of aH.
143
S is called a ring
16. Find the direct product of the groups (Z3,+3) and (Z*3, 3).
Solution:
(Z3,+3) consists of the elements [0], [1], [2] and (Z*3, 3) consists of [1], [2].
(Z3,+3) (Z*3, 3) = {<[0],[1]>, <[0],[2]>, <[1],[1]>,
<[1],[2]>, <[2],[1]>, <[2],[2]>}.
144
17. If S denotes the set of positive integers 100 for x,y S, define x y = min{x,y}.
Verify whether (S, ) is a monoid assuming that is associative (AU/Nov-DC/2006)
Solution:
100 is the identity element in (S, ).
Since x 100 = min(x,100) = x.
Since x 100 x
S
(S, ) is a monoid.
18. If H is a sub group of the Group G, among the right cosets of H in G. Prove
that there is only one subgroup viz. H.
(AU/Nov-dec/2006)
Solution:
Let Ha be a right coset of H in G where a G. If Ha is a subgroup of G, then
e Ha where e is the identity element in G.
Ha is an equivalence class containing a with respect to an equivalence relation. So
e Ha He = Ha. But He = H.
Ha = H
19. Find all the nontrivial subgroups of (Z6,+6)
(AU/Nov-Dec -2006)
Solution:
Z6 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]} of H is sub group of Z6, then O(H)|6.
Hence O(H) = 1, 2, 3 or 6 and O(H) = 6
H = Z6.
x = 3.
x = 2.
145
For x,y
y.
Ie.,
(xi
H(x,y) =
yi)
i 1
Bn (n > m).
146
PART B
(1) If H
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 1
generated by H (in which the first three bits represents information portion and
the next four bits are parity check bits). If y = (0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0) is the received word
find the corresponding transmitted code word. (AU/Nov-Dec -2006)
Solution:
Let n = 7 the Hamming code e is given by e
(x1x2...xn) : x.HT
x1
x2
x3
x4
x5
x6
x7
x1
x1
0, x2
0, x2
0,
1,
x3
x3
1
0
x4
x4
1, x5
1, x5
x6
x6
1, x7
0, x7
0
1
x1
x1
0, x2
1, x2
1, x3
0, x3
1
0
x4
x4
0, x5
0, x5
x6
x6
1, x7
1, x7
1
1
x1
x1
x1
1, x2
1, x2
1, x2
0, x3
1, x3
1, x3
1
0
1
x4
x4
x4
1, x5
1, x5
0, x5
x6
x6
x6
0, x7
1, x7
0, x7
1
0
0
147
0(mod 2)
(1 0 1 1 0 0 1)
(1 1 0 1 1 1 0)
(1 1 1 0 0 0 0)
Let y = (0 1 1 1 1 1 0) be the received word. To find the corresponding transmitted
word adding this to each code word above we get
0 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
Solution:
The encoding eH = B2 B5 is defined by
eH(b) = eH(b1, b2) = b1, b2, c1, c2, c3 where
c1 = b11 b1 + b21 b2 = b1 + b2
c2 = b12 b1 + b22 b2 = b2
c3 = b13 b1 + b23 b2 = 0
148
eH(0,0) = 0 0 0 0 0
eH(0,1) = 0 1 1 1 0
eH(1,0) = 1 0 1 0 0
eH(1,1) = 1 1 0 1 0
3. From the encoding function eH for the parity check matrix given by
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
= 0 0 0 0 0 0,
2 = 0 1 1 1 1 1,
3 = 1 1 0 0 0 0,
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
149
= 0 0 1 0 1 1,
5 = 1 0 1 1 1 1,
6 = 1 0 0 1 0 0,
7 = 0 1 0 1 0 0,
8 = 1 1 1 0 1 1,
4
B3} is a group.
f(g) = e,
e is identity in G
g1 g11
kerf.
150
For x
G, g
(iii)
a-1Ha
H.
(i)
Let a-1Ha
H,
G.
151
To prove that aH = Ha
Let ah
aH then aha-1
i.e., ah
Ha
aH
Conversely if ha
i.e., ha
G.
aHa-1
H and (aha-1)a
Ha
Ha
(1)
a-1Ha
H and a(a-1ha)
aH
aH
Ha
From (1) and (2)
aH = Ha
aH
(2)
INTRODUCTION
Let A be any set. A mapping f : A A .... A A(or) f : A n
n-binary operation and n is called the order of the operation.
For n = 1, f : A
For n = 2, f : A
A is called an
152
G, if a * b = b * a, then * is commutative
6. Distributive Properties:
A *(b . c) = (a * b) . (a*c)
(b.c)*a = (b*a) . (c*a)
For all a, b, c G
7. Cancellation Properties:
a*b = a* c b = c
b*a = c*a b = c
for all a, b, c G
153
M, every
an
am * an
T is said to be a
154
N.
T and g : T
Then g f : S
Proof: given f: S
That is
V be semigroup homomorphism.
S and g: T
V be a semigroup
T.
S.
S, then
155
Definition 4. Let (S, *) be a semigroup and R be a congruence relation on (S, *). The
quotient set S/ R is a semigroup (s/R, ) is called the Natural Morphism.
Sub Semigroups and Sub Monoids
Definition 5. Let (S, *) be a semigroup. A subset T of S is said to be a sub semigroup
(T, *) if T is closed under the operation *. i.e., T is itself a semigroup under *.
Definition 6. Let (M, *, e) be a monoid. A subset of T of M is said to be a sub monoid
(T, *, e) if T is closed under the operation * and e T. i.e., T itself a monoid under
the same operation * with the same identity e.
Example 5. Let N = ,1, 2, 3,} be the set of natural numbers. Then (N, ) and (N, +)
are semigroups. Consider the set E = {2, 4, 6, 8,} of all even natural numbers.
Clearly (E, ) is a semigroup of (N, ) and (E, +) is a sub semigroup of (N, +).
Groups
Definition 7. A non-empty set G together with the binary operation *, i.e., (G, *) is
called a group if * satisfies the following conditions.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
156
Example 6: The set of all integer Z with the operation of ordinary addition is an
infinite abelian group.
Example 7: The set of all integers Z is not a group under multiplication. i.e., (Z, .) is
not a group. Because there is no multiplication inverse in Z. But (Z, .) is a monoid
and hence a semigroup.
Example 8. The set of all non-zero real number , under the operation of ordinary
1
1
multiplication is a group. An inverse of a 0 is i.e., a -1
a
a
Example 9. The set of all non-zero real numbers form an infinite abelian group
ab
under the binary operation * defined by a * b =
,for all a, b .
2
Example 10. Prove that the set A = {1, , 2} is an abelian group of order 3 under
multiplication. Where 1, , 2 are cube roots of unity and 3 = 1.
Solution:
Given A = {1, , 2}, with 3 = 1. Let us construct the composition table for the
elements of A, with the binary operation multiplication.
(i)
(ii)
Closure: Since all the entries in the composition table are the elements of
A, it is closed under multiplication.
Associative: It is true, since the product of complex numbers obey the
associative property.
3
i.e.,1.( . 2 ) 1. 3
. 2 (1. ). 2
(iii)
157
(iv)
(v)
a b
c d
is A
1
A
d
c
b
a
2, that is P2
Note 3: The set An, of all even permutations of degree n forms a finite group of order
n!
under permutation multiplication.
2
158
Note 4: The set Bn of all odd permutations will not be a group. because the product
of two odd permutations is an even permutation, that is, the set of all odd
permutations will not be closed under multiplication.
Example 12. Show that the set P3 of all permutations on three symbols 1, 2, 3, is a
finite non-abelian group of order 6 with respect to permutation multiplication as
composition.
Solution: Let S = {1, 2, 3}. We have 3! Permutations. P3 = {I,f2 ,f3 ,f4 ,f5 ,f6 } where I is
the identity permutation.
Thus P3 having 6 elements, let it be f1 = I, f2 = (1, 2), f3 = (2, 3), f4 = (3, 1), f5 = (1, 2, 3)
and f6 (1, 3, 2)
Now, we prepare a composition table for P3.
(i)
Closure Property: Since all the entries in the table are elements of P 3, P3 is
closed under multiplication.
(ii)
f1 .f6
f6
f2 .f3
f6
159
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
i.e., f2 .f3
f3 .f2
(1)
(2)
160
Property 2: In a group, the left and right cancellation laws are true.
a* b a*c b c.
Proof: Let G = (G, *) be a group. For a
a*a 1 a 1 *a e
G, there exists an a 1
That is
G such that
(a 1 * a) * b (a 1 * a) * c
e*b=e*c
b=c
Let b * a = c *a
(c * a) * a
b * (a * a 1 ) c * (a * a 1 )
b*e = c*e
b=c
b * a = e = a * b and c * a = e = a * c.
Now (b * a) *c = e * c = c
(b * a) * c = c
b * a(a * c) c
b*e c b c
There is one and only one inverse for each element in a group.
Note (i) Let * be a binary operation on X. If there exists an element x X such that x
* a = a * x = 0, for every a X, then x is called the zero element of X. A group cannot
have a zero element because every element in a group is invertible.
Note (ii) The identity element is its own inverse.
Because e * e = e,
e = e-1
161
Property 4: A group cannot have any element which is idempotent except the
identify element.
Proof: Let G be a group. Let us assume that a
Now e = a -1 * a
G is idempotent. Then a * a = a.
a 1 * (a * a) (a 1 * a) * a
=e*a=a
e=a
a * a 1 , for every a
Now,
(a 1 ) 1 * (a 1 * a) (a 1 ) 1 * e (a 1 )
(a 1 ) 1 * (a 1 * a) (a 1 )
((a 1 ) 1 * a 1 ) * a (a 1 )
e*a = (a -1 )
a = (a -1 )
Given a * b = e = b *a
(1)
and b * c = e = c * b
(2)
Now a = (a * e = a * (b*c)
= (a * b) * c
((by (2))
(by associative)
=e*c
=c
i.e.,
(by (1))
a=c
162
Property 7. The inverse of the product of two elements of a group is the product of
their inverses in reverse order. That is (a * b) 1 b 1 * a 1
Proof: Let a, b
a * a-1
b 1*b
Now
(a * b) * (b 1 * a 1 ) a * [b * (b 1 * a 1 )]
= a*[(b*(b-1 ) * a 1 ]
= a*[e*a-1 ] a * a
=e
b-1 * a
a -1 * b
b.
Proof: Let G be a group. Then for any a, b
We have a * a
e a
and b*b-1
G,
e
b 1 * b.
163
Now
a*x
b e* b
= (a*a -1 ) * b
= a*(a -1 * b)
x = a -1 * b
(by left cancellation law)
To prove this solution is unique, let us suppose x1 and x2 are two solutions of a*x = b.
Then
a * x1 b and a * x 2
a*x1 = a* x 2
x1
x
= x2
second part.
Property 9: For any group G, if a2 = e with a
e, then G is abelian.
(OR)
If every element of a group G is its own inverse, then G is abelian. Is the converse
also true.
Proof: Let G be a group and a, b
G, then a * b
G.
(a * b) (a * b)
b 1 *a
b*a
a*b=b*a
G is abelian
The converse need not be true, because (Z, +) (or) ( , + ) is an abelian group.
Except 0, there is no element which is its own inverse.
164
a 2 * b2
G.
We have
a*b
b*a
Now a 2 * b 2
(a * a) * (b * b)
= a * [a* (b * b)]
= a * [(a*b)*b)]
= a * [[(b*a)*b]
( a * b = b *a)
= a * [b* (a*b)]
= (a*b) * (a * b)
= (a*b)2
(a*b)2
a 2 * b2
(a * b) * (a * b) (a * a) * (b * b)
a * [b * (a * a)] a * [a(b * b)]
b*(a*b) = a*(b*b)
(b * a) * b (a * b) * b
b*a = a*b
(ii) a n * a m
an
(iii) (a n )m
a nm
165
(a b)
n
(modulon).
Modular Arithmetic:
1. The addition modulo n is defined by a +nb = the least positive remainder when
(a + b) is divided by n.
2. The multiplication modulo n is defined by a
nb = the least positive
remainder when (ab) is divided by n.
Properties of Modular Arithmetic on n
1) Addition modulo n is always commutative and associative. 0 is the identity
for +n and every element of n has an additive inverse.
2) Multiplication modulo n is always commutative and associative and 1 is the
identity for n. Multiplication modulo n is distributive (both right and left)
over addition modulo n. Also every element of n has the multiplicative
inverse.
Example 13. Prove that ( 3, +3) is an abelian group.
Example 14. Prove that ( 5,
) is an abelian group.
Sub Groups
Definition 13. A non empty subset H of a group G is said to be a subgroup of G if H
itself is a group under the same operation defined on G and with the same identity
element.
(OR)
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
166
if
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Note: For any group (G, *), (i) the subgroups (G, *) and ({e}, *) are called improper
(or) trivial subgroups and (ii) all other subgroups are called the proper or non-trivial
subgroups.
Example 15. (i) The set of all integers is a subgroup of the set of all real numbers
under addition. That is ( , +) is a subgroup of ( , +)
(ii) The set of even integers 2 = 2k/k is a subgroup of ( , +).
(iii) The set of non-negative integers is not a subgroup of ( , +) because, except 0, no
element have the additive inverse.
Theorem 3. The necessary and sufficient condition that a non-empty subset H of a
group G be a subgroup is a H, b H c * b-1 H.
Proof: (Necessary Condition):
Assume that H is a subgroup of G. Since H itself is a group; we have a, b
(closure). Also b H b-1 H (Inverse).
a, b
a,b-1 H
H, a
H
a* b
a * a-1
H and H
G, we have to
(by (1))
167
Let e H, a H
e*a -1 H a 1 H
i.e., Every element of H has an inverse which is in H.
(iii) Closure:
Let b H b-1 H
For a, b H a, b-1 H a*(b-1)-1
a * b H.
(iv) Associative: Since H G, the elements of H are also the elements of G. Since the
composition in G is associative, it must also be associative in H.
H itself is a group for the composition in G.
i.e., H is a subgroup of G.
Theorem 4: The intersection of two subgroups of a group is also a subgroup of the
group. (OR) If H1, H2 are two subgroups of a group G, then H1
H2 is also a
subgroup of G.
Proof: Let H1 and H2 be any two subgroups of G, then H1 H2
the identity element is common to both H1 and H2.
0 , because atleast
For let a, b
a*B
a*b
-1
i.e., a, b
H1 H 2
H1 and a*b
a, b H1 and a, b H 2
-1
H1 H 2
H1 H 2
a*b
H1 H 2
H1 H 2 is a subgroup of G.
Note: The arbitrary intersection of subgroups is also a subgroup.
VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
168
{x x
{x x
2n, n
3n, n
} {0, 2, 4, 6.....}
} {0, 3, 6, 9, 12,....}
H1 H 2
2 9 11
H 2 } {0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9,.......}
H1 H 2
169
Example 16: Determine whether H1 = (0, 5, 10) and H2 = (0, 4, 8, 12) are subgroups of
15.
Proof: Since all the entries in the addition table for H1 are elements ofH1, we see that
H1 is a subgroup of 15. Again since there is some entries in the addition table for
H2 that are not the elements of H2, H2 is not closed under addition, Hence H2 is not a
subgroup of 15.
Cyclic groups
Definition 14. A group (G, *) is said to be cyclic if there exists a G such that any x
G can be written as either x = an or x = na, where n is some integer. Here the
element a is called the generator of the cyclic group G. That is the cyclic group
generated by a and we denote it by G = (a).
Theorem 7: Every cyclic group is abelian.
Proof: Let (G, *) be a cyclic group generated by an element a G, i.e., G = (a). Then
for any two elements x, y G, we have x = an, y = am, where m, n are integers.
x * y an * am
an
am
= a m * a n =y*x
(G,*) is abelian.
G, where r is some
170
Example 17: Prove that the group G = {1, -1, i, -i} is cyclic and find its generators.
Solution: We can write 1 = 1 (i)4 , 1 (i)2 ,i (i)1 , i (i)3
i.e., All the elements of G can be expressed as integral powers of the element i.
G is a cyclic group generated by i.
Since i is the generator of G, (i)-1 is also a generator of G. Hence G is a cyclic
1
group and its generators are i and (i)-1 =
i
i
Theorem 9: Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Proof: Let G = (a) is a cyclic group generated by a and H is its subgroup. The
elements of H are integral powers of a. If as H, then the inverse of as i.e., a-s H.
Therefore H contains elements which are positive as well as negative integral powers
of a. Let m be the least positive integer such that am H. Then we shall H contains
elements which are positive as well as negative integral powers of a. Let m be the
least positive integral such that am H. Then we shall prove that H = (am). i.e., H is
cyclic and is generated by am.
Let at be any arbitrary element of H. By division algorithm, there exists
integers q and r such that t = mq + r, 0 r < m.
Now a m
a mq
Also a t
H, a -mq
(a m )q
a
mq
at * a
mq
a t-mq
ar
H
H
at
a mq
H and 0
(a m )q .
171
k mq r, where q
ak
a mq
a mq ar
ar
=e
and 0
(a m )q a r
. By
m.
eq a r
ar
m.
a j for i < j
ai a a j a
ai
n.
e,
a j for i < j
172
Note (1) : The above theorem can also be stated as the order of every element of a
finite group is finite and is less that or equal to the order of the group.
Note (2): If g is a cyclic group of order n and a is a generator or G, the order of ka is
n
where d is the greatest common divisor of k and n.
d
Example 18: Let 30 is a cyclic group of order 30 and 1 is a generator of
greatest common divisor of 18 and 30 is 6.
Hence the order of 18 = 18 (1) in
30
is
30
. The
30
= 5.
6
i.e., O (18) = 5.
Direct Product: Let (G, *) and (H, ) be two groups. The direct product of these two
groups is the algebraic structure (G H, o) in which the binary operation on G H is
given by
(a 1 , b1 ) (a 2 , b 2 ) (a 3 , b 3 ) (a 1 , b1 ) (a 2 a 3 , b 2 b 3 )
= [a 1 (a 2 a 3 ), b1 (b 2 b 3 )]
= [(a 1 a 2 ) a 3 ,(b1 b 2 ) b 3 ]
= [(a1 a 2 ) ,(b1 b2 )] (a 3 , b3 )
= [(a 1 , b1 ) (a 2 , b 2 )] (a 3 , b 3 )
173
Identity: Let e1 be the identity of G and e2 be the identity of H and e = (e1, e2)
Let (a1 , B1 )
(a1 1b1 1 )
(a1 , b1 ) (a1 , b1 )
(a 1 , b1 ) (a 1 1 , b1 1 )
= (a 1 a 1 1 , b1 b21 )
=(e1 ,e 2 ) e
H, ) is a group.
G,
then
(a 1 1 ,a 21 ,.....a n1 )
174
H is said
Example 19: Show that the mapping f of the permutation group Pn on to the
multiplicative group G = {1, -1} defined by
1,if a is even
f(a)
-1, if a is odd
is a homomorphism.
Theorem 12: If f is a Morphism of a group G into a group G, then
(i) Group homomorphism preserves identities
i.e., f(e) = e, where e is the identity of G and e is the identity of G.
(i) Group homomorphism preserves inverses
i.e., f(a 1 ) [f(a)] 1 , for all a G.
Proof: (i) Let a
f(a) e
f(a) f(a e)
= f(a) f(e)
e =f(e)
(ii) Let a
G, then a1
G and a
e = f(e) = f(a a -1 )
= f(a)
f(a -1 )
f(a) f(a 1 ) e
i.e.,[f(a)] 1
f(a 1 )
175
G}
G.
= f(a) f(b -1 )
= f(a b -1 )
But a b
f(a b 1 ) f(G)
a (b )
f(G)
f(G)
f 1 (h)
f(x1 f(x2 ) H
f(x1 x21 )H
i.e., x1 , x 2
f 1 (H)
x1 x 2 1
f 1 (H)
x1 x 2 1
f 1 (H)
176
Kernel of a Homomorphism
Definition 16: Let f: G
G be a group of homomorphism.
The set of elements of G which are mapped into e, the identity of G is called
the Kernel of f and is denoted by ker (f)
ker(f)
f is a homomorphism)
=e e
=e
a b
i.e., a, b ker(f)
ker(f)
a b-1
ker(f)
ker(f) is a subgroup of G.
Definition 18. A mapping f from a group G to a group G is said to be an
Isomorphism if
(ii) f is one-one. (Injective) i.e., distinct elements of G have different f-images in G'.
(iii) f is onto (Surjective) i.e., every element of G should be the f-image of some element in G. (OR)
A bijective homomorphism is said to be an isomorphism.
177
Note: There could be several different isomorphisms between the same pair of
groups.
Theorem 16. Every cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to the additive group of
residue classes modulo n. (OR) If G is cyclic and O(G) = m. then G is isomorphic to (
n, +n).
Proof: Let G = (a) and O(G) = n. Define
:G
G, r
Since G = (a) is finite, we can use the fact that the elements of (a) are the first n
non-negative multiples of a. From this observation, we see that, is surjection. A
surjection between finite sets and same cardinally must be a bijection.
Now (a r a s )
(a r s ) [r s]n
= [r]+ n [s]
= (a r ) n (a s )
is an isomorphism from G to n.
Theorem 17: If G is an infinite cyclic group, then it is isomorphic to the additive
group of integers.
Proofs: Let G {a r / r Z} and
Now define : G
The mapping
Obviously
{0, 1, 2, 3,....}
by (am) = m, m
is one-one, because
is onto. Hence
Also (a m a n )
(am) = (a n )
am
is a bijection.
(a m n ) m n
= (am )
(an )
is an isomorphism,
178
an
G.
G, pe
G.
a-1
pa, pa 1
pa = pe
For any pa P Pa 1 P
Also for a, b G a b G
pa , pb P pa pb pa b P, because for any
P defined by
pa ,for any a G.
179
pa b . But px
f is a bijective homomorphism.
f is an isomorphism.
Every finite group of order n is isomorphic to a permutation group of
degree n.
Definition 18: The permutation group to which G is isomorphic is called a regular
permutation group.
Note: Cayleys theorem is true even if the group G is not finite. But if G is not finite,
then the word permutation should be omitted from the statement of the theorem. In
that case we should state the theorem as: Every group is isomorphic to a group of
one-one, onto function.
COSETS
Definition 19: Let (H, ) be a subgroup of (G, ).
(i) For any a G, the set a H defined by a H = {a h / h H} is called the Left
coset for H in G determined by the element a G.
(ii) For any a G, the set H a defined by H a = {h a / h H} is called the Right
coset of H in G determined by the element a G.
The element a G is called the representative element of the left coset a
right coset H a.
H and the
Note:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
180
Example 20: Let G = {1, a, a2, a3} (a4 = 1) be a group and H = {1, a2} is a subgroup of G
under multiplication. Find all the cosets of H.
Solution: Let us find the right cosets of H in G.
H1 {1,a 2 } H
Ha {1,a 3 },
Ha 2
{a 2 ,a 4 } {a 2 ,1} H
and Ha 3
{a 3 ,a 5 } {a 3 ,a} Ha
Example 21:Find the left cosets of {[0],[2]} in the group 4 under +4 (addition mod 4).
The left cosets of H are
[0] H {[0],[2]} H;
[1] H {[1],[3]};
[2] H {[2],[4]} {[2],[0]} {[0],[2]} H
and [3] H {[3],[5]} {[3],[1]} {[1],[3]} [1] H
[0] H [2] H H and [1] + H=[3] + H are the two distinct left cosets of H in 4
Note:
(i) The union of all distinct left (right) cosets of H in G is equal to G.
(ii) If H is any subgroup of G and a H, then Ha = H = aH.
i.e., Right and left cosets corresponding to any element a
H are H.
b-1
Let a Hb
a b-1
a b
He
1
Hb b
H
H (a b ) H( a H
1
H(a b ) b Hb
Ha e = Hb
Ha
Ha (b
H)
b) Hb
Ha = Hb
181
(ii)
Also Leta
b
(b
-1
-1
bH
a eH
a)H H
-1
(b b ) aH
a b
a H
b (b
bH
e aH
bH
a)H
bH
bH
aH = bH
Theorem 20: Any two right (or left) cosets of H in G are either disjoint or identical.
Proof: Let Ha and Hb be two right cosets of a subgroup H of a group G. For the
arbitrary elements a, b G, we have to prove that either.
Ha Hb
Suppose that Ha Hb
or Ha = Hb
0,
h1 a
h1 1 h1 a
h2 b
a=h1-1 h 2 b
Since H is a subgroup, h1 , h 2
h3
Ha
x Ha and x Hb
Hh 3
H(h 3 b)
i.e., either Ha Hb
H
Ha
h1 1 h 2 b
h 3 b (say h 3
h1 1 h 2
H
(
a H
Hh 3 b
h1 1 h 2 )
H
aH=H)
Ha
Hb.
0 or Ha = Hb.
Definition 20. Let (H, ) be a subgroup of the group (G, ). We define the
congruency relation on G called a left coset relation mod H denoted by + such that a,
b G, a is congruent to be mod H written as a + b(mod H) iff b-1 a H.
Theorem 21: The left coset relation mod H on (G, ) defined by, for a, b
b(mod H) iff b-1 a H is an equivalence relation.
182
G, a +
a -1 a
a + a(mod H)
The relation is reflexive.
(ii) Let a + b (mod H)
b-1
e H
(b
a
a)
b H
b a(mod h)
i.e., a + b (mod H)
b a(mod H)
(c
a H and c-1 b H
b) (b
a)
a)] H
[(b (b
[(b b 1 ) a]
(e a) H
H
H
c
a H
a + c (mod H)
The relation is transitive.
183
H}
Remark 2: The left and right cosets of H in G are also called residue classes modulo
the subgroup H.
Theorem 22. Let (H, ) be a subgroup of (G, ). The set of left cosets of H in G forms
a partition of G.
Proof: First let us prove that every element of G appears in atleast one left coset.
Let aH = {a
Now e
h/h
a
G.
aH
Ha by
H (a
H, f(h1) = f(h2)
h1
G is arbitrary)
a = h2
h 2 (by RCL)
184
(ii) Any h a
Ha
G, the right
Ha {h1 a, h 2 a, h 3 a,....h m a}
Since there should be a one-to-one correspondence between H and Ha, the members
of Ha are distinct.
Hence each right coset of H in G has m distinct members.
We know that any right cosets of H in G are either disjoint or identical. Since
G is a finite group, the number of distinct right cosets of H in G will be finite, say k.
The union of these k distinct right cosets of H in G is equal to G.
Hence, if Ha1, Ha2, Ha3,.Hak are the k distinct right cosets of H in G, then
G Ha 1 Ha 2 Ha 3 ...... Ha k
O(G) O(Ha 1 ) O(Ha 2 ) O(Ha 3 ) ...... O(Ha k )
185
n = km
Note:
1. The converse of the Lagranges theorem is not true. That is, if m is a divisor of
n, then it is not necessary that G must have a subgroup of order m. For
example, the alternating group A4 of degree 4 is of order 12. But there is no
subgroup of A4 of order 6, though 6 is a divisor of 12.
2. It is evident from Lagranges theorem that if G is a finite group of order n and
if m is not a divisor of n, then there can be no subgroup of G of order m.
Definition 21: Let c and D be left cosets of a subgroup (H, ) of a group (G, ). Then
C D = (c d)H, where c and d are representatives of C and D respectively. The
operation is called the operation induced on left cosets by .
Note: If (H, ) be a subgroup of an abelian group (G, ), then the operation induced
on cosets of H by the operation of G is well defined.
Definition 22: Let (H, ) be a subgroup of a group (G, ). If the operation induced
on left cosets of H by the operation of G is well defined, then the set of left cosets of
H form a group, which is called the factor group of G modulo H and is denoted by
G/H under the operation .
Note: If (G, ) is abelian, then every subgroup of G yields a factor group.
Normal Subgroups
Definition 23: A subgroup (H, ) of a group (G, ) is said to be a normal subgroup of
G, if for every x G and for every h H, xhx-1 H (or) xHx-1 H.
186
xHx-1
H, for all x
H.
H is a normal subgroup of G.
x -1Hx
H, for all x G
H
x 1xHxx
x(x 1Hx)x
xHx
xHx
eHe
xHx
H, for all
(2)
H, for all x G.
Theorem 26: A subgroup H of G is normal iff each left coset of H in G is equal to the
right coset of H in G.
Proof: Let H be a normal subgroup of G, then
xH 1x H, for all x G
(xHx 1 )x
xHe
xHx 1x
Hx
Hx
Hx
-1
(Hx)x
xHx
1
-1
xHx
H
Hxx
He
H is a normal subgroup of G.
187
Theorem 27: The intersection of any two normal subgroups of a group is a normal
subgroup.
Proof: Let H and K be any two normal subgroups of a group G. Obviously H and K
are subgroups of G and H K is a subgroup of G.
Now we shall prove H
For, Let x
K is normal.
G, h H K x G, h H and x G, h K
xhx 1 H and xhx -1 K ( H and K are normal subgroups)
xhx -1
HK
H K is a normal subgroup of G.
Theorem 28. Let G and G be any two groups with identities e and e respectively. If
f: G G be a homomorphism, then ker(f) is a normal subgroup.
Proof. Let e and e be the identities of the groups G and G respectively.
Let K = ker(f) = {x G/f(x) = e}.
We know that ker(f) is a subgroup of G. We have to prove ker (f) is normal.
For, x
G, h
K,
f(xhx 1 ) f(xh)f(x 1 )
= f(x) f(h) f(x -1 ) ( f is a homomorphism)
= f(x)e f(x -1 )
= f(xx -1 )
=f(e) = e
f(xhx 1 ) e
x G,h K,
xhx
xhx
1
188
= x(x-1H)
( G is abelian x-1Hx
xHx 1 )
=(xx-1 )H
= eH = H
i.e., for x
G, h
H we have xHx-1 = H.
H is a normal subgroup of G.
Note: Since every cyclic group is abelian, every subgroup of a cyclic group is normal.
Theorem 30: If G is a group of Prime order, then G has no proper subgroups.
Proof: Let O(G) = P, where P is a Prime number.
Since P is a prime, the only divisors of P are 1 and P.
By Lagranges theorem, we can have subgroups of order 1 and P.
i.e., H = {G} (or) H = {e}. But bothe are not proper subgroups of G.
G has no proper subgroups.
Definition 24: The number of distinct left (or right) cosets of H in G is called the
O(G)
index of H in G and is denoted by [G.H] = I G (H)
.
O(H)
Example 22: Let G = {i, -1, I, -i} be a group and H = {-1, 1} be a subgroup of G.
O(G) = 4 and O(H) = 2.
The number of distinct right cosets of H in g is
189
O(G)
O(H)
4
=
2
= 2,
Which are H1 = {-1, 1} and Hi = {-i, i}.
I G (H)
G, then Ka
G.
: G/K
f(a) f(b 1 ) e ,
f(a) [f(b)] 1
f(a) [f(b)]
e,
f(b) e f(b),
f(a) f(b)
(Ka)
(Kb)
is well defined
190
G.
G and Ka =
(Ka)
(Kb)
f(a) f(b)
f(a) f(b ) e
f(a b 1 ) e
a b
Ka
Kb
is one-one.
Also, let y be any element of G. Then y = f (a) for some a
onto G. Now Ka G/K and we have (Ka) = f(a) = y
G, because f is
is onto.
Finally,
(Ka
Kb) =
(Ka b)
f(a b)
f(a) f(b)
(Ka)
(Kb)
191
4.
5.
6.
a + b = b + a for all a, b R
(a . b).c = a. (b . c) for all a, b, c
For a, b, c R
(a) a (b + c) = ab + ac
(b) (b + c)a = ba + ca
i.e., If R is an abelian group under addition with the properties and (6) then R is a
ring.
Definition 27: R is a commutative ring if ab = ba for all a, b
Definition 28: A non-zero element 1
identity) if a.1 = 1.a = a for all a R.
Definition 29: An element a
i.e., there exist a-1
R.
Example 23: consider the set of all integer with the usual addition and
multiplication then.
1. is a commutative ring.
2. The only units in are 1 and -1.
Example 24: Let Mn denotes ring of square matrices of order n with the usual
operations of matrix addition and matrix multiplication.
Then it is easy to see that
1. Mn is not a commutative ring
2. Mn has a multiplicative identity, the unit matrix I of order n.
3. The units in Mn are the non-singular matrices of order n.
Example 25: Find the roots of f(x) x 2
2x 3 0 over 6
192
10
xy
S implies that 0
S, -a
S
S
xy
a
S and xy
S.
S.
Ideals
Definition 31: A subset I of R is an ideal in R if
0 I,
I is closed under subtraction i.e., x y I for all x, y
I is closed under multiplies from R i.e., mx I for m
I.
R, x
I.
Note:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Facts:
1.
2.
3.
4.
193
Integral Domains
Definition 32: A non-zero element x
element y such that xy = 0.
95
-s are not
0 implies y = z.
Proof:
xy
Since x
xz
xy xz 0
x(y z) 0
194
D in irreducible if p = xy
x or y is a unit.
195