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25-28 June Thessaloniki Greece 4th International Conference On Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
25-28 June Thessaloniki Greece 4th International Conference On Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
25-28 June Thessaloniki Greece 4th International Conference On Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
Proceedings of:
Workshops 1, 2, 4
Invited Lectures
Delayed Papers
editor: Kyriazis Pitilakis
Table of Contents
Invited Lectures Presentations
TITLE
Authors
M. JAMIOLKOWSKY, C. VIGGIANI
R. B. SEED
Page
1
29
Authors
Page
61
Delayed papers
ID
1700
TITLE
SEISMIC DESIGN LOADS FOR METROPOLITAN SUBWAY TUNNELS:
THE CASE OF THESSALONIKI METRO
Authors
Page
131
TITLE
Authors
Page
W1-1005
146
W1-1004
161
W1-1010
174
W1-1006
175
W1-1007
187
W1-1011
199
W1-1012
15 YEARS OF EUROSEISTEST
211
W1-1008
225
W1-1009
Jamison H. STEIDL
234
W1-1001
246
W1-1003
256
W1-1002
274
TITLE
Authors
Page
W2-1012
284
W2-1015
302
W2-1007
319
W2-1001
343
W2-1013
348
W2-1016
Yoshimori IWASAKI
370
W2-1011
378
W2-1002
386
W2-1003
398
W2-1005
410
W2-1004
Ioannis PSYCHARIS
427
W2-1008
439
W2-1010
452
W2-1009
457
W2-1014
465
W2-1006
Elizabeth VINTZILEOU
477
TITLE
Authors
Page
W4-1001
489
W4-1004
499
W4-1003
511
W4-1002
541
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
Acknowledgments
62
63
Outline
64
65
66
Foundation System
67
Soil Profile
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
76
77
78
Outline
79
80
81
82
Outline
83
84
85
Slightly
cemented sand
Nevada sand
(Dr=40%)
10
-300 -200 -100
100
T=15sec
T=20sec
T=30sec
cemented sand
Slightly
86
87
88
89
90
Outline
91
92
Moment (kN-m)
Disp. (cm)
Disp. (cm)
93
94
95
96
Height [m
97
Distance [m]
Distance [m]
98
99
100
101
102
Height [m
103
104
Outline
105
106
107
108
109
Depth (m)
110
111
Acceleration (g)
112
113
SAA vs Potentiometer
Displacement at Surface
114
Deflection (cm)
Base Excitation
115
Depth (m)
116
Deflection (cm)
Lateral Spreading
117
Depth (m)
Deflection (cm)
118
Deflection (cm)
119
Conclusions
120
Thank you!
121
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Keynote Lecture No.4
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WORKSHOP 1
Large scale facilities, geotechnical strong
motion arrays and experimental sites
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W1-1005
INTRODUCTION
Physical modeling in earthquake engineering with reduced scale experiments in the centrifuge is now
widely considered as the established experimental technique of obtaining data in controlled conditions
to help engineers and researchers to understand the mechanism involved in the response of soil
structure systems to seismic loading. This experimental approach recreates the stress state in soils
which is a fundamental condition to observe realistic soil behaviour. Of course, as any other
experimental method it has its limitations, among which the most evident is the boundary effect due to
the fact that the soil model mounted in the centrifuge is necessarily of limited dimensions. This is
classically treated by using laminar or shear stack box which allow the natural deformation of a soil
column. Another important limit is the ability to impose a realistic input at the base of the soil model.
Earthquakes generate a complex sequence of vibrations that can lead to 3D displacements with a broad
frequency content of very variable duration. Firstly, it is difficult to build a 3D shaking table in the
1
Senior Researcher, Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausses, Nantes, France, Email: jeanlouis.chazelas@lcpc.fr
2
Reader in Geotechnical Engineering, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, UK, Email: mspg1@cam.ac.uk
146
limited volume of the basket of a centrifuge. Secondly, it is difficult to generate independent time
histories for each axis of shaking: it is of course simpler to generate harmonic inputs than to reproduce
broad band records of real earthquakes. Note that these two problems apply as well to full scale
shaking tables.
The purpose of this paper is to present recent and upcoming experimental facilities developed in
Europe and discuss the effort that led to an improvement in the quality of the simulations. Establishing
the quality of simulations essentially means to define and justify the choice of 1, 2 or 3D movements,
the ability to simulate single or multi frequency inputs, and the quality of the resulting inputs in
comparison with the target input. There is an on-going discussion amongst centrifuge modellers on the
best type of input motions that may be used in dynamic centrifuge modelling. The input motion that
has simple, sinusoidal tone bursts at different frequency will lend itself to easy analysis of the response
the soil and the superstructure. This is used extensively at Cambridge on a wide range of boundary
value problems in which the key mechanisms of failure are eloquently deciphered. This choice to
some extent is independent of the actuators available with RPI centrifuge facility using sinusoidal
inputs even though their servo-hydraulic shaker is capable of simulating realistic earthquakes.
Similarly, use of a more realistic input motion from a previous earthquake such as Kobe motion or
Northridge motion would be considered useful from the design of future structures point of view.
Further, the role of multi-frequency input motion on the dynamic behaviour of soils is not fully
understood. It is generally argued that for soil liquefaction problems use of simple input motions is
sufficient. Recently, finite element analyses were carried out by Ghosh and Madabhushi (2003) and
dynamic centrifuge modelling was carried out by Madabhushi, Ghosh and Kutter (2006) to investigate
the role of type of input motions in the generation of excess pore pressures. These investigations
revealed that the amount of excess pore pressure generated in loose, saturated sands may be not be
effected by sinusoidal input motions or more realistic input motions. However, the amount of lateral
spreading of sloping ground that can occur may be quite different if sinusoidal motions are used as the
dilation spikes that occur during strong shaking cycles are more pronounced compared to a more
realistic input motion with only a few strong cycles of shaking.
First attempts of centrifuge shaking tables were mechanical 1D harmonic devices based on leaf spring
device (Morris, 1979), bumpy road tracks (Kutter, 1982) or cams systems (Suzuki et al., 1991,
Kimura et al, 1998, ). Other technologies have been tested such as explosives (Zelikson et al., 1981),
piezo-electric jacks (Arulanandan, 1982), electromagnetic motors (Fujii, 1994) - but the majority of
the existing devices are now electro-hydraulic (Ketcham et al., 1988, Van Laak et al. 1994) because of
the ability of electric servo-valves to accept complex driving functions and the command hydraulic
jacks with a rich frequency content. Few 2 D devices have been developed either with two horizontal
shaking directions or one horizontal and one vertical. The difficulty of avoiding uncontrolled
frequency contents especially harmonics due to mechanical guidance and clearance in sine inputs
and spurious movements especially yawing and rocking is largely increased from 1D to 2D. Note
that these considerations apply as well to full scale shaking tables but with specific aspects due to the
fact that the device is embarked in the basket of a rotating machine.
Among main issues in a shaker design are how to shake the biggest mass i.e. the largest model and
how to control that the acceleration at the basis of the soil box with reduced spurious movements and
reduced transmissions of vibration to the centrifuge. Till recently, the basic option was to use the
basket of the centrifuge as the reaction mass for the shaking of the table. The heaviest payload was
then dependent on the basket weight and the level of vibration tolerated by the centrifuge. The
question of the spurious movements arises first from problems of symmetry in the case of a simple
actuator, and from the coordination in the case of multiple actuator. The type of bearings is also of
main importance in this design with two opposite schools; rigid guidance on rails and no guidance at
all on oil bearings.
C-Core Laboratory in Newfoundland, Canada, and Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausses,
France, have purchased a new concept 1D earthquake simulator (EQS) designed by ACTIDYN that
overcome these two basic difficulties with a highly sophisticated set of technological solutions
147
(Chazelas et al, 2006). On the other hand, Cambridge University has long operated 1D mechanical
shakers (ref of the bumpy road, Madabhushi et al, 1998), and is now developing a new 2D simulator.
We propose here to present the different aspects of the performances achieved at LCPC's facility, to
present the priorities assigned by Cambridge to its new design and then to open a debate on the interest
of achieving such quality of input and control.
C- Core
LCPC
80 g
Maximum payload
400 kg
400 kg
0.5 MAO
0.5 MAO
1s
1s
Maximum velocity
1m/s
1m/s
Maximum displacement
2.5 mm
5 mm
20 200 Hz
20 250 Hz
LCPC added a last category of specifications: the ability of the shaker to reproduce earthquakes with
very specific signatures supposed to solicit differently the machine. Four records from reference
earthquake were specified. They are recalled in table II with their respective selection criteria.
148
Payload
Oil bearings
Basket Platform
149
With the combination of the specifications and the physical limits of the machine, any earthquake
cannot be simulated without care but table II shows that a wide rage of characteristic earthquakes was
theoretically possible to run. Figures 2 and 3 show the quality of the fitting of the model earthquake to
the reference record for two of these references. All these figures are expressed in the prototype 1g
scale. The payload was in a first time a rigid concrete block of mass 400 kg. In the case of Mexico, the
high frequency content corresponds to non controlled high frequencies (around 360 Hz) at the time of
these tests. Since then, with a fine calibration of the accelerometers in the control loop, these spurious
frequencies have been largely reduced. This is proved by the comparison of the Landers reference to
records in the tree directions at the extremity of the shaking table supporting the payload (figure 5).
This test was run at 40 g and the payload was a shear stack box with sand, for a total mass of 350 kg.
Table II: Real earthquake records selected as references in order to evaluate the performance of
LCPCs earthquake simulator
Selection criteria
Span
48 s
0.3
0.2
0.
0
-0.1
-0.2
Acceleration - g
Acceleration - g
Site
32
33
34
35
time - s
36
Acceleration - g
Acceleration - g
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
39.5
40
time - s
0 dB
120 s
40.5
0.41
- 3 dB at 50 g
- 4 dB at 80 g
180 s
0 dB
60 s
0.4
0.3
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
36
36.5
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
44
- 8,5 dB at 50 g
- 5.6 dB at 80 g
37
time - s
Y table
reference
0.4
45
46
37.5
47
38
48
time - s
Figure 2. Sequences of the Landers earthquake tested at 50 g centrifuge - 400 kg rigid payload
150
0.16
Mexico 50 g
Y table
refererence
0.08
10-2
Y table
reference
2.
Acceleration -
Acceleration - g
0.12
2.8
0.04
0
- 0.04
2
1.
1.
0.
- 0.08
0.
- 0.12
- 0.16
2
4
5
time - s
2
4
6
Frequency - hz
Figure 3. Principal sequence of Mexico earthquake(left) and Fourier spectrum (right) tested at
50 g centrifuge with a 400 kg rigid payload
10-2
reference Landers 40 g
X table
Y table
Z table
0.875
0.75
0.625
0.5
0.375
0.25
0 125
0
1.25
3.75
frequency - Hz
6.25
7.5
8.75
10
151
component in the band 40 100 Hz. This should be improved with the recent corrections in the
control loops. Of course, when the sine input will be over 130 Hz, correcting the third harmonic will
be impossible due to the 400 Hz limit of the controller.
The control of the vibration of the basket is not yet completely checked: it has been only conducted at
40gs due to aging of the centrifuge itself. The isolation was determined at different frequencies with
sinusoidal motion. It was calculated as the ratio of the acceleration measured on the shaking table to
the one measured at the basket floor or on the arms. It is to be compared to the inertial isolation
ratio, the ratio of the basket and simulator mass to the payload mass. The inertial isolation ratio is 6.5
while from 40 to 100 Hz the real isolation is from 30 to 60, that is to say an improvement of a factor 5
to 9. At lower frequencies the isolation improvement is reduced to 3 and at higher frequencies, it
vanished progressively but these tests should be renewed next with the corrections introduced in the
control loops.
Globally speaking, the earthquake simulator at LCPC produces earthquakes with a very good fitting to
the reference signal, as well sinusoidal motion of up to 0.5 g (prototype scale) as a wide range of broad
band real records at 40 and 50 g centrifuge in the bandwidth 40 200 Hz for sinusoidal motion and 0
350 Hz for broad band record. At higher level of centrifuge acceleration up to 80 gc - the
bandwidth of acceptable response has been tentatively controlled to be narrower up to 100 Hz - but
should be once more controlled with recent improvements. Good fitting means limited spurious
movements yawing and rocking accelerations at the extremity of the table less that 10 to 15% - and
superior harmonics for sine inputs limited to 10% in amplitude.
EARTHQUAKE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH AT CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY
Current Facilities:
The success of earthquake geotechnical engineering at Cambridge depended to a large extent on the
simple mechanical actuators that have been used for more than 30 years. The current earthquake
actuator that relies on Stored Angular Momentum (SAM) to deliver powerful earthquakes at high
gravities was developed and is in operation for 12 years, Madabhushi et al (1998). In Fig.5 the front
view of the SAM actuator while in Fig.6 a view of the SAM actuator loaded onto the end of the 10m
diameter Turner Beam centrifuge is presented. The model seen in Fig.6 was from an investigation
carried out by Haigh and Madabhushi (2002), on lateral spreading of liquefied ground past square and
circular piles.
152
The SAM earthquake actuator is a mechanical device which stores the large amount of energy required
for the model earthquake event in a set of flywheels. At the desired moment this energy is transferred
to the soil model via a reciprocating rod and a fast acting clutch. When the clutch is closed through a
high pressure system to start the earthquake, the clutch grabs the reciprocating rod and shakes with an
amplitude of 2.5 mm. This is transferred to the soil model via a bell crank mechanism. The levering
distance can be adjusted to vary the strength of the earthquake. The duration of the earthquake can be
changed by determining the duration for which the clutch stays on. Earthquakes at different frequency
tone bursts can be obtained by selecting the angular frequency of the flywheels.
Recent modifications to the SAM actuator were carried out to further enhance its capabilities and to
improve the performance envelope. Early earthquakes using this device were non-symmetric as the
clutch migrated downwards to an end stop once the centrifugal acceleration was applied. This meant
that at the start of the earthquake the clutch body was hitting the end stop if it grabbed the
reciprocating rod during its downward motion. This problem has been rectified by incorporating a
pneumatic actuator that centralises the clutch prior to every earthquake. Logic controls automatically
turn the air to the pneumatic actuator off once the earthquake is fired and the clutch starts to move
with the reciprocating rod.
In its original conception the SAM actuator was mounted onto the end of the beam centrifuge and
shook a package on the special swing, reminiscent of the Bumpy Road actuator, Kutter (1982).
However this arrangement was modified and a self-contained swing platform was developed that
could house the SAM actuator as shown in Fig. 5 following a research grant (No:GR/L90415/01) from
EPSRC, UK. This has transformed the usage of the SAM actuator and since 1994 nearly PhD students
utilised this facility and several industrial, EPSRC and EU projects were successfully completed using
this actuator.
Figure 6. A view of SAM earthquake actuator loaded onto the end of the beam centrifuge
(Model seen is that of lateral spreading of soil past square and circular piles,
Haigh and Madabhushi (2002))
The technical specifications of the SAM actuator are listed in Table III. In its normal operational mode
the SAM actuator is used to deliver strong shaking to model packages either at particular but different
tone bursts that could recreate damaging cycles felt by the structure during an earthquake loading or to
apply a swept sine wave motion to detect the frequency response of the soil-structure system.
153
Value
100 g
56 m (L) 25 m (B) 22 m (H)
80 m (L) 25 m (B) 40 m (H)
Upto 0.4g of bed rock acceleration
From 0 s to 150 s
From 0.5 Hz to 5 Hz
Swept sine wave capability
154
155
Future Developments:
At Cambridge University, preliminary design of a new 2-D earthquake actuator has been recently
completed. This actuator, when fabricated will be able to shake the soil models both horizontally and
vertically akin to the 2-D actuator recently established at UC Davis in the USA. The vertical ground
accelerations can play an important role in the ultimate performance of a structure. Recent earthquakes
have yielded many recordings of vertical accelerations which are quite large (in some cases up to 0.8g
to 1.0g). Current design codes only allow for a fraction of these as vertical accelerations. Also the
combination of vertical shaking followed by strong horizontal shaking can lead to unexpected and
interesting failure mechanisms in a wide range of civil engineering structures. With this in view the
Cambridge 2-D earthquake actuator project has been initiated and is currently at an early stage. A
schematic diagram of the 2-D earthquake actuator assembly is presented in Fig.10 below. A ProEngineer CAD drawing is presented in Fig.11. The design of this 2-D actuator for the Cambridge
centrifuge is quite demanding as the payload capacity of the Turner beam centrifuge is limited to 1
tonne. In addition there are severe space constraints. Further, the Turner beam centrifuge is used
extensively for non-earthquake testing which means that the 2-D earthquake actuator needs to be
loaded and unloaded on and off the centrifuge quite frequently. These bring in additional complexities
such as breaks in high pressure hydraulic lines, contamination of the hydraulic fluid etc. Despite these
difficulties the design of this 2-D actuator is progressing well and with suitable funding should be
available for use in a few years time. This would become the only 2-D earthquake actuator to serve the
European Community.
The specifications of the 2-D shaker were drawn taking to consideration the special requirements of
the Turner beam centrifuge. Unlike the LCPC shaker the entire centrifuge is used as the reaction mass
as the swing platform on which the 2-D shaker is mounted is locked onto the centrifuge when the
centrifuge is speeded up beyond 10gs. Also the use of the 2-D shaker is expected to complement the
SAM earthquake actuator that can operate at high gravities and deliver powerful sinusoidal
earthquakes. The 2-D shaker will be used at relatively lower g levels but with more realistic
earthquake input motions in horizontal and vertical directions.
156
Value
50 g ~ 80 g
56 m (L) 25 m (B) 22 m (H)
80 m (L) 25 m (B) 40 m (H)
Up to 0.8g
Up to 0.6g
From 0 s to 150 s
From 0.5 Hz to 5 Hz
UK NEES Project:
Another exciting development in the field of earthquake engineering research is the NEES project in
the USA that established the concept of distributed testing at geographically distributed sites. This
concept is extremely useful for Europe given the expertise in earthquake engineering in Europe and
the geographical distances between the centres of excellence. Having distributed experimental
facilities that are linked to a dedicated network will enable research workers in the whole of Europe to
not only access the experimental data but to actually have tele-observation and tele-participation
capabilities. The USA-NEES project has been well set up and a similar network in Europe benefits
from the technological advances already achieved in the USA. For example, network protocols for
data sharing and data archiving are already available.
157
DISCUSSION
The importance of quality of input motion cannot be over-emphasised. The discussion on quality of
input motions can focus on three main aspects:
uncontrolled movements limit the capabilities of the facility,
the experimental work can be of limited quality,
given the non linearity of the soil behaviour, the realistic simulation of earthquake input motions is
a requirement.
Introducing vibrations in a rotating machine such a centrifuge is not very healthy for it. This a strong
contraindication in the case of the free top design of the Actidyn centrifuges where avoiding
unbalance is a priority. Even with more rigid designs of the centrifuge, the protection of the rotational
bearings impose to limit drastically the mass ratio between the payload and the basket when it is used
as a reaction mass. This induces a reduction of the size of the models, and then concerns arise with
respect to boundary effects. Any uncontrolled spurious movements increase this constraint, with the
risk of hitting a resonance frequency of the whole device that would bias the experimental observation
or, once more, limit the experimental possibilities. In this regard, one of the very positive aspects of
the Turner beam centrifuge at Cambridge where the swinging platform locks onto the end of the
centrifuge as the centrifuge speed is increased. This leads to the whole of the beam centrifuge acting as
a reaction mass.
Bristol
Oxford
New
Oxford
Cambridge
158
acceleration and displacement. Moreover, facing the non linear behaviour of the soil, adding
harmonics and spurious movements will skew the observations.
The role of experimental works in the scientific process is both to enable the observation of behaviour
mechanisms to confirm or to enrich the numerical models and to provide data for the validation and/or
for the fitting of parameters of these numerical models for design purposes. Both applications need
fully controlled experiments: being sure of the input motion, the fact it is not polluted by spurious
movements and unexpected harmonics is an imperative
The non linearity of the soil response to vibrations is the main justification of this reflection because it
conditions all the scientific method. Arguments are in favour of simplifications of experimental works:
it seems simpler to study the soil and soil-structure responses at discrete frequencies and at different
levels of amplitude to provide information on the vibration response, on the frequency dependence of
parameters and on the non linearity of the response with the amplitude of the input. The centrifuge is
adapted for such a parametric approach but so long as the data are not biased.
On the other hand, this approach does not give any information on the dependence of the soil-structure
response on multi-frequency input motion, the resonance of non-linear systems and the evaluation of
damping in such non-linear systems. The example of dependence of the generation of excess pore
pressure and the amount of lateral spreading obtained discussed earlier emphasises the importance of
input motion.
CONCLUSION
The European resources in experimental facilities present an important evolution: Schofield
Laboratory in Cambridge University has long been the only research centre able to achieve reduced
scale earthquake simulations, limited to 1D harmonic inputs. LCPC offers now a new 1D facility with
enlarged possibilities in terms on harmonic and broad band inputs. The quality of the input on this new
device is particularly well controlled due to technological innovations. Schofield Laboratory is
developing now the second generation of a simulator with 2D inputs. Similar efforts on the quality of
the input will drive its design.
1D and 2 D shaking is demonstrated here not to be opposite but complementary in the global approach
of the non linearity of the soil and soil structure response to vibrations.
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Chazelas J-L, Derkx F., Thorel L., Escoffier S., Rault G., Buttigieg S., Cottineau L-M, Garnier J.,
Physical modelling of earthquakes in the LCPC centrifuge, First European Conference on
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Cambridge University, UK, 1982.
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earthquake actuator, Kimura, Kusakabe & Takemura (eds), Centrifuge 98, Tokyo, Japon, 23-25
sept.98, Balkema, Rotterdam, 1998, pp 111-116.
Madabhushi S.P.G., Ghosh B., Kutter B. L., Role of input motion in excess pore pressure generation
in dynamic centrifuge modelling, Int. J. of Phys. Modelling in Goetech. 3, 2006, pp 25-34.
Morris, D.V., The centrifuge modelling of dynamic behaviour, PhD Thesis, Cambridge University,
UK, 1979.
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McLean F.G. (eds), Centrifuge 91, Boulder, CO, 13-14 juin 1991, Balkema, Rotterdam, 1991, pp
409 415.
Van Laak P.A. , Elgamal A.W.,Dobry R., Design and performance of an electrohydraulic shaker for
the RPI centrifuge, Leung CF, F.H. Lee, Tan T.S. (eds), Centrifuge 94, Singapore, 31-08/2-09-94,
Balkema, Rotterdam, 1994, pp 139-144.
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pp 361 366.
160
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W1-1004
Keywords: Liquefaction, lateral spreading, piles, large scale testing, centrifuge testing, DEM
simulations, FEM simulations
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tulane University, New
Orleans, LA, E-mail: uelshamy@tulane.edu
6
Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute, Troy, NY, E-mail: zeghal@rpi.edu
7
Postdoctoral Research Associate, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, E-mail: medinc2@rpi.edu
161
INTRODUCTION
Liquefaction-induced lateral spreading of sloping ground and near waterfronts is a major cause of
earthquake damage to deep foundations. Earthquake case histories in the US, Japan, Mexico, Costa
Rica, Turkey and other countries, have shown damage to buildings, bridges, port facilities and other
pile-supported structures. Effects include cracking and rupture of piles at both shallow and deep
elevations, rupture of pile connections, and permanent lateral and vertical movements and rotations of
pile heads with corresponding effects on the superstructure (McCulloch and Bonilla, 1970; Hamada et
al., 1986; Mizuno, 1987; Hamada and ORourke, 1992; ORourke and Hamada, 1992; Youd, 1993;
Swan et al., 1996; Ishihara et al., 1996; Tokimatsu et al., 1996; Yokoyama et al., 1997; Tokimatsu,
1999; Dobry and Abdoun, 2001; Koyomada et al., 2005; Lin et al., 2005). Extensive experimental
research on the effects of lateral spreading on deep foundations in the last decade have included: full
scale soil-pile field experiments to blast-induced lateral spreading (Ashford et al., 2006); full scale as
well as model 1g tests in shaking tables (Suzuki et al., 2005; Tamura and Tokimatsu, 2005; Towhata et
al., 2006; He et al., 2006); and centrifuge model testing (Abdoun et al., 2003; Haig and Madabhushi,
2005; Brandenberg et al., 2005, 2007). A number of these centrifuge and 1g shaking tests of lateral
spreading are conducted in inclined laminar boxes attempting to approximate the spreading of an
infinite slope (Fig. 1).
Case histories as well as experiments suggest that the effect of lateral spreading on piles has the
character of a pseudostatic, kinematic soil-structure interaction phenomenon, driven by the permanent
lateral movement of the ground in the free field. Bhattacharya et al. (2004) have suggested that another
mechanism contributing to the observed failures is pile buckling under gravitational loads, due to
decreased lateral support provided by the surrounding liquefied soil. Various foundation analysis and
design methods have been proposed to account for the lateral loading effect, where the soil applies
static lateral forces to the pile foundation, either (i) as a function of the relative displacement between
the foundation and the free field (Beam-on-Winkler-Springs or p-y approach); or (ii) taking the
maximum possible values of these lateral soil static forces which depend on the soil strength within an
overall limit equilibrium method. When the lateral loads and resulting pile bending moments are
controlled by a strong shallow nonliquefied soil layer, the ground pressures can be reasonably related
to the passive failure of the soil against the foundation, and hence to the shear strength of the soil
(Berrill et al., 1997; Dobry et al., 2003). However, a much larger uncertainty appears when the lateral
pressures applied by the liquefied soil play an important role. One source for this uncertainty is the
vertical area over which these lateral pressures are applied in pile groups (only the areas of the piles,
or also the areas of soil between the piles?). Another source of uncertainty in this case is the
significance of soil permeability, not included in current design methods but which recent full scale
and centrifuge tests suggest may be extremely important, with less pervious soil such as fine or silty
sand tending to produce higher pile bending moments due to the lack of enough time for the negative
pore pressures near the pile to dissipate in the liquefied but still dilative soil (Dungca et al., 2004;
Hwang et al., 2004; Gonzalez et al., 2005; Suzuki et al., 2005).
This paper constitutes a progress report on a 3-year study (2005-08), aimed at detailed clarification
and quantification of the mechanics of soil-pile interaction during lateral spreading, with emphasis on
the action of the liquefied soil on the pile foundation. The effort is supported by the US National
Science Foundation through the NEES Consortium, NEES Inc. (NEES: George E. Brown, Jr. Network
for Earthquake Engineering Simulation). It involves cooperative research between five US universities
(University at Buffalo SUNY (UB), Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), University of California at
San Diego (UCSD), and Tulane University (TU)), as well as Japanese collaborators at Tokyo Institute
of Technology (TIT) and the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention
(NIED). The centerpiece of the effort is 1g full scale testing in the large laminar box recently
developed at UB, as sketched in Fig. 1. The figure shows two experiments of a stiff pile and a flexible
pile, respectively, subjected to lateral spreading induced by shaking at the base of the inclined laminar
box containing loose saturated sand. These two experiments, as well as a third baseline free-field
experiment of the inclined laminar box without a pile, are scheduled for mid 2007. Two successful
liquefaction free field experiments have already been conducted using this laminar box in a horizontal
162
position, simulating liquefaction of level sand deposits, and results are presented at the end of the
paper for one of them (Test LG-0). The video of Test LG-0 can be viewed at
https://central.nees.org/?projid=122&loc=Public#. Future experiments will be web cast live at
http://www.nees.buffalo.edu/projects/NEESPiles/.
This 1g testing involves the use of state-of-the-art instrumentation techniques, including an advanced,
dense sensor array of MEMS accelerometers, as well as more traditional piezometers, potentiometers,
and digital image analyzers used to monitor the time-history of accelerations, excess water pressures,
and vertical and lateral spreading within the ground and along the piles, with additional strain gages on
the piles monitoring bending moments. These sensors aim at recording dynamic fluctuations as well as
permanent changes in the free field, along the piles, and, especially, in the near field soil around the
pile where some of the most important and challenging phenomena take place. A 3D Data Viewer
originally developed at RPI for centrifuge testing has been adapted to display these responses on a
computer screen, allowing the researchers to visually capture the complex response of the soil and pile
foundation before and during liquefaction and lateral spreading.
Three other parallel efforts are underway to simulate these 1g full scale experiments at UB using: (i)
small scale centrifuge model experiments at RPI; (ii) Finite Element Modeling (FEM) computer
simulations at UCSD; and (iii) Discrete Element Modeling (DEM) computer simulations at RPI and
TU. Comparison between centrifuge and 1g tests should allow clarification of the applicable scaling
law(s); the DEM simulations can be considered to be numerical experiments providing additional
physical insights; and the FEM simulations should both provide additional insight and serve as a
calibrated platform for analysis and design of actual systems in engineering practice. Compatible data
bases from the 1g full scale and centrifuge experiments, as well as from the FEM and DEM
simulations are fed to the 3D Data Viewer, which is then used by the research team to compare and
integrate the various results.
Figure 1. Full scale testing of lateral spreading and its effect on pile foundations, scheduled in
2007 using the new geotechnical laminar box at the University at Buffalo. The laminar box sits
on rubber/sliding bearings on the strong floor and is shaken at the base by two fast actuators
connected to a reaction wall
RESEARCH TOOLS
The research combines two advanced NEES testing facilities at UB and RPI, and advanced
computational simulation facilities at UCSD, RPI and TU. Full details are available at three NEES
websites (www.nees.rpi.edu, www.nees.buffalo.edu, http://nees.ucsd.edu). Summaries of the tools
used in the research are presented below.
163
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2. 1g full-scale geotechnical laminar box: (a) Base shaker of the geotechnical laminar
box; (b) Laminar ring stack; and (c) Hydraulic filling of soil and instrumentation
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. 1g full-scale geotechnical laminar box liquefaction experiment:
(a) UB researchers setting up instruments and CPT testing before shaking; and
(b) Video of UB liquefaction experiment (https://central.nees.org/?projid=122&loc=Public#)
164
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. (a) RPI 150g-ton geotechnical centrifuge; and (b) Tele-control room
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. RPI geotechnical centrifuge: (a) 2D in flight servohydraulic shaker (two prototype
horizontal directions); and
(b) 2D laminar container
165
Advanced Sensors
A main objective of this investigation is to monitor as closely as possible the 1g and centrifuge
shaking tests conducted at UB and RPI, by producing more and better data using advanced
instrumentation, thus providing a higher resolution picture (in space and time) of the model response
during and after shaking. Test data is collected using suites of traditional state-of-the-art sensors (pore
pressure, accelerometers, strain gages, etc.). In addition, advanced sensing techniques as described
below are also used for measuring soil and pile response. These new measurements are especially
suited to the needs of visualization, system identification, and comparisons with numerical
simulations. The two new advanced techniques used in the project are:
Shape-acceleration-arrays sensor (1g testing)
A novel field shape-acceleration-array (SAA) sensor has been developed, taking advantage of
promising new advances in the fiber optic and micro-machined electromechanical sensor (MEMS)
technologies. These sensors are capable of simultaneously measuring acceleration and permanent
ground deformation down to 30 m depth, at a cost that is 1/10th or 1/20th of existing inclinometer and
borehole technologies. In fact, the significance of the new wireless SAA sensor, reside in the type of
ground measurement that is recorded. The array is capable of measuring in situ, 3D ground
deformation as well as 2D soil acceleration every 0.25 m interval down to a soil depth of 30-40 m.
Each sensor array is connected to a wireless sensor node to enable real time monitoring as well as
remote sensor configuration (Abdoun and Danisch, 2005; Abdoun et al. 2006, 2007). Figure 6 shows
photos of the sensor array placed in the free field and on the pile foundation before placing the soil in
a 1g test in Japan. These new sensor arrays are being utilized in the 1g tests at UB.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Shape-Acceleration-Arrays used in a 1g shaking table test in Japan: (a) Sensor array
placed in the free field; and (b) Sensor array attached to a pile foundation. Photos courtesy of
NIED (Abdoun et al., 2007)
High speed camera (centrifuge testing)
RPIs high speed camera is a Phantom 5 capable of recording full digital images at rate of 30,000
frames/sec. The use of high speed camera allows production of a high resolution picture of centrifuge
model response. This includes measurement of the ground deformation (and especially the permanent,
DC component of this deformation) at enough locations and times during and after shaking. The high
speed camera is used in the tests in conjunction with markers at the surface and sides of the model to
provide this information at the boundaries of the soil model.
Visualization tools and System Identification
The sensors used in this project are producing a growing wealth of data which must be integrated and
compared with other experimental and analytical data. System identification (SI), visualization (of
complete response of soil-foundation system), and a new 3D Data Viewer, are three main tools being
used in the project.
166
System Identification
System identification techniques provide tools to deduce a model or model parameters of a real system
based on its output (response) and input (excitation). Currently, these techniques are enjoying
increasing attention in earthquake engineering, in view of substantial enhancements of computational
resources as well as experimental data and earthquake records. For this research, the same simple
(Zeghal et al., 1995) as well as sophisticated (Zeghal and Oskay, 2003) procedures are being employed
to process data from both 1g and centrifuge experiments, so as to allow comparison and ensure
consistency of the results.
Visualization of Experiments
Visualization of Experiments is especially suited to test data measuring the earthquake response of a
system as done in this project. Such visualizations are essentially movies illustrating the actual
systems response to the base earthquake shaking. Visualizations of several centrifuge tests have
already been implemented at RPI and are being used systematically in the investigation. Figure 7a is a
frame taken from one of these "movies" which can be viewed at the RPI-NEES Web site
(www.nees.rpi.edu).
3D Data Viewer
The 3D Data Viewer (Fig. 7b) was developed at RPI initially for the processing and study of
centrifuge results (Radwan and Abdoun, 2006). It is a software especially designed to display both 3D
models as well as 2D plots side by side (http://nees.rpi.edu/3dviewer). This tool can be used for simple
3D visualization, or more specifically to organize data from various sources (sensors) which can be
represented in 3D space. To organize all these data, a virtual representation of the physical model is
displayed and the sensors became interactive elements so the user can select them and plot their data.
This aids greatly in organizing the data and getting a good high-level understanding of the test results.
As mentioned before, this same 3D Data Viewer has been adopted as a main integrative tool of the
whole research project. Compatible data bases are produced for the same 1g UB experiment at the
same sensor locations by the four tools of the project (1g tests, centrifuge tests, DEM simulations, and
FEM simulations), which are then uploaded to the 3D Data Viewer for side-by-side comparisons and
further integration of the results by the team researchers.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7. Visualization tools: (a) Visualization of RPI liquefaction Model 3 centrifuge
experiment (see complete test animation at www.nees.rpi.edu); and
(b) 3-D Data Viewer software for visualization of the response of the ground and foundations
during strong shaking (download software from http://nees.rpi.edu/3dviewer)
167
(a)
(b)
Figure 8. Numerical simulations: (a) DEM micromechanical computer model of sloping saturated
sand layer and pile; and (b) FEM mesh of pile in liquefiable soil model (different colors show mesh
partitioning for computation on 16 processors)
168
(a)
(b)
Figure 9. Results from full-scale laminar box 1g shaking Test LG-0: (a) Acceleration time
histories recorded at soil and rings during non-destructive phase (0-5 sec); and (b) 1D shear
stress-strain hysteretic response in the soil during non-destructive phase, obtained using SI
from ring acceleration time histories
The accelerations during Test LG-0 were recorded using three accelerometer systems. Two of these
systems recorded respectively outside the laminar box and inside the soil, using submersible
traditional accelerometers, while the third system consisted of the advanced SAA discussed before in
the paper. The comparison between the records from the three systems in Fig. 9a indicates good
169
agreement in the first 5 seconds, that is, during the non-destructive, 0.01g shaking. Shortly after the
second phase of 0.05g started at 5 seconds, the deposit liquefied and the acceleration records in Fig. 9a
diverged, probably due to rotation of the traditional accelerometers inside the soil following
liquefaction. This phenomenon of sensor rotation has been previously reported in the literature for
centrifuge experiments (Adalier, 1996). Thus, ring and soil accelerometers show different behavior
after liquefaction. The shear stress-strain loops in Fig. 9b, obtained by SI processing of the
acceleration records from the rings in the non-destructive phase, are being used to evaluate the
dynamic properties of the sand deposit. The loops become steeper at greater depths, indicating (as
expected) an increase in shear modulus with depth within the sand deposit. Figure 10 includes
comparisons between FEM predictions and measurements for Test LG-0 (Elgamal and Forcellini,
2007), with reasonable agreement. While the comparison of accelerations in Fig. 10a is restricted to
the first 7 seconds, the pore pressure comparisons in Fig. 10b cover the whole shaking. Both
measurements and FEM predictions indicate that liquefaction was induced by the second, 0.05g phase
of the shaking, but with the experimental data showing a higher rate of pore pressure build-up and an
earlier onset of liquefaction than predicted by the FEM simulation.
(a)
(b)
Figure 10. Comparison between experimental recorded data and FEM simulation: (a)
Acceleration time histories during non-destructive phase (0-5 sec time window); and (b) Pore
pressure time histories during whole shaking
Efforts are currently under way in the project to complete the simulation of 1g level test LG-0 using
both DEM computer analysis (El Shamy and Zeghal, 2007), and centrifuge model testing (Abdoun
and Gonzalez, 2007).
CONCLUSIONS
Critical NEES research is under investigation on the problem of pile foundations subjected to
liquefaction-induced lateral spreading, with emphasis on the action of the liquefied soil on the piles.
The complex nature of the problem requires a fundamental approach using several available
experimental and analytical tools, The research includes use of the UB 1g 6m-tall laminar box
container NEES facility, and the RPI NEES centrifuge facility; use of novel advanced sensors to
170
measure soil accelerations, deformations and pressures during shaking; and micromechanical discrete
element modeling (DEM) and finite element modeling (FEM) analyses at RPI, U. of California, San
Diego, and Tulane University; all integrated by an appropriate identification and analysis framework
including system identification and visualization capabilities.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under NEESR-SG
Grant No. 0529995. This support is gratefully acknowledged. The authors wish to thank the staff
members of the UB-NEES Site: Thomas Albrechcinski, Andrei Reinhorn, and Mark Pitman; and of
the RPI-NEES Site: Inthuorn Sasanakul, and Javier Ubilla, for their valuable support in the 1g and
centrifuge testing at these two NEES sites. The authors wish to thank NEES IT staff members Hassan
Radwan and Jason Hanley for their contribution to the visualization tools. Special thanks are extended
to graduate students Raghudeep Bethapudi, Victoria Bennett, Tewodros Dessalegn, Nurhan Ecemis,
Ahmed Elmekati, Davide Forcellini, Marcelo Gonzalez, Peng Hao, and Thangalingam Kanagalingam
for their dedication, creativity, and enthusiasm in conducting this research. Finally, previous 1g testing
shaking experiences in Japan and ideas for this research provided by Drs. Akio Abe, Masayoshi Sato,
and Kohji Tokimatsu, are also most gratefully acknowledged.
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4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W1-1010
174
INTRODUCTION
Large-scale data acquisition, computing and networking initiatives are providing substantial resources
for the modeling, simulation, measurement, and analysis of complex geotechnical and structural
systems. The result is an overwhelming amount of scientific data being created at increasingly shorter
time intervals and ever-higher resolution. For example, massively networked, sensor grids provide
instantaneous access to time varying multivariate records capturing seismicity at the global and local
level. These data sources can then be further augmented with data from airborne imaging systems
delivering topology and topography data at centimeter resolution, forming geo-spatially referenced
records, capturing pre-event, event and post-event information. To cope with data of a complexity and
detail that greatly exceeds the capabilities of traditional 2D plots for 3D data expression and analysis,
a new generation of visual analytics techniques, tools and infrastructure are required that allow
researchers to collaboratively view, interrogate, correlate and manipulate data at a broad range of
temporal and spatial scales and resolutions. The objective of visual analytics is to enable data analysis
and hypothesis generation by means of interactive data visualization and fusion. The underlying idea
is that collaborative visual comparison of theory and practice, by teams of engineers, will allow new
insights to be derived more rapidly.
In this paper, a set of processing and visualization strategies for seismic records is described, that
leverage high-resolution display walls and virtual reality environments specifically designed to
support visual analytics. Application examples considering the global, local, and building-scales are
provided to demonstrate the potential of these tools.
1
Associate Professor, Departments of Structural Engineering and Computer Science and Engineering,
University of California, San Diego, CA, USA. Contact: fkuester@ucsd.edu
2
Associate Professor, Department of Structural Engineering, University of California, San Diego, CA,
USA.
3
Postdoctoral Researcher, Calit2, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
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RELATED WORK
A conventional approach for the analysis of field-collected data sets is to study earthquake induced
effects as time histories by plotting and comparing two-dimensional (2D) discrete waveforms. The
frequency characteristics can then be studied by overlaying different plots and evaluating ratios and
relationships. However, when properly geo-referenced and treated, seismic data sets can be presented
in a more natural and intuitive form that facilitates the understanding of governing events and
mechanisms. In particular, three-dimensional (3D) display can provide additional visual clues via an
intuitive representation of the time-varying wave propagation that is difficult to represent with
traditional 2D techniques. When combined with an immersive display environment, the spatial
relationships may be further strengthened. Nayak et al. (2003) used 3D glyphs, graphics primitives or
symbols with various geometric and color attributes, to represent the measured seismic data. These
glyphs were rendered in real time and combined with a 3D topography terrain map. An interactive 3D
visualization system was developed by (Hsieh et al., 2003b) to facilitate the intuitive analysis of field
measured seismic data sets. Field collected seismic data sets were rendered in 3D and geo-referenced
with Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), and subsequently displayed in a monoscopic or stereoscopic
display environment. In another example (Hutchinson et al., 2005) presented a visualization system
used to enhance the understanding of the time-varying movements of a case study building subjected
to the 1994 Northridge earthquake.
Simulation of seismic wave propagation characteristics of a region can further aid with estimating
potential damage caused by hypothetical or actual earthquakes. For example, the ground motion of the
1906 San Francisco earthquake was simulated by (Mavroeidis & Papageorgiou, 2001) and they
concluded that intense horizontal ground displacements were developed along the entire length of the
Saint Andreas fault plane that ruptured during the earthquake for the San Francisco Bay Area. Their
simulation results were plotted on a 2D map using vectors at each grid cell, pointing into the direction
of displacement. A series of grayscale images, taken at equal time intervals, was produced indicating
the evolution of the ground displacement field over time. These snapshots show the qualitative value,
yet reveal no other geological information. Another Simulation of wave propagation for the San
Francisco Bay Area using a numerical finite difference method was performed by (Antolik el al.
1997). One result was a 90-second video showing wave propagation overlapped with a 2D contour
map. The result of 3D simulation was displayed on a 2D surface plane with red color representing
positive amplitudes and blue color representing negative amplitudes. Another larger scale simulation
was conducted by (Komatitsch et al., 2003) to simulate wave propagation resulting from large
earthquakes. An earth-scale 5.5-billion-grid-point (average grid surface spacing of 2.9 km) crustal
model was constructed and simulated on a 1944-processor supercomputer. The obtained results were
visualized as seismic waveforms plotted on a 2D world map.
In order to fully explore the results of high-resolution simulation runs in combination with field
collected data, new rendering algorithms are needed that fuse different data sources to provide a
geospatially and temporally anchored, visual representation of the studied physical phenomenon.
Akcelik et a. (2003) used a 3000-processor supercomputer to simulate an earthquake in the Los
Angeles Basin using one billion grid points. This data was subsequently used to develop parallel
rendering algorithm capable of rendering time-varying large-scale earthquake simulation results in
real-time. Ma et al. (2003) rendered the earth crust volume data semi-transparent allowing viewers to
see through the volume, revealing 3D seismic wave propagation originating from the hypocenter of a
simulated earthquake event. Compared to conventional 2D approaches, volume rendering in this case
provides a perspective viewpoint, allowing the simulated data to be explored in the spatial and
temporal domain. These visual paradigms provide an enhanced understanding of the field measured
seismic data sets. Instead of just focusing on the local scale, this paper presents visualization
techniques that allow scientists to study seismic data across different spatial (global, local and
building-level) and temporal scales.
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CASE STUDY: SEISMIC RECORDS AT THE GLOBAL, LOCAL, AND BUILDING LEVEL
Throughout the past century, millions of earthquakes have been recorded worldwide, processed (e.g.
(NEIC, 2007)) and studied to construct increasingly accurate analytical and numerical models. The
development of these improved models requires a careful and thorough understanding of historic
earthquake events and their effects. High-quality earthquake field data in combination with topological
and geological structures and new exploration techniques are of utmost importance for a better
understanding of the distribution of earthquakes in space, time, and magnitude.
Recent deployment of seismograph networks and the growth in number of installed digital seismic
measuring instruments has led to a rapid increase in the size of seismic data sets (Hudnut et al, 2001).
These massive field measured data sets, consisting of digitized seismic waveforms, are now readily
available to the public for download in near real-time. While visualization strategies for simulated data
have been explored in the past, real-time visualization of unstructured field collected earthquake data
is a largely unexplored research area.
Global-Scale
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) provides access to DEMs representing elevation
information in a raster grid of regularly spaced intervals. The DEMs are available from the USGS
Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS, 2007) Data Center. The GTOPO30 (GTOPO30, 2007)
DEMs, with a horizontal grid spacing of approximately 1-kilometer, are used in this study. In addition,
the used historical earthquake records were obtained from NEIC. As part of the USGS Earthquake
Hazards Program, NEIC provides an extensive seismic database for scientific research compiled from
records of global seismograph networks. The obtained earthquake information includes position,
depth, magnitude, and date/time of a seismic event, i.e. the description of its hypocenter. For this
study, a total of 500,000 hypocenter records were used.
Local-Scale
In dense urban regions, depending of course upon the ground motion, site, and structure
characteristics, even a magnitude 4.0 earthquake may result in significant losses in widespread areas.
Beyond the tragic loss of life, important civil infrastructure such as buildings, dams, and bridges may
be damaged or destroyed and critical lifeline systems such as power grids, water and gas lines,
interrupted. California in particular is classified as one of the areas with the highest earthquake activity
in the United States.
For the past three decades, the California Strong Motion Instrumentation Program (CSMIP) has been
installing accelerometers at various representative locations throughout California, making it one of
the most extensively monitored states in the nation. Currently, more than 900 stations are operational,
including 650 ground-response, 170 building, 20 dam and 60 bridge stations. The corresponding data
records are maintained by the Consortium of Organizations for Strong-Motion Observation Systems
(COSMOS, 2007). The objective of COSMOS is to promote the advancement of strong-motion
measurement on the ground and in structures in densely populated urban areas likely to be struck by
future earthquakes and to develop national policies for the improvement of strong-motion earthquake
measurements and their application. Among the readily available records are those of stations that
recorded the characteristics of the 1994 Northridge earthquake.
The 1994 Northridge earthquake, with a magnitude 6.7, was the most damaging earthquake in the
United States since the San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 and its cumulative damage to public
property and California's infrastructure was estimated to be \$20 billion U.S. (Aurelius, 1994; EERI,
1995). However, the earthquake also generated a wealth of sensor records that when combined with
other historic events, provide statistical data that contributes towards the improvement and
development of seismic design guidelines. Augmenting these data sets with urban planning networks
such as telecommunication or power grids may then also assist in pre- and post-event planning and
hazard mitigation.
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Building-Scale
Temporal loading plays a large role for the extreme loading conditions civil engineers must design for.
The studied building is a seven-story reinforced concrete structure located in central San Fernando
Valley, California. Numerous seismic sensors were placed throughout the building and recorded its
performance during the 1994 Northridge Earthquake. The current system of accelerometers includes
one measuring the vertical component of motion on the first floor, ten measuring the north-south
direction on floors one, two, three, six, and the roof, and five measuring the east-west direction on
floors one, two, three, six, and the roof level. Figure 1 shows the instrumentation layout throughout the
structure.
The Northridge earthquake caused significant structural and nonstructural damage to this building,
rendering it unsafe for occupancy (Trifunac et al., 1999). All exterior columns in the longitudinal
direction of the building on the fourth floor developed large shear cracks. On the South facing wall,
there were wide shear cracks in the columns. Analysis of response records concur with visual
observations, indicating that the building behaved roughly in the nonlinear range during the
earthquake.
VISUALIZATION STRATEGIES
Even though these data records provide spatial and temporal details, which make them suitable for
fusion with high-resolution digital elevation models, satellite imagery, and inventory data to provide
geo-spatially and temporally anchored information, conventional data analysis techniques are
commonly still limited to 2D plots and maps. In the past, this limitation was a function of the
processing and rendering performance of commodity PCs. However, with the recent performance
increases of graphics processing units (GPUs) on today's graphics cards, new hardware accelerated
technique for data exploration are viable. Real-time interactive visualization of large-scale terrain
models tended to be challenging because of the huge amount of polygons that have to be rendered.
Utilizing adaptive out-of-core techniques (Duchaineau et al., 1997), which load data from external
storage as needed, in combination with hardware accelerated rendering, complex terrain meshes can
now be rendered at interactive frame rates and augmented with detailed texture maps. A variety of 2D
images, such as aerial photos, satellite images, and inventory data in image form, can be seamlessly
mapped onto the terrain surface and programmable graphics hardware used to move selected
geometric computations from the CPU to GPU, increasing the rendering speed (Amor et al., 2005).
Methodology
Interactive visualization is at the heart of any visual analytics environment, requiring a seamless data
processing, fusion, visualization and interrogation framework. For the presented visualization of
seismic records, pipeline stages include, (i) terrain mesh creation and adaptive refinement, (ii) data
178
augmentation and (iii) visualization of static and time-varying seismic records. Figure 2 illustrates the
building blocks of this visualization pipeline. These components are described in detail in the
following sections.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3. Level-of-detail terrain model rendering and texture mapping. (a) A coarse terrain
mesh with 4,143 triangles and texture mapping enabled, (b) coarse terrain mesh without
textures, and (c) a refined terrain approximation using 133,984 triangles.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4. Screenshots of EQVis: 3D rendering of the DEMs and NEIC earthquake data sets at
global scale, (a) global 3D seismicity map of 500,000 hypocenters, (b) shaded terrain model, (c)
3D terrain texture mapped with satellite image for North America plate, South American plate,
and Caribbean plate.
Rendering Static Seismic Data Sets
Hypocenters from the NEIC database are rendered as spherical proxies, and color-coded based on
depth. Different glyphs can also be used to represent other components of hypocenter records such as
event data/time, location, depth and magnitude in a geo-referenced context. In addition, detailed 3D
surface and surface level information can be shown, to provide important features to the viewer.
Figure 5 illustrates different data representation modes. Figure 5 (a) was provided by NEIC for
earthquake records from Alaska (Latitude = 60 to 66 North, longitude = 144 to 156 West). The total
number of earthquakes recorded in this area was 14,876. The difference with respect to visual
impression is significant when the same data set is studied in 3D as shown in Figure 5 (b). The
observed viewing volume in this example is 29.5 million km3. A spherical proxy is rendered at the
earthquake hypocenter location, defining the longitude, latitude and depth of the event. The proxy
radius represents the magnitude of the event and the color the earthquake year. In addition, detailed 3D
surface and aboveground level information is shown to provide context and orientation to the viewer
in respect to important surface features. Correlations with epicenters (hypocenters projected to the
terrain surface) are optionally encoded into the surface texture map, and geometrically connected.
Epicenter information alone would fail in revealing the spatial characteristics of the earthquake event
as shown in Figure 5(a). When viewed in an interactive environment, spatial correlation is straight
forward as users navigate through the data and view it from arbitrary viewpoints.
Figure 6 shows a 3D rendering of hypocenters in the greater Anchorage area. Interactive rendering of
the historic hypocenter data provides the user with spatial and temporal relationships and can aid in the
visual identification of fault plane locations.
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(a)
(b)
Figure 5. (a) 2D earthquake epicenter map for the greater Anchorage area. (Latitude: 60 to 66
North, Latitude: 144-156 West). Source NEIC. (b) Example of USGS NEIC earthquake data sets
for the Alaska area, combining terrain and static earthquake data sets. (Latitude: 60 to 66
North, Latitude: 144-156 West, 1973-2006).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 6. 3D renderings of Alaska DEMs and hypocenters viewed from different directions.
Imposters vs. 3D Proxies
In order to interactively render complex earthquake data sets in combination with high-resolution
digital elevation maps and auxiliary reference information, substantial resources are required. Since it
is desirable to have this technology available on standard computational platforms, optimized
algorithms and rendering techniques have to be employed to achieve the desired results. Since welldefined geometric proxies are used to represent earthquake hypocenters, rendering techniques based
on imposters (billboards or depth sprites) can be used to achieve even better performance gains. These
techniques are particularly popular in flight simulation, in which static objects such as trees can be
approximated through simple images (textures) mapped onto a single viewpoint aligned polygon. The
challenge for this particular application is that the system has to handle tens to hundreds of thousands
of billboards. For the presented data, billboards and depth sprites are particularly suited to replace the
rotational symmetric spherical proxies of hypocenters, which allow rotation over an arbitrary axis
through the proxies' origin without the need to change the texture image representing it. Since all
hypocenter proxies have the same shape, only a single texture is needed.
181
(a)
(b)
Figure 7. (a) Rendering of 1994 Northridge seismogram data in east-west direction for the Los
Angeles basin. (b) Bounding box for maximum acceleration amplitude in east-west direction.
Visualizing the Seismic Response of a Building
A 3D model of the building was constructed for subsequent visualization for this case study. Major
components of the structure were subdivided into groups of solid objects, such as columns, beams,
floors (including the roof level), paneling, and facia. This allows groups of objects to have common
texture skins and to be independently manipulated. The field measured data sets are discretely mapped
onto the geometric model and used to generate temporal simulations reproducing the deformation
patterns observed.Records from the 1994 Northridge earthquake consist of 16 channels of
seismograms measuring acceleration in both horizontal directions, and select measurements in the
vertical direction. Accelerations can be double-integrated and processed to obtain displacement
records. Since sensors are not placed at each floor level, or at each extreme edge of the building, to
fully describe the 3D movement of the structure, interpolation was applied. Floor levels are
structurally rigid and no local damage to the members was observed, therefore, the assumption of
linear interpolation across the plan of each of the floors is reasonable.
182
Each seismogram consists of 3,000 sample points with a sample spacing of t=0.02 second, for a total
duration of the time-varying visualization of 60 s. Figure 8 shows a sequence of time steps and
snapshots of the fully deformed building model using shade (color) coding applied to the components
of the model. In the real simulation for the students, red is used to represent the maximum
deformations (over the entire record), while blue is used to represent minimum values. Interpolation is
applied across the color spectrum and mapped onto the model. Color provides an intuitive, rapid
assessment of the current state of the structure during time. It is based on the assumptions regarding
the unknown deformation points, as described. The ground floor level in this case is fixed and all
subsequent floors are shown relative to ground surface. It should be noted that deformations of the
building are amplified by 20 to enhance their visual perspective. It clearly shows the extreme in-floor
level torsion the structure undergoes during 3D oscillation, as well as the large (dominant) longitudinal
(long axis of the building) displacement demand. Displacement measurements indicate peak values in
the north-south direction of 17 cm on the east end and 23 cm on the west end. This significant
difference between the east and west-end displacements indicated that the building suffered large
torsional movements during the earthquake, which concurs with the clear depiction illustrated. As
observed in the field after this earthquake, the longitudinal load-resisting system was severely
damaged, thus significantly softening the structure in this direction, and the 3D interactive
visualization clearly shows this. In addition, between time steps shown, a sharp reversal in the
direction of movement can be observed (e.g., between parts i, j, and k of Figure 8. The visualization
provides a unique opportunity to show an overview of the structural response of the building for a
given ground motion history. In addition, the articulation of the spatial transitions assists in locating
the building components, which may have been damaged on a local level.
(b) 7.02
(c) 7.08
(d) 7.14
(e) 7.20
(f) 7.26
(g) 7.32
(h) 7.38
(i) 7.44
(j) 7.50
(k) 7.56
(l) 7.62
(m) 7.68
(n) 7.74
(o) 7.80
Figure 8. Image sequence showing building deformations (color coded) between time t = 6.96 7.80 seconds (sub-sampled to a t = 0.06 seconds) - 1994 Northridge earthquake.
183
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 9. Visual Analytics on HIPerWall, leveraging an ultra-high resolution display wall to
explore data across different time and spatial scales, (a) global, (b) local and (c) building-level
visualization with powers of ten support, allowing for a seamless transition between levels.
184
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 10. Visual Analytics on CaveWall, (a) global, (b) local (c) building-level visualization in a
fully semi-immersive virtual reality environment.
CONCLUSIONS
An overwhelming amount of scientific and engineering data is being created at increasingly shorter
time intervals and at ever-higher resolution. This is particularly true in the seismic, geotechnical, and
structural domains, where sensing of the physical environment is essential to advancing understanding.
Visualization of this data, whether it is measured or from numerical simulations, is key to allow a clear
interpretation of physical processes. Learning and understanding is substantiated by orders of
magnitude if crisp visualization of an event, data, or other information, is provided to the user.
In this paper, measured data from multiple scales (global, local, and the building-level) is used to
demonstrate a variety of visualization methods, each of which provide the user with the ability to
maximize their understanding of its underlying physical mechanisms. These scales encompass the use
of field acquired seismic measurements, digital elevation data, and building-level seismic sensors. The
methods are simple, yet robust, as they rely upon out-of-core processing techniques, and simplistic
rendering strategies, to speed up the visualization activities for the user. Rendering methods include
spherical proxies for representing earthquake hypocenters, bounding boxes for representing maximum
structural deformations, and tracing elements to describe history. The concept of visual analytics is
discussed in the context of these datasets and their associated rendering methods, and demonstrated via
data presentation on a variety of hardware interfaces, including a massive high-resolution display
system and an immersive virtual reality system.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported in part by the National Science Foundation Combined Research
Curriculum Development Program under Grant Number EIA-0203528 and the Major Research
Instrumentation Program under award number MRI-0421554, as well as the Holmes Fellowship
Foundation. Data for this study was provided by USGS, NEIC and COSMOS. Ms. Rebecca Chadwick
assisted with preparation of the waveform data sets and the structural model. The above support is
greatly appreciated.
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186
INTRODUCTION
The UC Davis centrifuge has the largest radius and largest platform area of any geotechnical
centrifuge in the US; it is one of the top few in these categories in the world. The centrifuge can carry
five-ton payloads and operate at 75 g (at the effective radius of 8.5 m). This centrifuge and its
associated equipment have capabilities for simulating the effects of earthquakes on geotechnical
models and models of soil-foundation-structure interaction. Figure 1 shows researchers installing
instrumented model piles into sand in one of the flexible shear beam model containers. The model
container will be placed on a shake table mounted on the swinging bucket at the end of the centrifuge
(shown in the background). The basic configuration of the shake table on the UC Davis centrifuge is
illustrated in Figure 2; the cylindrical accumulators shown in the diagram can be seen on the bucket in
the background of Figure 1.
Typical geotechnical model testing in the past used limited amounts of instrumentation, which yielded
observations at selected points in a physical model. Progress in earthquake engineering was hindered
by incomplete and ambiguous data sets that allowed for subjective and potentially mistaken
interpretation. The philosophy behind the development of the NEES Centrifuge at UC Davis
capitalizes on the size of the facility and innovations in instrumentation and information technology to
enable researchers to generate much higher resolution information (more control, sensors, and images)
and to create more realistic physical models that will provide unambiguous experimental data for
assessments of numerical simulations.
187
Figure 1. Researchers installing model bridge bents in a flexible shear beam container. The
end of the centrifuge arm is in the background. (Photo by Peter Essick)
The data acquisition (DAQ) infrastructure of the centrifuge includes about a dozen computers and
externally-mounted data acquisition chassis. The major components of the DAQ infrastructure are:
RESDAQ-Main: 128 channels of amplifiers connected to a high-speed A/D converter for
conventional sensors
RESDAQ-ERT: 48-channel electrode switching system useful for electrical resistivity
measurements, electro-location techniques, and electrical resistance tomography
RESDAQ-Aux: An auxiliary DAQ chassis dedicated to specialized systems such as the one that
drives eight channels of bender element sources and monitors 16-channels of bender element
receivers. It also contains a digital oscilloscope card useful for high-speed applications.
WiDAQ: Fifty-six 8-channel wireless data acquisition systems that can be used for conventional
sensors and MEMS accelerometers.
VIDDAQ: Six computers, each dedicated to one high speed (up to 200 frames per second)
camera.
Figure 2. Basic configuration of the shaking table mounted on the centrifuge bucket (note the
corresponding cylindrical accumulators in Fig. 1)
188
Figure 3 shows a model, similar to that being prepared in Figure 1, mounted on the centrifuge with all
instrumentation installed just prior to spinning. Visible in the image are cameras, strobe lights and
wireless DAQ units, all monitoring the behavior of six individual pile supported bent structures
(Ilankatharan et al. 2006). Aluminum blocks representing a bridge deck mass were supported on two
piles for each bridge bent model. The blocks were oriented in varying directions to enable a study of
the effect of shaking in different directions relative to the alignment of the piles. The size of the
centrifuge enabled approximately 200 sensors to be used to monitor a simultaneous test of the six
structures under identical soil conditions and identical sequences of ground shaking.
At UC Davis we have developed miniature data acquisition systems that can be mounted in a
centrifuge soil model to reduce the number and complexity of signal wires emanating from highly
instrumented experiments. The WiDAQ Wireless Data Acquisition System was developed as part of
the NEES construction award at UC Davis. It is now in continuous use by researchers at UC Davis
(Wilson et al. 2007). Figure 4 shows a collage of images associated with the WiDAQ system. In the
upper left, 4 two-channel MEMS accelerometers are shown connected to one of the WiDAQ sensor
managers. In the upper right, one of our low-cost, tiny packaging systems is shown. An Analog
Devices ADXL sensor is attached to a miniature circuit board, the sensor cable is stress relieved to the
circuit board, and then the system is dipped in epoxy to seal it. Just below that, the WiDAQ radio
board, DAQ board, and a AAA battery are assembled outside of their housing. On the bottom left of
Figure 4, individual Silicon Designs, Inc., MEMS accelerometers are shown. The image on the
bottom right is a depiction of how the sensor managers can be deployed around a model container to
reduce the number of wires emanating from the experiment. The sensor managers can be buried in the
soil or mounted at convenient locations on the model container.
189
Figure 4. Clockwise from top left: MEMS accelerometers in an open sealable plastic housing;
a MEMS accelerometer with custom packaging, side view of Radio, DAQ card and battery;
model container with embedded sensor managers; and MEMS accelerometers.
The capabilities of the equipment to support research at the UC Davis Center for Geotechnical
Modeling are illustrated in the example study on nonlinear wave propagation described below.
Additional information about the centrifuge is available at http://nees.ucdavis.edu. This paper
concludes with a discussion of future directions for shared major equipment and collaborative
research.
190
Figure 5. Ground surface accelerations at a site a few kilometers south of downtown Seattle in
the M 6.8 Nisqually, Washington earthquake. Note the large one-sided spikes between t = 24 s
and 29 s. (Data from Frankel et al. 2002)
At this point, it is useful to distinguish two types of nonlinearity:
1) Strain-softening nonlinearity: shear modulus degrades as strain increases (e.g., hyperbolic stressstrain law and conventional modulus degradation relationships that show the shear modulus
monotonically decreases as shear strain increases)
2) Strain-stiffening nonlinearity: shear modulus increases as strain increases (e.g., effect of dilatancy
on saturated sand which produces stress-strain behavior indicated in Figure 6).
191
Figure 7. (Top) Undrained torsional shear behavior of Fuji River Sand at a relative density of
75% (Ishihara 1985). Note the strain-stiffening behavior in all except the first stress-strain
loop. The stress-strain curve at the bottom (from Holzer and Youd 2007) was obtained by
processing accelerometer data at the Wildlife Site according to the procedures developed by
Zeghal and Elgamal (1994). Labels on the circled points on the curves correspond to the
times at which peak pore pressures were observed.
Kutter and Wilson (1999) recognized that many aspects of the propagation of acceleration spikes in
centrifuge model tests could be explained using shock wave theories. Shock phenomena occur in
other media (e.g., breaking water waves and sonic booms) due to nonlinearities that cause the peak of
a wave to travel faster than the front. In laboratory tests, the tangent shear modulus of dilatant sand
under undrained conditions has been observed to increase as shear stress increases. This is analogous
to the increase in the tangent bulk modulus of air as pressure increases a necessary condition for
formation of shock waves in air. The extent to which the acceleration spikes can be described by
shock-wave theory and understanding the factors that control the width and amplitude of acceleration
spikes is the subject of ongoing research.
Nonlinear wave-propagation centrifuge results
Figure 8 shows data from Kutter et al. (2004) obtained from a dense vertical array in a layered soil
profile. The left side of Fig. 8 shows a schematic of the soil layering, and the accelerometer locations
are indicated by arrows. The base layer (with H2 = 9 m) consisted of sand with relative density of
80%, the layer with H1 = 4.5 m consisted of sand with relative density of 50%, and the top layer is an
approximately 2-m thick sloping clay layer. The entire box is sloping to the left so that lateral
spreading could be studied. From these data it was clear to see that pulses travel at a variety of speeds,
some of them disappear, and some of them focus into spikes. The shape of the acceleration spikes is
clearly a function of the soil type; the spikes are sharper in dense sand than loose sand, and their
192
Figure 8. Data from Kutter et al. (2004) showing location of sensors in a centrifuge model
container, and the acceleration records in a large shaking event. Time and depth have been
scaled by a factor of 30 to prototype scale.
amplitude decreases and width increases in the clayey surface layer. The spikes are unsymmetrical
due to the existence of a static shear stress in the direction of the sloping ground. Some pulses were
observed to travel as slow as 11 m/s. Figure 9 presents a closer look at the data from this vertical
array, and also presents velocity records, obtained by integration and baseline correction of the
acceleration data. In Fig. 9, fine lines have been added to enable visualization of the propagation of
various wave features. Wave velocities are obviously not constant, some small waves coalesce into
sharper waves, sometimes forming a sharp spike and then the spike waves sometimes grow and
sometimes disperse as they propagate through the soil. Interestingly, the inelastic waves seem to die
as they reach the surface without significant reflection.
The nonlinear wave propagation problem is just one application for which dense arrays of sensors are
desirable to capture the phenomenon. The multi-component experiment shown in Figure 3 is another
example where the performance of a variety of structures can be compared in a single model test,
provided that sufficient instrumentation is available.
193
Figure 9. A closer look (12 to 19 s time window) of the data in Figure 6. The top graph shows
acceleration, the bottom shows velocity obtained by integration of acceleration record. Light
lines were added by eye to help visualize the evolution of nonlinear waves. Spacing of traces
is in proportion to the spacing between sensors in the vertical array. Time is scaled by a
factor of 30 to convert model data to prototype scale.
Instrumentation and data acquisition
The trend in instrumentation can be summarized by: more, faster, and different. Commercial high
speed video cameras are becoming more and more capable, reliable, and have better resolution. In
selecting video cameras, one is faced by the decision of using one very fast (1000s of frames per
second) and expensive camera or opting for use of a larger number of inexpensive intermediate speed
cameras (200 frames/second). Wireless data acquisition systems are now being routinely used at
Davis and we invite collaborators to help maintain and develop this platform. The system enables
100s of sensors to be economically added to a facility with minor increases in wire congestion in the
experiments. The WiDAQ system is able to record data from MEMS accelerometers, which promises
to reduce the cost associated with increasing instrumentation.
Geophysical testing and tomography are really promising tools for better monitoring of experiments.
In this category we include arrays of bender elements to enable monitoring of the evolution of shear
wave velocity in the experiments and p-wave ultrasound imaging which has been shown to hold
promise for detecting interfaces and pockets of unsaturated soils in the centrifuge models. Electrical
194
methods also have been demonstrated to hold promise for measuring volumetric and shear strains in
soil, for detection of movements of buried electrodes, and producing tomographic images of resistivity
distribution (Li et al. 2006). Fiber-optic sensors, as they become more and more economical, have
great potential to revolutionize the ability to measure strain distributions on structural components
such as piles or retaining walls. Laser scanners and close range photogrammetry could potentially
provide accurate 3-D maps of experiments.
There are so many exciting instrumentation technologies, and many of them require different
equipment and software to make them work. In dynamic centrifuge testing, the speed of
measurements is frequently an issue. The cost of increasing instrumentation can be measured in
purchasing cost or in the time required to install the sensors, measure their locations, mount the
equipment on the centrifuge and learn or develop the software to process the resulting data.
Research topics
With the development of shared major experimental facilities in the US, interdisciplinary research is
likely to continue to increase. This increases the breadth of knowledge of researchers, and forces them
to figure out how to communicate the results of their research to members of another discipline. This
must be beneficial for growing the impact of the research. Recent efforts to model more complex
systems in the large centrifuge have included the dynamic behavior of a nonlinear building frame
supported on shallow foundations and multi-bent sections of a bridge structure. The complex
experiments are both stimulated and made possible through collaboration. (e.g. Kutter and Wilson
2006).
Networking, data sharing, simulation and visualization tools, and collaboration
Due to the increase in complexity of the experiments being performed, the planning of large scale
experiments and construction of the models is best done by teams of researchers. With the advent of
teleconferencing tools provided by NEESit (the information technology provider for the Network for
Earthquake Engineering Simulation), cross country teleconferences have become quite commonplace
in the US. One of the common justifications for model tests is to provide data for verification or
development of numerical procedures. This is benefited by the provision of open source community
simulation tools (e.g., the OpenSees platform http://it.nees.org/software/opensees/).
An oft cited benefit of model testing is that a valuable data set will be produced and archived for use
by others. Data sharing is a great idea because it has the potential to reduce the need for repeating
experiments that have already been done. Sharing data does not mean posting a file to a web site. The
file needs to be accompanied by the metadata necessary for others to understand the formats of the
data (e.g. Kutter et al. 2002). The complexity of data from large scale experiments is an additional
non-technical barrier to data sharing. Visualization tools could play an important role in enabling
complex data sets to be understood by others. A visualization tool called N3DV is intended to be
useful for presenting the data from a large number of sensors in an intuitive format (Weber et al.
2003). A screenshot from N3DV showing sensor metadata and sensor locations is presented in
Figure 10. Dynamic data may be presented by animating the behavior or icons that represent different
sensors in an experiment. Visualization tools such as N3DV are hoped to be a carrot that
encourages people to archive there data in a standard format that can be imported by N3DV and
understood by others. The added benefit is that the tool can hopefully be used on-the-fly during an
experiment enabling researchers to quickly peruse their data and identify sensors that produce
anomalous data.
195
Figure 10. Data and Metadata from centrifuge experiments are shown using a tool called
N3DV. Each sensor is represented by an icon for which the color, size, and location may be
animated in proportion to the data recorded.
DISCUSSION
Research progress in civil engineering has been steady but slow over the last century. Research has
historically been accomplished by individuals with small groups of researchers. A small fraction of
these individuals have been successful in closing the loop from identifying a problem, researching a
solution and being successful in getting the solution applied in engineering practice.
The slow but steady progress in civil engineering contrasts with relatively rapid progress that has been
made in the computing industry. New computer chips are designed by large teams of engineers, and
parallel advances in data storage, displays, networks, batteries, and software are essential for the
computing revolution that has occurred. Individuals play a minor role in the computing revolution; the
progress is driven by highly coordinated organizations.
There is great potential to revolutionize research progress in civil engineering through collaboration,
sharing, visualization, and knowledge generation. IT infrastructure will eventually be established to
facilitate seamless collaboration and shared access to data. Access should be considered in the
broadest sense. It includes ability to obtain and analyze the data as well as visualization tools that
enable efficient understanding of the data.
Changing the emphasis toward collaborative interdisciplinary research requires a change in research
culture. We cannot underestimate the difficulty of changing a culture that is well-established and has
a successful history, even when there is broad consensus that the change is for the better.
There is a lot of incompletely understood physics associated with dynamics of particulate, multiphase
materials. The nonlinear wave propagation issue presented in this paper presents just one example. A
goal of NEES is to provide equipment and an environment in which we can make the fundamental
advances to make a real impact on understanding of the complex physics.
196
CONCLUSIONS
There are many problems involving nonlinear dynamic soil behavior that remain to be resolved. The
fact that 1-D nonlinear wave propagation in strain-stiffening soil can produce large acceleration
spikes, which can be modeled as shock waves, is an example of a basic phenomenon that has become
well understood by studying the results of model tests.
The NEES centrifuge at UC Davis, with its large size and versatile data acquisition network, provides
a facility for production of comprehensive data sets that enable description of model behavior as
opposed to sparse sampling of data at selected points. Hundreds of sensors can be used to enable
significantly improved resolution of the behavior and mechanisms that occur during shaking.
Geophysical tools are being developed to enable researchers to measure internal deformations and
strains.
A large centrifuge experiment using all of the resources described herein will be more than simply a
test. With the advanced instrumentation and large size of the experiments, the experiments should
be viewed as repeatable case histories. Due to the large quantity of information to be captured from
one model test sequence, theories and design procedures can be improved and tested. There is still
work to be done to train the profession to fully appreciate and to understand what may and what may
not be learned from the large-scale centrifuge model tests. Increased collaboration with practicing
engineers and development of software tools for simulation and intuitive visualizations of the data are
needed to improve the technology transfer from university to practice.
The Center for Geotechnical Modeling facilities are intended for use by researchers from academia
and industry, from both the US and abroad, as a shared-use resource. We have an all hands on deck
philosophy; one person cannot quickly operate a shaking table, all the sensors, tomography tools, as
well as the sequence of events being tested. Future experiments will be performed by teams of
researchers; with remote researchers able to control their experiments at UC Davis as easily as local
researchers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Support for operations and maintenance of the centrifuge is provided by National Science Foundation
Award No. CMS - 0402490 provided via the Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation
(NEES). The experimental work was made possible by funding of the Earthquake Engineering
Research Centers Program of the National Science Foundation, under award number EEC-9701568
through the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center (PEER). Any opinions, findings, and
conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily reflect those of the National Science Foundation.
The facility development and work presented in this paper were made possible by the staff and
colleagues in the UC Davis Center for Geotechnical Modeling: Ross Boulanger, Lars Pedersen, Chad
Justice, Cypress Winters, Ray Gerhard, Peter Rojas, and Nick Sinikas.
REFERENCES
Bonilla, L. F., Archuleta, R. J. and Lavallee, D. (2005). Hysteretic and Dilatant Behavior of
Cohesionless Soils and Their Effects on Nonlinear Site Response: Field Data Observations and
Modeling, Bull. Seism. Soc. Am., 95, pp. 2373-2395.
Coelho, P. A. L. F., Haigh, S. K. and Gopal Madabhushi, S. P., (2004). Centrifuge modelling of
earthquake effects in uniform deposits of saturated sand, Fifth International Conference on Case
Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, April 13-17, 2004, New York, Vol. 1, pp. 8
197
198
W1-1011
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
ON EARTHQUAKE GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING
Thessaloniki, Greece 25-28 June 2007
15 YEARS of EUROSEISTEST
K. PITILAKIS (Project Coordinator)
D. RAPTAKIS, K. MAKRA, F. CHAVEZ-GARCIA (Site Effects)
M. MANAKOU, P. APOSTOLIDIS (3D Soil Model)
G. MANOS (Structural Studies)
GENERAL PRESENTATION
European Projects:
EUROSEISTEST
EUROSEIS-TEST (EV5V-CT.93-0281)
EUROSEIS-MOD (ENV4-CT.96-0255)
EUROSEIS-RISK (EVG1-CT-2001-00040)
Euroseis-Test site
Thessaloniki
Urban Area
Area: 60 km2
Volvi Lake
N
Stivos
Profitis
EuroseisTest site
211
200
100
0
-100
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200
MN' 78 (L)
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AF '78 (T)
MN '78 (V)
AF '78 (V)
100
0
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200
100
40
20
0
-100
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
TIME (sec)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
TIME (sec)
12
16
20
Time (sec)
212
In situ measurements
Sampling boreholes
In situ geotechnical surveys (NSPT, CPT)
Seismic surveys for P-wave refraction and Seismic Wave Inversion (SWI)
Geoelectrical tomography and soundings
Cross-hole and Down-hole surveys
Logging measurements
Microtremor array measurements (SPAC method)
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Resonant column
Triaxial
Oedometer
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250
200
PRO
150
100
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DISTANCE (m)
213
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10
20
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SM
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165
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-1 40 0 0
-13 0 0 0
-12 0 0 0
- 11 0 0 0
-1 0 0 0 0
Dista nce (m )
ABA
2 00
1 00
50
0
15 0
MES
L AG
BRG -
geo -2003
BRG S3 a rtBRG
KO K
ANA
DAB2
geo -2004
FID EXP VOL
10 0
C+D
50
0
-50
E+F
-10 0
-15 0
-15 0
-20 0
-25 0
Vs: 500-800m/sec
G GEO
-5 0
-10 0
E+F
20 0
1 50
-20 0
Rock
-25 0
-30 0
-30 0
-35 0
-35 0
F-Sx
-40 0
-2 15 00 -21 00 0 -2 05 00 -20 00 0 -1 95 00 -19 00 0 -1 85 00 -18 00 0 -1 75 00 -17 00 0 -1 65 00 -16 00 0 -1 55 0 0 -15 0 00 -1 4 50 0 -1 40 00 -13 50 0 -1 30 00 -12 50 0 -1 20 00 -11 50 0 -1 10 00 -10 50 0 -1 00 00
-40 0
Distance (m )
RELIEF
AB/CD INTERFACE
CD/EF INTERFACE
EF/BEDROCK INTERFACE
216
of
existing
Guralp
PRO
K2
ROA
Guralp!
K2
WT3
WT2
WT1
Etna
Etna
Etna
GRA
TST
Etna
FRM
Guralp
STH
Guralp
STC
Etna
STE
ET1
ET2
ET3
Etna
Etna
Etna
217
NNW
PRO
GRA
PRO-33m
BRG
KOK
ANA
TST
W
TST-21m
TSE
ATH
DAB
E
FRM
BUT
TST-40m
TST-72m
TST-136m
STC
STI
SSE
TST-197m
Out o f sca le
STE
10
ARNE AS' EARTHQUAKE 1997, MAY 4, M=5.8
SSR HORIZ
SSR VERT
HVS R
FRM
TST
GRB
GRA
10
1
300
250
NN W
FORMATION A
B
C
D E F G* G
Vp (m/s) 330 450
550
V pw (m/s)
- 1500 1600 200025002600 35004500
Vs (m/s)
130 200
300
450 650 800 12502600
D ensity (t/m 3) 2.05 2.15 2.0, 2.15 2.10 2.15 2.20 2.5 2.6
200
SS E
STE
ST2 2
10
S TC
150
PR O
C
F RM
100
G RA G RB
C
E
F
G
50
B
C
TST
A
TS17 B
C
D
E
F
TS72
F
-50
D
E
D
E
PRO
G*
10
F4
F
-100
*V
-150
3D ACCELEROM ETERS
PW : V P BELOW WA TER TABLE (
10
F REQ UEN CY (Hz)
F1
G*
10
F REQ UEN CY (Hz)
218
RADIAL COMPONENT
40
40
36
36
32
32
28
28
24
24
20
20
16
16
12
12
0
3.0
0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300
0
500
1 000
50 00 5500 6000
500
1 000
50 00 5500 6000
PRO
0.0
GRA GRB
1.0
2 .0
TST
3.0
FRM
4.0
ST C STE
5.0
Distance (km)
219
2D PARAMETRIC ANALYSES
T2
T1 0.40 sec
10.0
T
A 1 2
T1
2. 0sec
T2
T
A 1 2
1.0
Sa(2D) A Sa(1D)
0.1
0.1
1.0
T1
T2
period (sec)
10.0
STE
6.0
STC
10.0
5.3
4.5
1.0
1.0
3.8
REC/1D
3.0
2D/1D
0.1
10.0
0.1
FRM
TST
10.0
2.3
1.5
0.8
0.0
1.0
1.0
0.1
10.0
0.1
GRB
GRA
10.0
1.0
0.1
1.0
0.1
1.0
Period (sec)
0.1
1.0
Period (sec)
0.1
220
221
Store
House
7,0
2,0
4.2
2.52
3,38
25,0m
1.5
3.5
5,82
2,00
1.52
PIER M ODEL
6,0
3.5
2,0
3.5
3.15
3.36
9.2
3.6
2.95
2.46
9,80
1.5
3.5
6.46
4,30
5-Story M odel
5,00
5,00m
8,25m
7,0
7,54m
10m
2 00 3 6
EURO SEIS- TEST
4 .0
My
OVERTURNING MOMENT
3 .5
Ut ili ty
Room
3 .0
2 .5
2 .0
1 .5
1 .0
-0 .5 0 .0
5-Story M ode l
0.4
PIER M ODEL
1 .0
1 .5
2 .0
2 .5
3 .0
3 .5
4 .0
4 .5
5 .0
5 .5
6 .0
t [se c]
-3 .0
6,50m
4,00m
9,00m
0 .5
-1 .0
-1 .5
-2 .0
-2 .5
4,30m
3,70
3,30
0,35
0 .5
0 .0
SECTION A - A
-3 .5
-4 .0
3,35
10,0
2,5
8,25
6,75
222
me an
9.524E-03
TYPES OF
ANALYSES
2. Time domain
3. Various special
analysis
ADINA
[Hz]
1.67
2.68
3.16
FFTrec
[Hz]
1.65
2.77
3.28
Vertical component
223
REFFERENCES
Chvez-Garca, F.J., D. Raptakis, K. Makra, and K. Pitilakis (2000). Site effects at Euroseistest
II. Results from 2D numerical
modeling and comparison with observations, Soil Dyn. Earthq. Engrg. 19, 23-39.
Kudo K., T..Kanno, H. Okada, T. Sasatani, N. Morikawa, P. Apostollidis, K. Pitilakis, D.Raptakis, M. Takahashi, S. Ling,
H.Nagumo, K. Irikura, S. Higashi & K. Yoshida, 2002. S-Wave Velocity Structure at EURO-SEISTEST, Volvi, Greece Determined by
the Spatial Auto-Correlation Method applied for Array Records of Microtremors, Proc. 11th Japan Earthquake Engineering Symposium,
Paper No. 62.
Makra, K., D. Raptakis, F.J. Chvez-Garca, and K. Pitilakis (2001). Site effects and design provisions: the case of Euroseistest,
PAGEOPH 158, 2349-2367.
Makra, K., D. Raptakis, F.J. Chavez-Garcia & K. Pitilakis, 2002. How important is the detailed knowledge of a 2D soil structure for
site response evaluation, Proc. 12th ECEE, Paper No 682.
Makra K., F.J. Chvez-Garca, D. Raptakis & K. Pitilakis, 2005. Parametric analysis of the seismic response of a 2D sedimentary
valley: Implications for code implementations of complex site effects. SDEE 25, pp. 303-315.
Manakou (2007). Contribution to the determination of a three dimensional soil model for studying seismic response: application to the
Mygdonian sedimentary basin. Ph.D. Thesis (in Greek), Civil Engineering Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
Manos C. (Presentation by V. Renda on behalf of Prof. G. Manos), 2004. Experimental and Numerical Studies of Model Structures at the
Volvi European Test Site. OECD/NEA International Workshop "Seismic Input Motions, Incorporating Recent Geological Studies,
OECD/NEA Workshop proceedings.
Manos, G., Kourtidis, V., Soulis, V., Sextos, A., Renault, P. and Yassin, B., 2005. Numerical and experimental soil-structureinteraction of a bridge pier model at the Volvi-Greece European Test Site. 6th European Conference on Structural Dynamics, Eurodyn
2005, Paris, II, pp. 1335-1340.
Manos, G.C., Renault, P. & Sextos, A.G., 2005. Investigation of the interaction between neighboring model structures at the
Euroseistest site. Proceedings: EURODYN, pp. 1297-1302.
Pitilakis, K., D. Raptakis, K. Lontzetidis, Th. Tika-Vassilikou, and D. Jongmans (1999). Geotechnical and geophysical description of
EURO-SEISTEST, using field, laboratory tests and moderate strong motion recordings. J. Earthq. Engrg. 3, 381-409.
Raptakis, D., N. Theodulidis, and K. Pitilakis (1998). Data analysis of the EURO-SEISTEST strong motion array in Volvi (Greece):
Standard and horizontal to vertical spectral ratio techniques. Earthq. Spectra 14, 203-224.
Raptakis, D., F.J. Chvez-Garca, K. Makra, and K. Pitilakis (2000). Site effects at Euroseistest
I. Determination of the valley
structure and confrontation of observations with 1D analysis, Soil Dyn. Earthq. Engrg. 19, 1-22.
Raptakis, D., M. Manakou, F.J.Chvez-Garca, K.Makra, and K. Pitilakis, 2005. 3D Configuration of Mygdonian basin and
preliminary estimate of its site response, SDEE 25, pp. 871-887.
224
W1-1008
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
ABSTRACT
A goal of engineering seismology research is to generate analytical and empirical models for accurate
prediction of ground shaking, pore water pressure generation, ground deformation and soilfoundation-structure interaction (SFSI), and to help engineers understand how these predictions will
affect the built environment. The development of simulation capabilities that can reproduce these
effects at various strain levels requires well-instrumented test sites where actual ground response, pore
pressure, and deformation can be monitored during earthquake shaking to provide benchmark case
histories for verification of the simulation models. In the U.S. alone, there are many extensive
geotechnical strong motion array facilities available for use in calibration and validation of our
modeling techniques. An update on these facilities including recently deployed arrays, and a summary
of the current research activities using these facilities will be presented. In particular, the experimental
field site facility that is part of the National Science Foundations George E. Brown Jr. Network for
Earthquake Engineering Simulation (NEES) will be highlighted. This facility includes two
permanently instrumented field sites for the study of ground response, ground failure, soil-foundationstructure interaction, and liquefaction. The current and future trend for instrumented sites seems to be
moving to the simultaneous monitoring of both the geotechnical and structural components at a given
site. This integration of the two sub-disciplines within earthquake engineering provides opportunities
for new collaborations. The performance analysis of instrumented structures incorporating
geotechnical and structural aspects should provide advances in our ability to predict the effects of
earthquakes on the built environment.
Keywords: geotechnical strong motion array, engineering seismology, site response, test sites.
INTRODUCTION
Over the last two decades there has been significant activity in terms of the construction and operation
of instrumented geotechnical sites. This summary paper is a continuation of the work presented almost
decade ago (Archuleta and Steidl, 1998) that outlined the results of borehole array studies in the
United States. Two issues come to mind when thinking about the last two decades of activity with
instrumented geotechnical sites. First, the need for increased coordination among the agencies and
organizations that install, maintain, and disseminate the data form these instrumented sites. This has
been repeatedly expressed in the proceedings and reports from various workshops and conferences.
Second is the lack of collaboration between the structural and geotechnical engineering communities
to improve the design and performance of structures by integrating the components of the problem
from both disciplines. Until recently, these components had been treated separately.
This workshop contribution will begin with a discussion of the geotechnical strong motion array
(GSMA) activities in the United States, including a list of what is thought to be the current operational
sites broken into categories. Then some examples of the current experimental activities using these
1
Institute for Crustal Studies, University of California at Santa Barbara, California, USA, Email:
steidl@crustal.ucsb.edu
234
sites will be provided. Lastly, some discussion of the future opportunities and challenges that the
community faces in trying to deal with the two issues of coordination and collaboration mentioned
above.
EXISTING GEOTECHNICAL STRONG MOTION ARRAYS IN THE UNITED STATES
In taking a look at the Geotechnical Strong Motion Array (GSMA) sites in the United States, the first
question to ask is how to define a GSMA in the first place. In this case, any strong motion station that
contains both a surface and a sub-surface borehole sensor qualifies. However, the GSMAs are further
sub-divided into three categories.
Extensive Arrays (4+ borehole sensors):
An extensive GSMA is a site with four or more borehole accelerometers in addition to the surface
sensor. Using this definition, 14 such sites are found. These sites are operated by a mix of agencies
and institutions, including; the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the California Geological
Survey (CGS/CSMIP), California Department of Transportation (Caltrans), the National Science
Foundation (NSF), and the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB).
The site name, region, and responsible agencies are listed for each of these extensive array sites in
Table 1. Note that these sites are primarily in California, with the exception of one site in Anchorage,
Alaska. This is primarily reflective of the high cost of installing and operating extensive GSMAs and
the probability of obtaining useful strong motion data over the life span of the array. The high
seismicity regions of the United States have historically been the most heavily instrumented, though
this is changing somewhat with the new Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS). This is not to
say that having strong motion records in the lower seismicity regions like the Central and Eastern
United States is not important, however, the potential to catch a significant event does play into the
funding agencies decisions regarding where to allocate resources for these extensive facilities.
Table 1. Extensive Array sites in the United States
Site Name
Bessie Charmichael School
Borrego Valley
Delaney Park
Embarcadero Plaza
Eureka Array
Garner Valley
Hayward, San Mateo Bridge
Hollister Observatory
Levi Plaza
Melloland Array El Centro
San Diego Coronado Bridge
Treasure Island NGES site
Vincent Thomas Array
Wildlife Liquefaction Array
Location
Bay Area Northern California
Southern California
Anchorage, Alaska
Bay Area Northern California
Northern California
Southern California
Northern California
Central California
Northern California
Southern California
Southern California
Bay Area Northern California
Southern California
Southern California
Agency(s)
USGS
UCSB
ANSS/USGS/UAF
USGS
CGS/CSMIP/Caltrans
UCSB/NEES
CGS/CSMIP/Caltrans
UCSB
USGS
CGS/CSMIP/Caltrans
CGS/CSMIP/Caltrans
CGS/CSMIP/NSF
CGS/CSMIP/Caltrans
UCSB/NEES
As an example of an extensive array we show the recently deployed Anchorage ANSS Delaney Park
Array and instrumented structure, the Atwood Building, located 500 meters from the geotechnical
array. Figure 1 shows the location of Delaney Park in relation to the Atwood building in the skyline
behind the park. Figure 2 shows a schematic of the vertical array with seven 3-component
accelerometers located at depths from the surface down to 61 meters. The instrumentation of the
Atwood building is also shown in Figure 2. This is an ideal case where the input motion to a wellinstrumented structure is provided through a GSMA located so as to provide the free field input
motions to that structure. This instrumented site represents the new trend in collaborative geotechnical
and structural engineering monitoring sites.
235
Figure 1. The Delaney Park GSMA with the instrumented Atwood Building in the background
Figure 2. Schematic representation of the GSMA and Structural Array monitoring at Delaney
Park and the Atwood Building in Anchorage, Alaska.
236
Location
Northern California
Southern California
Bay Area Northern California
Northern California
Southern California
Southern California
Eastern US
Central US
Central US
Central California
Northern California
Bay Area Northern California
Central US
Southern California
Northern California
Agency(s)
CGS/CSMIP/Caltrans
CGS/CSMIP/Caltrans
CGS/CSMIP/Caltrans
CGS/CSMIP/Caltrans
CGS/CSMIP/Caltrans
UCSB/SCEC
Northeastern University
University of Kentucky/ACOE
University of Kentucky
CGS/CSMIP/Industry
CGS/CSMIP/Caltrans
CGS/CSMIP/Caltrans
University of Kentucky
UC/SCEC
USGS
237
borehole to surface as input motions increase with larger earthquakes can be interpreted as changes in
the material behavior (Tsuda and Steidl, 2006; Assimaki and Steidl, 2007). With enough of these
observations at various sites, over a range of input motions and site classifications, average site
response correction factors can be determined and used in seismic code provisions. Currently, these
factors are based primarily on theory, not empirical data. So while these surface-borehole pair sites
may not be extensive enough for some research applications, they do make an important contribution.
Table 3. Surface Borehole Pair Sites in the United States
Site Name
Central Fire Station
Cerritos College
Griffith Park
Jensen Filtration Plant
Kentucky Bend, KY
Mira Catalina School
Obregon Park, Los Angeles
Pacific Park Plaza, Emeryville
Ridgely, TN
Rinaldi Substation
Stone Canyon
Superstition Mountain
Tarzana, Ceder Hill
University of California, Los Angeles
University of California, Santa Barbara
University of California, San Diego
Wonderland Avenue School
Location
Southern California
Southern California
Southern California
Southern California
Central US
Southern California
Southern California
Bay Area Northern California
Central US
Southern California
Southern California
Southern California
Southern California
Southern California
Southern California
Southern California
Southern California
Agency(s)
USGS/UCSB
USGS
UCSB/SCEC
UCSB/SCEC/USGS
University of Kentucky
UCSB/SCEC
CGS/CSMIP/UCSB
USGS
University of Kentucky
UCSB/SCEC
UCSB/SCEC
UCSB/SCEC/USGS
CGS/CSMIP
USGS/ANSS
UC/SCEC
UC
UCSB/SCEC
238
Fault. The valley is 4-5 km wide at its widest and about 10 km long. The valley trends northwestsoutheast parallel to the major faults of southern California. The valley floor is at an elevation of 1310
m and the surrounding mountains reach heights slightly greater than 3,000 m. A panoramic view of the
GVDA field site is shown in Figure 4, taken at the completion of the NEES construction in Fall of
2004. The details of the geotechnical site conditions and instrumentation at the GVDA facility can be
found at the NEES@UCSB website (http://nees.ucsb.edu/), and in previous studies of the observations
from this site (Archuleta et al., 1992; Steidl et al., 1996; Bonilla et al., 2002).
Figure 4. The GVDA site in 2004 after the NEES program upgrade.
The NEES GVDA facility exemplifies the trend of instrumented sites moving to multi-disciplinary
collaborations between seismologists, geotechnical, and structural engineers. The reconfigurable
structure (Figure 4) constructed at the GVDA site is instrumented with pressure cells under the four
corners of the foundation, vertical displacement transducers on the four corners, accelerometers on the
corners, bottom slab, and top slab, and a rotational sensor on the bottom slab. In addition, a downhole
accelerometer and pore pressure transducer are installed below the foundation. The new structure is
intended for improving our understanding of soil-foundation-structure interaction (SFSI). Figure 5 is a
schematic of the structure and the different input forces that can be used in response testing.
Figure 5. The various input forces used to study soil-foundation-structure interaction at GVDA.
239
In figure 6, the locations of the various sensors installed on and beneath the SFSI test structure are
shown. In addition to the instrumented structure, the soil column at GVDA is heavily instrumented
with 6 additional downhole accelerometers (6, 15, 22, 50, 150, and 501 meter depths) and 4 additional
pore pressure transducers (6.1, 8.8, 10.1, and 12.4 meter depths).
240
phenomena and nonlinear material behavior in general. The largest motions recorded so far at the
GVDA site are just at the level where the onset of nonlinear soil behavior might be expected, around
0.1 g peak ground acceleration. Observations from the liquefaction array sensors are beginning to
show the build up of pore pressure at this level, and then show the slow decay back to the background
level. A recent M5.1 earthquake near Anza, CA produced a quality set of observations showing this
behavior (Figure 7). Interestingly, the shallow transducers show increases in pore pressure during the
strongest shaking, while the deeper transducer seems to show an opposite effect. It is expected that
these observations will be used for many years to come as simulation techniques are tested and new
physics based models are proposed to model this behavior.
Figure 7. 150 seconds of surface ground acceleration and sub-surface pore pressure observations
from the 2005 M5.1 Anza event recorded at GVDA
Figure 8. The NEES WLA facility just after construction was completed in 2004.
241
Figure 9. The WLA instrumentation and T-Rex shaker location during testing in 2005.
The active shaking from the NEES@UTA shaker only lasts for approximately 10 seconds, however
the pore pressure signals that are generated by the active source last for minutes. Pore pressures at the
two transducers located closest to the shaker (P7 and P8 in Figure 10) show an immediate increase in
pore pressure and slow decay back to the pre-shake level that takes more than 20 minutes. Another
interesting observation is that just following the initial pulse, the deeper of the two closest transducers
(P8) also shows another slight pressure increase, which can be explained by a pressure wave generated
at the source and spreading out and propagating through the sand layer as it dissipates. All of the
transducers that are located at or near the top of the sand layer at the site (see Youd et al., 2004, 2007
for details of the soil layers) show an impulsive initial arrival, including the two located further from
the shaker (P4 and P1), with the amplitude of the pulse decreasing with both lateral and vertical
distance from the source. The time histories shown in Figure 10 are sorted by distance from the shaker
source with the top trace being the closest and bottom trace the furthest. Pore pressure continues to rise
for as much as three minutes after the shaking has stopped at the deeper and further transducers. Even
242
at 10 minutes after the source has stopped the pore pressures have still not dissipated back to the preshake level.
Figure 10. The WLA instrumentation and T-Rex shaker location during testing in 2005.
These active source observations of pore pressure generation and slow dissipation are also seen when
earthquakes shake the site. The largest ground motions observed to data at the WLA site are from a
local magnitude 5.1 event located approximately 10 km from the site. In addition to the M5.1 event,
numerous M3 and M4 level earthquakes also generated very interesting observations at the site. The
largest ground accelerations from this swarm of events was only about 10% g, however even these
modest levels of shaking, the pore pressure response can clearly be seen in the observations. The
observations from the eight pore pressure transducers for a 1-hour period during this swarm of
earthquakes is plotted in Figure 11 from shallowest to deepest (top to bottom). Similar to the active
source testing, all of the transducers show a clear response to the earthquake activity.
In the earthquake swarm observations, the deeper transducers have a larger dynamic response to the
passage of the body waves from the events. All transducers show slight pore pressure increase and
slow recovery back to the pre-swarm level. The deeper transducers also have this increased pore
pressure, but its harder to see due to their larger dynamic response. The pore pressure increase during
the swarm is approximately 0.2-0.3 kPa, while the dynamic response of the deeper transducers is
almost an order of magnitude larger, at approximately 3-5 kPa peak to peak (Figure 11).
243
P4 - LQ1 2.7m
M4.4
M4.6
P1 - LQ2 2.9m
P7 - LQ3 3.4m
Shallow Pore Pressure Increase
and Slow Recovery
P3 - LQ4 3.7m
P4 - LQ5 4.4m
P8 - LQ6 4.4m
P2 - LQ7 6.4m
P5 - LQ8 6.4m
Figure 11. The WLA liquefaction array. Sixty seconds of data showing both dynamic response of
the pore pressure sensors and static pressure increase, with slow dissipation when excited by the
2005 Obsidian Buttes earthquake swarm.
In addition to the active source and earthquake monitoring at the WLA site, the benchmarks and
inclinometer casings are re-surveyed approximately once per year to obtain a baseline for lateral
displacements. The free face of the Alamo river bank located just meters from some of the
instrumentation, benchmarks, and casings should provide an excellent source for lateral spread activity
in the next large earthquake.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In order to maintain a vital monitoring and research program at instrumented geotechnical sites, often
many different funding agencies must be involved, and a very broad scope of work must be
envisioned. Coordination and collaboration among seismologists, geotechnical and structural
engineers to establish instrumented sites that serve the engineering and scientific goals of each of these
disciplines represents the current trend for increasing the number of these facilities. It would be useful
to also get the practitioners involved, in both defining the scientific and engineering goals for
instrumented sites, and also to get instrumentation planning as part of the design phase for new
structures.
At present there is a lack of coordination among the various responsible organizations, both at the
domestic level in the United States as well as internationally, when it comes to the operations and
dissemination of data from instrumented geotechnical array sites worldwide. The maintenance and
operations of the existing instrumented geotechnical site resources and dissemination of their data
should be considered a high priority. There is a need for an umbrella organization or working group
244
with representatives from both the national and international agencies with monitoring programs to
facilitate the coordination and collaboration between these agencies.
The operations and maintenance of instrumented geotechnical sites, especially in regions of relatively
low seismicity, is often a difficult task for the responsible agency or organizations. The lack of
recordings of significant events over long time periods can make the funding agencies question the
benefit of maintaining these resources. An international organization that regularly re-evaluates the
scientific and engineering needs in conjunction with the current inventory of instrumented sites could
provide justification needed for agencies to obtain funding for maintaining these facilities.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Author would like to acknowledge the many agencies and individuals who have provided
information regarding the operational status of existing GSMA resources, both in the United States
and Internationally. The dedication and patience of the organizations that maintain these array sites
that serve the geotechnical earthquake engineering and seismological communities is very much
appreciated. The author would also like to acknowledge the many funding agencies and collaborators
that have been involved with GSMA monitoring at the University of California, Santa Barbara over
the last two decades. While many have come and gone, the longevity of these facilities would not have
been possible without them. These include the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the U.S.
Geological Survey, the U.S. National Science Foundation, the French Commissariat lEnergie
Atomic, the Electrical Power Research Institute, Agbabian Associates, Kinemetrics Inc., the California
Department of Transportation, Kajima Corporation of Japan, and the Nuclear Power Engineering
Corporation of Japan. The GVDA and WLA sites are currently operated under contract to the National
Science Foundation as part of the George E. Brown Jr., Network for Earthquake engineering
Simulation, award number CMS-0402490. Without the support and cooperation of the Lake Hemet
Municipal Water District and the California Department of Fish and Game, the GSMA monitoring at
the GVDA and WLA sites would not be possible.
REFERENCES
Archuleta, R. J., S. H. Seale, P. V. Sangas, L. M. Baker, and S. T. Swain (1992). Garner Valley
downhole array of accelerometers: instrumentation and preliminary data analysis, Bull. Seism. Soc.
Am., 82, 1592-1621 (Correction, Bull. Seism. Soc. Am., 83, 2039).
Archuleta, R. J. and J. H. Steidl (1998). ESG studies in the United States: Results from borehole
arrays, The Effects of Surface Geology on Seismic Motion, Irikura, Kudo, Okada, and Sasatani
(eds), Balkema, Rotterdam, v 1, p.3-14.
Assimaki, D. and J. H. Steidl (2007). Inverse analysis of weak and strong motion borehole array data
from the M w7.0 Sanriku-Minami earthquake, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 27, p.
73-92.
Bonilla, L. F., J. H. Steidl, J-C. Gariel, and R. J. Archuleta (2002). Borehole response studies at the
Garner Valley downhole array, southern California, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of
America, 92, p. 3165-3179.
Steidl, J. H., A. G. Tumarkin, and R. J. Archuleta (1996). What is a reference site? Bulletin of the
Seismological Society of America, 86, pp.1733-1748
Tsuda, K., and J. H. Steidl (2006). Nonlinear site response from the 2003 and 2005 Miyagi-Oki
earthquakes, Earth, Planets, and Space, 58, 1593-1597.
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liquefaction sites, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 24, Issues 9-10, p 639-646.
Youd, T.L., J. H. Steidl, and R. A. Steller (2007), Instrumentation of the Wildlife Liquefaction
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4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W1-1001
INTRODUCTION
Recent rapid advances in technology have made it economically possible to operate dense
seismograph arrays in areas of soft soil where both earthquake-related damage, and the amplitude and
duration of earthquake shaking are known to be abnormally great, or are suspected to be abnormally
great. Various agencies have taken advantage of these advances, and have installed seismograph arrays
of various types in such soft areas. The arrays have varied in the type of instrumentation used, the
inter-station distance, and the duration of the field deployment. Both surface arrays and threedimensional arrays have been implemented, some being strictly of a temporary nature, and some being
more permanent. A summary of array locations and properties was produced by Zerva et al (2004).
Since the time of that summary other arrays have been implemented, notably the Cavola array
(Bordoni et al, 2006) in Italy.
The majority of the arrays discussed by Zerva et al (2004) do not fall within the compass of the
densely instrumented small soft basins that this paper will treat. Examples of the sort of experiment
which this paper will not treat are the Roma array in Mexico City (only three locations, and not within
a confined basin), the Grenoble array (a small part of a large basin) and the San Jose array in the
United States (wide sensor spacing, varying site conditions across the basin).
1
Senior Scientist, Hazards Group, GNS Science, Lower Hutt, New Zealand, Email:
Bill.Stephenson@gns.cri.nz
246
The use of the term small soft basins in the title of this paper is an attempt to restrict the scope of the
paper to situations where abrupt discontinuities in material properties in both the lateral and vertical
sense define a structure in which energy may be trapped. Small is intended to describe areas of less
than a few hundred metres diameter, and soft is intended to describe shear wave velocities of less
than a few hundred metres per second.
The prime purpose of this paper is to disseminate information about three seismometer arrays that
have been operated on small soft basins in New Zealand, and to encourage further use of the seismic
data that they have generated. The paper will also describe the analyses applied to the New Zealand
data. The approach to these analyses was conditioned by early observations that suggested that the
type behaviour to look for would be the coherent response at a single frequency of a limited area of
ground.
New Zealand workers have had a long involvement with small arrays, improving their performance as
better instrumentation became available and as experience was accumulated. Stephenson (1974)
described an early initiative set up in the Hutt Valley in which a trigger system sensing rock motion
sent a radio signal to frequency modulated tape recorders, commanding them to record the output of
one-second geophones. This system was short-lived because subsequent to preliminary recordings of
earthquakes being made, the minicomputer used to digitise the recordings became wholly dedicated to
another task and was hence unavailable. At the same time funding to expand the system was diverted
to other projects. Nevertheless this first array gave useful insights, stimulating thoughts that a northsouth rock signal could give rise to an east-west resonant soil response. This was formalised by
Stephenson (1972) with the suggestion that an appropriate impulse response for the soil would consist
of a sequence of two-by-two matrices, thus foreshadowing the current use of matrix transfer functions
(Benites, pers. comm.)
A second attempted array operation carried out at Pukehou in New Zealands North Island
(Stephenson & Barker, 1991) was of limited value because strong motion accelerographs were used,
with a consequent limitation on the size of useful earthquake. As with the earlier array the system was
triggered by a rock-derived radio command signal. Although the Pukehou array was in an area of high
seismic activity it was also in a flood-prone region, so that only two stations were operational (the
others having been withdrawn in response to rising water) when useable ground motion eventually
transpired. The single useable earthquake was recorded at one soil station and one rock station and it
provided a clear example of a directional resonance. With modern instrumentation and in the
absence of flooding the Pukehou site would be an ideal location because it is a small-scale limestone
basin filled with peat, thus being bounded on all sides and having a high impedance contrast. The two
peat layers had shear-wave velocities of 17 m/s and 34 m/s, while the limestone shear-wave velocity
probably was in excess of 1000 m/s and possibly was as much as 2000 m/s. The landowner has
expressed reluctance to allow further work because it would interfere with a cash crop.
Three subsequent arrays on other basins in New Zealand all yielded useful data. In each of these three
cases a basin with a strong valley-wide resonance was sought, but the Alfredton array (Stephenson,
1996) proved non-resonant and as a consequence the Parkway array (Stephenson, 2000) was
implemented. A casual inspection of initial seismograms from Parkway and their spectra suggested
that valley-wide resonance was absent, and planning therefore started for the Wainuiomata array
(Stephenson et al., 2002). The Wainuiomata valley was found to consist of several sub-systems, each
showing valley-wide resonance. In the meantime a more sophisticated analysis of Parkway data
suggested that valley-wide resonance was present, and that this justified a re-appraisal of the Parkway
seismograms. The Parkway array data has proven extraordinarily rich.
The locations and responses of these three arrays are discussed more fully in paper 1726 of this
conference. The behaviour of each basin was distinct, and was caused by details in the manner in
which shear wave velocity varied with depth. If conventional site evaluation criteria had been applied,
the three basins would have been deemed equivalent, having similar depths and similar shear wave
velocities at the surface.
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10
(c) Wainuiomata
W03
(a) Alfredton
A02
5
20
4
6
8
Frequency (Hz)
10
15
(b) Parkway
P06
10
10
4
6
8
Frequency (Hz)
10
4
6
8
Frequency (Hz)
10
Figure 1. Mean values of Standard Spectral Ratio for a site near the centre of each basin array.
The dashed lines specify an SSR of 1 and the vertical scales are the same for each plot.
Alfredton basin amplifies earthquake shaking to a small extent, over a broad range of frequencies. This
is consistent with the shear wave velocities of the soil being low, but becoming progressively higher
with depth until an eventual low contrast with bedrock velocity occurs.
Parkway basin amplifies earthquake shaking in a complex resonant fashion, with shaking at several
frequencies being amplified to various extents. The frequencies being amplified are broadly consistent
with what is known about the shear wave velocity profile.
Each Wainuiomata sub-basin amplifies earthquake shaking in a resonant fashion, with extreme
amplifications at around 1 Hz. At these frequencies the shaking is greatly prolonged. At frequencies
above 7 Hz, shaking is attenuated, with the layer of soft soil functioning as a low pass filter. The
surface layer of soft soil, having an abrupt impedance contrast with deeper material is responsible for
this behaviour.
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249
beforehand, and for the costs of additional work to be difficult to obtain. This was the case for these
projects, and only a special grant enabled characterisation at Parkway below the gravel layer. It would
be wise when pricing future arrays, to assume an absolute worst-case scenario when planning
geotechnical aspects.
A strength of all three New Zealand array deployments was that their planning included four rock
stations with the intent that the incoming wavefield would be adequately characterised. Yu and Haines
(2003) reported that the use of the average motion from four rock sites provided a usefully improved
reference signal.
DATA ANALYSIS
To date, approaches to the analysis of dense array data recorded by seismographs on soft basins have
mainly used techniques adapted from those used for arrays installed at homogeneous sites, where
simple phases, well separated in time, are expected. These analyses are often carried out within a
wavenumber space and address horizontal propagation. It is usually assumed that Love waves will be
associated with solely horizontal motion, Rayleigh waves with a preponderance of vertical motion,
and bulk waves with both vertical and horizontal motion. These assumptions may be true for wave
motion in a halfspace, but they are not borne out for a layered site in a horizontally-restricted context.
The response of a restricted volume of soil, often with its extent being greater than its depth, can be
very complex. Monochromatic waves at different frequencies, with different polarisations, and
travelling in different directions, will be superposed. The task of unravelling these contributions has
been relatively neglected, but the start that has been made at Parkway by filtering followed by a
sequence of component rotation and computation of wavenumber spectra, shows what can be done.
Summarising the procedures used at Parkway, Fig 2 shows the result of summing Parkway spectra
over all soil-based stations and all earthquakes. The peaks at 1.58 Hz and 1.68 Hz show the
importance of these frequencies, and subsequent attention was focussed on 1.58 Hz. A long duration
earthquake was then chosen so that meaningful narrow band filtering could be used.
Figure 2. Summed normalised spectra of all horizontal seismograms at Parkway, including both
components, for all soil sites and all earthquakes. There are site-wide responses at 1.58 Hz, 1.68
Hz and 2.1 Hz.
For this long duration earthquake, Figs 3a and 3b show wavenumber spectra for north components and
for vertical components, for motion between 1.53 Hz and 1.63 Hz. It is noteworthy that the implied
propagation for the north component is neither along nor orthogonal to, the north axis. Furthermore
250
the velocities for the vertical components and for the north components bear no relationship to each
other.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. Wavenumber spectra at Parkway for a long-duration earthquake. (a) This does not
correspond to either a transverse or a longitudinal wave. (b) Vertical components of soil stations
at 1.58 Hz. This bears no relationship to part (a).
However when the coordinate system is rotated to 30 and 120 (the axes natural to the basin), the
result is much more reasonable as shown in Fig 4a and Fig 4b. These figures show a transverse wave
travelling down valley at 1.3 km/s, and a longitudinal wave travelling down valley at 2.7 km/s. The
wavenumber spectrum of the vertical motion, however, does not correspond to the longitudinal wave
(imagined to be a Rayleigh wave).
(a)
(b)
251
particle motion is involved as indicated by Fig 5. This is further elaborated in paper 1726 of this
conference, and in Stephenson (2007).
Figure 5. Freeze-frame from a movie of postulated transverse wave, showing how the constraint
of the valley wall enforces some vertical motion. This cross-sectional view illustrates the
sloshing nature of the wave.
The most recent analysis technique applied to Parkway data used real-time movies of particle motion
as shown by Stephenson (2007). It clearly shows the nature of the propagating waves and also points
to other patterns of ground motion.
MODEL VERIFICATION
Workers who devote their efforts to understanding site response tend to fall into one of the two broad
camps of data analysis and of modelling, although there may sometimes be overlaps. Both approaches
are valid provided that the ultimate goal is attaining a level of understanding which allows future site
response to be predicted accurately, independent of the source earthquake. This understanding could
be considered complete when (given the incident wavefield) every nuance of every component, at
every station, for every earthquake, was reproduced in the modelling. At the moment this is not so. It
is common to correctly predict frequencies, but much harder to correctly predict durations.
The different analytical techniques described in the previous section all have a part to play in model
verification. The situation may be likened to viewing a scene through various colours of glass, with
each technique giving emphasis to a different aspect of ground motion. Only when a given model
agrees with the data as seen from all these viewpoints should it be considered as being accurate.
INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION
The planning, funding and implementation of a temporary seismograph array of more than 20
recorders is a non-trivial task. Experience in New Zealand suggests that a five year gap between the
decision to run a dense seismograph array, and the final availability of both ground motion and
geotechnical data, is normal. This time includes initial data reduction plus geotechnical and
geophysical studies. The result is typically gigabytes of data which require considerable time and
effort to interpret.
It is easy to understand the perspective of a researcher who has invested five years of effort in
acquiring a great deal of data and who wants to reap some eventual rewards from analysing it, without
being forestalled by somebody who has not been involved in the project. At the same time it is easy to
understand the perspective of a funder who might take the point of view that public money should
result in publicly available data. The funder could correctly assert that the full value of data is only
achieved when it is thoroughly analysed from multiple points of view. Perhaps one answer lies in
making data freely available on condition that the original team members are sufficiently involved in
each use of the data that they become co-authors. This approach has certainly worked in the case of
252
the Parkway array data, and it has the advantage that a people who have a close knowledge of the site
can prevent mistakes being made. It is for instance very easy from the other side of the world to insert
the wrong valley in a diagram. Funding for travel should be incorporated in collaborative work both to
build a true team and to enable non-local workers to get a hands-on feel for the local situation.
Another way of ensuring that the people who did the work got some credit would be to establish a
foundation paper for each dataset listing all contributors as authors, and to provide copies of the data
only on the understanding that the foundation paper be cited in all resultant publications.
Finally, the possibility of totally international projects should be considered. This would involve
international funding and international operation as well as international data sharing. That would
require a considerable organisational effort and would be subject to issues of parochialism.
LESSONS LEARNED
Dense temporary arrays of velocity seismographs can provide valuable insights into the responses of
small basins filled with soft soil. In the short deployment times of a few weeks the earthquakes
recorded by the New Zealand arrays were seldom felt none for the Alfredton array, one for the
Parkway array and one for the Wainuiomata array. Therefore the recordings only apply to low
amplitude shaking, where the soil is expected to behave in a linear manner. However an understanding
of linear response is a prerequisite to a full understanding.
As technology has improved it has become more feasible to record ground motion continuously. At
the times that the three New Zealand arrays of this paper were set up however, data storage was at a
premium, and it became necessary to allow each recorder to operate autonomously, using preset
criteria to determine whether a given data stream was worth recording. We used the STA/LTA method
(ratio of short term average to long term average), with an overarching amplitude criterion in case of
strong shaking of an emergent nature. This was because during the earlier phases of recording at
Alfredton it was found that the signal on soft soil caused by a distant earthquake often rises slowly,
and the STA/LTA approach can fail. Our approach today would be to record everything, to examine
the recordings on a daily basis, and to reject non-earthquake data quite early on.
The establishment and operation of the Alfredton array, together with later recordings of
microtremors, confirmed that microtremor recordings can be used to distinguish between resonant and
non-resonant basins. Had microtremors been recorded and analysed prior to the Alfredton project, that
array would not have been installed because a valley-wide response was being sought. In the case of
the Parkway and Wainuiomata arrays, microtremor recording provided insights that both these areas
would undergo valley-wide response. Microtremors played an important role in choosing these areas
in preference to other areas simultaneously under consideration.
In terms of the analytical techniques employed, the varied inter-station spacings employed for the
Parkway array were preferable to the regular grid of the Alfredton array or the large inter-station
spacings of the Wainuiomata array. When a selection of inter-station spacings is used, spatial aliasing
is avoided while at the same time both high and low wave speeds can be accommodated. In the case of
studying the behaviour of coherency with distance a spread of inter-station distances enables a better
spread of data points, better enabling relevant curves to be plotted. In respect of array layout, Parkway
was superior to both Alfredton and Wainuiomata.
At Parkway four stations on the rock surrounding the basin were used. The same was not possible in
Wainuiomata because one site owner withdrew consent at short notice a few days after recording had
started. Four stations allowed better averaging of the rock signal, and potentially can be used to
reconstruct the fronts of incident plane waves.
253
Seismic CPT proved an invaluable tool for characterising the basins, especially when the velocity
inversion that is present at Parkway is considered. It was our intent for each basin to carry out a very
few SCPT probes, and then to correlate any layers identified by CPT with known velocities. At
Alfredton this failed because of the inhomogeneity of the sediments; at Parkway it failed because CPT
probes were unable to penetrate a hard layer; and at Wainuiomata severe problems were encountered
with groundwater because a deep aquifer carried water at high pressure and penetrometry to this depth
resulted in flooding in urban parks, with attendant problems of sealing a high pressure leak.
The computation of spectra in the wavenumber domain, combined with frequency filtering and
component rotation allowed complex propagation phenomena to be untangled, and simplex
optimisation allowed vertical motion at Parkway to be partitioned between two waves. When this
approach failed at one frequency, displaying the motion as a real-time movie was very instructive,
showing the reality (but insignificance) of torsional types of response.
Much has been learned from studies of the three basins from the perspectives of both understanding
basin response, and instrumenting basins. Nevertheless much still remains to be gained from further
studies. At Alfredton the behaviour of coherency as a function of frequency and station separation
remains unstudied, and a simple technique to predict the lack of valley-wide response needs to be
devised. At Parkway a valley-wide resonant response at 2.05 Hz remains unexplained. For
Wainuiomata there still exists a possibility of valley-wide response for the whole valley system
including sub-basins. Summing normalised spectra over all soil sites and all earthquakes as
accomplished for Parkway (Stephenson & Chvez-Garca, 1998) could be a useful way of
investigating this.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is difficult to name all the individuals who have influenced the writing of this paper. Many staff at
GNS Science, both technicians and scientists, have made the paper possible, and they are hereby
thanked. Likewise my overseas colleagues have provided endless ideas and guidance and they are
thanked. It is appropriate however to specifically thank Carolyn Hume who drafted the diagrams, and
Nick Perrin and Rafael Benites who critically appraised the text.
REFERENCES
Bordoni P, Cara F, Cercato M, Di Giulio G, Haines AJ, Milana G, A. Rovelli A, Ruso S. The use of a
very dense seismic array to characterize the Cavola (northern Italy) active landslide body. Poster
44, Third ESG International Symposium, August 2006.
Kuroiwa, J Reduccin de desastres: viviendo en armona con la naturaleza. Ediciones del PNUD,
Per, Lima, January 2002.
Liao S, Zerva A and Stephenson WR "Seismic spatial coherency at a site with irregular subsurface
topography Proceedings, ASCE Conference New Peaks in Geotechnics, Denver, Colorado,
February, 2007.
Stephenson, WR An experimental study of normal modes of vibration of saturated alluvium. In:
Proceedings : Symposium on Earthquake Engineering, 5th, Roorkee, India, Nov. 9-11. 119-126,
1974.
Stephenson, WR Microzoning for design in Structural design for earthquakes University of
Auckland, New Zealand, August 1972.
Stephenson, WR Basin response to earthquakes : the Alfredton soft soil site. Institute of Geological
& Nuclear Sciences science report 96/03. Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences Lower Hutt,
New Zealand, 1996.
Stephenson, WR The dominant resonance response of Parkway Basin. In: 12WCEE 2000 : 12th
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Upper Hutt, NZ: New Zealand Society for
Earthquake Engineering. Proceedings of the World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 2000.
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Stephenson, WR Guided Love- and Rayleigh-waves in Parkway Valley, Wainuiomata, N.Z. Bulletin
of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 35(4), 255-265, 2002.
Stephenson, WR "Visualisation of Resonant Basin Response at the Parkway Array, New Zealand" Soil
Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 27(5), 487-496, 2007.
Stephenson, WR and Barker, PR Results from the Pukehou array. In: Pacific Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Auckland, New Zealand, 20-23 November 1991, Proceedings, Volume 3.
229-238 Wellington: New Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineering. 1991.
Stephenson, WR, Barker, PR, and Yu, J. The Wainuiomata "local effects" seismograph network.
Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 35(4) 243-254, 2002.
Stephenson, WR, and Chvez-Garca, FJ Preliminary assessment of resonant phenomena recorded by
the Parkway Network. Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences science report 98/18 Institute of
Geological & Nuclear Sciences Lower Hutt: New Zealand 1998.
Yu, J and Haines, AJ The choice of reference sites for seismic ground motion amplification analyses:
case study at Parkway, New Zealand. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 93(2):
713-723, 2003.
Zerva, A, Piasecki, M, Liao, S and Yargici, V. Spatial (ground surface) array data: observations and
needs. http://www.cosmos-eq.org/Projects/GSMA/Paper/3.2_Zerva_et_al.pdf. 2004
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4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W1-1003
INTRODUCTION
Due to vast and serious damage to a great number of civil engineering structures during the 1995
Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake (i.e., the 1995 Kobe Earthquake), the seismic design codes for RC and
steel structures in Japan were revised substantially so that the structures can survive such high level
seismic load (i.e., the so-called level II design seismic load). A great number of embankments,
retaining walls (RWs) and bridge abutments with backfill for railways, highways and residential areas
were seriously damaged during not only the 1995 Kobe Earthquake (Fig. 1), but also many other
major earthquakes in Japan, including the 2004 Niigata-ken Chuestu and 2007 Noto Hanto
Earthquakes. After the 1995 Kobe Earthquake, the seismic design codes for new construction of soil
structures have also been revised. However, the revision was generally not as substantial and sufficient
as those for RC and steel structures. Correspondingly, soil structures that failed by earthquakes have
been usually reconstructed to those of original structural types, although it is possible that the
reconstructed soil structures would not survive a similar level of seismic load by which the concerned
soil structures collapsed. It seems that this situation reflects such a conventional design concept that
collapse of soil structures should be accepted for the following reasons. Firstly, it is most important to
as soon as possible recover the original function of failed soil structures even if reconstructed soil
structures may not have the same level of structural stability as the original. Secondly, the
1
256
reconstruction of failed soil structures to those having a seismic stability higher than the original level,
preferably to the level withstanding level II design seismic load could be overly costly. Thirdly, as the
number of existing important soil structures is so large, it is financially not feasible to rehabilitate all
of them to have sufficiently high seismic stability. It is also the case with important soil structures that
are to be newly constructed. Lastly, it is generally much easier and faster to reconstruct failed soil
structures when compared with the case of RC and steel structures and, so, soil structures could be
allowed to fail or collapse.
a)
b)
Figure 1. a) Gravity type RW without a pile foundation (Ishiyagawa, Hanshin Railway); and b)
leaning type unreinforced concrete RW without a pile foundation (Sumiyoshi, JR West) that
collapsed during the 1995 Kobe Earthquake (Tatsuoka et al., 1997).
Nowadays, however, these rationales listed above are not relevant with many soil structures that are to
be constructed as important infrastructures. Firstly, with line structures, such as highways and
railways, collapse of soil structures at a limited number of places results in a long closure of the whole
system. Secondly, a great number of huge soil structures, such as massive high embankment, have
been constructed for residential and industrial areas, railways, highways and so on by means of
modern construction machines, which was not feasible previously. It is usually highly time-consuming
and costly to reconstruct these soil structures if they collapse. Thirdly, the reconstruction of damaged
and failed conventional type soil structures (i.e., embankments with gentle slopes and gravity- or
cantilever-type RC soil RWs) to geosynthetic-reinforced steepened slopes or GRS soil retaining walls
could be much more cost-effective with a higher seismic stability than reconstruction to the original
structural types. The high cost-effectiveness of GRS soil structures in spite of increased structural
stability results from smaller earthwork, a higher constructability under restricted conditions (e.g., in a
narrow space, on a steep slope or at a remote place) and a higher construction speed. Moreover, it
becomes easier to arrange a drainage system in geosynthetic-reinforced backfill than in conventional
type soil structures. For the same reasons, the geosynthetic-reinforced soil technology is also useful to
newly construct soil structures in many cases. Therefore, there is no strong reason to reconstruct failed
conventional type soil structures to those of the original structure types in usual cases.
In this report, firstly the geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining wall (GRS-RW) technology that is now
becoming popular is described. Then, several case histories in which conventional embankments and
soil RWs that fully collapsed by seismic loads were reconstructed to geosynthetic-reinforced
steepened slopes and GRS-RWs having FHR facing are reported. Finally, several new type bridge
abutments taking advantages of the geosynthetic-reinforced soil technology are introduced.
257
sufficient deformation of the completed geosynthetic-reinforced backfill and the supporting ground
has taken place, a lightly steel-reinforced concrete full-height rigid (FHR) facing is constructed by
casting-in-place concrete directly on the wrapped-around wall face ensuring a strong connection
between the facing and the reinforced backfill. The advantages of the staged construction method are:
1) the damage to the connection between the reinforcement and the facing due to in- and postconstruction deformation of the backfill and supporting ground can be avoided, which makes possible
the construction of GRS RWs on compressive subsoil of thick clayey soil on the premise that the
stability of wall can be ensured; 2) the backfill immediately back of the wall face can be compacted
dense with better mobilization of reinforcement tensile force; and 3) the alignment of completed wall
face becomes easy. The second feature is the use of a polymer geogrid with cohesionless soil to ensure
a good interlocking with the backfill and a composite of non-woven and woven geotextiles with highwater content cohesive soils to facilitate both drainage and tensile reinforcement of the backfill so that
low-quality on-site soil can be used as the backfill, if necessary. The third feature is the use of
relatively short reinforcement, which becomes possible by using FHR facing connected to the
reinforcement.
Drain hole
Gravel gabion
Geosynthetic
4) Second layer
5) Completion of
6) Casting-in-place
RC facing
a) wrapped-around wall
b)
Figure 2. a) Staged construction of GRS RW with FHR facing; and b) a typical wall at Nagoya.
Earth
pressure
Earth
pressure
Reinforcement
Stress concentration
a)
Needs for
a massive or strong
wall structure; and
a pile foundation
b)
Backfill
Figure 3. Mechanisms of: a) cantilever RW; and b) GRS RW with FHR facing.
Roles of full-height rigid facing
The facing structure of a conventional type RW is a cantilever structure that resists against the active
earth pressure, PA, from the unreinforced backfill activated on the facing by reaction force at the base
of the facing (Fig. 3a). Therefore, large internal moment and shear force are activated inside the facing
while large overturning moment and sliding force develop at the base of the facing. With reinforced
soil RWs, on the other hand, the backfill is retained by the tensile force in the reinforcement. The
conventional explanation of the function of the facing, which is actually misleading, is that, because of
tensile-reinforcement effects, only very small earth pressure is activated on the back of the facing,
accordingly, only a light and flexible facing that can prevent the backfill soil from spilling out is
sufficient. However, if the earth pressure activated on the back of the facing is very small, the tensile
force at the connection between the reinforcement and the back of the facing becomes very small (Fig.
258
4a) and therefore the soil retaining capability of the reinforcement is largely reduced (Tatsuoka, 1992).
That is, the maximum available tensile force, T max, in the reinforcement is obtained by Eq. 1 (Fig. 4c):
Tmax= Minimum of [TR, T anchor, Tretain + TWmax]
(1)
where TR= tensile rupture strength of each reinforcement layer; Tanchor= anchorage capacity, which is
approximately proportional to the anchorage length, La; Tretain= available retaining strength, which is
approximately proportional to the retaining length, L r; and, TWmax= available tensile force at the
connection between the reinforcement and the back of the facing, which increases with an increase in
the earth pressure activated on the back of the facing and with an increase in the connection strength.
When T Wmax decreases to zero, the distribution of the reinforcement tensile force, T, becomes one as
those presented in Fig. 4a. In this case, at lower levels in the wall, Tmax cannot become large enough.
That is, low connection force results in low tensile force in the reinforcement, which means low lateral
confining pressure in the active zone. Then, the active zone becomes more deformable and less stable,
particularly when the backfill is a cohesionless soil. On the other hand, large TWmax results in large Tmax
(i.e., Fig. 4b). With this distribution pattern, the active zone is effectively confined without exhibiting
large strains, and therefore, large bond stresses are not mobilized at the surface of the reinforcement.
Consequently, the reinforcement tensile force, T, becomes rather constant in the active zone. When the
reinforcement layers are connected to a FHR facing, large earth pressure, which is similar to the active
earth pressure in the unreinforced backfill or even higher earth pressure, can be activated on the back
of the facing (Fig. 4b), resulting into larger connection force and higher reinforcement force. Then, the
confining pressure in the active zone is kept high, which results in higher stiffness and small
deformation as well as higher strength and stability of the active zone (i.e., preferred stable
conditions). The FHR facing for a GRS-RW behaves like a continuous beam with a large number of
supports with a small span (Fig. 4b). Then, even with high earth pressure activated on the back of the
facing, only small force is activated inside the facing, resulting in a simple facing structure, and
insignificant overturning moment and lateral force activated at the base of the facing, resulting in no
need for a pile foundation in usual cases.
Active
zone
Active
zone
Reinforcement
Connected
a)
b)
c)
Figure 4. Distributions of tensile force in the reinforcement; a) when no facing is used or when
the facing and reinforcement are not connected; and b) when a rigid facing and reinforcement
are connected; and c) available maximum tensile force in the reinforcement.
In summary, the GRS RW system described in Fig. 2 is much more stable while the facing structure
and foundation structure are much simpler than the conventional type RWs, which results in lower
construction cost, a higher construction speed and the use of lighter construction machines. Despite the
above, the wall performance can be equivalent to, or even better than, conventional type RWs.
Some case histories
The elevated transportation structures in Japan have gradually changed from embankment having a
gentle slope towards embankments supported with conventional type RWs (initially masonry RWs,
then RC cantilever RWs with a pile foundation) and RC frame structures for higher ones (Fig. 5a).
About 35 years ago, the Terre Armee RW technique was introduced to construct railway and highway
RWs and had dominated in the permanent reinforced-soil RW market in Japan. More recently, the
GRS RW system described in Fig. 2 was introduced and now has become one of the standardized RW
259
technologies for railways in Japan while becoming popular also in other fields. Today, the use of the
Terre Armee RWs for railways has declined to nearly zero. Because of a higher cost-effectiveness and
a sufficiently high stability and low deformability, the GRS-RW system (Fig. 2) is routinely adopted
instead of conventional RC RWs and the Terre Armee RWs. By the end of 2006, GRS RWs (Fig. 2)
were constructed at 518 sites with a total wall length more than 80 km (Fig. 6). The stability of GRSRW systems has been validated by excellent post-construction performance of the constructed walls. It
should be emphasized that any problematic case, for example with too large wall deformation, has not
been reported.
Gentle slope
could be unstable;
could be too deformable;
and
occupies too large space.
(basically
with piles)
Higher cost-effectiveness
Sufficiently stable and stiff
Some cases
(basically no piles)
a)
b)
Figure 5. a) History of elevated railway and highway structures in Japan; and b) a typical GRS
RW in Nagoya, presented in Fig. 2b (Tatsuoka et al., 1997).
Wall length km
80
23
11
53
60
40
20
a)
140
96
82
97
2004
NiigatakenChuetsu
Earthquake
Total
Annual
16
80 km
b)
1990
1995
2000
2005
Figure 6. a) Locations of GRS RWs with FHR facing constructed by the staged construction
procedure (as of June 2006); and b) annual and total constructed wall length.
a)
b)
Figure 7. GRS RW with a FHR facing for railway at Tanata; a) immediately after
construction; and b) one week after the earthquake (Tatsuoka et al., 1997).
One of the important case histories with respect to the seismic stability of GRS RW with FHR facing
is the one at Tanata site that survived the 1995 Kobe Earthquake (Fig. 7). The damage to the Tanata
GRS RW was substantially less serious when compared to many conventional types of soil RWs
including those described in Fig. 1. The Tanata wall was completed in February 1992 on the southern
260
slope of an existing embankment for the JR Kobe Line to increase the number of railway tracks from
four to five. The total length of the wall is 305 m and the greatest height is 6.2 m. The surface layer in
the subsoil supporting the wall consists of relatively stiff terrace soils. The backfill soil is basically a
cohesionless soil with a small amount of fines. The reinforcement is a geogrid made of PVA
(polyvinyl alcohol) coated with soft PVC (polyvinyl chloride) for protection, having a nearly
rectangular cross section of 2 mm by 1 mm and an aperture size of 20 mm with a nominal tensile
rupture strength TR = 30.4 kN/m. The wall deformed to a limited extent and moved slightly. The
largest outward displacement occurred at the crest of the wall at the location in contact with a RC box
culvert structure crossing the railway embankment. The outward lateral displacement was 26 cm and
10 cm at the crest of the wall and at ground level. Despite the above, the performance of the GRS-RW
was judged to be very satisfactory because of the following facts. Firstly, the peak ground horizontal
acceleration at the site was estimated to be more than 700 gals (i.e., 700 cm/sec2; or 0.7 g, where g is
the gravitational acceleration). This is consistent with a high collapse rate of wooden houses at the site
(Fig. 7b). Many of the collapsed houses were relatively new, constructed less than approximately ten
years before. Secondly, on the opposite side along the railway of the RC box structure, a RC retaining
wall with a maximum height of approximately 5.4 m had been constructed at the same time as the
GRS-RW. This wall is supported by a row of bored piles despite the similar subsoil conditions as the
GRS-RW. Therefore, the construction cost per wall length of the RC retaining wall was approximately
double to triple of that of the GRS-RW. Despite these differences, the RC retaining wall displaced
similarity to the GRS-RW: i.e. at the interface with the RC box structure, the outward lateral
displacement of the retaining wall was 21.5 cm at the top and 10 cm at ground level. Thirdly, the
length of geogrid reinforcement used in GRS-RWs with a FHR facing is generally much shorter than
that for most metal strip-reinforced soil retaining walls and other types of GRS retaining walls with a
deformable facing. For conservatism, most of the GRS-RWs with FHR facing that have been
constructed to date have several longer reinforcement layers at higher levels of the wall, as typically
shown in Fig. 5b. With the Tanata wall, the length of all reinforcement layers was truncated to
approximately the same length due to construction restraints at the site. This arrangement may have
reduced the seismic stability of the wall; i.e., the wall would have tilted less if the top geogrid layers
had been made longer.
Model shaking table tests (1g) to evaluate the seismic stability of RWs on level ground
To understand the different performances between the conventional RW types (Fig .1) and the GRS
RW with FHR facing at Tanata (Fig. 7) and also to evaluate the effects of different arrangements of
reinforcement layers on the stability of GRS RW, a series of model shaking table tests (in 1 g) were
performed (Tatsuoka et al., 1998; Koseki et al., 2003, 2006).
140
155
155
SuSurchrge
rch arge (1
kPa )
1kPa
53
53
53
53
Air-dried
ModelBackfill
Toyoura
sand (Dr=(Dr=90%)
90 %)
20
23
20
a.Model
Cantilever
type(C)
C: cantilever
50
50
20
20
53
53
Air-dried Toyoura
sand (D
ModelBackfill
r = 90 %)
18
18
20
23
b.
Gravity
Model
G: type(G)
gravity
c.Model
Leaning
type(L)
L: leaning
140
140
Su
rch arge1kPa
(1 kPa )
Surchrge
20
Air-dried
Toyoura
sand
ModelBackfill
(Dr= 90 %)
SuSurchrge
rch arge 1kPa
(1 kPa )
Air-dried Toyoura
ModelBackfill
sand (D
r= 90 %)
140
20
140
140
140
SuSurchrge
rcharge (1kPa
1 kPa )
50
50
20
20
140
140
SuSur
rchchrge
arge 1kPa
(1 kPa )
80
80
35
35
45
45
50
50
Ext ended
Reinforcement
Extended
ModelBackfill
reinforcement
20
140
Su Sur
rcharge
kPa )
chr ge( 11kPa
Air-dried
ModelBackfill
Toyoura
sand
(Dr= 90 %)
f. Reinforced-soil
type
3(R3)
Model
R3: GRS-RW
type
3
Figure 8. Six models of RW on level ground for shaking table tests (all units in cm: Tatsuoka et
al., 1998; Koseki et al., 2003, 2006)
Fig. 8 shows six different models of RWs without a pile foundation on level ground. The models are
50 53 cm high. Models G and L simulate the collapsed prototype gravity type and cantilever RWs
described in Fig. 1, while model R1 simulates the Tanata GRS RW (Fig. 7). The performance of model
261
R1 was compared with those of models R2 and R3 to evaluate the effects of reinforcement
arrangement. The backfill was air-pluviated dense Toyoura sand (emax=0.977; emin=0.609; Gs= 2.64;
and D50=0.23 mm). Each model RW was constructed on a level 20 cm-thick sand layer. The model
reinforcement was a grid made of phosphor-bronze strips. A surcharge of 1.0 kPa was applied on the
backfill to simulate the railway ballast. The models were subjected to several shaking steps of
horizontal excitation with an irregular time history of acceleration shown in Fig. 9a, made from the
time history of ground acceleration recorded during the 1995 Kobe Earthquake. The maximum
amplitude of the base acceleration amax was initially set 100 gals and increased at an increment of about
100 gals. The time scale was reduced by a factor of 0.3 so that the relationship between the
predominant frequency of the original acceleration record and the natural frequency of the prototype
structures is as much as possible maintained in the model tests.
100
-1.0
-0.8
amax
Predoninant frequency:
adjusted to 5 Hz
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
dtop
80
Subsoil
50 or
53 cm
20 cm
R1
R3
60
R2
40
20
GRS-RW
with a FHR facing
0
0.0
Backfill
5 cm
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
Seismic
force
Bearing
capacity, P
Seismic Force
Tensile
force, T
Level
Time (sec)
a)
b)
Figure 9. a) Table acceleration; and b) relationships between the residual wall displacement and
the seismic coefficient from the model shaking table tests (see Fig. 8 for model names (Tatsuoka
et al., 1998; Koseki et al., 1999, 2006).
Leaning
Slope
Level
a)
Slope
Smaller P in the
slope
Seismic coefficient
Shear band
Level
b)
Smaller T by
failure in the
slope
Slope
Reinforced
Seismic coefficient
G
Figure 10. a) Total normal force P at the footing base of leaning RW; and b) total tensile
reinforcement force T of GRS RW type 2 versus input load, level ground and slope.
Fig. 9b shows the relationships between the residual lateral outward displacements 5 cm down
from the crest of the facing observed after the respective shaking stages and the seismic
coefficient, kh, defined as amax /g, where amax is the maximum acceleration at the shaking table.
Fig. 10 shows the total normal force at the bottom face of the footing of model L (leaning
type RW) measured with a set of local load cells and the total tensile force at the connection between
the reinforcement layers and the facing of model R2 (GRS RW type 2). The results from the tests on
the RWs on slope presented in this figure are explained later. The following trends of behaviour may
be seen from Figs. 9 and 10:
262
1. GRS RW model R1 is much more stable than model G (gravity type RW), model L (leaning type
RW) and model C (cantilever RW). This trend is consistent with the performances of the prototype
RWs during the 1995 Kobe Earthquake (Figs. 1 and 7).
2. The failure of model R1 (i.e., GRS RW with FHR facing) was much more ductile than models G, L
and C (i.e., conventional type RWs). This is because, as seen from Fig. 10, the tensile force in the
reinforcement of the GRS RW increased with an increase in the input acceleration, while, with
model L (conventional leaning type RW without a pile foundation) as well as models G and C, the
bearing capacity was suddenly lost, which resulted in brittle failure of these RWs.
3. The GRS RW becomes more stable by increasing the length of reinforcement. The effects of
increasing a limited number of layers at high levels of the wall are equivalent to those by equally
increasing the length of all the reinforcement layers from 20 cm to 35 cm. The former arrangement
using a less total amount of reinforcement is more cost-effective.
SOIL RETAINING WALLS ON SLOPE
1999 ChiChi Earthquake (Taiwan)
A great number of RWs among those that had been constructed on slope in the mountain areas
affected by the earthquake collapsed as typically shown in Fig. 11a (e.g., Huang, 2005). All the
collapsed RWs were a kind of gravity type leaning on the backfill (i.e., leaning type). The inferred
major cause for the failure is the bearing capacity failure of the slope supporting the RWs (Fig. 11b).
In comparison, a number of gravity RWs leaning on the cut slope did not exhibit any noticeable
damage (Fig. 11c), which is due seemingly to a high bearing capacity of the supporting ground.
Asphalt pavement
Original slope
0.6m
3.6m
about 7.0 m
0.7m
2.5m
5.0m
Backfill
Nearly no
damage
sandy gravel
Estimated failure surface
Excavation
Serious damage
a)
b)
c)
Figure 11 a) Typical collapsed gravity RW on slope; b) failure of RW on slope; and c) different
performances of RWs, 1999 ChiChi Earthquake, Taiwan (Tatsuoka et al., 2007a).
Model shaking table tests
Another series of shaking table tests were performed on model RWs described in Fig. 12, similar to
those on RWs on level ground described in Figs. 8 and 9. The differences are; 1) the supporting
ground in front of the respective model RWs was sloped at 1:2 (V:H); and 2) a different model
combination was adopted. Namely, model L (leaning RW), model C (cantilever RW) and model R2
(GRS RW with FHR facing) in Fig. 12 are the same as models L, C and R2 in Fig. 8, while model G
(gravity) in Fig. 8 was not tested in this series. The short reinforcement layers at the lower levels of
model R2 is realistic when constructed on slope: i.e., if long reinforcement layers are to be arranged at
the lower levels of the wall, too much excavation of the slope becomes necessary. In this series, model
L-N (leaning type RW with nails) and model R2-N (GRS RW with nails) were also prepared to
evaluate the effects of reinforcing the backfill with nails of RWs on slope. Four model large-diameter
nails, which were 4 cm-in diameter and 40 cm-long mortar columns with a 3 mm-in diameter steel
reinforcement at the center, were placed at a horizontal center-to-center spacing of about 10 cm in
each layer.
Fig. 13 shows the test results. It may be seen that the seismic stability of the three RW types, the
leaning and cantilever RWs as well as the GRS RW, constructed on slope is significantly lower than
the respective RW types constructed on level ground. With the leaning and cantilever RWs, the
deformation of the supporting slope and the normal load measured at the foundation base of the facing
263
showed that the bearing capacity failure took place in the slope below the RWs at lower input
acceleration than in the level ground supporting the respective RWs. This trend can be seen also from
Fig. 10a. With the GRS RW on slope, the reinforcement force suddenly decreased when the input
seismic load reached some level (Fig. 10b). This was due to the development of a shear band starting
from below the bottom of the facing extending toward back of the reinforced backfill zone as
illustrated in Fig. 10. It may also be seen from Fig. 13 that nailing the backfill can effectively increase
the seismic stability of RWs on slope. With the leaning RW, the upper nails anchored the top part of
the facing preventing it from overturning failure while the lower nails increased the bearing capacity
of the slope supporting the facing. Such nailing as above can effectively increase the seismic stability
of leaning RWs already existing on slope. With the GRS RW, the nails prevented the development of
a shear band starting from below the facing. When a RW is to be newly constructed on slope, a GRS
RW with nails is very cost-effective with very high seismic stability.
L)
C)
R2)
Horizontal accelerometer
Horizontal & vertical acc.
Disp. Displacement transducer
Electric-resistance strain gauge
(all units in mm)
R2-N)
L-N)
Figure 12. RW models on slope: L) leaning RW; C) cantilever RW; R2) GRS RW; L-N) leaning
RW with nails; and R2-N) GRS RW with nails (Kato et al., 2002).
200
C: Cantilever (slope)
45 cm
C: Cantilever (level)
150
R2: Reinfoced
(slope)
100
R2-N:
Reinforced
with nails
(slope)
R2: Reinforced
(level)
L: Leaning (slope)
L: Leaning (level
50
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Figure 13. Relationships between residual wall displacement and seismic coefficient from the
model shaking table tests on RWs on slope (see Fig. 12 for model names) (Kato et al., 2002).
2004 Niigataken-Chuetsu Earthquake
A great number of embankments, RWs and bridge abutments with backfill for railways, highways and
residential areas were seriously damaged during the mainshock with a magnitude of 6.8 and several
aftershocks (M= 6.5 and less) of the 2004 Niigata-ken Chuetsu Earthquake. Compared to the damage
to RC structures, the scale and extent of the damage to soil structures and its effect on the
transportation system and associated civil life were much more extensive. In particular, a number of
embankments that had been constructed in narrow valleys and on slopes, where ground and surface
264
water tends to concentrate, were most seriously failed. The effects of heavy rainfall a couple of days
before the earthquake had made the backfill saturated more than usual conditions.
After remedy work
GRS-RW with a full-height rigid facing
Slope: 1:0.3 (V:H); height= 13.2 m
Vertical spacing of geogrid= 30 cm
Joetsu line
backfill of sand including round-shaped gravel on
sedimentary soft rock (weathered, more at
shallow places)
After remedy
After
work
failure
Failed
gravity wall
13.18 m
Before failure:
.
1:2
0
Silt rock
Shinano riiver
Rock blots
Sand rock
a)
b)
Gravel-filled steel
wire mesh basket
)
(V:H
1:4
c)
d)
Figure 14. a) Slope profiles before and after failure and after reconstruction to a GRS RW; b)
failed embankment; and c) & d) the GRS RW under and after construction. Jo-etsu Line, JR
East, 2004 Niigata-ken Chuetsu Earthquake (Tatsuoka et al., 2007a).
Three totally failed embankments for the Jo-etsu line of the East Japan Railway Company that had
been constructed on the slope on the right bank of Shinano River were typical of the above. These
were reconstructed to three GRS RWs with FHR facing (Fig. 2), as typically presented in Fig. 14, for
the following reasons. Firstly, several GRS RWs of this type performed very satisfactorily during the
1995 Kobe Earthquake (e.g., Fig. 7). On the other hand, a number of conventional type RWs (gravity,
leaning, masonry and cantilever RC) were failed and may of them were reconstructed to this type of
GRS RWs within a short duration (Tatsuoka et al., 1997, 1998). Secondly, it was considered that this
type of GRS RW is superior over other types of soil structures (i.e., conventional sloped embankment
supported by a RC cantilever RW with a pile foundation; bridges and so on) in terms of construction
cost, construction period and performance in terms of deformation and ultimate stability. In fact, these
three railway embankments were reconstructed within two months after the failure. This new case
history validated again that the GRS RW (Fig. 2) could be very competitive to construct wall
structures for such important infrastructures (i.e., railway and highway).
BRIDGE ABUTMENTS
Several problems with the conventional type bridge abutment with backfill
Despite a wide use over the world, such conventional type bridge abutment as described in Fig. 15
have several drawbacks as listed below, which are due mostly to that the backfill is not reinforced and
the abutment is a cantilever structure on which a girder is placed via movable and fixed supports:
1) As the abutment is a cantilever structure, a pile foundation is usually necessary (Fig. 3a).
265
2) Despite that the RC abutment is not allowed to noticeably displace once constructed, associated
with the backfill construction, it is subjected to earth pressure and effects of the settlement and
lateral flow in the subsoil via its effects on the piles. To alleviate these negative effects, it may
become necessary to increase the number and size of piles.
3) The construction and long-term maintenance of girder-supports is generally costly.
4) The seismic stability of the unreinforced backfill as well as the abutment supporting the girder via
a fixed-support is generally low, as observed in many previous major earthquakes. Watanabe et al.
(2002) and Aizawa et al. (2007) confirmed this trend by model shaking table tests.
5) A bump may be formed behind the abutment by residual deformation of the backfill due to its selfweight as well as traffic and seismic loads.
To develop bridge systems that are more cost-effective than the conventional bridge types while
alleviating these problems described above, several solutions have been proposed and attempted as
described in Fig. 16.
(7) Long-term settlement by self-weight, traffic load & seismic load
(6) Girder
(3) Backfill
Displacement due to
earth pressure
Ground
The numbers, (1) (7)
indicate the event
sequence.
(1) Piles
Figure 15. Several technical problems with conventional type bridge abutments
g
Ordinary backfill
without improvement
a1)
p p
Well-graded
gravel
a2)
Cementmixed gravel
Conventional type
bridge abutment
Connected
Geosynthetic
reinforcement
b1)
Connected
b2)
c1)
G. R.
G. R.
c3)
c2)
Cement-mixed gravel
Gravel
with
PL/PS
G. R.
Connected
Combined measures
Figure 16. Different proposed new bridge abutments (Tatsuoka et al., 2005).
Improving the backfill
One of the earliest attempts employed by the Japanese railway engineers is to construct a trapezoidal
zone of well-compacted well-graded gravelly soil behind the abutment (type a1 in Fig. 16). However,
the performance of this abutment type during several previous earthquakes in Japan was
unsatisfactory. Watanabe et al. (2002) and Tatsuoka et al. (2005) confirmed the above by model
266
shaking table tests. They also showed that the seismic stability of another similar type constructing a
trapezoidal zone of cement-mixed gravel (type a2, Fig. 16) is also low.
Reinforcing the backfill
A number of bridges comprising of a pair of GRS RWs with FHR facing (described in Fig. 2) that
support a girder (type b1 in Fig. 16) were constructed (Tatsuoka et al., 1997). This bridge type (Fig.
17) is herein called the GRS RW bridge. Although this bridge type is structurally simpler and more
cost-effective than the conventional type, it has the following limitations. Firstly, the girder cannot be
very long due to low stiffness and potential large residual deformation of the backfill supporting the
girder. Secondly, the construction and long-term maintenance of movable and fixed girder-supports is
costly. This is the common problem with all of the bridge types presented in Fig. 16. Lastly, despite
that the seismic stability of GRS RWs with FHR facing is generally very high (e.g., Tatsuoka et al.,
1998; Koseki et al., 2003), the seismic stability of the sill beam on which a fixed girder-support is
placed is not (Aizawa et al., 2007; Tatsuoka et al., 2007b). This is because the mass of the sill beam is
much smaller than the inertia force of the girder while the anchorage capacity of the reinforcement
layers connected to its back is small due to their shallow depths.
3
5. Girder
3: Sill beam
2: FHR facing
1: GRS RW
267
Fig. 18b, which is basically the same as the one described in Fig. 2a. A number of similar bridge
abutments of type c1 are now at the design stage.
Soil backfill
.
b)
Soil backfill
.
Cement-mixed gravel
Cement-mixed gravel
c)
a)
Figure 18. a) New type bridge abutment using cement-mixed gravel constructed at Takada
(type c1): b) staged construction; and c) the completed new type bridge abutment, mid 2003.
Settlement by
long-term
traffic load and
seismic effects
4. Integration
3. Girder
4. Backfill
Increase in the
earth pressure
due to T
2. RC parapet
Box width: 40
8 polyester
reinforcement
layers
Hinge support
Air-dried Toyoura sand
(Dr = about 90%)
1. Pile
a)
Load cell
50.5
8.5
Settlement
due to T
129.5
[unit : cm]
b)
Figure 19. Conventional integral bridge; and b) model test setup (Tatsuoka et al., 2007b).
Integral bridge
A pair of RC parapets (or facing) is integrated with a bridge girder, without using girder supports (Fig.
19a). This type is very popular in the UK and the USA due mainly to low construction and
maintenance cost resulting from no use of girder supports. However, the backfill may exhibit large
residual settlements by self-weight as well as traffic and seismic loads, while the seismic stability of
both girder-parapet system and backfill is relatively low (Aizawa et al., 2007; Hirakawa et al., 2007b;
Tatsuoka et al., 2007b). Moreover, as the girder is integrated with the parapets, seasonal thermal
expansion and contraction of the girder results into cyclic lateral displacements at the top of the
facings, which results in a gradual increase in the earth pressure on the facing and residual settlements
in the backfill as shown below (Hirakawa et al., 2006, 2007a).
Effects of cyclic displacements of the facing
Small-scale model tests (Fig. 19b) were performed in the laboratory to evaluate the problems
described above and also to examine whether they can be alleviated by reinforcing the backfill. The
backfill was air-dried Toyoura sand produced by air-pluviation for the unreinforced backfill while by
hand-tamping for the reinforced backfill. The reinforcement was a Polyester grid (strand diameter= 1
mm; spacing between the adjacent strands= 18 mm; covering ratio= 9.5 %; and rupture tensile strength
at an axial strain rate of 1.0 %/min.= 19.6 kN/m). The FHR facing was cyclically displaced about the
bottom hinge at a rotational displacement rate of 0.00053 degree/min. Fig. 20a summarizes the peak
268
earth-pressure coefficients in the respective cycles, Kpeak= 2Qpeak/H2 , where Qpeak is the peak total
earth pressure per wall width in each cycle; H is the wall height (50.5 cm); and is the dry unit weight
of the backfill (16 kN/m3), plotted against the ratio of the double amplitude of cyclic displacement at
the facing top to the facing height, (DA)/H, at selected numbers of loading cycle, N. The facing top
was allowed to move up to about 0.2 mm ( /H= 0.04 %) toward the active direction associated with an
increase in the earth pressure. The solid squares represent the cycles when the active failure plane
developed in the backfill. The earth pressure increased with an increase in (DA)/H and N. These test
results are consistent with previous laboratory model tests (Ng et al., 1998; England et al., 2000) as
well as full-scale behaviour of a prototype RW for three seasons (i.e., N= 3). This earth pressure
increase may result in structural damage to the facing and may push out the bottom of the facing. By
reinforcing the backfill, this earth pressure increase does not reduce, but the facing is not structurally
damaged and not pushed out at the bottom, as the FHR facing behaves like a continuous beam
supported by a number of reinforcement layers at a small spacing (Fig. 3b).
2.0
Active failure in
the model backfill
26
1.8
1.6
1.2
1.0
N: number of
loading cycles
158
Likely behaviour
of prototype wall
for three seasons:
seasonal (DA) vs.
estimated Kprototype
1.4
N=
10
2,200
N=1
0.8
10
0.6
N= 2,000
0.4
1
0
3,000
0
0.2
0.0
1E-3
10
1
K peak during
respective
cyclics
0
0.01
0.1
10
a)
Residual settlement of the backfill
at 5 cm back of the facing, Sg/H (%)
-0.5
R & C: D/H= 0.6 %
0.0
Reinforced & Connected (R & C):
D/H= 0.2 %
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
NR (no reinforcement):
D/H= 0.2 %
5 cm
2.5
3.0
R & NoC:
D/H= 0.6 %
S5
50
100
150
200
b)
Figure 20. a) Peak earth pressure coefficients in the model tests and a field full-scale case; and
b) residual settlements of the backfill (when =0) by cyclic displacements of the facing and
effects of reinforcing the backfill (Hirakawa et al., 2006, 2007a).
The other detrimental effect of cyclic displacement of the facing with unreinforced backfill is gradual
but eventually large settlements in the backfill associated with the development of an active failure
plane in the backfill (case NR in Fig. 20b). In the experiments, the backfill settlement increased with
an increase in the cyclic facing displacement, (DA)/H. On the other hand, the backfill settlement
became nearly null when the backfill was reinforced with reinforcement layers connected to the back
of the facing (case R&C). Even slight heaving of the backfill took place, which was due seemingly to
dilatation of the backfill associated with repeated passive movements of the facing. The benefits of
reinforcing the backfill with reinforcement layers connected to the facing are as follow. Firstly, for the
269
same thermal thrust from the girder, the displacements of the facing become smaller due to higher
stiffness of the reinforced backfill. Secondly, for the same cyclic facing displacement, the residual
settlement in the backfill decreases drastically due to higher confining pressure in the backfill and
membrane effects of reinforcement layers connected to the facing. It may also be seen from Fig.20b
that these positive effects of reinforcing the backfill are largely lost when the reinforcement layers are
not connected to the facing (case R & NoC). This is because the deformation of the active zone cannot
be effectively restrained by the reinforcement layers.
5. Integration
2
4. Girder
2: GRS RW
3: FHR facing
a)
1. Pile
Bridge type
C, D
252 gal*
GRS RW
589 gal*
Integral
D, E
Conventional (gravity)
GRS Integral
A, B
Seismic
stability
Total
641 gal*
1,048 gal*
b)
Figure 21. a) GRS integral bridge; and b) features of four different bridge types.
GRS integral bridge
Fig. 21a shows a new bridge type (called the GRS integral bridge), which is most cost-effective and
most dynamically stable among those described in this paper. This type combines the GRS RW bridge
(Fig. 17) and the integral bridge (Fig. 19) taking their advantages: i.e., the backfill and the facing are
stabilized by reinforcing the backfill with geosynthetic reinforcement connected to the facing (the
GRS RW bridge); and a simple and cost-effective RC bridge structure without using girder-supports
(the integral bridge), while alleviating their inherent problems. A GRS integral bridge may also need a
pile foundation to support the girder, but a lighter one than the integral bridge may be sufficient, as
needs for a pile foundation are usually low with GRS RWs. In particular, as seen from Fig. 20b, the
residual settlement of the backfill reinforced with reinforcement layers connected to the facing is very
small. Moreover, a high seismic stability with small deformation and displacements can be expected
because of integrated performance of the whole bridge system, as shown below.
Fig. 21b compares the advantages and disadvantages in the three factors listed in the top line of the
four bridge types: i.e., conventional gravity type, GRS RW, integral and GRS integral. The
accelerations shown in the second column from the right are those at which the respective bridge
models collapsed in the shaking table tests described below. Letters A through E denote negative
factors other than seismic stability with the respective bridge types: A= heavy abutment structure
because of a cantilever structure; B= need for a pile foundation; C= high cost for construction and
long-term maintenance of girder-supports; D= bump due to settlement of backfill by self-weight,
270
traffic load and seismic load; and E= settlement of the backfill and structural damage to the facing by
cyclic lateral displacements of facing due to seasonal thermal expansion and contraction of the girder.
The full point assigned to each factor is equal to three, which is reduced one by one when these
negative factors are relevant. In addition, the seismic stability is classified to three levels with points
equal to 1, 2 and 3. So, the total full point is equal to nine when free from all these negative factors A
E with the highest seismic stability, which is assigned only to the GRS integral bridge.
Model shaking table tests
Shaking table tests of the four bridge types listed in Fig. 21b were performed to validate a highseismic stability of the GRS integral bridge (Aizawa et al., 2007; Hirakawa et al., 2007b; Tatsuoka et
al., 2007b). Fig. 22a shows the GRS integral bridge model before shaking. Assuming a length
similitude ratio equal to 1/10, the facings were 51 cm-high and the girder was 61 cm-long. By adding a
mass of 200 kg at the center of the girder, the equivalent length became 2 m (i.e., 20 m in the assumed
prototype). Twenty sinusoidal waves with a frequency of 5 Hz was applied at the table while step by
step increasing the maximum acceleration max with an increment of 100 gal. Fig. 22b shows the
backfill settlements at 5 cm back of either the sill beam supporting the girder via a fixed support with
the GRS RW type (Fig. 17) or the facing with the other three types. Fig. 22c shows the lateral
displacements at the top and bottom of the facing. In Fig. 22c, with the GRS RW type, dt is the
displacement of the sill beam and in Figs. 22b and c, with the gravity and GRS RW types, the
displacements on the side supporting the girder via a fixed-support are presented. It can be readily
seen that the GRS integral bridge is much more stable than the other types, while the gravity type is
least stable. Moreover, the pushing out of the facing bottom is the major failure mode with the integral
and GRS integral bridges.
Box width: 60 cm
61 cm
51 cm
Grid reinforcement L= 35 cm
35 cm
b)
a)
GRS
Integral
GRS RW
20
Integral
40
Conventional
(gravity)
S5
Out of
measument
range
5 cm
60
0
200
400
600
Base acceleration,
800
max
(gal)
1000
60
40
Dislodging of girder
Conventional
(gravity)
GRS RW (displacement
at the sill beam)
GRS
Integral
20
Integral
0
60
dT
40
dB
Integral
GRS
Integral
Conventional
(gravity)
20
1200
GRS RW
0
c)
200
400
600
Base acceleration,
800
1000
(gal)
1200
max
Figure 22. a) GRS integral bridge model; b) backfill settlement; and c) outward lateral displacements of
the facing in laboratory shaking table tests.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The recent developments of new types of soil retaining structures and bridge with backfill made in
Japan aiming at not only a high cost-effectiveness but also a high seismic stability were reviewed.
Several case histories of prototype soil structures, including those during earthquakes, and results from
271
model shaking table tests that validate high advantages of geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining walls
with staged-constructed full-height rigid facing are presented. Among a couple of new bridge systems
with reinforced backfill, the advantageous features of the GRS integral bridge, which comprises of an
integral bridge and backfill geosynthetic-reinforced with geosynthetic reinforcement layers connected
to the facing are described.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their sincere thanks to their past and present colleagues for their help in
performing this long-term research program at the University of Tokyo, Railway Technical Research
Institute and the Tokyo University of Science. The financial support from The Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, the Japanese Government, and Japan Railway
272
Tatsuoka, F., Koseki, J., Tateyama, M., Munaf, Y. and Horii, N. Seismic stability against high
seismic loads of geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining structures Keynote Lecture, Proc. 6th Int.
Conf. on Geosynthetics, Atlanta, 1, 103-142, 1998.
Tatsuoka, F. Cement-mixed soil for Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway and railway bridge abutments,
Geotechnical Engineering for Transportation Projects, Proc. of GeoTrans 04, GI, Los Angels,
ASCE GSP No. 126 (Yegian & Kavazanjian eds.), pp.18-76, 2004.
Tatsuoka, F., Tateyama, M., Aoki, H. and Watanabe, K. Bridge abutment made of cement-mixed
gravel backfill, Ground Improvement, Case Histories, Elesevier Geo-Engineering Book Series,
Vol. 3 (Indradratna & Chu eds.), pp.829-873, 2005.
Tatsuoka, F., Tateyama, M., Mohri, Y. and Matsushima, K. Remedial treatment of soil structures
using geosynthetic-reinforcing technology, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol.25, 2007a.
Tatsuoka, F., Hirakawa, D., Nojiri, M. & Aizawa, H., Tateyama, M. and Watanabe, K. A New Type
Integral Bridge Comprising of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil Walls, Proc. of 5th Int. Sym. on Earth
Reinforcement (IS Kyushu 2007), 2007b.
Uchimura, T., Tateyama, M., Koga, T. and Tatsuoka, F. Performance of a preloaded-prestressed
geogrid-reinforced soil pier for a railway bridge, Soils and Foundations, Vol.43, No.6, 33-50,
2003.
Watanabe, K., Tateyama, M., Yonezawa, T., Aoki, H., Tatsuoka, F. and Koseki, J. Shaking table tests
on a new type bridge abutment with geogrid-reinforced cement treated backfill, Proc. of 7th Int.
Conf. on Geosynthetics, Nice, 1, 119-122, 2002.
273
INTRODUCTION
In order to study the soil behavior, such as liquefaction and soil-structure interaction, large soil
specimens have been placed on a shaking table that can reproduce the actual seismic ground shaking
according to the earthquake recording under either 1 g or centrifugal conditions. Thus, the responding
phenomena and behavior of a soil stratum as a whole, instead of a small soil element, under the more
realistic seismic loading conditions can be observed and analyzed. For a large size specimen, possibly
denser sensor placements with respect to the size of soil specimen provide well-distributed
measurements, spatially and temporally, for a better understanding of the behaviors of the modeled
soil and structures, especially during soil liquefaction and slope failure under shakings.
Large scale 1 g shaking table tests were performed on a 5 m 5 m shake table at the National Center
for Research on Earthquake Engineering (NCREE), Taiwan for researches in earthquake geotechnical
engineering. Two types of soil model containers were developed and used for different types of
experiments. One is a biaxial laminar shear box (1.880 m 1.880 m in plan and 1.520 m in height)
which was designed and manufactured for modeling a soil stratum of about 1.5 m in thickness under
one- and multi-directional earthquake shakings on a horizontal plane. The shear box is used for the
studies of soil liquefaction and soil-structure interaction during earthquakes. Another one is a fixed
1
274
boundary box with a size of 4.4 m (L) 1.3 m (W) 1.2 m (H) to be used for tests on models of
slopes and quay walls. The performances of these two boxes were tested and verified, and they were
found satisfactory (Ueng, et al., 2006, Lin and Wang, 2006). Experiments which had been performed
using these boxes on the shake table are described and the results of the tests and their analyses are
presented briefly. Applications of the results, future research activities, and possible collaborations
with other testing facilities are also discussed in this paper.
Figure 1. The biaxial laminar shear box on the shake table at NCREE
Linear guideways consisting of sliding rails and bearing blocks are used to allow an almost
frictionless horizontal movement without vertical motions. Each outer frame is supported by the
sliding rails built on two opposite sides of the outer rigid walls. The bearing blocks on the outer frame
allow its movement in the X direction. Similarly, sliding rails are also provided for each outer frame
to support the inner frame of the same layer such that the inner frame can move in the Y direction
with respect to the outer frame. With these 15 nested layers of inner and outer frames supported
independently on the rigid walls, the soil at each depth can move multidirectionally in the horizontal
plane without torsion. Figure 2 shows the schematic drawings of the biaxial laminar shear box.
275
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
sliding rails
inner frames
soil specimen
rigid base
outer frames
shake table
rigid walls
X
(b) side view
LIQUEFACTION TESTS
Tests on clean sand
Series of shaking table tests on clean sand in the shear box have been conducted at NCREE since
August 2002. A fine silica sand from Vietnam was used to prepare the sand specimen for the shaking
table tests at NCREE. The maximum void ratio, emax, and the minimum void ratio, emin, range from
0.887 to 0.912 and 0.569 to 0.610, respectively, for different batches of sand used in the tests. The
permeability of the sand ranges from 0.04 cm/s to 0.1 cm/s for relative densities from 35% to 90%,
respectively. One- and multi-directional shakings including sinusoidal waves (with frequencies from 1
to 8 Hz and amplitudes, A max, from 0.03 to 0.15 g) and recorded accelerations, full and reduced
amplitudes, from various earthquakes were applied. Miniature piezometers and accelerometers were
installed within the sand specimen for pore water pressure and acceleration measurements at different
locations and depths in the soil during shaking. Transducers for displacements and accelerations were
also placed on different layers of the frames to record the movements of the specimen. Figure 3 are
the layout of instrumentation inside the sand specimen and on the inner frames. Large amount of data
were obtained from the densely placed sensors inside and outside the sand specimen.
Sand Surface
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
20
30
20
40
30
30
30
30
60
30
60 50
50
30
30
Piezometer
Coupled Sensor
LDT
Figure 3. Layout of instrumentation within the specimen and on the frames (unit = cm)
The test results showed that a multidirectional shaking induced a higher excess pore water pressure
and it took a longer time to dissipate in a multidirectional shaking test than under a one-directional
shaking. Figure 4 shows the excess pore water pressure distribution along the depth of the specimen at
various time during 1-D and 2-D shaking tests. It indicates that one-directional shaking induced less
276
excess pore pressure and probably caused only a shallower liquefied layer, while the multidirectional
shaking caused a deeper liquefaction zone. A clear liquefaction depth can be seen in the large
specimen from the rather dense piezometer measurements. The depth of the liquefied sand can be
better determined to a degree of accuracy based on the measurements of mini-piezometers and
accelerometers on the inner frames as describe in Ueng et al. 2007b.
Exce ss p ore pressure head (mm)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
200
400
600
800
1000
Time
200
Tim e
1s
3s
5s
7s
10 s
13 s
16 s
400
600
1s
3s
5s
7s
10 s
13 s
16 s
200
400
600
800
800
1000
1000
1200
1200
Figure 4. Excess pressure heads inside the specimen during shaking test, October 2004
According to the settlement measurements during and after the shaking tests, the settlements during
ose
when there is liquefaction of the soil. The settlements resulted from the multidirectional shaking were
larger than those under one-directional shaking in both cases of liquefaction and non-liquefaction of
the soil. The volumetric strain of the sand after liquefaction caused by shaking was calculated
considering the depth of liquefaction depth. With consideration of thickness of the liquefied sand, the
test results show that the volumetric strain after liquefaction, under sinusoidal shakings decreases with
the relative density of the sand regardless of the amplitude, frequency and directions of shaking.
Figure 5 shows volumetric strains after liquefaction under sinusoidal shakings with durations of 5, 10,
20 and 30 seconds in this study (Ueng et al., 2007b). It can be seen that the volumetric strain after
liquefaction increases with the shaking duration. The results show a good comparison with those
given by Tokimatsu & Seed (1987).
10
9
Shaking duration
5s
10 s
20 s
30 s
D = 10 line
D=5s
D = 20 s
D = 30 s
8
7
6
Duration = 10 s
5
Duratio n = 20 s
4
3
Duration = 30 s
2
1
Duration = 5 s
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Dr (%)
Figure 5. Volumetric strain after liquefaction versus relative density of sand under various
shaking durations
277
SOIL-PILE INTERACTION
For the study of the soil-structure interaction in a liquefiable soil during one- and two-dimensional
shaking, physical pile model tests in the large biaxial laminar shear box is under way at NCREE. The
model pile is made of stainless steel with an outer diameter of 100 mm and the thickness of 3 mm.
The pile tip was fixed at the laminar shear box to simulate the condition of the pile foundation
embedded in the rock. Strain gauges and accelerometers will also be installed on pile surface to obtain
data relating to soil-pile interaction. The soil responses, including pore pressure changes, acceleration,
strains, and settlements will also be measured.
The first stage of tests is the lateral loading tests from reaction walls. The lateral loads will be applied
on the pile head, monotonically and cyclically, with and without soil in the shear box. The same
physical models will also be placed on the shaking table under one- and multi-directional shakings to
study the soil-pile interaction under 1D and 2D shakings. A mass or a multi-degree-of-freedom
structure will be added on top of a single pile or a pile group to evaluate the possible inertial effect on
pile performances. An inclined shear box will be set up to simulate the possible lateral spreading
effect on the pile under 2-D shaking in order to clarify mechanisms of soil-pile interaction in liquefied
and laterally spreading ground.
278
that can capture the coupled shear strain-pore pressure responses locally will be beneficial to
understanding of the process of pore water pressure generation and its relation to the shear strain
induced by earthquake loading.
To capture the coupled shear strain-pore pressure responses of saturated soils subjected to horizontal
shaking, a coupled sensor, which integrates a triaxial accelerometer and a miniature pore pressure
transducer in an acrylic case, is fabricated as shown in Figure 6 (Chang et al., 2007). The small size
(12 cm long, 5.5 cm in diameter) of the coupled sensor enables it to simultaneously measure both
particle accelerations and water pressure changes at the same location. Four coupled sensors are
embedded in the soil specimen in the laminar box to form a 0.6m by 0.6m square array on the vertical
plane parallel to the wave propagation direction, as shown in Figure 3(a). This array of sensors is used
to evaluate the shear strain within the array. The densely embedded single-function sensors and the
external instrumentation on the frames of the shear box at NCREE provide a testing platform to verify
the performance of the developed coupled sensors.
u y1 u y 2
z2 z1
(1)
where uyi represents the horizontal displacement of point i at depth of zi. It was found that the
accelerations measured by two coupled sensors at the same depth are essentially the same. That is, the
1D shear wave condition did occur as intended in the laminar shear box. The horizontal displacements
are computed by double integrations of accelerations measured by embedded accelerometers and the
strains within the sensor array can be obtained. The results were compared with the shear strains
calculated using the direct measurements of frame displacements by LDTs. The comparisons revealed
that two methods agree well for cases with shear strain level less than 2 10-2 %, when only small
excess pore pressure was generated. Two methods gave different strains when there is liquefaction.
Pore pressure data were processed to highlight characteristics of pore water pressure changes during
and after the shaking. The shear strains and pore pressure changes at the same location were
279
compared to observe their coupling behavior in the liquefiable sand. Time histories of excess pore
pressure ratio (ru = u/ v', where u = excess pore pressure and v' = effective vertical stress) at one
of the sensors and the shear strain computed according to the measurements by the coupled sensors in
a liquefied case are shown in Figure 7.
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
(sec)
Time (sec)
280
281
particle from one image to another. The displacement vector can be transferred to velocity when the
duration between two images is known.
The computer program used in this research is PIVview 2C. The purpose of this analysis is to
understand the displacement behavior and the landslip initiation of slope during seismic loading. The
recorded images by digital video (DV) and charged-couple device (CCD) are 740 480 pixels and
640 480 pixels, respectively.
The images recorded of specimen prepared by compaction method are 740 by 480 pixels. The PIV
result for 32-33 seconds of a loading sequence is illustrated in Figure 10. The down-slope direction is
to the right hand side and the distance between dots is 10 cm. The slope starts moving from the slope
surface on the bottom of the image.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Various types of large scale shaking table test for earthquake geotechnical engineering were
conducted using the biaxial laminar shear box and the fixed boundary box at NCREE. The large-scale
tests with larger soil specimens simulate closely the in situ situations under earthquake loading. With
proper instrumentation, these tests give important information for the understanding of the phenomena
occurring in the field. Appropriate analyses can then be performed according to the findings from the
large-scale tests.
Future studies at NCREE will include:
Studies of the liquefaction characteristics of soils with high fines contents, especially the local
soils in Taiwan;
Effect of multidirectional shakings on pile foundations, including bridge foundations;
Development of sensors including optical devices to be used in the field utilizing the shear
box on the shaking table to simulate the ground conditions for the purposes of verification and
calibration;
Further development of image analysis techniques, hardware and software, for large scale
tests.
Collaborations with other institutes can be achieved by:
Conducting specially designed experiments at NCREE for comparisons with the results
obtained by the centrifuge tests and full scale tests. It is hoped that the scale effects in these
282
tests can be better understood via these comparisons so that the testing and interpretation of
physical model tests can be improved;
Comparing the results of experiments using the biaxial laminar shear box at NCREE with
those from large one-dimensional shaking tests at other institutes to study the effect of
multidirectional shaking on geotechnical structures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
These researches are partly supported by the National Science Council, Taiwan and NCREE. The
technical supports and operational assistances in the shaking table testing including large specimen
preparation by the engineers at NCREE are gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Chang WJ, Ueng TS, Chen CH and Yang CW. Embedded instrumentation for coupled shear strainpore pressure response in multidirectional shaking table test, Proc. 4th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, Paper 1213, 2007.
Iai S. Similutude for shaking table tests on soil-structure-fluid model in 1-g gravitational field , Soils
and Foundations, 29(1), 105-118, 1989.
Lin ML and Wang KL. Seismic slope behavior in a large-scale shaking table model test,
Engineering Geology, 86, 118-133, 2006.
Rathje EM, Chang WJ, and Stokoe KHII.
in situ dynamic liquefaction test
ASTM Geotechnical Testing Journal, 28(1), 65-76, 2005.
Ueng TS, Chen CH and Tsou CF. Preparation of a large Mailiao silty sand specimen for shaking
table test, Proc. 4 th International Conference on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, Paper
1339, 2007a.
Ueng TS, Wang MH, Chen MH, Chen CH and Peng LH. A large biaxial shear box for shaking table
tests on saturated sand, Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM International, 29(1), 1-8, 2006.
Ueng TS, Wu CW, Cheng HW and Chen CH. Settlements of Saturated Clean Sand Deposits in
Shaking Table Tests, in progress, 2007b.
283
WORKSHOP 2
Geotechnical earthquake engineering
related to monuments and historical centres
This paper presents a numerical and an experimental study of the seismic response of ancient
columns. The multi-drum column analysed here corresponds to the Hellenistic portico of
Lindos acropolis. This structure was modelled using a finite element model. The simulations
were made in three dimensions. Extensive time domain parametric analyses were performed
in order to examine the response of the column subjected to seismic motion having different
values of peak ground acceleration and frequency content. The seismic input used consisted
of horizontal components of three real earthquakes with different frequency content. Three
different systems connecting the drums of the column are analysed in order to examine their
influence on the seismic response of the column. The analysis takes into account the complex
behaviour of the structure with the aim to determine the threshold PGA value before its
collapse. In a second stage we discuss available procedures to estimate the fundamental
period of a monolithic, a multi-drum, and two multidrum columns connected with an
architrave using microtremors measurements. The results of the microtremor measurements
are compared with the numerical simulations to assess the effectiveness of the procedure. It is
shown that microtremor measurements may be a useful tool to estimate the modal shapes of
ancient columns.
Keywords: ancient columns, numerical analysis, seismic response, microtremors, HVSR, SSR
INTRODUCTION
Ancient Roman and Greek temples used to be systems made of curved stones (drums) laid one on top
of the other without any connecting mortar. Mostly, gravity loads were carried to the ground by means
of monolithic and multi-block columns and colonnades, connected at the top with architraves.
Recently, these systems have received increasing scientific attention. The reason is their interesting
static and dynamic behaviour which derived from the ductility of the whole system. In addition,
shear transfer is achieved through friction and through wooden or metal pins shear keys- (called
polos) between the drums. In fact, this element should have a finite shear strength that does not
exceed the shear strength of the interface of the drums; it is a sort of early version of the capacity
1
Civil Engineer MSc, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Thessaloniki, Greece, Email:
nargi@teemail.gr
2
PhD Candidate, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Thessaloniki, Greece, Email:
ktenidou@civil.auth.gr
3
Dr Geologist, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Thessaloniki, Greece, Email:
manakou@civil.auth.gr
4
Dr Geologist, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Thessaloniki, Greece, Email:
pasapostolidis@gmail.com
5
Professor, Instituto de Ingeniera, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, Mxico D.F. 04510
Mxico, Email: paco@pumas.iingen.unam.mx
6
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Thessaloniki, Greece, Email:
kpitilak@civil.auth.gr
284
design process currently used for the seismic protection of structures. The effectiveness of this process
is demonstrated by the fact that a large number of these monuments have survived historic earthquakes
which must have had undergone large peak ground accelerations.
The seismic response of these systems is a multi-parametric problem involving both material and
geometrical non-linearities. The structure response may go through several modes during the same
excitation, thus no modes exist with the classical meaning that is used in continuum mechanics
medium (Papantonopoulos et al., 2002). As a matter of fact, the modes of such systems depend on the
nature of contact existing between the interfaces of adjacent drums (after Dr. Kostas Zambas, personal
communication). As a result, the response is highly non-linear including relative sliding of the drums
and rocking. This complex response is caused by the polos behaviour and strength, the non-uniform
friction and contact surface and the dispersion of axial load developed during excitation at the contact
surface between the drums.
Over the past two decades many researchers have approached the phenomenon by studying the
behaviour of a rigid 2D block resting on a horizontal plane either experimentally, analytically and
numerically (Zambas, 1994; Shenton, 1996; Sinopoli, 1989; Yim et al., 1980, Zhang and Makris,
2001). In addition, complex numerical models simulating real cases were examined (Mouzakis et al.,
2002; Papantonopoulos et al., 2002; Manos and Demosthenous, 1997, Psycharis et al. 2000; Psycharis
et al., 2003; Makris and Konstantinidis, 2005). The main conclusions of these researches can be
summarized as follows:
The response of the system is very sensitive to very small changes in the parameters of the
system or the parameters of the excitation.
The results of a 2D study of the problem can be more conservative than those of a 3D study
Pure sliding, pure rocking, as well as a slide-rock mode may be observed during the response
of these systems during dynamic excitation.
An in-plane excitation can produce large displacements in the out-of-plane direction
The predominant period of the ground motion and the size of the structure are the main
parameters for stability, with low-frequency pulses being more dangerous as they increase the
possibility of collapse. Moreover smaller columns, while having the same aspect ratio as
larger columns, can be more unstable.
Free standing columns are more susceptible to earthquakes than colonnades connected with
architraves
Another interesting feature of the detailed study of the damage patterns and displacements of ancient
columns is that these analyses may improve the existing knowledge on the seismic history of an area
(Bottari, 2003) and through back analysis may allow estimation of the monuments current seismic
resistance level.
In this paper a comprehensive dynamic analysis of a multidrum column is presented using the finite
element method. As previously mentioned, it is extremely difficult to simulate the exact geometry of
the interfaces between the drums; thus, any attempt to study such a case with numerical or even
experimental approaches, remains a rough approximation. But still, these methods are always useful in
order to estimate the response even in a qualitative way. We examined the differences in the response
of the column to earthquakes having different frequency content and different PGA values. We also
investigated the differences in the response of the column due to the presence or not of several polosempolio systems. In addition, we made an effort to determine the threshold PGA value that would
cause the column to topple. Finally, microtremor measurements were conducted in three different
cases: a multidrum column, a monolithic column and a system of three multidrum columns connected
with an architrave. We propose a procedure for estimating the modal periods of the columns by
comparing numerical results with the results from the analysis of the microtremor measurements. The
aim of this paper is to contribute to our understanding of the seismic response of ancient columns,
which is an exciting topic of mechanics and dynamics.
285
NUMERICAL STUDY
Selected case study
The multidrum column of the Hellenistic Portico at Lindos Acropolis, Rhodes was selected for the
analyses. The column is 5.0 m high and is composed of seven drums and a capital. The diameters of
the drums range from 0.78m at the base to 0.62m at the top and each drum is around 0.68m high.
In ancient times, drums were connected with wooden or metal pins, a system called polos-empolio.
This system was used as a guide in order to achieve perfect contact between the drums. Recent
researches (Manos, 2006; Psycharis et al., 2003) have highlighted the role of these pins as shear keys,
able to dissipate seismic energy through fracture. The connection between drums is also important for
modern restoration works. In the present study two different polos systems were selected for the
analyses assuming different materials, either wood or titanium. The latter is used in current restoration
projects. In addition, the case without any polos system was also studied.
Analysis overview
Most of the numerical studies examining the seismic behaviour of ancient columns have used the
discrete element method. The reasons are the small computing cost and the possibility to efficiently
simulate large displacements. Under this approximation, the drums of each column are assumed to
behave as rigid bodies (Psycharis, 2003).
In this paper, all the analyses were conducted using the finite element program Ansys (2004) noting
that advances in computing software and hardware have enormously decreased the computing costs
associated to non-linear analyses. Contact elements were used to simulate the interfaces between the
drums. Static and dynamic coefficients of friction and cohesion can be used while the Mohr Coulomb
criterion was adopted for the analyses. Contact elements can also simulate the rocking response of the
drums, making it possible to describe accurately all possible motions of these blocks (Argyriou et al.,
2006). In addition, friction stress can be evaluated at each step of the computation. Table 1 shows the
parameters used to simulate the interfaces between drums and the mechanical parameters of the drums
themselves for the multidrum column of Lindos Acropolis (Eleftheriou, 2002). For the dynamic
coefficient of friction, a generally accepted value equal to 0.7 was considered.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of the interface and the stone
Cohesion
Dynamic
coefficient of
friction
Modulus of
elasticity E for
stone (MPa)
Density
(ton/m3)
0.7
1044
Shear
resistance
for wood
(KN/cm2)
0.7
Shear
resistance for
titanium
(KN/cm2)
31
The time step for the numerical integration was set to 10 -3s. Larger values led to numerical instabilities
(extremely large displacements or overlap between bodies). It was verified that the spatial
discretization step affected only the computing cost and not the accuracy of the results. The numerical
analysis performed in two stages. In the first one, the model was subjected to the acceleration of
gravity. This allowed for modelling the weight of the system, imposing the friction forces at each
contact element. In the second stage, the model was subjected to the input seismic signal, incident
from below, and the seismic response of the system was computed. The influence of the polos
system was included indirectly in the models by the artificial increase of the static coefficient of
friction s to a value equal to the shear resistance of the poles q (1).
's
w( z) q
w( z)
(1)
w(z) is the weight of the column (in KN) (according to the analysed interface) and q (in KN) is the
shear strength of the pole. A diameter of 4.0cm was considered for hard pine wood and of 1.0cm for
titanium. This simplification reduces the cost of the computation and allows a qualitative evaluation of
286
the effect of each system (Makris and Konstantinidis, 2005). Clearly, the physical phenomenon is
more complex (even fracture may occur) due to inelastic behaviour under recycling loading and the
possible appearance of gaps between the polos and its stone enclosure. The influence of the polos
system case to the shear resistance of each interface is shown in Figure 1 through the ratios of static
to dynamic coefficient of friction.
The damping was set equal to zero based partially to experimental results (Mouzakis et al. 2002) and
partially to the observed oscillation of the drum column.
Without polos
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Wooden polos
8.72
5.81
4.44
3.60
3.08
2.70
2.41
2.20
Titanium polos
22.63
14.50
10.65
8.28
6.83
5.76
4.95
4.37
0,3
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,1
-0,1 0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
time (sec)
-0,3
-0,1
10
15
2
time (sec)
-0,2
-0,3
-0,5
(a)
(b)
287
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
-0,2
-0,4
10
15
20
25
time (sec)
-0,6
(c)
Figure 2. One of the two horizontal components of the earthquakes used as input:
(a) Aigion 1995, (b) Kalamata 1986, (c) Erzincan 1992
Analysis results
Because the response of a multidrum column can vary between several modes during excitation, a
reliable index of damage should be introduced in order to describe the final mode of the column. The
maximum permanent displacement relative to the base, as calculated at the end of each analysis, was
chosen as such an index. Figure 3 summarizes final displacements estimated for the three earthquake
records. For cases where the column did not collapse (stable modes), the drums where maximum
displacement occurred are shown. For cases where it collapsed (collapse mode), the drums from which
collapse begins are shown. In order to classify the possible response of a column for increasing PGA
values and thus define levels of damage, the column is subdivided along its height into two parts.
The first part contains all drums from the 6th up to the capital (green circles), while the second part
contains all drums from the 3rd up to 6th (red circles). It is noted that this response refers either to the
permanent displacement of a drum (for stable mode cases) or to the drum that collapsed (collapse
mode cases).
As can be seen for the Erzincan case (figure 3a), the column is stable for PGA values up to 0.2g, with
cases of failure beginning to occur for higher levels of excitation. The same is observed for all polos
system cases. The wooden polos system seems to have minor influence on the response of the
column, as the total displacements are not affected by it. The titanium polos system affects results by
reducing permanent displacements in most PGA levels. Moreover, for small values of PGA (scale
factor f=0.20-0.35) displacements are only noticed in the upper drums, namely the capital and 7th
drum, while the lower drums are excited only for higher values of horizontal acceleration (f=0.400.80). In general it can be said that this second level of damage (red circles) is introduced when PGA
values are increased.
In Figure 4, the final response modes of the column are depicted for the three system cases when
excited by the Erzincan record. It is shown that for low PGA values all drums enter the rocking mode,
while for larger PGA values rocking occurs only in one drum, whereas the upper drums behave as a
monolithic body. Moreover, small twisting rotation of the capital was observed during the first
seconds of excitation for PGA values equal to 0.15g. The rotation was due to rocking. During the next
seconds little rocking of the 4th drum was noticed, which induced sliding and twisting rotation of the
3rd and 5th drum. For PGA values higher than 0.2g, the failure mechanism in the case of the no polos
system is due to extensive rocking of the 3 rd or 4 th drum. It must be noted that in this case failure
occurred at the drum above the one exhibiting the extensive rocking. Contrary to that, for the titanium
polos system, the failure mechanism started from the drum with the extensive rocking. In general it
is observed that the induced seismic force was dissipated between the 3 rd and 5th drum for most levels
of PGA.
288
capital
7th
Collapse modes
6th
5th
Response concern
3rd -5th drum
Response concern
6th drum - capital
4th
3rd
2nd
1st
Displacements (mm)
Stable modes
base
(a)
capital
7th
6th
5th
4th
3rd
2nd
1st
base
(b)
capital
7th
6th
5th
4th
3rd
2nd
1st
base
(c)
Figure 3. Comparative results of collapse and stable modes for
(a) Erzincan 1992, (b) Aigion 1995, (c) Kalamata 1986
289
Figure 4. Response shapes of the column for several PGA values for Erzincan case
290
PGA : 0.15g
The response is almost
the same as with no
polos system case.
Few centimeters sliding
of the 5th drum is
produced in this case.
PGA : 0.15g
The response is almost
the same as with no
polos system case.
Sliding of the 5th drum is
not produced here.
PGA : 0.15g
Rotation of the capital at
first seconds of the
excitation.
PGA : 0.41g
Intense rocking of the
3rd drum. The motion
doesnt transmit to the
upper drums.
A small bound of the
3rd drum was also
produced.
PGA : 0.20g
The response is almost
the same as with no
polos system case.
The rocking is more
intense and produces
the collapse of the
column earlier.
PGA : 0.18g
Intense rocking of the
3rd drum. Contrary to
PGA=0.17g the
motion transmits to
upper drum and
produces the collapse
of the 4th drum.
PGA : 0.20g
Same response with
wooden polos system
case. The 3rd drum
observes the maximum
energy of the
excitation.
PGA : 0.26g
Tilting begins at 3rd
drum at first.
PGA : 0.20g
Intense rocking of the
2nd drum at first.
Without polos
Wooden polos
Titanium polos
Figure 5. Response shapes of the column for several PGA values for Aigion case
291
PGA : 0.45g
The rocking of the 7th
drum produces sliding
of the 6th drum and the
capital.
The rocking of lower
drums coming
afterwards produce a
sinusoidal mode shape.
PGA : 0.45g
Severe rocking of 5th
drum that produces
collapse of the 6th.
The rocking of lower
drums coming
afterwards produce
smaller displacements
contrary to wooden
polos case.
PGA : 0.40g
Contrary to no polos
system case, more
severe rocking of the 6th
drum produces the
collapse of the 7th drum
and the capital.
PGA : 0.35g
Intense rocking of 6th
drum that produces
rocking and sliding of
the lower drums.
PGA : 0.45g
Almost the same
mechanism with the
previous PGA=0.40g
case. Small differences
are due to the fact that
capital dissipates the
energy and not the 7th
drum.
PGA : 0.40g
Rocking of the 6th and 7th
drum produces rotation
of the capital.
PGA : 0.50g
Rocking and rotation
of the 6th drum.
Sliding due to rocking
is produced to lower
drums.
PGA : 0.60g
Intense rocking of the
6th drum.
Sliding of the lower
drums
Collapse of the 7th
drum and the capital.
PGA : 0.60g
Intense rocking of the
7th drum drives to its
collapse. This motion
produces severe
rocking of the 5th and
6th drum and finally
their collapse too.
Without polos
Wooden polos
Titanium polos
Figure 6. Response shapes of the column for several PGA values for Kalamata case
292
PGA : 0.33g
Rocking and sliding of
the 6th drum but with
higher displacements
(see no polos case).
Rocking of the 2nd
drum which follows
doesnt produce many
displacements to the
lower drums.
PGA : 0.33g
Rocking, sliding and
rotation of 6th drum.
Soft rocking is
produced also to the 4th
drum
It produces rotation of
the 7th drum and of the
capital due to small
tilting
PGA : 0.29g
Rocking begins at 5th
drum and transmits to
the upper drums
PGA : 0.40g
Rocking, sliding and
rotation of 6th drum.
The final
displacements that
produced are 110%
bigger than those of
no polos case.
PGA : 0.36g
Sliding and rocking of
the 6th drum.
Intense rocking of the
2nd drum produces
rocking of the 3rd drum
(contrary to no polos
case) and finally the
collapse.
PGA : 0.36g
Sliding and rocking of
the 6th drum at first
seconds of motion.
Intense rocking of the
2nd drum after a while
which produce rocking
of the 4th drum and
finally the collapse.
PGA : 0.55g
Intense rocking of the 6th and
the 7th drums produces their
collapse.
The rocking of the lower
drums that follows collapse
is softer and produces a
sinusoidal shape response of
drums.
PGA : 0.55g
Intense rocking of the 6th
drum produces the collapse
of the 7th drum and the
capital.
The rocking of the lower
drums that follows is softer
and produces a sinusoidal
shape response of drums.
PGA : 0.40g
Sliding and rocking of the 6th
produced small displacement
of the 5th drum and the
capital.
Rocking of 2nd drum is not
so intense (contrary to
PGA=0.36 case) and shared
also to the upper drums. The
column not collapses.
Without polos
Wooden polos
Titanium polos
In the case of Aigion earthquake, it is observed that the threshold PGA value for collapse cannot be
precisely defined. Collapse of the column is observed for a PGA value around 0.5g, while for higher
values the column could also prove stable (Figure 3b). The titanium poles reduced the displacements
for most PGA levels. From Figure 5 it is clear that a great part of the seismic energy is dissipated at
the capital and upper drums even for low values of PGA. The mode response shows rotation of the
capital by about 45 o due to rocking after the end of the excitation. Because of the intense rocking, the
7th and 6th drums also exhibit some displacement, of the order of 10cm (Figure 5). For greater values
of PGA (>0.40g), rocking is induced to lower drums, in particular at the 3rd one Finally, it was also
observed as in the previous case (Erzincan) that the 2 nd level of damage was reached for increasing
values of PGA. But here, the higher frequency content of the earthquake, contrary to the previous case
of Erzincan, distributed the seismic energy across each drum of the column. This is indicated by the
final displacement pattern which is also distributed over all drums.
Finally, neither for the Kalamata earthquake is it possible to determine a specific value of PGA for
which the column collapses. Collapse in most cases happens due to rocking of the lower drums,
namely the 5th and 6th, as is presented in Figure 3c. It has been also observed that upper drums are
more excited for PGA values lower than 0.35g.On the contrary for higher PGA values the lower drums
are excited the most. In the case of a system without polos, extensive rocking is observed at the 6th
drum during the first seconds of strong motion. During the next few seconds deflections are
transmitted to lower drums. In many cases that produced a sort of sinusoidal shape of the column. The
same was observed for the wooden polos system case (Figure 6). The titanium poles reduced
permanent displacements for most PGA levels. Extensive rocking was observed for PGA values
greater than 0.40g and more precisely to the lower drums, namely the 4th and 5th, which finally
produced the collapse of the column. For the other two polos cases the failure process started with
the collapse of the capital, followed by the 7 th or 6th drum. Distribution of energy over all drums was
also observed, probably due to the high frequency content of the input motion. That is probably the
reason for the sinusoidal shape observed.
293
estimates of soil amplification, something which was later questioned by Kudo, 1995), the frequency
at which the peaks appear is considered reliable (Bard, 1999). Lermo and Chvez-Garca (1993)
introduced the use of HVSR computed for earthquake records to study site response and site effects.
More recently, noise measurements have been used for estimating the seismic response of structures,
investigating site-structure interaction and evaluating damage and vulnerability (Chvez-Garca and
Crdenas, 2002; Mucciarelli et al., 2004; Gallipoli et al., 2003; Irie and Nakamura, 2000; Volant et al.,
2002; Nakamura et al., 1995; Nakamura, 1997). Galli et al. (2006) used noise at a historical site in
Calabria, to estimate site effects and monument response. Noise measurement HVSR has been also
performed to study the response of historical monuments, such as the Coliseum in Rome (Nakamura et
al., 2000) and the leaning tower of Pisa (Nakamura et al.,1999).
Another empirical technique used here, and which also initiated as a site response study tool, is the
standard spectral ratio (SSR). This consists of the spectral ratio relative to a reference station. SSR has
been used to evaluate site effects since Borcherdt (1970). It is assumed that a record on the bedrock or
a nearby rock outcrop can be considered representative of the input motion below the sediments and
thus the ratio is related to site response of the soil profile. Again, this methods scope is extended in
this case so as to study the response of the structure, rather than the sediments. The sites used as
reference sites lay on rock outcrop, or almost.
5.70 m
6.70 m
(b)
(a)
Figure 7.(a) Archeological site of Lindos in Rhodes and column case studies. (b)
Archeological site of Ancient Agora in Thessaloniki and column case study. The
column heights and locations of the recording instruments are also shown.
In the present study, ambient noise was recorded at the top of the columns under study and at a
reference site nearby. In the case of the Acropolis of Lindos in Rhodes, instruments were placed in
the configurations shown in Figure 8a and 8b: one at the top of a single column (a), one on top of the
architrave of the three-column-system (b) and one on the ground, rock outcrop (reference instrument),
at a distance roughly equal to the height of the column. In the case of the Agora in Thessaloniki,
instruments were placed as shown in Figure 8a: one at the top of a single column and one on the
ground, at a distance again roughly equal to the column height. The exact locations of the instruments
are shown with red arrows in Figure 7. It should be noted here that in the case of the architrave,
294
because only one instrument was placed on the structure, there is no way of estimating rotational
motion. Thus, all results can only be interpreted in terms of translation.
In both cases, ambient noise was recorded continuously for 30 to 35 min using three component
broad-band seismometers Guralp (CMG-40T of 30 sec natural frequency), coupled to a high resolution
Reftek recording system (DAS-130) and a GPS unit. The sampling interval of the records was
0.008sec.
(a)
(b)
EW components of noise recorded were rotated parallel and perpendicular to the architrave
direction.
We applied both HVSR and the classic SSR technique, where the fundamental response characteristics
are estimated through the ratio of the two horizontal components recorded on the structure and at the
reference site. Figure 9 shows the HVSR for the reference sites. Theoretically, a reference site lying
on rock outcrop is unaffected by any site effects which is reflected by an HVSR near unity over a
significant frequency range. However this is not always the case, as it is observed in the case of Lindos
outcrop site where the mean ratio is about 2.
10
10
0.1
0.1
f [hz]
(a)
10
0.1
0.1
10
f [Hz]
(b)
295
Modal analyses were performed to investigate the eigen characteristics of the examined columns
which in both case studies were considered as monolithic Figures 10b and 11b present the results of
the modal analysis of the single column and the columns with architrave in Lindos. The range of
values of the fundamental frequencies is due to the range of values assumed for the elastic modulus
and the mass density of the column material. The parametric analyses considered different
combinations of the limestones elastic modulus (E) (considered to take any value between 1.40 and
1.55 GPa) and its density ( ) (taking values between 1.7 and 2.0 ton/m3). .
Comparison of experimental and numerical results: Lindos
Single column
Figure 10a shows the results derived from noise measurements using SSR for both horizontal
components. As expected, the two components are almost identical. Three distinctive peaks appear at
frequencies 4.0Hz, 6.5Hz and 7.0Hz.
On the same figure the results from numerical simulation (violet shaded rectangles) are shown,
indicating two distinguished frequencies range between 3.8-4.2Hz for the first mode and between 1721Hz for the second. The results for HVSR are shown in Figure 10c.
SSR and HVSR agree well for the peaks that appear at 6.5Hz and around 18Hz, while the HVSR
method completely misses the 4Hz peak which is visible only through SSR. This frequency is also
depicted numerically as the equivalent fundamental frequency (3.4Hz). One possible explanation is
that, for frequencies smaller than 5Hz, the vertical component is so well correlated to the horizontal
ones due to flexibility of the column that the ratio is not useful. Moreover it should be expected that
the fundamental mode and overtones should follow the fundamental expression fn=fo*(2n+1).
However the two peaks at 4.0 Hz and at 6.5 Hz do not follow this relation, suggesting that they
correspond to different vibration mechanisms. SSR is perhaps more appropriate to capture these
complex response compared to HVSR which has some inherent shortcomings.
f 1=3.25 4.25 Hz
100
90
HVSR(2)
80
70
60
50
40
HVSR(3)
30
20
10
0
0
10
f (Hz)
(c)
15
20
f 2=17.0 19.8Hz
(b)
Figure 10. (a) SSR results (b) mode shapes of the free column (c) HVSR results of the free
column
Columns with an architrave
296
Figure 11a shows the SSR results obtained with ambient noise measurements for the architrave;
motion is oriented in parallel and transversely to the architrave (N32E, N58W respectively). The peaks
appear at frequencies of 4.0 and 7.0 Hz. On the same graph the numerical results are shown as ranges
for the first three modal shapes. The red shaded rectangle indicates the range of the frequency for the
1st mode. The green shaded rectangle indicates the range of the frequency for the 2nd mode. Finally,
the possible range for the frequency of the 3 rd mode is indicated with the blue shaded rectangle. The
parametric analyses accounted for the same combinations of the limestones mechanical properties as
for the single column case. l. Figure 11c, finally, shows the results from HVSR for both components
oriented, like the SSR, parallel and transversely to the architrave (N32E, N58W respectively). The
peaks appear at frequencies 4.0, 7.0, 11.0 and 17.0 Hz. It is of interest to note that the peak at 7.0Hz
disappears completely for the transverse component.
1200
SSR(2)
1000
SSR(3)
800
600
400
200
0
0
10
f (Hz)
15
20
(a)
35
HVSR(2)-N58W
30
HVSR(3)-N32E
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10
f (Hz)
(c)
15
20
(b)
Figure 11. (a) SSR results (b) mode shapes of the free column (c) HVSR results of the three
column case
Comparison of experimental and numerical results: Thessaloniki ancient Agora site
Figure 12a shows the results derived from noise measurements using SSR ratios for both components,
for the single monolithic column. As expected, the two components (2 and 3) are almost identical. As
has been already mentioned, the range of amplitudes is not significant; and we rely only on the
recorded frequency values. Two clear peaks appear at frequencies of 5.2 Hz and 6.8Hz.
In the same figure the computed results shown a range of frequency between 7.0-10.0Hz (green
shaded rectangle). This frequency range is reached through several parametric analyses, for different
combinations of the marbles mechanical properties. Namely, the elastic modulus (E) ranges from 45
to 60GPa while mass density ( ) ranges between 2.5 and 5.0ton/m3.
The results using HVSR are shown in Figure 12b. The experimental frequency of the first peak lies
around 6.4Hz, a value close to the second one given by SSR. Finally it must also remarked that the
experimental ambient noise measurements might include certain site effects due to the fact that the site
taken as reference does not show a flat response for HVSR in a frequency range of 8-10Hz.
297
100
SSR(2)
Top-HVSR(2)
SSR(3)
Top-HVSR(3)
10
10
0,1
0,1
0.1
f (Hz) 10
0.1
10
(b)
(a)
Figure 12. (a) SSR results (b) HVSR results of the free column
CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents a set of numerical and experimental analyses in order to investigate the seismic
response of monolithic and multidrum ancient columns. The main conclusions are summarised as
follows:
From the three different input signals used, two of them did not allow to determine a specific
yielding value of PGA that would lead to the collapse of the columns.
Rocking occurs at all drum interfaces for PGA values around 0.2g-0.4g for rather highfrequency, near-field earthquakes (Aigion and Kalamata case). Larger PGA values lead to
extensive rocking of the lower drums while the response of the upper part is rather monolithic.
The seismic energy is dissipated by the lower drums for increasing values of PGA.
For Erzincan earthquake record, showing an energy distribution over a wide range of periods,
the maximum dissipation of seismic energy through extensive rocking occurs between the 2nd
and 4th drum for most PGA values. The collapse mode that was observed (between the 2nd and
the 3rd drum) indicates a monolithic behaviour of the column. For the Kalamata record, whose
maximum energy occurs in the period range between 0.3 and 0.7 sec, the 4th and 5th drums
also seem to be affected by the excitation. However, the higher frequency content of this input
motion distributes the energy along the height of the column by dislocating more drums.
Finally, for the Aegion record, with a fundamental period of 0.5 sec, it was observed that the
6th drum suffered the largest dislocation and its rocking affected the motion of the other
drums.
The titanium poles reduced the displacements in most of the cases. For PGA values larger than
0.5g, however, the use of titanium produced a monolithic collapse of the column which is
generally undesired.
The observed twisting rotation was mainly due to rocking. It is observed that the twisting
rotations of the lower drums were enhanced by the extensive rocking of the upper ones.
Finally, a set of microtremor measurements were performed at two different archaeological sites for
three different column configurations. The goal was to estimate the eigen-properties of the column and
compare it with the numerical modal analysis. Both HVSR and SSR methods were applied. Distinct
peaks were clearly visible over specific frequency values which were quite close to the theoretical
modal analysis at least for the SSR. With HVSR it is more difficult to capture the probable
fundamental mode frequency. This is probably due to the fact that the vertical motion at the top of the
column is very similar to the horizontal one because of the large flexibility of the column. The results
derived from the numerical analysis were very similar to the results from SSR, especially in the case
of Lindos. Some discrepancies were noted, possibly due to site effects at the sites taken as reference.
In general it is concluded that noise measurements may give interesting tool to study the seismic
response of monuments and in specific for ancient columns. Given the low cost of this method, as well
298
as the fact that it does not cause any damage to the monuments, it may be a very useful tool to
investigate the seismic response of monuments and complement numerical calculations.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The field surveys described in this paper were financially supported through the Pythagoras project
(Contract no. 97436). The authors express their thanks to Prof. Michalis Tiverios (Department of
History and Archaeology, AUTH), to archaeologist Lilian Acheilara (16 th Ephorate of Prehistoric and
Classical Antiquities, Thessaloniki) and to civil engineer Maria Pikoula (Committee of Restoration
Works Progress in Lindos Acropolis, Rhodes) for the measurements in the archaeological sites of
Thessaloniki and Rhodes. The first author (NA) would like to express his gratitude to Dr. Anastasios
Sextos (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, AUTH) for his overall contribution; His initial
inspiration and the fruitful discussions proved very helpful in producing this paper. The first author
also thanks Prof. Marco Mucciarelli (Universita della Basilicata, Italy) for supplying relevant
literature. The second author (OJK) wishes to thank the Propondis Foundation for its financial support
through scholarship.
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microzoning studies." Proc. of Advanced Study Course in 'Seismotectonic and Microzonation
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Bottari C. Ancient constructions as markers of tectonic deformation and of strong seismic motions,
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2007
Galli P., Ruga A., Scionti V., Spadea R., Archaeoseismic evidence for a Late Roman earthquake in
the Crotone area (Ionian Calabria, Southern Italy):Seismotectonic implications. J. Seismol. 10, pp.
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Gallipoli M.R., Mucciarelli M., Gallicchio S., Tropeano M., Lizza C. Structure, soil-structure
response and effects of damage based on observations of horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio of
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301
FIGURE 1. Views of the northern side of the cliff of the Stavronikita Monastery, Mount Athos,
1
302
The superstructure of the monument has suffered considerable damages due to extensive cracking
associated with slope movements both towards the northern and the eastern directions. Crack widths
were 50-350mm and exhibiting periodical widening. The cracks had a preferential orientation in two
principal directions namely E-W and N-S as shown in Figure 2, which includes typical views of major
cracking in the masonry walls and the foundation bedrock. Such effects were attributed to earthquake
damages, permanent deformations of the rock cliffs, natural wear of construction materials and the
construction history of the complex.
(a)
<
(b)
10m
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 2 . Plan view of the ground floor of the Stavronikita Monastery compound with
network of major cracks. Photographs illustrate cracks in (a) the northern wall
(b) the western wall and (c) in the rock mass at foundation level of the
north wall basement.
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
The site investigation program comprised exploratory boreholes with orientated core recovery, joint
surveying, piezometric monitoring and extensive laboratory tests. Special in-situ tests were also
executed to derive shear strength parameters for critical discontinuities in the rock mass.
The rock cliff materials are schists and gneisses, with well-developed schistosity planes and joints.
Attributes of engineering significance were the variable degree of weathering / alteration, the intensive
jointing and the presence of continuous, open planes of schistosity.
Typical strength parameters for the rock mass components (rock material and discontinuities) were
measured and assessed as summarized in Table 1.
303
UCS
(MPa)
1-5
E
(MPa)
2000
5-10
III
5-20
12000
10-20
II-III
40-70
40000
Rock discontinuities
Description
Schistosity in
Grade II-III rock
Schistosity in
Grade II-III rock
Joints
peak
res
(deg)
40o
(deg)
30o
35o
25o
50 o
30o
(a)
Anchors retaining
the reaction beam
Hydraulic jack
for application
of shear load
(b)
MULTI-STAGE TEST
Normal stress
Shear stress
73 kPa
27 kPa
115 kPa
45 kPa
155 kPa
71 kPA
Figure 3. (a) In situ shear test on a schistosity plane for the determination of large scale
roughness and shear strength (block size 1000x600 mm)
(b) In situ shear test on 500x600 mm block for measurement of the shear strength of
weathered schist
304
(b)
FAULT
PLANE
N-S FAULT
DIRECTION
OF WEDGE
MOVEMENT
Schistosity
140 /25
Direction of slickensides
coincides with the line o
intersection of schistosity
with joint set 225 /80
SCHISTOSITY
140 /25
(a)
FIGURE 4
(a) Diagrammatic illustration of major wedge at eastern slope
(b) Kinematic mechanism of slope instability
(c) Slickensided schistosity plane
Scistocity plane
(140 /25 )
(c)
305
Northern slope
The stability is controlled by the joint sets J1 and J2 which promote planar or multi-planar sliding
mechanisms. The schistocity planes daylighting at the northern slope face, form the lowermost plane
of sliding with a shallow opposite dip (i.e. towards the slope), thus achieving a marginal static
equilibrium.
However, the extensive sliding failures that have occurred in the past (evident from the slope face
overbreaks as seen on the photograph of Figure 1) imply that seismic loadings and local toe
overstressing under static load may activate instability. The latter can be envisaged to develop rapidly
as a result of the structure controlled and gravity driven mechanism influencing a slope zone that
penetrates 3-4 m from the face and endangering the largest part of the northern wall of the compound.
Permanent deformation of the rock mass under past seismic events has resulted in notable loosening
(loss of interlocking) of the rock blocks close to the surface with associated significant reduction of the
shear strength and stiffness. A view of the disturbed rock mass is provided by the photograph in
Figure 2c, where the open cracks are dislocated joints of the set J1. The disturbed rock mass zone
extends at least down to the level of the slope undercutting (see Fig. 1) created by a local zone of poor
materials and wave erosion. The illustrations in Figure 5 present the distributions of the rock materials
and structure as modelled in the UDEC analyses, which will be referred to later.
Highly
disturbed rock
mass zone
Slope
undercut
Weathered
schist
Schistosity
Gneissic
Schist
moderately
weathered
J1
(a)
Schist
Slightlymoderately
weathered
J2
(b)
306
ZONE 17
Figure 6. Zonal map of seismicity and earthquake epicentres in the area of study
Table 2. Seismic characteristics of the area within 150 km from the site
Seismic
characteristics
I (MM)
amax
Vmax (cm/sec)
5 years
10 years
20 years
50 years
V
0.04
2.60
V-VI
0.08
5.50
VI-VII
0.12
8.40
VII-VIII
1.17
12.20
SHALLOW EARTHQUAKES
Time period Epicentre
Magnitude
1901-1985
6.5-7.7
1911-1985
5.5.- 6.4
1911-1985
5.2 5.4
1950-1985
4.8 5.1
1964-1985
4.5 4.7
307
100t/m 100t/m
600
600
100t/m
100t/m
130
0
60
600
1300
700
580
600
700
(ave 1.1)
1300
1300
20
00
100
100
1000
500
1000
600
200
00
1000
2
3
The term undisturbed rock mass implies an initial inferred condition prior to the permanent deformation state and
associated loosening as currently observed.
The disturbedcondition was represented by assigning reduced shear strength and stiffness parameters to the rock mass.
The design stability calulations were carried out on the basis of Fhor =2 W
Fvert =(2 W)/3 as suggested by the
Code for Antiseismic Design valid at the time (1991). At construction stage all calculations were carried out on the basis of
the revised Code (NEAK 1995) where Fhor =0.5 W and Fvert= 0.25 W.
At the eastern slope the 2-D and 3-D analyses demonstrated that the Factors of Safety were:
Static FoS = 1.20
Seismic FoS 1.00
The engineering assessment of all analytical studies converged to the conclusion that the stability state
and geotechnical conditions as the northern slope presented high risk of a catastrophic failure. At the
eastern slope, although the geotechnical conditions did not favour sudden destabilization, it was
evident that the periodical mobilization of slope movement due to earthquake activity and creeping
could prompt critical conditions to the structural integrity of the eastern wing of the compound.
DESIGN OF STABILIZATION MEASURES
The following design criteria were set for the selection of the stabilization scheme:
FoS (static) >2.0
FoS (seismic+ground water pressure) > 1.4
Control deformations under seismic loadings to < 20mm (ca 5o/oo x H)
The FoS were considerably higher than would be considered for a typical civil engineering project.
However, it was deemed necessary to upgrade the safety reserves due to the special nature of the
structure, the adverse seismic loading environment and the highly disturbed nature of the rock mass.
The stabilization measures selected after a rigorous investigation of different options comprised:
308
NORTHERN SLOPE
EASTERN SLOPE
309
(a) Layout of micropiles for strengthening of the north wing foundation subgrade
Figure 8. Details of engineering measures for improvement of the rock mass strength and
stiffness and provision of local support.
310
wing of the monastery. However, no modifications were required for the principal stabilization
scheme of slope anchoring.
The validated geotechnical models provided a reliable basis for further computational verification of
the adequacy of the engineering measures using state-of-art numerical modelling techniques.
The Distinct Element Method (DEM) was applied for rigorous seismic stability analyses of the slopestabilization system. The DEM is implemented in the Finite Difference Software UDEC-BB
(Universal Distinct Element Code coupled with the BartonBandis constitutive model for interface
shear and normal stiffness behavior.
A set of characteristic plots from the UDEC analyses demonstrating the predicted stabilization effects
of the remedial measures under seismic loading of the northern slope is presented in Figures 9 and 10.
0.6g
Instant of seismic
excitation of model
at displacement
stage illustrated
below
20 mm
FAULT
ANCHORS
SLIDING PLANE
OF WEDGE AT
EASTERN SLOPE
22 mm
Figure 9. UDEC model predicted displacement state of eastern slope with fully deployed
Stabilization measures.
311
(b)
(c)
Figure 10. UDEC analyses of northern slope responses under the design earthquake:
(a)
312
The implementation of the project presented significant challenges because of the extent of the works,
the construction limitations associated with the site and the requirement to minimize environmental
impact. Brief technical details of the construction stage are provided in the next section.
CONSTRUCTION STAGE
The stabilizations scheme involved the following quantities of the applied component measures:
Prestressed anchors of 400-800 kN capacity of permanent type (DCP: Double Corrosion
Protected), length of units 25-40m, total length 6200m.
Micropiles of 100-250mm diameter, length 5-12m, total length 7100m.
R/C structures of total concrete volume 1500 m3 and steel reinforcement 180000 kg.
Grouting of total volume 2000t.
Access and working platforms
The transport of plant and materials was carried out via sea till the Mont Athos port of Daphni and
thereafter by road to the jobsite. In order to avoid obstruction to the community of the monastery all
installations were independently installed at locations selected to minimize obstruction and impact to
the surround.
A significant technical problem was the access to the location of works. At the eastern slope access
was partly attained by limited earthworks but the main access and work platforms were provided by
scafoldings specially designed both to be adaptable to the constantly changing topography and to carry
safely the rig plant for the construction of the anchors.
The bearing platform of the scaffolds was constructed by using horizontal H beams which were fixed
to the rock face through an articulating joint and supported at the outer end by a retractable
(telescopic) prop connected to the beam through a joint (Figure 11). Thus a 2-hinged triangular frame
was formed, which could easily be adapted to the variable geometry of the slope face. The platforms
allowed safe access and operation of equipment of weight up to 6 t (Figure 12).
Hinged
connection
Telescopic
props
313
Anchors
Drilling of the holes for installation of the anchors was carried out by percussion drilling and using
lining tubes through the upper weak and loose materials. The drilling equipment used were a hydraulic
rig type CMV 420 and a heavier type Casagrande C6.
The anchors consisted of steel tendons (4-7No) and were manufactured as permanent support units
under double corrosion protection.
Micropiles
Those included four types with correspondingly different fuction:
(a) Vertical micropiles of 150mm diameter and 12m length installed perimetricallly close to the
foundation of the outer wall for local stitching of the dislocated rock blocks close to surface.
(b) Horizontal micropiles (150 mm) for distribution of the anchor loads where the rock mass was
particularly disturbed or weathered.
(c) Inclined micropiles for stitching of the highly disturbed rock mass at the basement level of the
northern wing (100mm diameter, 4-8m long)
(d) Vertical piles with structural reinforcement for foundation of the pedestal structure at the
undercutting of the northern slope.
Concrete structures
These included the anchor beams (csa 1000x800mm) with circa 100 kg reinforcement per linear
metre. A special arched pedestal structure was constructed at the undercutting of the northern slope.
The pedestal structure was designed to sustain ground loading even in case of loss of up to 50% of the
nerth slope anchors and hence the structural reinforcement requirements were significant (900 kg /
linear metre of column). Due to the adverse corrosion environment protection admixtures were used in
the concrete such as microsilica for reduction of permeability (50 kg/m3) and additional Ferrogard 901
(20 kg/m3) for protection against corrosion.
314
Grouting
Extensive grouting was undertaken in the northern slope for filling of the wide cracks across the
highly disturbed rock mass zones penetrating 2-3m into the rock mass. Grouting was carried out prior
to the prestressing of the anchors to work load levels. The grout material consisted of cement:water =
2:1 admixture with sand where the width of the cracks was large.
Bolting
A large number of bolts was installed for the protection of the staff and local stabilization. The bolts
were non-permanent 25mm diameter and 3-5m long.
Drainage measures
Those included installation of 10No drainage holes each of 15 m length at the northern slope and reconstruction of the drainage system of the monastery to avoid infiltration of waste water in the rock
mass.
Instrumentation
The following instruments were installed at selected locations:
21No electrical load cells for monitoring the anchor loads
6No extensometers
1No inclinometer for monitoring the overall deformation state of the north wall foundation zone
1No tiltmeter (north wall0
The instruments were connected to a data logger allowing tele-controlled transmission of
measurements.
The photographs in Figures 13-16 illustrate different stages of construction.
315
Figure 14. Strengthening of the foundation rock mass by micropiles and grouting and
underpinning of bearing columns and other masonry elements of the monastery compound.
316
317
CONCLUSIONS
Historical monuments are invariably exposed to the influence of the geological and geotechnical
environment. Given the lifespan of such structures, several dynamic geological processes
(weathering / erosion, surface movements and earthquakes) usually have a dramatic impact on
the integrity of the monuments. Geotechnical Engineering has a dominant role in the study of
the natural causes of wear and damages of the structures and in the design of appropriate
interventions for effective and sustainable technical solutions.
The protection of monuments requires special approaches in terms of adaptation of the
engineering interventions to the historical environment and the lifetime of such interventions.
The significant cost and implicit long-term effectiveness of engineering schemes for the
protection of historical monuments necessitates integrated approaches requiring on-going
validation of the Design. The co-operation between the Designer and the Contractor during
construction and long-term performance monitoring are key components for the success of such
undertakings.
REFERENCES
Bandis, S.C., C.A. Schinas, G. Rizopoulos, K. Mantas (2001) : Stabilization of the Stavronikita
Monastery Cliffs Part A : Project Design Studies, Proceedings 4 th Hellenic Conference in
Geotechnical Engineering, June 2001(in Greek)
Rizopoulos, G., K. Mantas, S.C. Bandis and C.A. Schinas (2001) : Stabilization of the Stavronikita
Monastery Cliffs Part B : Project Construction, Proceedings 4th Hellenic Conference in Geotechnical
Engineering, June 2001(in Greek)
Note: Several unpublished references (in Greek) which contributed to the study of the project are included in the
reference list of the above publications and will not be repeated here.
318
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W2-1007
INTRODUCTION
Much of the cultural heritage in Italy is kept in small to medium urban centers, rather than in big
cities. Since pre-Roman period to Middle Age, great part of such towns was edified on dominant
topographic locations, mainly for strategic reasons, because this choice gave more chance to safeguard
populations from the danger of barbarian attacks and invasions. However, the position of these urban
centers did not result so safe with respect to the vulnerability towards natural hazards, because they
often fall in orogenetic contexts prone to both hydrogeological and seismic actions (e.g. Fenelli et al.,
1998). Nowadays, the above factors claim for an enhanced degree of protection with reference to the
high exposition of monuments, historical buildings and people activities developed in these towns to
the damage by ground shaking and/or deformation induced by strong-motion earthquakes.
The Italian territory is fairly unstable and with frequent seismic activity, especially along the Apennine
chain. The map in Fig. 1 represents the peak ground acceleration, amax, expected with 10% probability
of exceedance in 50 yrs (i.e. with 475 yrs return period), as predicted by the most recent official
seismic hazard zonation in Italy (MPS Working Group, 2004).
1
319
Figure 1. Seismic hazard map of Italy (after MPS Working Group, 2004)
and landscapes of the historical centers selected.
The most hazardous areas (amax up to 0.3 g) are concentrated along the Central-Southern Apennine
chain, which is struck by strong motion earthquakes about once a decade. Since early 80s, after the
Irpinia earthquake (23.XI.1980, ML=6.9), a wide effort was dedicated by the Authors institutions to
applied research on earthquake geotechnical engineering problems related to the historical towns lying
in the most active seismic Apennine regions.
This paper summarizes and compares five examples of centers located on hilly areas (see Fig. 1),
which were struck by strong motion earthquakes in the past (Table 1), always with widespread damage
to buildings, and often with significant ground deformation or failure. For each of them, the seismic
response was seen to depend on the specific combination between earthquake characteristics and
subsoil morphology and stratigraphy. Accurate predictions or assessment of the seismic response and,
eventually, microzonation studies could take profit from advanced analysis of:
- the geological and geotechnical models, to characterize the subsoil vulnerability;
- the reference input motions, to represent the seismic hazard;
- the seismic response, to predict or assess the ground motion in the urban center.
Table 1. Seismic hazard data relevant to the analysed centers.
town (population)
Benevento (63,026)
Orvieto (20,909)
Nicastro* (-)
Gerace (2,932)
S. Giuliano di Puglia (1,147)
*
Actually, the town inhabitants are about 50,000, but the area of interest is not populated.
320
All the following analyses were referred to deterministic seismic scenarios, defined by the maximum
historical earthquakes. In each case study, 1D or mostly 2D dynamic analyses were based upon
wide and accurate geotechnical characterization, which is, unfortunately, not the standard practice in
Italy. They will be discussed following the same order as in Table 1, i.e. for decreasing town
population and increasing age of the studies reported hereafter.
(b)
300 m a.s.l.
(a)
FLF
R
ALG
Dt
CR
200
AGA
Figure 2. Geological map of Benevento (modified after Improta et al., 2005) (a);
representative NW-SE section (b).
321
The historical centre lies on a hill made of a Pleistocenic (Rissian) conglomeratic slab (CR), overlying
a Pliocenic clay formation (AGA), the top of which lays tens to hundreds of meters below the ground
level. Towards the S-E side of the hill, fine to coarse fluvio-lacustrine deposits (FLF, FLG) overlay the
conglomerate formation. Terraced alluvia (GS), outcrop in the river valleys, and locally are covered by
sand and coarse grained recent alluvia (ALG). Debris/colluvial deposits (Dt) and man-made ground
(R), including large masonry blocks and archaeological ruins, are widespread throughout the whole
urban territory (Improta et al., 2005).
All the available geotechnical data, widespread on the whole urban territory, were georeferenced and
uploaded into a GIS (Penna, 2005). More than 260 boreholes were carefully analyzed; 30 down-hole
profiles were integrated with site-specific correlations between blowcounts (N SPT) and shear wave
velocity (VS). A spatial subsoil model (Fig. 3) describing the variation of VS throughout the whole
town center was obtained by means of a geostatistical approach (Penna, 2005; Penna et al, 2007).
Overall, the 3D geostatistical model shows that the limit between the soft shallower deposits (R, Dt,
ALG, with VS < 500 m/s) and the underlying stiffer formations (GS, CR, AGA, with VS > 500 m/s) is
very variable, and that it is often hard to identify a firm bedrock between the Pleistocenic
conglomerates and the Pliocenic clay formation.
Vs
(m/s)
800
650
500
360
180
Figure 3. 3D shear wave velocity model for the subsoil of Benevento (after Penna et al., 2007).
Table 2 summarizes the soil properties, either measured or assumed on the basis of literature data, of
the geotechnical units. The initial damping, D0, and the linear and volumetric threshold strain levels, l
and v, were used to define the G/G0- and D- curves relevant for the seismic response analyses
(Santucci de Magistris et al., 2004).
322
(kN/m3)
17
18-19
18-19
19-21
19
20
20
23
21.3
22.5
VS
(m/s)
130 300
250 -330
200 500
630 -750
700
300 500
600 800
800 900
450 600
800
D0
(%)
5
3
2
1
3
1
1
0.5
3
2
(%)
0.001
0.0029
0.001
0.002
0.005
0.002
0.0015
0.02
0.009
0.009
(%)
0.01
0.0371
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.02
0.042
0.2
0.103
0.106
The maximum historical event that struck the city was the 1688 Sannio earthquake with I max=XI MCS,
moment magnitude MW= 6.72 and epicenter located around 40 km N of Benevento. This earthquake,
featured by a return period Tr 380 years, was adopted as the reference input motion for dynamic
seismic response analyses. The ground motion at rock outcrop was simulated using a hybrid statisticaldeterministic approach, producing three sets of 150 synthetic seismograms, one for each motion
component (NS, EW and UD). The average response spectrum of the NS components of the full
dataset is plotted in Fig. 4, together with the standard deviation (red lines). An appropriate cluster
analysis (Aliperti, 2006) allowed to reduce this numerous dataset to 8 most representative
accelerograms, the average spectrum of which ( ) is also plotted in the same figure (blue lines). Note
that the higher the number of signals, the lower the standard deviation.
2.00
1.75
1.50
8 signals; avg.
1.25
1.00
150 signals; avg.
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
0
0.5
1.5
Period, T(sec)
Figure 4. Average response spectra and confidence intervals for the accelerograms simulating
the 1688 Sannio earthquake (after Aliperti, 2006).
Seismic response analysis
The 3D geostatistical subsoil model in Fig. 3 was used for a preliminary seismic zonation of
Benevento, based only on site classification criteria (Grade-2 according to ISSMGE-TC4, 1999). As
suggested by Eurocode 8 (EN 1998-1 2003), each surface point was associated to a site-specific
acceleration spectrum, consistent with the equivalent shear wave velocity VS,30 , this latter computed
along the vertical profiles of the geostatistical model. Indeed, this procedure lead to a quite rough
microzonation map, consisting in an almost homogeneous distribution of site-specific seismic actions
throughout the whole urban area (Santucci de Magistris et al., 2004; Penna, 2005). As of matter of
323
fact, the EC8 ground types do not cover adequately and uniquely all soil conditions which are often
encountered in practice, in terms of both typical soil layering and definition of the classification
parameter, VS,30. Following the suggestions by Bouckovalas et al. (2006) addressing some possible
modifications of the EC8 provisions (Fig. 5a), an upgraded zonation of the Benevento territory
resulted as mapped in Fig. 5b.
a)
b)
A1
A2
B
C
D
E
Figure 5. Definition of ground types according to Bouckovalas et al (2006) (a) and site
classification map of Benevento (b).
A Grade 3 zonation (ISSMGE-TC4, 1999) was finally carried out, by dynamic response analyses with
reference to the deterministic seismic scenario above defined. 1D linear equivalent analyses were
carried out using EERA code (Bardet et al., 2000) on 28 sites widespread all around the city (see Fig.
6). 16 of them corresponded to the locations of DH VS measurements (red flags in Fig. 6), while in the
remaining sites (green triangles) the VS profile was obtained from the geostatistical model. Sitespecific response spectra were obtained by averaging the results of seismic response analyses with the
clusterized accelerometric dataset as input motion signals. Finally, seven homogeneous zones were
identified by grouping together the sites with similar average spectra.
Zone 1 is characterized by relatively low amplification in the whole range of periods, due to the
limited seismic impedance ratio. In Zone 1 *, higher peak spectral accelerations occur for T = 0.25 0.4
s, since the deformable soil layers are deeper than in zone 1. Moderate spectral amplifications over a
wide range of periods are computed in Zone 2, where deformable soils are presents at higher depth,
and a medium impedance ratio can be evaluated along the shear wave velocity profiles. Zone 3 is
characterized by some significant spectral amplification for periods spanning between 0.2 and 0.6 s,
while the VS profiles indicate large impedance ratios. In Zone 4, where deeper deformable formations
and large impedance ratios are detected, the spectral acceleration reaches even 2g for periods T=
0.2 0.3 s. A quite large spectral amplification, concentrated in a narrow frequency range characterizes
the spectral response of Zone 5, due to the shallow bedrock and large seismic impedance ratio. A
similar situation is finally found in Zone 6, where the highest spectral accelerations (up to 2.5g!) have
been computed for a period of 0.2s.
By comparing Figs. 5 and 6, it appears that some important details in the zonation were not
appreciated even using an improved Grade 2 approach. This could be due to the presence of the stiff
levels somewhere overlying the Pliocenic clay formation assumed as bedrock. Its is worth nothing that
the Grade 3 zonation map resulted quite compatible with the indications of standard spectral ratios of
micro-earthquakes and ambient noise recordings (Improta et al., 2005) and the site intensity
distribution observed after 1688 Sannio earthquakes (Castenetto and Romeo, 1992).
324
3.00
Zone 1
2.50
Ponte
Galanti
Asse S10
Asse S3
Viad. SS3
Ponte 2
Input motion
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0
0.5
1
Period, T (sec)
1.5
3.00
Zone 1*
2.50
2.00
Rufina
Asse S1
Input motion
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0
3.00
0.5
1
Period, T (sec)
1.5
3.00
Zone 2
2.50
Zone 3
2.50
2.00
2.00
Avellola AT1
Avellola AT3
AvellolaAT2
Input motion
1.50
IND_SOND 113
IND_SOND 190
IND_SOND 260-261
Input motion
1.50
1.00
1.00
0.50
0.50
0.00
0.00
0
0.5
1
Period, T (sec)
1.5
3.00
0.5
1
Period, T (sec)
1.5
3.00
Zone 4
2.50
Zone 5
2.50
Avellola AT6
Viad. SS11
Avellola AT8
Viad. SS9
Avellola AT4
Input motion
2.00
1.50
1.00
2.00
IND_SOND 243
IND_SOND 253
IND_SOND 250
Input motion
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.50
0.00
0.00
0
0.5
1
Period, T (sec)
1.5
0.5
1
Period, T (sec)
3.00
1.5
Zone 6
2.50
2.00
Guerrazzi
IND_SOND 8
IND_SOND 182
IND_SOND 16
Input motion
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0
0.5
1
Period, T (sec)
1.5
Figure 6. Grade-3 seismic zonation of Benevento: map and site response spectra grouped for
different zones.
325
Stat
e
Um road
b ro
-C
a se
n tin
e se
CHP
A'
ero
gu
ll
S7
m s.l.m.
an
Fosso C avaro
ne
San Benedetto
gully
RU 7
Pozzo d i San Patrizi o
San D omen ico
Porta
Ro mana
San Fran cesco
ese
RU 1
C
i ve
100
tta
gu
lly
de
ll a
Ab
ba
d ia
BR
CATHED RAL
S ta
Um te R
bro oad
-C
as
ent
in
POZZO DI S. PATRIZIO
200
Fo
ss
o
RU 10
Pal azzo de i
Ca pitan i del Po pol o
Porta Mag gio re
A'
RU10
300
CHR
Clay
Pyroclastic
materials
Albornoz
m s .l.m.
300
CHR RU1
Landslide
debris
RU10
B'
RU7
S7 CHP
200
100
0
400
800
1200
1600
2000 m
Figure 7. Plan and geological sections of Orvieto hill (modified after Manfredini et al., 1980).
Geotechnical data on pyroclastic materials were collected at the southern cliff: boreholes were drilled,
static and dynamic properties of materials were determined on the recovered cores and shear wave
velocities were measured by a cross-hole test (Tommasi and Ribacchi, 1998; Rotonda et al., 2002).
The stiff in-situ clay formation is covered by a slide debris blanket of remoulded and oxidized clay. At
the top, the stiff clay is softened and fissured, with closely spaced joints which progressively disappear
with depth. The thickness of the different clay layers varies widely throughout the slope. The
geotechnical parameters of pyroclastic and clayey materials are summarised in Tables 3-4.
Table 3. Geotechnical properties of the Orvieto cliff materials
Red
Tuff
Bulk dry density (Mg/m3)
1.18
laboratory 1150
Shear wave velocity
(m/s)
in situ
Material
Competent
pozzolana
1.15
620
550-650
Weak pozzolana
1.06
540
470
Stiff
2.14
20
50
21
560-590
Softened
2.01
23.5
50
20
300-450
Remoulded
2.0
27
53
24
200-210
326
The geotechnical model along the longitudinal (WE) and transversal (NS) directions is sketched in
Fig. 8. From top to bottom, the slab consists of a 20 m weak pozzolana layer, resting on a 10 m layer
of competent pozzolana, which in turn overlies a 30 m tuff layer. Beneath the slab, a 200 m thick stiff
clayey substratum is superimposed on the bedrock. The different layers were characterised by constant
values of bulk unit weight, , and shear wave velocity, VS, assigned on the basis of the above
mentioned laboratory and cross-hole tests. It is worth noting that the product of Vs and values yields
singular variations of impedance ratios between in-contact materials. More in detail, the clay/tuff
impedance ratio is 1.1; conversely, impedance ratio values for tuff/pozzolana and competent/weak
pozzolana are 1.24 and 1.27, respectively. This implies that the larger impedance contrast is not at the
clay-slab interface, but between the volcanic materials within the slab. The G/G0- and D- curves for
each material were taken from experimental data published in the literature on similar materials
(Muzzi et al., 2001).
1400 m (E-W cross-section)
700 m (N-S cross-section)
60 m
300 m
100 m
100 m
3
Bedrock
25,5 kN/m , VS =2200 m/s
More cemented pozzolana
Pozzolana
13,3 kN/m3 , VS =660 m/s
13,3 kN/m 3 ,VS =530 m/s
Tuff
Stiff clay
3
12,5 kN/m3 ,VS =900 m/s
21,0 kN/m , VS =600 m/s
Figure 8. Geotechnical model for numerical analyses (modified after Muzzi et al., 2001).
Reference input motion
As documented by historical sources, Orvieto suffered the effects of near-field as well as far-field
earthquakes. The strongest near-field event was the 1695 Bagnoregio earthquake (de = 10 km, I 0 = IX
MCS) which also produced the highest site intensity at Orvieto (I S = VIII MCS). Most of the events
were triggered by far-field sources (de = 70-80 km), located in the Umbria Apennines. An analysis of
the historical seismicity of Orvieto and a seismotectonic study of the region were carried out for
evaluating a credible rock outcropping motion (Muzzi et al., 2001). Two controlling near-field (NF)
and far-field (FF) seismogenic zones were identified, which are characterised by de 20 km, Mmax =
5.9 (NF) and d e 70 km, Mmax = 6.7 (FF). Several rock outcropping accelerograms were selected from
the world-wide databases matching the required Mmax and de values. Two records producing the
maximum ground motion at the site in the frequency range of interest were chosen: for the near-field,
the NS horizontal component recorded at Cascia station during the 1979 Valnerina earthquake (Italy),
and the NS horizontal component at Butler Valley station during the 1992 Cape Mendocino
earthquake (USA) for the far-field (Fig. 9).
0.2
0.8
0.1
Cascia NS
(near-field)
0.6
-0.1
near-field
0.15 g
-0.2
0
0.2
10
15
20
0.4
Butler V. NS
(far-field)
0.1
0.2
0
-0.1
fa r-field
-0.2
0
10
Time (s)
15
20
c)
0
0.01
0.1
10
Period (s)
Figure 9. Time histories and response spectra of the reference input motions.
327
0.1
amax (g)
0.2
0.3
0.4 0
max (%)
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.4
Shake (NF)
Quad4m (NF)
Shake (FF)
Quad4m (FF)
40
80
NF
FF
0.3
0.2
0.1
(c)
120
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
160
NS section
hill center
200
(a)
240
NS Section
(b)
Figure 10. NS section: vertical profiles of peak acceleration (a) and shear strain (b) by 1D and
2D analyses at the hill center, and horizontal amax profiles computed by 2D analyses (c)
(modified after Muzzi et al., 2001)..
328
(kN/m3)
21
23
24
26
27
0.35
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
VS (m/s)
350
700
900-1000
1200
1500
D0 (%)
1.0
1.0
0.4
0.4
0.1
329
near-field
1.25
average +
(attenuation model)
a)
0.25
b)
real accelograms
real accelograms average
0.2
far-field
average
(attenuation model)
0.15
0.75
0.1
0.5
0.25
0
0.01
0.05
average -
(attenuation model)
0.1
Period, T (s)
0
0.01
0.1
Period, T (s)
Figure 12. Real accelerograms selected for near-field (a) and far-field (b) conditions.
Seismic response analyses
The seismic response of the cliff to both reference earthquakes was simulated by the finite difference
code FLAC (Itasca, 2002). The input motions were applied to the base of the model as vertically
incident SV waves. Due to the high stiffness of the materials, only linear analyses were carried out.
The dynamic response of the cliff was investigated for both sections in Fig. 11, characterised by
different shape ratios H/L (where H is the average cliff height and L is the half-width at the base),
respectively equal to 0.55 and 0.8 for cross-sections 1-1 and 2-2. The steeper section 2-2 is also
characterised by stiffer material with respect to the other.
The representative finite difference meshes shown in Fig. 13 were discretised in order to model
frequencies up to 20 Hz, while radiation damping was simulated by viscous dashpots at the bottom
and free-field boundaries at the both vertical sides. The same figure shows the horizontal profiles of
the peak surface acceleration, normalized to the corresponding value at the outcropping bedrock, with
reference to all the selected input motions. For both sections, the amplification increases from the base
to the crest of the cliff, with maximum values generally between 2 and 2.5. In order to evaluate the
magnitude of the stratigraphic amplification, 1D analyses were carried out for the vertical soil columns
corresponding to two representative nodes at the crest of the cliff (1A and 2A in Fig. 13).
In the time domain, the topographic amplification factor, AT, was then evaluated as the 2D over 1D
ratio of horizontal peak acceleration. The values calculated by averaging the amplification factors
resulting for all the selected near-field and far-field accelerograms were about 1.5 for section 1-1 and
1.9 for the steeper section 2-2. Overall, such factors are 15% higher than those calculated for a simple
homogeneous subsoil model (Pagliaroli et al., 2006).
330
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
a)
40
80
120
160
200
distance (m)
240
40
80
120
160
distance (m)
2A
1A
1-1 cross-section
near field
far field
b)
200
2-2 cross-section
Figure 13. Normalised horizontal peak accelerations computed at the surface of cross-sections 11 (a) and 2-2 (b) for the near-field and far-field input motions.
In the frequency domain, the topographic amplification was estimated by the so-called TAF function,
expressed in terms of the ratio between 2D over 1D smoothed Fourier spectra at the crest nodes 1A
and 2A (Fig. 14). It can be noted that the input motion does not affect the variation of TAF with
frequency, for all the selected input motions. The maximum peak spectral amplification occurs
between 3-5 Hz for both sections. This peak corresponds to the fundamental frequency of vibration
(f2D) of the cliff, estimated by the Rayleigh method applied to homogeneous triangle-shaped
asymmetric ridges (Paolucci, 2002):
f 2D
f SV
VS
2L
(1)
where f SV is a factor usually variable between 0.6 and 1.0, according to geometric features of the cliff
and the Poisson ratio. For the case of Nicastro, being 2L=180 m and VS=1200 m/s (representative
value of the average stiffness of the cliff), equation (1) yields f 2D=4-6 Hz. Therefore, topographic
amplification can be interpreted as a two-dimensional resonance phenomenon, as also shown by the
simplified homogeneous model (Pagliaroli, 2006). The amplitude of spectral amplification at crest is
about 1.8 and 2.5 for sections 1-1 and 2-2 respectively, thus increasing with H/L ratio analogously to
amplification factor A T.
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1-1 section
0.1
1A
near field
far field
mean
a)
1
Frequency, f (Hz)
10
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2-2 section
2A
b)
0.1
10
Frequency, f (Hz)
Figure 14. Topographic aggravation factor (TAF) computed at the crest of cross-sections 1-1 (a)
and 2-2 (b) for the near-field and far-field input motions.
331
(kN/m3)
VS
(m/s)
16.69
400
16.69
16.94
18.05
19.51
21.00
21.00
20.87
20.87
22.00
750
400
800
750
658
725
454
643
1500
G
(MPa)
K
(MPa)
D0
(%)
'
()
c'
(kPa)
0.250
267
445
0.5
35
0.250
0.322
0.332
0.285
939
271
1155
1097
909
1104
430
863
4950
1565
671
3053
2186
4243
5151
1404
2816
10725
0.5
0.5
1.5
0.5
1.5
1.5
3.0
3.0
40
35
32
30
700
54
34
1000
25
25
0.400
0.361
0.300
Linear
0.100
0.140
0.300
0.164
0.164
0.103
0.103
0.048
0.060
0.160
0.068
0.040
Linear
332
0.25
(a)
0.15
P&S(89) mean
(b)
P&S(89) mean
0.80
0.05
0.60
-0.05
0.40
-0.15
0.20
-0.25
LANDERS 1992
0.00
10
20
30
40
time, t (s)
50
60
70
2
period, T (s)
333
0.60
0.50
0.40
(a)
surface
top of varicolour clay
bedrock
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
-1800 -1600 -1400 -1200 -1000 -800
50 0 m
-600
-400 -200
0
200
distance, d (m)
400
fractured calcarenites
calcarenites
800
C1
NW
600
(435ms.l.m.)
0.5
1km
SE
sandstones
clayey marls
25 0
conglomerates & sands
varicolour clay shales
0
0.60
(b)
surface
0.50
0.40
bedrock
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
-1600 -1400 -1200 -1000 -800
200
400
600
distance, d (m)
C2
500m
250
0.5
1 km
(435ms.l.m.)
SW
NE
Figure 17. Horizontal peak acceleration profiles along NW-SE (a) and SW-NE (b) sections.
The surface motion amplitudes (blue lines) along the NW-SE section (Fig. 17a), characterised by a
smoother topographic profile, show that the amplification is visibly affected by the impedance
contrasts, and enhances across the more deformable sandstone layer. Also, the interaction between
incident and diffracted waves induces oscillating amplification factors and out-of-phase motion. In the
narrower NE-SW section, wave focalisation into the hilltop induces a pronounced topographic
amplification, which results into A T of the order of 1.9 (Costanzo, 2007), i.e. a little higher than the
maximum values evaluated for Orvieto (1.7) and equal to those relevant for Nicastro.
As for the case of Nicastro cliff, the net topographic effect was evaluated by the TAF parameter, again
defined as 2D over 1D Fourier spectra ratio (Fig. 18). At the hilltop (sites C1 and C2) and on the
sandstones outcropping (site S), the TAF results sensibly higher than unity in the range between 2 and
8 Hz. At the crest of the longitudinal cliff section (C1), the TAF is about 2.5 around 5 Hz, which falls
in the range of resonance periods of typical Gerace buildings. At the apex of the narrow section (C2),
the TAF shows a peak of 3.8 for frequency of 3.5Hz and an apparent tendency to increase beyond
334
6Hz, due to numerical oscillations of low values of 2D and 1D Fourier amplitudes in the high
frequency range.
5
C1
C2
3
2
1
0
0.1
10
frequency, f (Hz)
Figure 18. Topographic aggravation factory (TAF) computed at the crest of both sections
and at the outcrop of sandstones along the section NW-SE.
The vertical ground motion profiles and the plastic strains distribution, not reported here (see Costanzo
et al., 2007a,b), indicate a tendency to slippage of the calcarenite layers along the contact with the
underlying weak sandstone. Irrecoverable strains as high as 0.1% concentrate at the NW and SE toes
of the hill and across the soft rock slab, evidencing an asynchronous motion of independent calcarenite
blocks: this could be responsible for the opening of sub-vertical cracks across the cliff and of a rigid
sliding of the calcarenite above the sand layer at the hilltop (see Costanzo et al., 2007a). Also, the final
deformation pattern of the transversal section showed residual displacement values higher than 1.5 m
in correspondence of the swelled varicolour clay, just beneath the contact with conglomerates: this
deformation pattern seems to highlight the triggering of a rotational slope instability at the base of the
hill.
Therefore, the results of the non-linear 2D numerical analyses indicated not only a frequencydependent amplification of the ground motion at the cliff surface, but also a significant ground
deformation under the maximum historical earthquake; both effects have to be accounted for the
protection of Gerace and its cultural heritage from the seismic risk.
335
et al., 2004) indicated that the damage distribution was strongly non-uniform, with resulting VII-VIII
EMS + in the recent part of the town, and VI in the ancient zone (see Fig. 20b). Such evidence
suggested that differential site amplification significantly affected the seismic response in the town;
the hypothesis was confirmed by the observation of the aftershock sequence recorded by two mobile
accelerometric stations, located on clay and flysch outcrops, shown in Fig. 20c (Puglia et al., 2007).
For the seismic microzonation of the town, the Department of Civil Protection (DPC) of the Italian
Government committed a comprehensive study on the subsoil properties (Baranello et al., 2003). The
field investigation included a large number of boreholes, sampling pits, in situ piezometric
measurements, CPT, cross-hole and down-hole tests. The laboratory experimental programme
involved oedometer, triaxial and cyclic/dynamic torsional shear tests on undisturbed samples of finegrained soils, analyzed in detail by Silvestri et al. (2006a). Table 7 describes the geotechnical
properties for the marly clay and flysch formations, as reported by Silvestri et al. (2006b).
Table 7. Geotechnical properties of the San Giuliano di Puglia subsoil
Toppo Capuana
marly clays
Debris cover
Tawny clay
Grey clay 1
Grey clay 2
Grey clay 3
Grey clay 4
Grey clay 5
Grey clay 6
Faeto flysch
Depth, z [m]
0 - 2.4
2.4 - 7.3
7.3 - 15
15 - 30
30 - 60
60 - 120
120 - 240
> 240
-
[kN/m3]
19.6
21.15
21.2
22
VS [m/s]
122
250
339
364
391
421
454
483
1350
D0 [%]
3
2.3
2.5
0.5
0.493
0.489
0.485
0.483
0.481
0.479
0.477
0.475
0.392
VP [m/s]
1010
1700
1970
2000
2050
2100
2160
2210
3200
Although very accurate and detailed in terms of characterisation of lithological, physical and
mechanical properties of the geomaterials, neither the above investigation nor the numerous surface
geological surveys could assess for certain the actual geometry of the stratigraphic contact between
flysch and marly clay. On purpose, in the framework of the INGV-S3 National Research Project, deep
geophysical surveys were carried out: three geo-electric resistivity tomographies (see Silvestri et al.,
2006b), a gravimetric (Palmieri et al., 2006) and two deep seismic surveys (under processing) seem to
indicate a complex 3D flysch-clay interface, characterised by planar boundaries rather than a basin
geometry, as formulated by the earlier studies (Baranello et al., 2003). To date, the subsoil model most
effective in matching the results of geophysical surveys and reproducing the subsoil response recorded
during the aftershocks (Puglia et al., 2007) is that reported in Fig. 20c, i.e. a wedge-shaped clay
deposit, fully bounded by the soft rock and deep about 300m.
Reference input motion
The mainshock of the 2002 Molise seismic sequence was simulated by Franceschina et al. (2006)
through the Hybrid Integral-Composite source model (HIC), considering the fault mechanism
formulated by Basili and Vannoli (2005). Fig. 19a shows the acceleration time history of the
horizontal component on rock outcrop resulting from the HIC simulation, after projection along the
section in Fig. 20. A 7Hz low-pass filter was applied for consistency with the mesh discretisation used
in the numerical analyses described below.
A typical engineering approach was also used to define the seismic input motion, by using the most
significant aftershock (2002.XI.12, ML=5.2) recorded by the mobile station on the rock outcrop. The
horizontal and vertical peak acceleration were scaled to the values predicted by regional attenuation
laws, calibrated on the records of several temporary and permanent networks operating in the area
affected by the seismic sequence (Luzi et al., 2006). Fig, 19b shows the time history of the scaled
aftershock after projection along the section and 7Hz low-pass filtering. The comparison between the
two input motions considered shows that the simulated mainshock has a peak amplitude of about
+
Note that such values in EMS-98 (European Macroseismic Scale) are roughly equivalent to those
corresponding in the MCS scale.
336
0.05g, against 0.03g of the scaled aftershock. On the other hand, the response spectra (Fig. 19c) show
comparable frequency contents, with peak values around 5 Hz (0.2 s), and similar trends throughout
the range of the resonant periods (0.1 to 0.5s) of most of the buildings.
0. 5
0 .1
PSV , T dT
(2)
and assuming a structural damping =5%. The horizontal profile of this integral ground motion
parameter is also plotted in Fig. 20c with black lines (left scale). Note that the ratio between the SI
values pertaining to the two ground motions, as well as their trends with local oscillations, are much
similar to those observed for the peak ground acceleration.
In such a way, the predicted ground motion profiles can be reliably compared to the observed degree
of damage, this latter expressed in terms of standardized damage, as shown in Fig. 20a (Dolce et al.,
2004). This index assumes values between 0 (no damage), and 1 (building collapse), and it does not
depend on the vulnerability class of the building; therefore, it can be viewed as a significant variable
337
to empirically measure the local amplification effects. A closer analysis of the variation of such
parameter at the building size scale appears promising to reveal the likely correlation existing between
the predicted ground motion and the observed damage.
Figure 20. Geological map (from Puglia et al., 2007) and standardized damage of buildings in San
Giuliano di Puglia (from Dolce et al., 2004) (a); average degree of damage in terms of EMS (from
Dolce et al., 2004) (b); horizontal profiles of peak ground acceleration and Housner intensity for
the wedge-shaped subsoil model subjected to two input motions (c).
CONCLUSIONS
In all the above examples, the expected seismic response of urban areas under maximum historical
earthquakes was accurately analysed with comparable methodologies, although with different specific
addresses. In fact, the studies were more or less oriented to prediction or assessment, depending on the
availability of data on the historical damages. For each case study, Table 8 summarizes the main
aspects of input motion and subsoil modelling which significantly influenced the seismic response
analyses.
The overall intensity in terms of EMS (Fig. 20b) was instead obtained through the comparison between
average damage index, as calculated by Damage Probability Matrices (DPM) referred to the vulnerability class
of the buildings, and observed for specific zones (Dolce et al., 2004).
338
amax
(hazard map)
amax
(this study)
Benevento
0.250 0.275
0.3350.129
Orvieto
0.125 0.150
Nicastro
0.250 0.275
Gerace
0.200 0.225
0.200
S. Giuliano di
Puglia
0.200 0.225
0.03-0.05
0.150 (nf)
0.067 (ff)
0.350 (nf)
0.040 (ff)
Bedrock
Soil layering
Topography
Assumed at
variable depth
Assumed at
fixed depth
Assumed at
fixed depth
Back-analysed
(far field records)
Back-analysed
Under deeper
investigation
Complex
with some impedance inversions
Regular
with constant impedance
Variable
with weathering at surface
Regular
with some impedance inversions
Gently
sloping hill
Continuous variation
with depth
Gently
sloping hill
Plateau
Peak
Plateau
In most cases (except for San Giuliano), no representative seismic signals were already available for
the definition of suitable reference rock outcropping motions: therefore, these were defined on the
basis of detailed studies on the historical seismicity and seismotectonic outlines of the regions. Table 8
compares the peak ground accelerations predicted by the official hazard map by MPS Working Group
(2004) to those used in this study. Actually, for Nicastro and Benevento, the ground motion
amplitudes considered herein overestimate the specified values. For San Giuliano, the values of amax
assumed in the analysis significantly underestimate that prescribed by the hazard map, since the recent
earthquake considered is not the maximum historical event. Anyway, in most cases the results
presented herein might be taken as references for seismic microzonation maps for urban planning. In
such perspective, when the available subsoil data are numerous, like in the case of Benevento, the use
of GIS maybe very promising.
The geo-morphological setting and the susbsoil layering were sometimes quite complex; thus, their
study resulted of critical importance for the subsoil modelling. The bedrock depth and geometry were
in most cases unknown; their definition strongly influences the low-frequency response and the
variation of amplification at surface, like verified for San Giuliano (see Puglia et al., 2007). In such
cases, deep geophysical profiling can be of primary utility; also far-field or weak motion records can
help to back-figure the bedrock depth, as shown by Costanzo (2007) and Puglia et al. (2007) for the
two cases of Gerace and San Giuliano, respectively.
The degree of accuracy in the description of soil layering must be adequate to the frequency content of
the input motion, especially when sharp variations of seismic impedance are present. The response to
near-field earthquakes, with significant energy content at high frequencies, can be very sensitive to the
stratigraphic details, such in most of the cases presented. The example of Benevento shows that
unusually excessive spectral accelerations at high frequencies may be induced by the use of synthetic
accelerograms as input motion; as a matter of fact, in the case of San Giuliano, the simulated input
motion was preliminarly low-pass filtered, to be comparable to that of a recorded signal.
The site amplification was seen to be strongly affected by surface topography for the towns lying on
flat (Orvieto, Gerace) to steep (Nicastro) cliffs. It must be noted that, in such cases, an irregular
morphology is often associated with a stratigraphic heterogeneity, because erosion processes that can
affect different materials with variable intensity. Therefore, the interplay between geometry and
layering can be misunderstood, if simple homogeneous linear analysis models are used; only 2D
numerical FEM or FDM simulations, either with linear equivalent or non-linear analysis, are capable
to yield reliable predictions or assessment of dynamic ground motion and deformation.
Summing up, in order to preserve the high value of the cultural heritage from the damage induced by
strong-motion earthquakes, the strongest efforts are needed in terms of definitions of seismic actions,
subsoil characterisation and methods of analysis.
339
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The town municipalities of Benevento, Orvieto, Nicastro, Gerace and San Giuliano are kindly
acknowledged for providing the available data on the subsoil, even when not sponsoring the research
projects.
The authors are indebted to the Department of Civil Protection (DPC) of the Italian Government and
the National Institute of Geophysics and Vulcanology (INGV) for funding the research works on
Benevento, Gerace and San Giuliano di Puglia. The coordinators of the INGV-S3 Research Project,
Dr. Francesca Pacor and Prof. M. Mucciarelli, are warmly acknowledged for their valuable scientific
and administrative support.
The oldest Authors are indebted to their former supervisors, Profs. B. DElia, R. Ribacchi and F.
Vinale, for having introduced them to these fascinating research studies.
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342
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W2-1001
ABSTRACT
The Bam earth quake occurred on December 25th at 05: 26: 26 according to the local time (at 01:26:
26 according to the international time GMT) in the historical city of Bam in the south east Iran (south
east Kerman).This earth quake is considered to be the third destroying earth quake of the country after
the Tabas and Manjil earth quakes .Most parts of the city had been destroyed completely and rest parts
had been damaged between 30% to 70%. The earthquake was caused due to the move of the
Bam..which is located between Baravat village and Bam city and has a north south direction and a
length of 15 km.
Investigations on the land showed small scale cracks in the south and north of the .. This
corresponded the rightward movement of it .This .. Were on e of the few of the country which
had not experienced earth quakes at all.
Site inspections from the suspected structures in Bam area show that considering the consumed
material and current performing methods most of them were considerably suseptable against the earth
quake. Concrete structures located in Bam in comparison with the steal constructions had a relatively
acceptable performance because of rigid connections .In the following article along with investigation
on the concrete structures behavior against the earthquakes, the reason of the mentioned failures,
design and site work problems will be discussed as well.
Keywords: concrete structure, Bam earth quake, design problems, site work problems and code
regulations.
INTRODUCTION
Bam area is located in the south east Iran which suffered a severe earth quake .No historical
earthquake had been reported up to the December 25 th 2003 .The mentioned earth quake was
reported in the early morning hours that most of the city residents were asleep and may be that can
be a cause of high civilian death .Most parts of the city like Arg-e-Bam (a famous historical place) was
destroyed completely and other parts the city were susepted between 30% to 70% . After the earth
quake some pats of the city specially city bazzar were on fire ,however on unfortunately the fire
engines were down due to the destruction of the fire station building .The greatness of the earth quake
were 9 in mercalies scale . In the vertical direction to the fault fast reduction of the severe movement
and greatness of the earth quake is noticeable in a way that all the destructions are limited to the urban
parts of the Bam .researches done show that a considerable force is being imposed to the homogenous
buildings which usually is more than the elastic limit .If the studied structure is unable to tolerate
elastic deflections a significant damage will be mad.
B.Sc of Civil Engireening, Young Researchers Club, Islamic Azad University of Bonab. Add: East
Azerbaijan Science and Technology Park, Golgasht Cross, Azady Ave, Tabriz, IRAN P.O.Box:
51745-153. Email: civil_researches@yahoo.com
343
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Concrete structure in comparison with the other structures have got a higher flexibility .So they can
resist more easily against the earthquakes(they need less resistance).The ability mentioned for concrete
structures would be actual when the site work regulations of this structure system are obeyed correctly
.The most important elements of the system that can resist against the lateral forces are rigid
connections and concrete shear walls .If a frame has rigid connections ,it can bear lateral forces by a
bending reaction and transfer it to the earth.
The concrete structures existing in Bam had rigid connections and their relatively good performance is
an approval of it .The suseption which at times were caused in their structure was due to not obeying
the design and site work regulations according to the code. Some of the problems are as follows:
1) Producing unqualified concrete
2 )un proper performance of concrete
3 )using simple bars instead of lined ones
4)using long bars
5)the high distance between struts
6)not having enough cover on the long bars
7) improper connection between beam and columns
8) performing a weak column against a strong beam
DESIGN PROBLEMS
The most important problems are as follows:
A) Wrong estimation of weather effects:
1) not considering the repetitions of freezing and melting periods
2) not considering the repetitions of getting wet and drying
3) not considering the fluctuations of temperature and damp and their effects on deflections made on
concrete.
B) Wrong estimations of environmental corrosion
1)not considering the unpleasant effects of the soil ,water and atmosphere carrying salts and corrosive
gases
2) selecting improper construction material for example improper cement or bar
3) not predicting the proper cover on the bars in corrosive environment
C) Problem in providing performance plans and documents
1) not defining the type of the consumed material in performance plans and opening the way to further
performance problems
2)planning problems and drawing plans that does not correspond with the calculations
3) insufficient performance documents
4) not having harmony between the different parts of one plan
5) not controlling the plans before performance or inaccurate controlling
D)not considering performance details
1)not having enough internal length different elements of a structure
2)not having enough struts ,connection at the end of the bars
3)not predicting distribution bars in the effect point of the concentrated loads
4)not predicting strut in the bending points of the tensile bars on the inner corners
5)cutting the attachments or big parts of a main bar in one section
6)not considering the curvature radius of thick bars
344
7)not paying attention to the location of bars around the openings in the structure and not having
diagnol bar on the corners of the openings
8)not putting bars on the corners of the slabs that are on the soil and there are walls on them
9)the condition of the bars in the connections between beams and columns which prevents the
concrete flow
10)not continuing the bars of the foundation under the columns in to the columns
11)placing too much bar in one section with low width and therefore not allowing the concrete to flow
properly
12)not connecting and joining the surrounding walls to the frame
13)the connection screws were too close that in case of an earthquake ,theyre dangerous
14)locating the walls and partitions on one beam
15)not providing continius connection of the walls
E)not considering the codes and regulations during preparing the performance plans
1) not putting cheek bar
2) not considering the minimum strut required
3) not continuing the minimum bar required onto the supports
4)not continuing the column struts in connection with beams and producing weak points during an
earthquake
5) not continuing the negative moment bars required from the supports to the center of the beams
6)not defining vertical ,horizontal connectors in the masonary structures particularly in seismic areas
7) using simple bars as main bars and many other problems
PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS
a)problem in framing
1)not considering the section dimensions and distraction from what was predicted
2)the frame wasnt water proof that helped concrete lose water and have a low quality
3) no stability in the frame form specially the slide ones
4)no stability in the permanent supports
b)bar placing problems
1)not considering type, diameter, length, form and the number of the bars
2)not considering the connection length and curvatures
3)not considering the sequence of placing the bars in the joints
4)not considering the performance details in the joints and connections
5)not considering bending the struts end and connecting the in concrete volume
6) not considering the location and length of the waiting bars
7)long strut distance
8) not considering the minimum connection for the column bars
c) problems in pouring the concrete
1) using improper stone material
2) using improper water and cement to prepare concrete
3) not considering the optimum ratios of mixing in the concrete
4) using unknown complements specially using several complements together without considering the
adaptability
5) not considering concrete homogenousity in transportation and using improper transportation
methods
6) using improper methods and equipment to pour and place the concrete, not paying attention to the
corners and around the bars
7) not caring or caring incompletely using ineffective equipment and methods
8) smoothing the concrete surface in a hurry before the main part of the initial shrinkage has settled
345
CONCLUSION
346
According to the existing codes, instructionsand issues and because most of the destructions were due
to not obeying them in the building it is suggested to the following to improve the quality of the works
done:
a)educating all the project workers
b)quality control for construction material
1)providing technical and professional labs to control the quality of the construction material
2)obligatory standard for all the material
3)proper keeping of the material up to the using time
4)using light and resistant material
5)using modern construction system
c)control in all the constructing places
1)controlling all the phases by resident observer
2)controlling all the phases and preparing required reports
3) performing required test in different phases
4) controlling the builder groups in relation with required profession
5)control and correct use of the proper machinery
d) correct maintenance
1)providing documents for all the buildings
2)professional annual control for all the buildings
3)performing the required repairs on time
4)recording the changes and repairs in the documents provided for the building
REFERENCES
Iranian concrete code (ABA)
Iranian earthquake code 2800
Instructions for national seismic improvement
347
348
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
The site: The Catacombs of Kom El-Shoqafa lies in the district of Karmouz on the south-west
of Alexandra, not far from the so-called Pompey, s pillar, on the south slope of the hill. The
area was called Kom El- Shoqafa or a pile of shards. This catacomb lies at about 2-2.5
kilometersfrom the seashore, and it is higher in topography than Amod El- Sawari area, Fig
(1).
The structure: The catacombes under study was most likely initially a private tomb
and later converted to a public cemetery. It consists of 3 levels cut into the rock, a staircase, a
rotunda, the triclinium or banquette hall, a vestibule, an antechamber and the burial chamber
with three recesses in, where in each recess there is a sarcophagus. The Catacombs also
contains a large number of Luculi or grooves cut in the bedrock.
The
Entrance
349
350
The majority of structural damages have been caused from one or the combination of the
following factors:
Progressive weakening of rock material due to intrinsic sensitivity to weathering
factors especially the underground water and salt weathering effect.
Earthquake and other man made dynamic loading
Permanent deformation of the rock mass.
Natural wear of material.
Construction history in the area
0 2 4 6 8 10 M
Figure 3.Plan and a typical cross section A-A/ of the Catacombs of kom El-shoqafa.
351
GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS
The Catacombs are carved in the oolitic sandy limestone (calcareous cemented sand); it is
yellowish white massive, fine to medium grained cross-bedded sandstone cemented with
calcareous cement. Intersected conjugated joints filled with very fine friable sand saturated
with water in the lower parts. This unit is underlined by loose calcareous sandstone. It is
brownish medium to fine grained calcareous limestone over saturated with ground water. It
overlies unconformable the El Hagif formation (Pliocene) or the older Miocene. Surface
quaternary deposits obscure actual contact (Adel ElFouly 2000, Girgis 1956, Said1990).
Bulk structure of rock and construction materials.
Different tests have been made to assess the durability and the weathering effects on the bulk
structure of the rock mass used as building material. The following set of mineralogical
analyses have been performed for the soft rock and the building materials.
-X-ray diffraction
-Thermal analyses DTA&TGA
-X-ray Fluorescence analysis
-Chemical analyses (for plaster and painting layers collected samples)
-Transmitted plane polarized light (for the collected rock samples).
-Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), attached with EDX Microprobe (energy dispersive Xray) microanalyses.
-Porous media characterization for weathered and sound rock samples.
-Pore size measurement and Specific surface area by nitrogen BET-TPV.
-Determination of the specific surface area (SSA).
-Grain size characteristics of the weathered (salt contaminated) rock samples.
-Saturation coefficient, S.
-Capillary water uptake measurements.
Based on this extended set of tests a detailed mineralogy description of the rock mass is
achieved together with other construction materials (plaster). A detailed presentation of these
tests may be found in S.Hemeda (2007) (Progress report of the PhD thesis, AUTH). Selected
results are presented herein.
Catacombs of Kom El-Shoqafa are carved in the fossiliferous sandy oolitic limestone
composed of calcite CaCO3 (47 %),quartz SiO2 (31%) ,halite NaCl (12 %),gypsum Ca
SO4.2H2O (10 %).The rock is yellowish and can be characterized as medium grained with
uniform relative grain size, angular to sub angular grain shape with equidimensional form and
rough surface texture. Sound pieces of rock can be characterized of medium compactness and
durability and the weathered pieces characterized of low compactness and durability. It must
be mentioned that weathering attacked strongly the rock materials, started from the surface
and continuing inward thus loosing the mineral fabric.
Diagrams of representative rocks samples are given in figures (5). From this analysis we
noticed that, % W.T of CaCO3 for the collected rock samples is 64, 25 and for the % W.T.
free water is 0, 54 .and for the % W.T Ca (OH) 2 the results are zero.
The elemental arrangement for the sandy oolitic limestone samples collected from Catacombs
of Kom El-shoqafa can be put in a decreasing order according to their
concentration:CaO(51.54),SiO2(14.55),MgO(1.07),Al2O3(2.51),SO3(0.59)Fe2O3(1.05),Na2O(0
.15) ,K2O(0.02),TiO2(0.04),P2O5(0.03)and L.O.I(28.20) total is (99.75).
In the internal structure we can observe the dominant components, which are bioclasts of
gastropods, foraminifera, algae, and shell debris, most of them are with test wall of
neomorphic microspar, while the tests are internally filled with micrite and microspar.
352
Long
contact
Long
cracks
Figure .5. TGA-DTA results,Thin section blue dyed X40, the blue is the porosity.
Figure .6. Photomicrographs and (EDX) micro analysis of the tested sandy Oolitic
limestone samples collected from catacombs of kom El-Shoqafa.
The pore diameter distribution of these rock samples is ,10-20A (4%) ,20-30A(9.17 %) ,3050A(11.1%) ,50-100A(15.847%) ,100-200A(17.80%) ,200-1960 A (41.97 %) ,and nm
2.26599 E-05 , and BET(m2/gr) 2.21098, and TPV (ml/gr) 0.00992,and micro porosity % is
1.79327 ,fig(7) . and for the Adsorption / desorption isotherm diagram. But the rock sample
which collected from the sound layers from the same site ( COM2) we noticed that : the pore
diameter distribution of this rock is ,10-20A (9.46%) , 20-30A(12.5%) , 30-50A(14.98%) ,
50-100A(12.72%) , 100-200A(7.93%) , 200-2040A(42.4%) ,and nm 1.5522E-05, BET(m2/gr)
1.51452 ,TPV (ml/gr) 0.00232 ,and micro porosity % is 0.42542 .
Catacom b o f kom El-s hoqafa
% PORES
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
42. 4
40
41.97
35
30
%
15.847
9.17
17.8
11.1
20
15
10
12. 5
14. 98
12. 72
9. 46
7. 93
0.12
<10
25
50100
Diameter (A)
0
10. 0-20
20-30
30 -50
50-100 100-200
2002040
Weathered layers
sound layers
Figure 7. Pore size (diameter A) distribution for collected unweathered rock sample
from catacomb of kom El-shoqafa.
353
354
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Site-1: Vs Model
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
.
.
.
Calculated Dispersion
Picked Dispersion
0.05
0.1
0.15
Period, s
0.2
-10
-20
Experimental
-30
Figure. 9. The dispersive curve, P-f image and corresponding picks for Remi-1 test,
Catacombs of Kom El-Shoqafa site.
Geotechnical properties of the Calcarenitic rock.
In the framework of this project a specific set of laboratory tests has been carried out in order
to define the physical and the mechanical properties of the rock where the catacombs were
excavated. These studies include:
-Very Slow uniaxial creep tests on rock samples.
The objective of these tests is first to quantify the viscous parameters that govern the long
term behaviour of these underground structures and, secondly, to define the necessary
parameters for the numerical modeling. Most specimens, under constant axial stress shows
complete creep phase: transient, steady and tertiary creep phases. Figure (10).
355
0,5
0,088
0,086
0,45
0,084
0,082
0,4
0,08
0,35
0,078
0,076
0,3
0,074
1=1,75 Mpa
65% UCS
1 =1,35
Mpa
50% UCS
0,25
0,072
0
50
100
150
200
250
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Time(days).1/9/2006-1/6/2007
Figure 10. Catacomb of kom El-shoqafa, Strain-versus-time in uniaxial creep test Nr.1
and Nr.2.
-Triaxial Creep Tests on rock samples.
The objective of the triaxial creep tests is to determine visco-plastic parameters of the soft
rock specimens under confinement. The time-related parameters are monitored, recorded and
analyzed.
The axial strain-time curves are given in Figures 11. From the results it is proved that there is
an instantaneous transient creep state under constant axial load and confining pressure
followed by a steady creep phase. Post-test deformation increases rapidly at the beginning to
the first few hours of the test and then tends to remain constant. No specimen failed after at
the end of the test duration.Crack propagation (in the brittle field) and pore collapse (at higher
stress conditions) are therefore the dominant deformation mechanisms for the Alexandria
surface rock as it has been also demonstrated by (Aversa,S 991;Maranini and Brignoli, 1998)
4,4
2,8
4,1
2,5
(3)
1=2,52
MPa
3,8
2,2
1,9
3,5
yield stress
1,6
3,2
(2)
1=2,16
MPa
3 = 225
1 = 1,45
(1)
kpa
1,3
MPa
2,9
3=
510 kpa
1=
1,41 MPa
1
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Time ( hours).
140
160
180
200
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Time ( hours) .
356
1300
1200
Moustafa kamil tombs.
1100
Catacomb of kom Elshoqafa.
1000
2,5
EL-shatbi tombs.
900
800
700
1,5
600
500
400
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
1,5
2,5
E-static ( MPa).
Ductile
2,5
UCS = 2,6-2,7 4 MPa
Initia l fa ilure point
= fa ilure stre ngth
= 74-10 2 MP a
v= 0,24 -0,28
2
Ine la stic
1,5
1
be dding
Ela stic
0,5
0
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
3,5
4,5
357
Figure 14.presents the results of direct shear tests performed on completely deteriorated
samples.
120
120
110
100
Cu = 0
=30
100
90
80
80
70
60
60
50
40
40
n=50 KPa
n=100 Kpa
n=200Kpa
30
20
20
10
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39
50
100
150
200
250
6,00
3000
C = 650 KN/m2
E=270-360 Mpa
=0,28
G=140,6 Mpa
K=272,7 MPa
5,00
2500
= 36
= 0,6 MPa
2000
1500
3=
4,00
0,325
1000
500
3,00
= 0.25 MPa
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
2,00
Brittle
1c
= 3 ,5 90 2 3 + 2 ,96 72
R2 = 0 ,9 61 1
4
3
Ductile
1,00
2
1
0
0
0,00
10
15
20
25
4
3
Pa ) .
358
Site.
Moustafa
kamil
tombs
site.
Catacomb
of kom elshoqafa.
El-shatbi
bombs
site.
Type of
rock
Intact
Calcarenite
rock ( pure
Limestone).
Sandy
Oolitic
limestone.
Calcarenitic
rock.
1.68
1.65
1.68
1.80
1.79
1.84
1.62
1.82
COM_8
COM10
COM15
SH_2
SH_3
SH_4
SH_6
SH_7
1.65
M_7
1.70
1.65
M_5
COM_5
1.77
M_4
1.69
1.75
M_3
COM_3
1.62
Mg/cm
M_2
Depth.
of
Sample
(m)
2.55
2.49
2.58
2.82
2.74
2.58
2.80
2.49
2.78
2.66
2.84
2.67
2.79
2.80
2.74
(GS)
24
16
36
23
31
23
40
21
31
32
27
28
19
28
36
6.1
6.3
5.03
4.7
2.74
6.3
2.6
2.7
2.74
2.6
3.45
3.40
2.30
3.45
3.55
MPa
ucs
140
147
142
138
80
147
74
74
102
74
80
106
78
106
68
[ ]
C
KN/
m2
273
227
258
311
Complete
weathered
samples
51
0.34
0.34
0.35
0.37
0.30
0.30
0.28
0.28
0.24
0.30 53o 700
0.24
0.28
0.28
233
353
392
440
445
270
345
0.25
0.24
0.25
0.28
0.28
0.26
0.26
91
138
153
172
173
105
135
177
267
297
333
353
205
261
56
31
30
0.60
0.52
0.48
0.49
0.29
0.46
0.31
0.28
0.27
0.25
141
117
133
160
Brazilian
test
(BTS)
MPa
0.29
0.30
0.28
0.28
{K}
Bulk
modulus
(MPa)
Direct
Shear test
for rock
joints
C
[ ]
MPa
0.39
360
300
340
410
E
{G}
Youngs
[-]
Shear
Modulus Poissons modul
(MPa)
ratio
us
(MPa)
0.28
0.30
0.24
0.30
Failure
E
Strain Youngs
[-]
Modulus Poissons
f (%)
(MPa)
ratio
Table 1. Short term laboratory tests carried out with Calcarenitic rocks under investigation.
1.3
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
1.1
0.7
0.6
0.5
1.2
0.9
0.7
0.7
Block
Punch
Index
(BPI)
3.06
2.83
2.71
2.55
2.17
2.44
2.06
1.97
1.96
1.93
2.48
2.18
2.1
2.08
1.96
Wave
velocity
(Vp)
Km/sec
359
(a)
(b)
Figure 16. Static analysis (a) Total displacement = 1.13*10 -3m. (b)Vertical peak effective
stresses (-1.42*103 KN/m2).
360
Seismic analysis
Alexandria during his long history has suffered important seismic damages from near and
distant sources earthquakes. As the under-water archeological remains in Abou Kir bay
strongly support, the city was destroyed by either local or remote earthquakes (El-Sayed,
2004). Seismogenic zones such as the Red Sea, Gulf of Aqaba-Dead Sea Hellenic Arc, SuezCairo-Alexandria, Eastern-Mediterranean-Cairo-Faiyoum and the Egyptian costal area may
all affect the city. However the seismic hazard of the city has not been fully defined.
In the present study we have selected three reference earthquakes. (i) Aqaba, Egypt, 1995 (ii)
Ertzincan,Turkey, 1992 and (iii) Kalamata, Greece, 1986. The time histories (Figure 17) of
these earthquakes representing different seismotectonic settings and frequency content were
scaled to three peak ground acceleration values equal to 0.08g , 0.16g ,and 0.24g respectively
and they are used as input motions at the bedrock. The design acceleration in Alexandria
according to the Egypt code is 0.08g.
0.1
0.3
0.6
Acc(g)
EW componen t
0.05
0.1
0.2
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
15
20
25
-0.2
-0.05
tim e (sec)
-0.4
-0.1
0.08
0.2
0.8
0.06
0.15
0.6
0.04
0.1
0.4
0.02
0.05
period {s}
10
15
20
tim e (sec)
Fourier spectrum
0.2
0
0
0
10
-0.2
0.25
Fourier spectrum
0.1
Ka lam ata
0.3
0.12
-0.1
-0.3
-0.6
Time {s}
y xomponent
0.2
0.4
9
10
Period ( se c)
Pe riod (s ec)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fiure. 17. Seismic excitations at the bedrock for the reference ground motions
(acceleration-time history, and Fourier amplitude spectrum). (a) Aqaba, 1995 (b)
Ertzincan 1992,and (c) Kalamata, 1986.
Analysis results
Figures 18 through 22 are summarizing the calculated displacements for the three PGA
scenarios and the three design earthquakes. In case of Aqaba earthquake, it is clear that a great
part of seismic energy is dissipated to the upper parts of catacombs (ground surface) even for
small values of PGA. The Kalamata and Ertzincan input motions give much low displacement
values than for all. The maximum horizontal displacement at the top of catacombs for Aqaba
0.24g earthquake scenario was: ux 15.2 cm, while the peak effective principal stress was 5050
KN/m2. In the case of Ertzincan and Kalamata 0.24g scenarios the respective values were
3760 KN/m 2, 3890 KN/m2.
Given the value of the static strength estimated in the laboratory the seismic analysis of the
Catacombs complex proved that the piers, which are the most vulnerable parts of the whole
complex, are rather safe for PGA values lower than 0.16g in case of the Kalamata and
Erzincan earthquakes and PGA =0.10g for the Aqaba seismic scenario. (Figures 23 and 26b)
For larger earthquake which are most likely to happen in the region, the seismic stability of
the Catacombs is not satisfied and it is necessary to proceed to specific retrofitting works to
upgrade their seismic performance. The maximum differential horizontal displacements of the
top and the base of the piers is of the order of 5mm (Figure 25). Considering that the induced
seismic ground deformations are better correlated with the intensity of damages in
underground structures, the seismic design of the catacombs must be based on these kinematic
forces.
361
(a)
(b)
(c )
Figure. 18. Deformed mesh and peak total displacement at the final step,(a)Kalamata
RQ,(b)Erzincan RQ,(c)Aqaba RQ ,the PGA =0.08g .
362
acc{m/s2}
0.01
9.0
Top of Catacombs
Top of Catacombs
6.0
0.005
Bottom of Catacombs
Bottom of Catacombs
3.0
Bottom of mesh
-0.005
-3.0
-0.01
Bottom of mesh
0
-6.0 01
6
12
16
Time[s]
acc{m/s
ation [m/s2]
0.8
0.005
0.6
16
12
16
Time[s]
(a)
0.01
12
4
2
0.4
0.2
-0.005
0
-0.01
-0.2
-0.015
0
10
15
20
Time [s]
-0.4
5
0
(b)
10
15
20
Time [s]
acc{m/s2}
ation [m/s2]
0.04
0.8
0.02
0.4
0
0
-0.02
-0.04
-0.4
-0.06
0
10
20
time {s}
30
40
-0.8
10
10
20
20
Time{s}
30
30
40
40
(c)
Figure .19. Computed displacement and acceleration time histories for
(a)Kalamata,(b)Erzincan,(c )Aqaba input motions PGA= 0.08g .
363
(a)
(b)
(c )
Figure . 20. Deformed mesh and peak total displacement at the final step,(a)Kalamata
RQ,(b)Erzincan RQ,(c )Aqaba RQ .the PGA =0.16g .
364
Acc (m/s2)
ation [m/s2]
0.02
1.5
Top of Catacombs
Top of Catacombs
1
0.01
Bottom of Catacombs
0.5
Bottom of Catacombs
0
Bottom of mesh
Bottom of mesh
-0.5
-0.01
-1
-0.02
-1.5
0
12
16
Time[s]
(a)
tion [m/s2]
0.02
1.5
8
Time{s}
12
12
16
16
Acc (m/s2)
0.01
0.5
-0.01
-0.02
-0.5
-1
-0.03
0
10
15
20
(b)
Time [s]
10
10
15
15
20
20
Time{s}
Acc (m/s2)
tion [m/s2]
1.5
0.08
0.04
0.5
0
-0.5
-0.04
-1
-0.08
-1.5
-0.12
-22
10
20
time {s}
30
40
(c )
10
10
20
20
30
30
40
40
Time{s}
Figure.21.Displacement and acceleration time histories at the bottom and the top of the
Catacombs (a)Kalamata RQ,(b)Erzincan RQ,(c )Aqaba RQ =0.16g .
365
Acc(m/s2)
0.03
Top of Catacombs
Top of Catacombs
0.02
Bottom of Catacombs
Bottom of Catacombs
0.01
1
Bottom of mesh
Bottom of mesh
0
-0.01
-1
-0.02
-2
0
12
2
0
16
(a)
Time [s]
12
16
12
16
Time{s}
Acc(m/s2)
ation [m/s2]
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
-0.01
0
-0.02
-1
-0.03
-0.04
-2
0
10
15
20
2
0
(b)
Time [s]
tion [m/s2]
0.08
0.04
10
15
10
15
20
20
30
40
Acc(m/s2)
-0.04
0
-0.08
-1
-0.12
-0.16
-2
-0.2
-3
10
20
time {s}
30
40
(c )
10
20 }
Time{s
time{s }
366
5000.00
400.00
4000.00
300.00
3000.00
200.00
2000.00
100.00
1000.00
0.00
0.00
-100.00
-1000.00
strength of rock
material
(experimental)
-2000.00
-3000.00
-200.00
-300.00
-4000.00
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00
-400.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
Time [sec]
8.00
Time (sec)
(a)
4000.00
250.00
3000.00
2000.00
200.00
150.00
100.00
1000.00
50.00
0.00
0.00
-1000.00
-2000.00
-50.00
strength of rock
material
(experimental)
-3000.00
-4000.00
-100.00
-150.00
-200.00
-5000.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
-250.00
0.00
20.00
5.00
10.00
Time [sec]
15.00
20.00
Time [sec]
(b)
6000.00
1000.00
800.00
4000.00
600.00
2000.00
400.00
0.00
200.00
0.00
-2000.00
-6000.00
0.00
-200.00
strenght of rock
material
(experimental)
-4000.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
Time [sec]
25.00
30.00
35.00
-400.00
40.00
-600.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
Time [sec]
(c)
Figure. 23. Effective stresses time histories for the most critical Pier 1 ( Figure 24 at the
right side of rotounda) (a)Kalamata RQ,(b)Erzincan RQ,(c )Aqaba RQ. the PGA=0.24g
.
367
Pier 4
Pier 3
Pier 2
Pier 1
Figure. 24. A typical cross section which used in the seismic study.
4
3.5
3.5
p ier_1
p ier_2
2.5
p ier_3
2.5
p ier_4
pier_1
1.5
1.5
pier_2
pier_3
0.5
0.5
pier_4
0
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
0.2
-3
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
-3
(a)
4
3.5
3.5
pier_2
2.5
2.5
pier_3
pier_4
p ier_1
1.5
p ier_2
1.5
p ier_3
pier_1
p ier_4
0.5
0.5
0
44.5
0
45
45.5
46
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
(b)
4
3.5
3.5
pier_1
pier_1
pier_2
pier_2
2.5
pier_3
2.5
pier_3
pier_4
pier_4
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
0
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
( c)
Figure. 25 Horizontal and vertical displacements on the top and the base of the most
critical rock pier of the catacomb complex(a)Kalamata at t =23,22 s,(b)Erzincan at t
=7.09 s,(c )Aqaba at t = 4.60 s. PGA = 0.24g .
368
A qaba RQ
6000
0.18
Aqaba RQ
Kalamata RQ
5000
Erzincan RQ
0.15
Kalamata RQ
Erzincan RQ
4000
0.12
strengthof rock
t i l(
i
3000
0.09
2000
0.06
1000
0.03
0
0
0.08
0.16
0.24
0.08
0.16
0.24
(a)
(b)
Figure 26 (a) Maximum horizontal displacements for different PGA values (b) Peak
effective principal stresses at the top of the most critical rock pier for different PGA
values
CONCLUSION
A summary of the present state of the Catacombs of Kom El-Shoqafa, in Alexandria Egypt
has been presented. In order to assess the the pathology of the catacombs a detailed laboratory
and field surveys and tests have been carried out. The rock material (oolitic sandy limestone)
has an important intrinsic sensitivity to weathering factors especially the underground water
and salt weathering effect. The infiltration of the water through the porous rock is one of the
main problems of the catacombs. The weathering process is linked to the textural
characteristics, like poor geotechnical properties, chemical carbonated composition, presence
of soluble salts in the porous system, marine climate with characteristic humidity and marine
spray, underground water. The durability of the rock is moderate to low due to its high silica
content. The strength of the sandy limestone where the catacombs are carved is low.
Considering all other affecting factors and the specific geometry of the complex this low rock
strength affects seriously the safety of the catacombs both under static and seismic loading
conditions. The preliminary seismic analysis of the catacombs with three seismic scenarios of
different PGA values proved that the some critical supporting parts of the catacomb structure
(i.e. tock piers) are safe, without any strengthening measures, only for PGA values lower than
0.08-0.10g, which is rather low considering the seismic activity and the past seismic history
of the city.
The present study may be considered as a preliminary pilot study for future conservation
efforts of these historical monuments, in order to assess the vulnerability of these
underground structures to different hazards and to propose appropriate strengthening
retrofitting measures especially to reduce the seismic risk.
REFERENCES
Aversa, S. Mechanical behavior of soft rock: some remarks .proc. of the workshop on
experimental characterization and modeling of soil and soft rocks, Napoli, 191223.1991
El-Fouly A. Void investigation at Gabbari tombs, Alexandria, Egypt using ground
penetrating radar technique ICEHM 2000, Cairo University, Egypt, September,8490, 2000.
El-Sayed A, and Korrat,I and Hussein, MSeismicity and seismic hazard in
Alexandria(Egypt) and its surrounding pure appl.geophys.161(2004)1003-1019.
Empereur.,J The Catacombs of Kom El-Shoqafa , Alexandria, Egypt.1-3.2003
Girgis., GP Geology of the Pleistocene sediments of the Mediterranean coast west of Abou
QirPh D geol, Fac Sci ,Cairo Univ,23,24, 1956.
Hemeda, S Progress report of PhD thesis, AUTH 2007.
Louie J.N.Faster, Better: Shear-wave velocity to 100 meters depth from refraction
microtremors arrays. BSSA, 91, 347-364. 2001.
369
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W2-1016
Abstract
This paper presents a special mechanism of the failure process of the central
Tower of Bayon temple at Angkor Thom, Angkor, Cambodia. The tower stands as the
symbol of the Bayon with diameter of about 22m at the foundation and a height of
about 42m from the ground. The tower is founded upon the densely compacted sand
mound with a height of about 12m from the ground surface.
It is not likely that the tower fails due to overturn like the Pisa tower. This is because
rather wide base compared to its height. The problem of the Bayon Tower is the fall
off of stones from the Tower, which has resulted in non-symmetry with irregular shape
of the top part of the Tower.
Based upon the measurements of the gap movements and meteorological data, he
found the gaps open and close according to strong wind and further confirmed the
existence of a threshold level of the wind velocity that may trigger some permanent
displacement. The failure process of the central tower at Bayon temple is considered
as has been caused by progressive fall out of stone elements from columns.
The masonry structure as put them together always tends rather to spread out than
to get closer together. The failure process of the central tower at Bayon is Domino
process leading to failure caused by very strong winds.
Safeguarding Angkor by UNESCO in Tokyo. One of the objectives of JSA is preparing a strategic plan how to
restore the Bayon temple. Among various structures of the Bayon temple, the main tower is one of the most important
and a unique masonry monument. JSA has been working on monitoring the behavior of the tower since October 1997.
This paper presents a basic view of the stability problem and failure mechanism of the tower based upon the present
observation and monitored results.
2. The Central Tower at Bayon
Photo-1 and 2 shows general view of the Bayon and the Tower. Fig-1 shows vertical section of the Tower at center by
EFEO. The height of the tower is said as 45m and was measured as 42.2m from the ground level at north of Bayon
temple by total station by Geotechnical Unit, JSA in December 1998.
The central tower stands upon the upper terrace at GL+13m. The diameter of the Tower at the base is about 25meters.
The structure of the main tower consists of central and eight sub towers surrounding the central one with carved face
on the outward side. There is a small circular gallery between the central tower and sub-towers, where one may walk
around the tower at about mid level of 16m from the upper terrace.
In February 1998, JSA installed scaffolding ladder in the inner space of sub-tower at southwestern side to access to
the mid level space of the tower from the upper terrace. Using this scaffolding ladder, Geotechnical unit became to be
able to install various sensors at the upper level of the tower and to maintain them.[1]
Photo-2 North Face, Central Tower, Photo-3 A Four Face Tower, Bayon
371
The apparent side view of the central tower is different depending upon the direction to the Tower, which has been
caused by falling out of the stone elements from the side surface of the central part. We need to study the mechanical
process of falling out these stones from the tower body to consider countermeasures to prevent. Since the most stones
are simply piled up from bottom to top without over wrapping horizontally, the stone column has been rather easy to
lean out if some horizontal movement taken place caused by plant rooting or other mechanisms.
There is a gallery within the central tower as shown in Fig.1,
which surrounds the tower at a level of about +25m from the
ground level. We can observe the present situation of the fall
out process of the central tower at the gallery. The Gallery is
the space between the inner central tower and eight subtowers as shown in Photo-4. The stones are piled up vertically
without over-wrapping horizontally each other and most
pillars stand independently. There are connecting parts
bridging between the central tower and eight sub towers.
These bridges are found broken and some are missing.
Concrete beams were placed and ion nails were used to
retrofit these bridging elements.
These consolidation works were executed by EFEO since
1930.
Openings are found between many neighboring stone
columns. These opening gaps have caused large
displacements of the top of the columns that might have
resulted in damages of bridge elements. Photo-5 shows the
inside of stonewalls of the Central Tower around the corner
of northwest. It should be noted that a vertical crack develops
in the side surface of a sand stone at the middle height, which
is enlarged and shown in the left of the Photo-4. The crack on
the stone surface initiates at the upper surface and has
developed downwards. It should be also noticed that the
separation of sandstone above the cracked one from the left
neighbor stone, while no separation of the gap spacing
between the cracked stone and the adjacent one. The
separation of the spacing above the cracked stone is found
continued upwards. At the same time, no separation is found
at the lower stones than the cracked one.
Central tower
Concrete
bridge
sandstone
sub-tower
(SW)
separation
No separation
No separation
There are several points at the southwest, west, northwest, north, and northeast corner of the Gallery. These cracks
are the probable points where the fallout shall begin and cause the failure of the Tower.
Inclination
(in degree)
Wall
position
1
2
3
4
5
6
70
45
70
70
70
60
SW corner
SW corner
NW corner
EN corner
NW corner
NW corner
The forced displacement is caused by horizontal widening of the spaces between columns at upper level by some
reasons under the condition of being fixed at the bottom level stone to the floor stone. It is expected that an increasing
friction force had been mobilized between the stone surfaces at the bottom due to the horizontal movement of the
column.
Photo-7(left side)
Plant root expanding gap
373
Photo-7 shows plant root grown in the gap of stones. It is obvious the plant root develops with enlarging the size of
the root that makes widening the space between stones.
Photo-8 shows another example of space widening phenomenon. Several gravels are found in a space between stones.
It is not known how these gravels had fallen and stayed, however, these gravels might have acted as non-reversible
ratchet. Once the opening of the space increases by some reason, gravels fall down and keep the space wider than
before.
4 Monitoring of the structural behavior
In 1997, we have installed several gap gages to monitor the changes of gap between the surfaces of the adjacent
stones at the central tower of Bayon. We thought it might be a good idea to develop an initial image on the
mechanism of the decay and possible structural modes of movements. We have installed inclinometers and gap
sensors as well as temperature gages at various points on the central Tower. Inclinometer shows seasonal changes of
the inclination that depends upon temperature and no tendency of the steady change with time.
4.1 Monitoring system
We began to monitor behavior of stone by installing gap sensors between adjoining stone faces in October 1997 and
inclinometers at central tower in February 1999. Since then, though missing data for some period, we have continued
monitoring. At the middle level of the central tower, there are eight sub-towers surrounding the central one. We have
installed six micro crack gages to vertical opening of adjoining stones of side walls of these sub-towers.
t=15o C
=0.025mm
374
Fig.3 shows plan view of the middle base level of the tower with location of sensors of temperature and gap. The
analog signals from these sensors are transmitted down to the monitoring box at the base level of the central tower
and are to be digitized with a sampling rate of an hour and stored in a hard memory. Solar battery has been used to
drive the whole system with back up lead battery being charged during day.
4.2 Temperature effect on strain of the stone surface and gap opening
To understand the temperature effects on the gap change more clearly, we have embedded temperature sensor within
stone at 2cm from the surface at SW gap point in September 1999.
Fig.4 shows the relationship between strain of the stone surface, temperature inside the stone, and the gap opening of
space between adjacent stone.
It is clearly found that the gap decreases with temperature increase when the strain increases. The response of the gap
well corresponds to the strain of the stone surface.
Based upon Fig.5, the relationship between strain and temperature is found as
( )= 4 t (oC)
The coefficient of temperature expansion ( ) of the sand stone is obtained as
= 4 x10-6
The average length of the stone is about 50-80cm. The expected gap for 15oC of difference in temperature is expected
as
=15x4 x10-6x(0.5-0.8)(m)
=30-50 m=0.03-0.05mm
The measured gap change is 0.025mm, which well corresponds to the estimated value.
4.3 Daily and seasonal change of gap opening
Photo.8 shows an example of installation of a gap sensor and thermometer at NW sub-tower. The measured data of
changes of gap and temperature from October 1997 to November 1998 are shown in Figs.5. The sensors are named as
NE, NW, W, S, SE, and E according to the directions of sub-towers that are being monitored. Among six sensors, it is
noticed that the trend of gap changes has some common and different characteristics. The daily change in common is
found to close the opening the gap in daytime and to widen in night. The magnitude of the gap closing and widening
is different for each point. Table-4 summarized the characteristics of each monitoring points in terms of daily gap
375
change, daily temperature change, as well as annual gap change. The temperature change at each point differs
according to the monitoring condition. The change is about 5 degrees where it is shaded, but becomes as high as 30
degrees where it is exposed directly to the sun. It should be noted that the daily gap change at each point does not
necessarily correspond to temperature change. Gap at NE and NW are found several times larger gap change among
others.
Table 4 Gap Opening daily and annual change
Gap point
Daily gap change (mm)
NW
0.05
5
W
0.03
10
S
0.01
(30)
SE
0.01
E
0.01
NE
0.02
5
0.5
0.5
0.2-0.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
Fig.7 shows the same data of Fig.6 only for three-month period from May 1, 1998, where the more detailed
movement can be observed. Fig.8 shows hourly maximum wind velocity. During the period, it is noticed that larger
movements had taken place for every points at the same time. One is around May 23 and another is on June 25 when
the gaps changed significantly compared to daily movement. The gaps opened except at W point, where the gap
opened first but turned to close immediately. These movements are compared to meteorological condition of the
hourly maximum wind velocity. The strong wind of about 12.5m/sec is found to correspond to the event of May 23.
However, this relationship is not applied to the event of June 25. It also should be noted that the sudden gap change
does not always accumulate in the following period. For example, the gap change at NW point increased and always
takes the reversal direction and returns to the original gap opening after 2-3 days. On the other hand, these sudden
changes at W points stay as shifted values. The rebound response to return to the original position may be due to
mechanical stability of the stone tower.
376
377
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W2-1011
INTRODUCTION
Bam Earthquake occurred in the early morning of 5:26 on Friday, December 26, 2003. Bam locates
about 900km south east of Tehran, the capital city of Islamic Republic of Iran(see Fig.1). The Bam
had a population about 150,000 prior to the earthquake.
The earthquake had a magnitude of Mw=6.5(USGS) and an epicenter location of 29.00N,
58.34E(USGS). Focal depth was estimated about to be about 8-10km.The traditional mud-brick and
clay homes showed little resistance against the violent vibration of the duration of a few tens of
seconds. Walls and roofs crumbled and collapsed. More than 100,000 of victims were trapped beneath
the rubble and around 26,500 lost their lives. Tens of thousands left homeless and up to 6,000 children
were orphaned.
The largest mud brick complex in the world, Arg-e Bam (Bam Citadel), was almost totally collapsed.
378
shown()ICG Reconnaissance Mission Report(2004) in Fig.3. The geology of the Bam area is also
shown in the lower portion of Fig.3.
379
characteristics. In the Bam city, the difference may depend upon top surface condition. Most heavy
damage was in the center and southern part of the Bam that corresponds to fan silt and argillaceous
sandstones. Very nears the Bam fault the damage was not visible where yellow-tan to orange brown
siltstone and sand stone distribute.
west
Max Acc,ew=782gal
500
(sec.)
0
-500
-1000
1000
15
20
25
30
east
Max Acc,v=968gal
up
500
(sec.)
0
-500
-1000
1000
15
20
25
30
down
north
500
Max Acc,ns=623gal
(sec.)
0
-500
-1000
15
20
25
30
south
380
100
west
50
0
-50
15
20
25
30
(sec.)
-100
east
100
up
50
0
-50
15
20
25
30
(sec.)
down
-100
100
north
Max Vel,ns=59kine
50
0
-50
15
20
25
south
-100
30
(sec.)
west
(BHRC)
Max Dew=34cm
(sec.)
0
15
-50
50
20
25
east
up
Max Dv=9cm
(sec.)
0
15
-50
50
30
20
25
30
down
north
Max Dns=24cm
(sec.)
0
15
-50
20
25
30
south
381
30
30
10
10
East
0
30
20
10
-10
-10
-20
-30
-40
(cm)
East
0
40
30
20
10
-10
15sec
-20
-20
-30
-30
-40
Fig.
20
20
40
North(cm)
40
North(cm)
40
1.0x10
8.0x10
6.0x10
-2
-3
-3
Acc EW direction
4.0x10
-3
Acc NS direction
2.0x10
-3
0.0
0.1
1.0
Period(sec)
10.0
Fig.9 FFT Power Spectra for EW and NS component of the Acceleration records
However, we recognize great difference of the amplitude power spectra. It is found that a large
amplitude is observed in the EW direction compared to NS at the period of about 1.5second.
The damaged adobe structures are reported to have failed to westwards direction, which corresponds
to the displacement characteristics expressed in locus diagram. The fault normal ground motion was
also notified as in Kobe earthquake in 1995. This strong and yet with long period ground motion
might be the killing pulse to the adobe structure. The adobe structures, which have rather short natural
frequency, was considered failed by not structural resonance but being pushed over with horizontal
force.
Critical Values of Acceleration for the Adobe Stability during Bam Earthquake
The direction of failure was predominant in west direction. As already mentioned, this process
corresponds well to the time sequence of displacement shown in Fig.7. The initial movement of about
30cm took place westward and consequently very strong reversal movement to the east followed with
about large displacement of 40cm within one second, when the adobe wall that had been install NS
direction have failed.
382
Comparing to NS direction, walls in EW direction were relatively safe. The accelerations of period of
1.5sec are about 300gals for EW and 200gals for NS direction.
We might conclude the critical acceleration for Adobe stability during Bam earthquake as the
difference between the amplitude of EW and NS components in the acceleration records.
We may conclude tentatively that 200-300gals was the critical acceleration in the Bam earthquake.
Surface Ground Characteristics in the Bam
The geotechnical boring was made at the recording site, however, no shear wave profile was given so
far. However, International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology carried out seismic
refraction survey in and around the Bam City (IIEES(2004)).
The survey was carried out for ten sites listed in Table-1 where the shear wave in the top surface varies
from 117m/sec to 450m/sec.
Table-1 Refraction survey site and approximate damage density
600
(m/sec)
2000
(m/sec)
1500
400
1000
200
500
Light
Medium
Damage Intensity
Fig.10 Damage Intensity vs. Vs, top
Heavy
0
Light
Medium
Heavy
Damage Intensity
Fig.11 Damage Intensity vs. Vs, 30m averaged
At site, three or four layered structures are obtained and Table-1 shows the shear wave velocity of the
top surface and the averaged shear wave velocity within top 30m.
Each sites are compared with damage intensity map and approximate intensity of damage at the site
was estimated. Fig. 10 and 11 show the relationship between these velocities and damage intensities.
Fig.10 shows the damage intensity increases with decrease of the velocity. On the other hand, the
averaged velocity within the top 30m shows somewhat reverse relation.
383
(m)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Light
Medium
Heavy
Damage Intensity
Fig.12 Depth to Base Layer vs. Damage Intensity
Fig.12 shows the relationship between the intensity of damage and the depth to base layer, which is,
here, assumed a layer with Vs greater than 0.45km/sec. It is shown that the deeper to the base layer
tends to increase the intensity of damage. It is interesting to note that shear velocity in the top surface
is more influence to the damage in Bam city.
Estimated Base Rock motion at Arg-e Bam
If we assume the foundation ground of the strong motion station as 200 to 300m/sec, and the exposed
rock to have Vs=2000m/sec, we could estimate the amplitude on rock as the first order approximation
assuming simple two layered system
Incoming wave
amp=1
Reflected wave
amp=A
384
half of the amplitude on the rock at Arg-e Bam. The estimated acceleration rock site may be in the
range of 150gals which was smaller than the critical value for the adobe structure at Arg-e Bam.
CONCLUSIONS
The paper showed several intuitive relations in terms of the failure of the adobe structures based upon
the analysis of the strong ground motions recorded in Bam city as follows,
1. The ground motion that caused failure of adobe structure was rather long period of 1.5second.
2. The critical acceleration level as 200-300gals to the damage of the adobe structures in Bam city
with a period of 1.5sec. based upon the comparison of the two horizontal components of NS and EW
direction.
3. The intensity of the damage shows some tendency to increase with the depth of the surface layer
and the lower value of shear wave in the layer rather than Vs,30m of the averaged shear velocity
within the top 30m.
4.At Arg-e Bam, the amplitude in the rock may be the order of about 150gals and the adobe structure
might well be survived.
5. Above conclusions are tentative and should be confirmed by further study of geotechnical
properties at the sites to consider the fundamental measures to protect the Arg-e Bam from earthquake
hazards.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author thanks Dr.Nejati who helped me to understand the general conditions of the Arg-e
Bam and various discussions during my stay at the expert camp, the Arg-e Bam. The authors are
grateful for Junko TANIGUCHI, Program Specialist for Cultural UNESCO Tehran Cluster Office,
who supplied us various information on the damage of Bam city.
REFERENCES
ICG Reconnaissance Mission Report(2004), Bam Earthquake of 26 December 2003
IIEES(2004), Preliminary Seismic Microzonation of Bam, Unesco Tehran Cluster Branch
K.A. Hosseini and et al.(2004) Engineering Geology and Geotechnical Aspects of Bam Earthquake
(Preliminary Report),<www.iiees.ac.ir/English/bank/Bam/bam_report_english_geo.html>
385
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W2-1002
INTRODUCTION
The temple of Zeus at Nemea was built around 330 B.C. and is notable for the unique slender
proportions of its exterior colonnade of Doric style which consists of 32 columns as shown in the plan
view of Figure 1. Among the 32 columns only one has survived (K-31) together with two columns
from the entrance of the Pronaos as shown in the 1977 photograph of Figure 2 (left). The isometric
drawing of Figure 2 (right) depicts the location of the three columns which remain standing from the
ancient times.
For centuries the temple remained in ruins with its building elements partially embedded in the ground
(see Figure 3). This situation is most destructive for the integrity and overall conditions of the ancient
material since large surfaces are exposed to an adverse environment which includes rain, snow, icing,
roots, even microorganisms which have drastically eroded the original material.
Figure 1. Plan view of the temple of Zeus at Nemea. The traces of the three columns standing
from the ancient times are shown with light gray.
1
386
K 31
Figure 2. Left: View of the temple of Zeus at Nemea from south-west. Photograph of 1977.
Right: Isometric drawing that shows the location of the three columns standing from the ancient
times.
387
reconstruction of the two columns was successfully completed in the summer of 2002 and as a result
of this effort the temple of Zeus today consists of five standing columns as the recent photograph of
Figure 4 (left) shows. The isometric drawing of Figure 4 (right) assists with the understanding of the
morphology of the temple as it stands today. More information of the history of the pilot
reconstruction can be found in the article by Miller (2000).
K 31
K 25
K 26
Figure 4. Left: The temple of Zeus at Nemea from north-west. The two front columns are those
reconstructed by the pilot reconstruction. The three ancient columns are distinguished in the
background. Right: Isometric drawing that shows the present layout with five columns standing.
388
Figure 5. Re-synthesis of architectural elements and reconstruction proposal of the north side of
the temple (top) and of the east side (bottom). Drawings No. 18 and No. 22 from Katerina
Skleres architectural studies.
389
K 31
K 30
K 25
K 26
K 29
K 27
K 28
Figure 6. Isometric drawing that shows the future layout of the temple after the end of second
phase of reconstruction which is under way.
The reconstruction of the crepida
Before reconstructing the columns it is necessary to reconstruct the wings of the base of the temple
which consist of four layers of massive rectangular stones which support the gravity loads of the
monument. Figure 7 shows the four layers to be reconstructed at the north-east corner of the temple.
Figure 8 (left) shows the major damage of the stylobate and of the second layer in the vicinity of the
support of column K-31 while Figure 8 (right) shows the temporary support of column K-31 during
the installation of the new filling which is now in place. Figure 9 shows ancient stone blocks from the
base that needed to be pieced together while Figure 10 shows new stone blocks of the crepida which
have been positioned in place and receive final adjustments. In order to complete the section of the
crepida and the area where the four new columns will be erected we need to prepare and install 70 new
stones with dimensions that exceed (2.0 m)x(2.0 m)x(0.4 m) and weight that exceeds 3.5 tons. In
addition to this work 15 ancient blocks need to be pieced together. It should be emphasized that the
reconstruction of the crepida has consumed a substantial fraction of our reconstruction effort mostly
because the rectangular blocks of the crepida were much more attractive to the subsequent occupants
of the nearby area than the cylindrical column drums. The limestone that we use for the preparation of
the new stones originates from nearby area, very close to the ancient quarries. Large masses of stone
=stylobate
=stylobate
=euthenteria
=euthenteria
Figure 7. Left: View of the north-east corner of the crepida of the Temple. Right: View of the
same corner where the corner stone of the level A has been retrofitted and replaced.
390
are transported at the periphery of the archeological site and they are sliced with an electrical wire-saw
at the desired dimensions. Figure 11 (left) shows the sawing of a large stone mass while Figure 11
(right) shows new stone blocks that have been prepared for the reconstruction of the stylobate.
Figure 8. Left: The poor condition of stylobate and the 2 nd base layer at the vicinity of the
support of column K-31 which remains standing from the ancient times. Right: Temporary
support of column K-31 during the installation of the new filling which is now in place.
Figure 9. Left: Two pieces of ancient stone of crepida that have been bonded. Right: Two
fragments of an ancient crepida block that have been retrofitted with new stone.
391
Figure 10. Final surface finishing of the new stones of the crepida after they have been
positioned in place.
Figure 11. Left: Wire-sawing of a large formless stone to produce new rectangular stone blocks.
Right: Stack of new stones of stylobate that were extracted via wire-sawing of formless large
stones.
392
distinctive elements of classical architecture. These two reasons (structural stability and morphologic
continuity) make imperative the preparation and bonding of a large number of fillings for the column
drums, capitals and epistyles. Figure 12 shows photographs of new stone bonded on the eroded drums
of the columns to be reconstructed. The filings are worked out to the extent that they reach the original
surface of the member (see Figure 13). The edges of the flute are shaped to the extent that the material
can sustain the fine workmanship of the stone carvers. Recent theoretical studies have shown that the
controlled mobility along the interfaces of drums offers to the multidrum column superior seismic
stability than that of the equal size and slenderness monolithic column (Konstantinidis & Makris
2005).
Figure 12. New stone fillings that have been bonded with eroded drums of the columns to be
reconstructed.
Figure 13. Worked out fillings where their final shape reaches the original surface of the
member.
Reconstruction of the epistyles and frieze
The approved reconstruction study includes the reconstruction of the epistyles and the frieze above.
Following a considerable effort we have identified the 10 epistyles (5 exterior and 5 interior) that will
connect the top of the four columns to be reconstructed with the column standing from the ancient
times located to the east; and the two recently reconstructed columns along the north side of the
temple. The placement of the epistyles improves the seismic stability of the solitary columns
(Psycharis et al. 2003). Two among the 10 epistyles have survived nearly intact while the rest have
been broken in two or more pieces as shown in Figure 14, which will be re-bonded and filled. Given
that the epistyles are subjected to combined bending and shear their structural capacity deserves
attention. A comprehensive analysis of the stresses and strains that develop within the retrofitted
epistyles was conducted by Makris and Psychogios (2004). Figure 15 shows schematic sections of a
retrofitted epistyle while Figure 16 shows the distribution of normal stresses of the retrofitted epistyle
under gravity loads.
393
Figure 14. Close view of broken epistyles where the material loss is distinguished.
Figure 15. Ancient stone fragments, new stone fillings and reinforcement with titanium bars of
epistyle A.2 external.
Figure 16. Distribution of normal stresses along axis x of external epistyle A.2.
The shape of the temple today
Figure 17 shows a recent photograph of the north-east view of the temple which shows the partially
reconstructed base and the first drum of column K-30 which has been placed atop the stylobate.
394
Figure 17. Photograph from north-east that shows two recently constructed columns K-30 and
K-29.
The future perspective of the reconstruction
The perspective for the reconstruction of the temple of Zeus at Nemea is the entire reconstruction of
the outer colonnade. This was clearly stated in the master plan of the reconstruction that was
submitted to the Greek Ministry of Culture (Zambas 2004). The re-synthesis of the ancient material
that was conducted by Professor F. Cooper reveals that the large number and the wide distribution of
the existing ancient members suggest for the entire reconstruction of the monument (see Figure 18). In
any event, the degree that the reconstruction will proceed also hinges upon the success of fund raising.
The reconstruction of the north-east corner of the temple which is under way (see Figure 6) is a
segmental reconstruction which paves the way for further reconstruction endeavors until the entire
reconstruction of the outer colonnade (32 columns total). The possibilities for expanding the
reconstruction are illustrated in the isometric drawing of Figure 19. The prioritization is established
based on the needs for preserving the monument in association with the desire for the best possible
end-result.
The first expansion aims to show a portion of the long north side of the temple. The proposed
reconstruction does not reach the north-west corner of the temple since in that area there are
documented foundation settlements of the order of 5 cm. these foundation settlements are associated
with the presence of nearby drain which was excavated in the early Christian period. Nevertheless, the
reconstruction of five additional columns to the west will reveal the majestic character of the temple
that the visitor will enjoy while approaching the monument from the south-west.
The perspective for reconstruction does not stop with Figure 19. It should be emphasized that during
the excavations of the last few years they have been discovered along the west side of the temple
another 11 drums, one epistyle and two stones from the frieze which are not included in the resynthesis study by Cooper shown in Figure 18. These findings increase further the challenge for the
entire reconstruction of the temple which we are called to take - each one of us in his capacity.
395
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Figure 18. Re-synthesis of the four sides of the exterior colonnade from the scattered architectural elements of the temple which were
identified and recorded by Frederic A. Cooper and his collaborators.
K 21
K 31
K 20
K 22
K 23
K 24
K 30
K 25
K 26
K 29
K 27
K 28
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This reconstruction is happening due to the invaluable contribution of several individuals and
institutions, including the Greek Ministry of Culture, the
Ephorate of Corinthia, the American
School of Classical Studies and the Department of Classics of the University of California at Berkeley.
Our reconstruction team consists of 9 stone workers, residents of the nearby area who operate under
the supervision of Architect Mrs. Katerina Sklere who also leads the architectural studies.
The funding to the reconstruction originates primarily from Greek donors including Mr. T.
Papalexopoulos, the National Bank of Greece, the Niarchos Foundation, the Club Hotel Casino
Loutraki, Mr. J. Moschaclaidis and the Samourkas Foundation among others. Part of the funding is
administered by the Opheltis foundation and part is administered by Earthquake Engineering Research
Center of the University of California at Berkeley.
The senor author appreciates the transfer of knowledge and invaluable technical and intellectual
contributions that where offered by Professor Stephen G. Miller former director of Nemea excavations
and reconstruction.
REFERENCES
Miller SG. The temple of Nemean Zeus. A California Landmark, Chronicle of the University of
California, No. 4, Fall 2000 issue, 2000.
Konstantinidis D and Makris N. Seismic response analysis of multidrum classical columns,
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 34:1243-1270, 2005.
Psycharis JN, Papastamatiou DY. and Alexandris AP. Parametric investigation of the stability of
classical columns under harmonic earthquake excitations, Earthquake Engineering & Structural
Dynamics, 29:1093-1109, 2000.
Psycharis JN, Lemos JV, Papastamatiou DY, Zambas C and Papantonopoulos C. Numerical study of
the seismic behavior of a part of the Parthenon Pronaos, Earthquake Engineering & Structural
Dynamics, 32:2063-2084, 2003.
Makris N and Psychogios T. Static and dynamic analysis of columns and part of the entablature of
the NE corner of the temple of Zeus at Nemea, American School of Classical Studies, Athens,
2004.
Zambas K. The reconstruction of temple of Zeus at Nemea: The principles, the objectives and the
perspectives of the intervention, American School of Classical Studies, Athens, 2004.
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4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No:W2-1003
ABSTRACT
Unreinforced masonry construction using blocks of rock is one of the oldest forms of building, in
which blocks are stacked, sometimes being mortared with various cements. Ancient civilizations used
locally available rocks and cements to construct rock block columns, walls and edifices for residences,
temples, fortifications and infrastructure. Monuments still exist as testaments to the high quality
construction by historic cultures, despite the seismic and other potentially damaging geomechanical
disturbances that threaten them. Conceptual failure modes under seismic conditions of rock block
structures, observed in the field or the laboratory, are presented. A brief review is presented of the
damage suffered by the culturally vital Hawaiian Puukohol and Mailekini Heiaus, rock block
temples damaged by the Mw 6.7 and 6.0 earthquakes that shook the island of Hawaii on October 15,
2006.
398
embankments, dams, mounds and pyramids. Edifices are often of imposing appearance or size and, if
of unique character, may be considered monuments.
The exterior envelopes of rock block edifices or the facing of retaining walls may be composed of
artfully fabricated veneers of high-quality rock blocks. The inner cores or backfill may consist of
stacked courses of blocks, earth or loose rubble. The contacts between facing blocks and core
materials range from dry stacked (no inter-block cement) to partially or fully cemented, although the
culturally significant monuments considered in this paper are mortar-free. Facings and interior cores of
rock block edifices may be penetrated by openings such as windows, doors, corridors, chambers and
stairways, the latter being a feature of monuments such as the pyramids.
SOME SIGNIFICANT CULTURAL ROCK BLOCK STRUCTURES IN SEISMIC REGIONS
A few examples of well-known rock block structures constructed by various civilizations in
earthquake- prone areas, which are still in good to excellent condition, are presented in the following
sections.
Mycenaean civilization
The ancient Greek Mycenaean civilization, best known for the Trojan War, flourished in Greece
between the 17th and 12th Century BC. The civilization abruptly collapsed: military invasion,
economic collapse, social disturbance, diseases and earthquakes have all been suggested as causes.
The Mycenaean-type of construction is mostly known for the fortification size of its cities such as
Mycenae and Tiryns. Zekkos et al. (2005) summarized the currently preserved Mycenaean rock block
infrastructure which includes fortifications, underground shafts (graves), retaining walls,
roads/pavements, bridges, hydraulic works, dams/embankments, and tunnels. For example, the
fortifications in Tiryns consist of building blocks that are typically 2-3 meters long and more than a
meter in thickness and height. The blocks of the walls in all cases are made of locally available
material, e.g. limestone rocks in Tiryns, and mostly conglomerate in Mycenae. In Mycenae, three
different building techniques are evident in the extant fortifications: a) Cyclopean masonry (Figure
1), which is the oldest technique, generally consisting of slightly hewn, large blocks. The stone
dimensions are larger on the two wall faces (interior and exterior), with cores composed of smaller
stones and soil. b) Rectangular masonry that consists of carefully hewn rectangular blocks laid in
regular courses (Figure 2). This technique was first used probably in about 1250 BC. In some areas,
the rectangular technique was used to construct only the outer side of walls while the interior side was
constructed with Cyclopean-type masonry. c) Polygonal masonry is generally composed of polygonal
shaped blocks carefully fitted together (Figure 1).
399
400
Amongst the largest and most imposing rock block edifices in Hawaii are heiaus, temples composed
of rock block platforms supporting structures used to house priests, sacred items, ritual images, and
altars. Heiaus were sacred places; the Hawaiian caste system of kapu (taboo) allowed access only to
priests and sacred high chiefs: kapu demanded death to common entrants.
The Puukohol Heiau, located south of Kawaihae on the island of Hawaii (Figure 7) is one of the few
surviving relatively intact examples of a finely-constructed rock block edifice and is an important
cultural monument in Hawaii. It is still used for Hawaiian ceremonies and only native Hawaiians may
enter or walk on it. Puukohol is a ritual temple commissioned by the Hawaiian chieftain
Kamehameha between 1790 and 1791 in a tribute to the war God Kukailimoku as a religious adjunct
to Kamehamehas military and diplomatic efforts to conquer all the islands of Hawaii. The heiau was
built on the brow of the hill above the existing Mailekini Heiau and Kamehamehas compound (Figure
8 and Figure 9).
Puukohol Heiau is approximately 225 feet by 100 feet (70m by 30m) in plan dimensions.
Topographically below the Puukohol Heiau is the older Mailekini Heiau (Figure 8). The long axes
of the heiaus are oriented approximately north-south. The walls, terraces and platforms of the heiaus
range from less than 5 feet (1.5 m) to 30 feet (10 m) high (Figure 9). Block sizes range between a few
centimeters to more than one meter with most boulders being in the 30 to 60 cm size range.
401
Figure 7. Mailekini Heiau in middle ground, Figure 8. Aerial view of Puukohol Heiau (top)
and Puukohol Heiau on top of hill.
and Mailekini Heiau (bottom); yellow line
shows approximate location of cross section in
Figure 9 (after Greene, 1993).
The Puukohol edifice was constructed
using local rock for core backfill (Greene,
1993) (Figure 6). Water-rounded cobbles
and
boulders
being
prophetically
specified
(Yanoviak,
2003),
were stacked
outer wall
platform
to construct the imposing facades. Although
terrace
ground
rough rock is abundant locally, waterrounded rocks was transported by 20,000
ground
men passing blocks hand-to-hand from the
graphic scale (ft)
nearest major source of Pololu Valley
0
50
(Yanoviak, 2003), some 20 miles (30 km)
Figure 9. Cross-section through Puukohola Heiau
away. Over the years, portions of the heiaus
(after Greene, 1993; Kikuchi and Cluff, 1969
collapsed prompting stabilizations and
repairs performed in the 1970s (Greene, 1993). The Heiaus and adjacent cultural assets are
administered as a National Historic Site by the United States Federal National Park Service
(www.nps.gov/puhe).
Upon abolition of the kapu system in 1819 by Liholiho, (King Kamehameha II) heiaus were
abandoned as places of worship; many were subsequently exploited to provide building materials for
new structures. Others were destroyed to make way for new developments and commercial
agriculture.
SOME FAILURE MODES OF ROCK BLOCK STRUCTURES
Figure 10 show several modes of failure, which have been observed in the laboratory, on sites of
culturally significant rock block structures or can be expected for rock block structures subjected to
seismic loading. These modes are:
A) Block-on-block sliding of columns: whereas stacked blocks of rocks, that could be for
example part of a column of a temple, move relative to each other as a result of seismic
excitation and exhibit permanent relative seismic displacement.
B) Bending of a (generally mortared) wall or column during seismic loading as a result of the
structural response of the column or the structure that the column supports.
C) Sliding and dislodgement of blocks; that could occur during earthquake loading of the
structure that has been exposed to centuries of weathering and erosion.
402
403
J) Raveling, bulging and slumping failures of the outer faces of a rock block edifice, such as
those observed at the Hawaiian heiaus described subsequently. Face failure may be
progressive: the inclination of the bulges increase until they become over-steepened and
collapse, thereby inducing collapse of the face above.
.
Figure 10J. Raveling, bulging and slumping of the face of a rock block edifice.
There are benefits to considering the apparent similarities between rock block edifices and natural
arrangements of rock blocks in rock masses. In-situ blocks in rock masses are bounded by joints,
shears, fractures and other discontinuities which range between open apertures or contain infillings
ranging through soil-like to strongly mineralized. Loose rock debris is analogous to talus fans or
colluvium.
Considered in geomechanical terms, it can be reasonably expected that rock block edifices may behave
under static and dynamic loadings in similar fashion to natural masses of rock and coarse soil. For
structures with tightly-packed or layered block arrangements, roughly circular failures occur where
the failure surfaces negotiate around the boundaries of blocks, with a degree of failure surface
roughness dependent on the size of the blocks. For edifices with internal cores composed of loose
rubble or soil face slumping or bulging is anticipated. Very steep and high wall faces composed of
stacked rocks arranged in columns may topple, much as steeply-jointed slabs of naturally jointed rock
topple. Additional analogies between block rock structures and natural rock masses can be conceived.
In some cases, it may be advantageous to perform preliminary geomechanical analysis of rock block
edifices using conventional rock mass characterization schemes, which require field estimates of water
conditions; intact rock strength: joint orientations, friction angle, spacing, persistence, roughness and
surface conditions. These qualities are estimated by an investigating geological engineer or
engineering geologist, often without the benefit of much exploration data from penetrative borings or
trenches. The need to work with limited observations is also likely a familiar situation for an
investigating archaeologist charged with characterizing a rock block structure without the benefit of
intrusive explorations.
404
Figure 11. USGS ShakeMap for the M6.7 Kiholo Bay Figure 12. Kal hikiola Church, Hawaii.
earthquake (after USGS).
Weakly cemented rock block walls
failed dramatically (Medley, 2006).
405
Figure 14. Raveling and slumping of eastern wall of Mailekini Heiau, after earthquake.
406
Performance of Puukohol and Mailekini Heiaus Rock Block Edifices During the Earthquakes
The Puukohol and Mailekini Heiaus were both severely damaged by the October 15 2006
earthquakes, the epicenters of which were less than 50 km away (Figure 11). At the Mailekini heiau,
much of the interior face of the east wall slumped and raveled (Figure 13 and Figure 14). The worst
damage at the Puukohol Heiau was to high retaining walls bounding the sole access passage (Figure
15 and Figure 16). Many wall bulges were observed at originally steep wall faces (40 to 50 degrees)
resulting in further steepening of the wall faces near the bottom of the edifice (Figure 17 and Figure
18), although it is likely that some bulging had occurred before the earthquakes. The bulging suggests
that there are future vulnerabilities to increased rock face instability and possible eventual collapses
from future earthquakes or creep deformation (Medley, 2006). Some slumps and ravels of the wall
faces occurred where the bulges over-steepened and collapsed (Figure 19) apparently in much the
same fashion as sketched in Figure 10J. The angle of repose for the slumps was about 30 degrees, with
run-outs extending to more than 5 m from the original toe of the walls.
407
The location of the Heiau on the brow of a hill may have focused seismic shaking, although no details
about site response are available. The pre-earthquake geometry of the Puukohola Heiau was
apparently surveyed a few years ago with terrestial LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) before the
earthquake (personal communication with National Park Service staff). As shown in Figure 17, there
was apparent wall bulging or steepening of the Heiau walls before the earthquake, but it is unknown
how much of this occurred because of, or since, wall renovations in the 1970s A repeat LiDAR
survey could form the basis for quantifying earthquake-related deformation, back-analysis and
identification of those portions of the edifices vulnerable to further damage in future earthquakes, or
due to creep (Medley, 2006).
Figure 19. Puukohol Heiau. Slump failure due to earthquakes (between dashed lines).
CONCLUSIONS
Construction with unmortared block of rocks is venerable and universal even in seismically active
regions. That so many historic and culturally valuable structures have survived is a testament to
careful engineering craftsmanship. Finely fitted, massive blocks of rock and well-constructed interior
cores and backfill assure the survival of these structures better than poorly constructed unreinforced
masonry of modern communities nearby. Modes of failure of rock block structures under seismic
loading observed on sites or the laboratory are conceptually presented.
The Puukohol and Mailekini Heiaus suffered great damage in the Mw 6.7 and 6.0 earthquakes that
shook the island of Hawaii on October 15, 2006. The causes of the damage have not been adequately
studied, but further analyses should ideally research: ground and structure responses; understanding of
the effects of topographic focusing; consideration of the quality of the interior core; review of the
nature and quality of previous repairs in the last 200 years; and estimation of the occurrence of prior
permanent wall deformations. Since portions of the Heiaus now have potentially hazardous wall
geometries, these should be analyzed to assess future potential performance under static and dynamic
loading.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the Geo-Engineering Earthquake Reconnaissance Association
(GEER) and Geosyntec Consultants for supporting the Geological Engineering Reconnaissance after
the Hawaii earthquakes in October 2006 (http://gees.usc.edu/GEER/Hawaii/title.htm). Additional
information and photographs on the geoengineering aspects of historical monuments are available
from the Geoengineer website (http://www.geoengineer.org).
408
REFERENCES
Chock, G, (ed). Preliminary Observations on the Hawaii Earthquakes of October 15, 2006. EERI
Special Earthquake Report, Learning from Earthquakes; EERI, Oakland, CA:
http://www.eeri.org/lfe/pdf/usa_kona_hawaii_eeri_prelim_report.pdf
Decanini L, De Sortis A, Goretti A, Langenbach R, Mollaioli F, and Rasulo A, Performance of
Masonry Buildings During the 2002 Molise, Italy Earthquake. 2002 Molise, Italy, Earthquake
Reconnaissance Report, Vol. 20, Earthquake Spectra, EERI, 2004.
Dewey, J W and Silva, W J, Seismicity and Tectonics, 2001 Southern Peru Earthquake
Reconnaissance Report, Supplement A to Volume 19, January 2003, Earthquake Spectra,
Earthquake Spectra, pp.1-10.
Greene, LW. Cultural History of Three Traditional Hawaiian Sites on the West Coast of Hawai'i
Island, United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Denver Service Center,
September 1993: (http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/kona/history.htm)
Kikuchi, W K. Hawaiian Aquacultural Systems, Ph. D. thesis, University of Arizona, 1973.
Kikuchi, W K and Cluff, D F, An Archaeological Survey of Puu Kohola Heiau and Mailekini Heiau,
Kawaihae, South Kohala, Hawaii Island in Deborah F. Cluff, William K. Kikuchi, Russell A.
Apple, and Yosihiko H. Sinoto, The Archaeological Surface Survey of Puu Kohola Heiau and
Mailekini Heiau, South Kohala, Kawaihae, Hawaii Island, Hawaii State Archaeological Journal 693 (Honolulu: Division of State Parks, Dep. of Land and Natural Resources, 1969), pp. 37-53.
Kovach R L. Personal research website on Ancient Earthquakes of the Americas
http://pangea.stanford.edu/~kov/kovach-home-page.html, Last visited: April 10, 2007)
MacDonald, G A, and Abbott, A T. Volcanoes in the Sea The Geology of Hawaii, University of
Hawaii Press, Honolulu, HI; pp. 441, 1970.
Medley, E W, Geological Engineering Reconnaissance of Damage Resulting from the October 15,
2006 Earthquakes, Island of Hawaii, Hawaii, USA, Report for Geo-Engineering Earthquake
Reconnaissance Association (GEER), Geosyntec Consultants, Oakland, California
(http://gees.usc.edu/GEER/Hawaii/title.htm), 2006.
Meyer, P, Ochsendorf, J, Germaine, J, Kausel, E, The impact of high-frequency low-energy seismic
waves on unreinforced masonry, Earthquake Spectra, Volume 23, No. 1, pp. 77-94, February 2007.
Murty, CVR, Arlekar, JN, Rai, JN, Udasi, HB, and Nayak D. Chapter 11: Masonry structures. 2001
Bhuj, India earthquake Reconaissance Report, EERI, pp. 187-224, July 2002.
Ladd, E J, Ruins Stabilization and Restoration Record, Pu'ukohola Heiau National Historic Site,
Kawaihae, Hawaii. Honolulu: National Park Service, 1986.
Nadim F, Moghtaderi-Zadeh M, Lindholm C, Andresen A, Remseth S, Bolourchi M J, Mokhtari M
and Tvedt E, The Bam Earthquake of 26 December 2003. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, 2
(2), Springer, Netherlands, pp. 119-153, 2004.
Robertson, I N, Nicholson, P G and Brandes, H G. Reconnaissance following the October 15th, 2006
Earthquakes on the Island of Hawaii. Research Report UHM/CEE/06-07, University of Hawaii
College of Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering; pp. 65, 2006.
Stokes, J F G, "Report 13: Archaeological Features of the Pu'uhonua Area," in Bryan and Emory,
Natural and Cultural History of Honaunau, pp. 163-74; (1915??)
Wong, S K, Cultural Foundations, April 2004 (http://www.oha.org/pdf/kwo04/0404/13.pdf)
Wright K, Zegarra AV, Machu Picchu A Civil Engineering Marvel. ASCE Press, 2000.
Yanoviak, A C, Puukohol Heiau in Cheever, D and Cheever, S., co-ordianting authors; and
Clifford, . J.S. and Haines, F. S., editors, P haku The Art and Architecture of Stonework in
Hawaii, Editions Limited, Honolulu, Hawaii, pp 171, 2003.
Zekkos D, Manousakis J, and Athanasopoulos A, Geotechnical engineering practice in the
MycenaeanCivilization (1600-1100 BC). 2nd International Conference Ancient Greek
Technology, Athens, Greece, 17-21 October 2005 (Also available at: http://www.geoengineer.org).
409
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W2-1005
INTRODUCTION
Modern large cities are frequently exposed to natural and man made risks which affect many aspects
of urban development. Political, social, economic, geographical, morphological and geological
conditions, among others, determine the way in which hazards can be faced in practice and, generally,
authorities will seek means for eliminating or at least mitigating these risks or their effects. More often
than not these conditions combine in a variety of imaginable ways to preclude or limit the
effectiveness of public policies for hazard management.
Adopting the view point of Geotechnical Engineering, we look at the way in which two of these risks
have, in the past, compromised the integrity of architectonic monuments in Mexico City. We consider
earthquakes and regional subsidence and also the way in which they may combine in the coming years
to endanger seriously the permanence of the architectural heritage of the central part of the city.
BACKGROUND
The Aztec city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded in the year 1325 on a marshy islet in the middle
of Lake Texcoco. This lake, the lowest portion of a closed basin surrounded by volcanic mountain
ranges, overlies a series of clays and clayey silts formed by the chemical degradation of pyroclastic
materials driven into it by water flows and by the winds. These clays are notorious for their extremely
high water contents, their very low shear strength and their extraordinarily large compressibility.
1
410
Aztec constructions concentrated in and around the religious precinct that constituted the core of the
old city. Temples atop extremely heavy earthen pyramidal structures clad with stone and colored
stucco dominated the skyline. Built directly on the very soft lacustrine clays, these pyramids
underwent extremely large settlements and were repaired periodically or, as it was the custom in MidAmerica, substituted by newer pyramids built directly over the older ones.
The Spaniards conquered and razed Mexico-Tenochtitlan in 1521 and a new city was built literally on
top of the former one. Spanish masons adapted and used foundation techniques devised by the Aztecs,
like short stakes with flat stone heads; they also imported European constructive techniques and tried
to adapt them to the difficult subsoil conditions, not always successfully. Nearly all of the Spanish
buildings erected in the 16th century underwent extremely large settlements and have almost
completely disappeared, in many cases swallowed by the ground. In order to limit and mitigate the
problems caused by differential settlements induced by the self weight of structures and in lieu of
other technological resources, the height of most structures was generally limited to two stories, to
avoid their ruin if built taller, as referred by Cervantes de Salazar in 1550 (Cervantes de Salazar, 1978)
who also put forth this limit to avoid earthquake related damage (this is probably the first rule for
building earthquake resistant structures in the Americas). Foreign voyagers that visited the city in
1596, wrote that everything sank or tilted, as quoted by Musset (Musset, 1992).
In the erection of manors, palaces or civic buildings or the larger religious buildings like convents and
churches, engineers used ingenuity, patience and lots of money. Innovative foundation solutions were
often tried and tested, as in the Metropolitan Cathedral, where a masonry platform, actually a
foundation raft of large proportions, approximately 60 by 120 m, was tried for the first time in the city
in 1573. These heavier structures were subjected to recurrent interventions to correct structural
damage caused by differential settlements induced by the consolidation of the underlying clays
produced by overburdens imposed on the soil by the structures themselves. On many occasions
foundations were altered and underpinning of the larger conventual churches and cloisters was not
rare. Overall, the approach for building foundations and foundation systems was empirical and it was
late in the 19th century when attempts to rationalize these techniques were first introduced.
Upon the destruction of the prehispanic system of levees and embankments with which the water in
the lake system was regulated, the city flooded periodically. The most severe flood took place in the
early 17th century, when the city was covered by water for five years (1629-1634) and as a result,
damage in the older structures became even more severe. After it the resolve of the authorities to
eliminate the threat by drying the lake was strengthened. Floods were mitigated with a trench
excavated in the mountains of the northern portion of the basin to divert one of the rivers that reached
the lake. After the completion of the monumental trench the 18th century, no further drainage works
were undertaken until the late 19th and the early 20th centuries. The graph in Fig. 1 illustrates the
evolution of the lake system and, as seen there, drainage and land reclamation for urban expansion
produced the gradual shrinking of the lake, which is now practically nonexistent.
411
412
REGIONAL SUBSIDENCE
Regional subsidence is not an exclusive problem of Mexico City. It affects other cities where water is
extracted from the subsoil. Two of the most alarming cases are Venice and Bangkok where the safe
guard of architectonic monuments has been of paramount importance in devising solutions to the
problem. In the Mexican Republic other cities are now suffering from the effects of regional
subsidence but the capital surpasses in size and complexity any other case.
It can be inferred that subsiding ground probably affected Mexico City even before water began to be
extracted from its subsoil on account of the gradual desiccation of the old lake system, beginning early
in the 17th century. Unfortunately there are no topographical data or records of other observations
before the 1880s to back this assertion. The results of levelings in the city performed in 1860, 1870
and 1888 led to the recognition, early in the 20th century, that the city was actually sinking but
engineers and scientists of the time were unable to relate regional subsidence to extraction of water
from the subsoil.
Initially artesian water was drawn from relatively shallow wells; water was later pumped from deeper
wells as demand increased in the second half of the 19th century. Having Terzaghis Consolidation
Theory as a basis, the relationship between population growth, amount of water extracted from the
aquifer and subsidence rates was established by the pioneering work of Carrillo (Carrillo, 1948), later
continued by Marsal and Mazari (Marsal and Mazari, 1959). Data collected by Tamez (1992) show
that from 1900 to 1920 the settlement rate in downtown Mexico City was 3 cm/year; by the 1940s the
rate was 13 cm/year and in the early 50s it reached 26 cm per year. Wells in downtown Mexico City
were banned and settlement rates decreased to 5 cm/year. In the late 70s and early 80s new wells
were put in operation in the outskirts, mainly near the hills that surround the city in the north and in
the south. Settlement rates increased again and in central Mexico City they now amount 7 to 10
cm/year but at some sites near the newer wells they exceed 30 cm/year (Mazari, 1996). There are
zones in the outskirts, towards the edges of the former lake bed where the ground settles 40 to 60
cm/year (Santoyo et al, 2005). The total subsidence over the last 100 years with respect to a reference
point outside the lake zone now exceeds 10 m in some areas.
413
Surface settlements are an expression of changes that occur within the soil mass due to the
consolidation process triggered by the depletion of pore pressures as a consequence of the exploitation
of the aquifers that underlie the soft clays. Most significantly, effective stress increments within the
clay mass will modify stress and stress path dependent parameters like shear strength, compressibility
and permeability. Consolidation of the lacustrine clays affects the totality of the former lake zone. As
regional consolidation progresses, the clays gain strength and become stiffer; they also lose
compressibility and permeability.
Field and laboratory data collected over the last few decades have been used to document the way in
which mechanical and index properties change. The graph in Fig. 3, for example, shows one
dimensional compression curves obtained from the testing of three samples retrieved from the same
site at three different dates. As seen there, initial voids ratios have reduced gradually over the years
and apparent preconsolidation pressures have increased; the three samples exhibit the same virgin
consolidation line, approximately. Results of CPT tests show increasing point penetration resistance
over a 14 year period, as illustrated in Fig. 4; the CPT profiles in that figure also show changes in the
thickness of the upper clay formation, about 100 cm between 1986 and 2000. Compression of the
upper clay formation contributes with about 50 to 60 % to total settlements measured in the central
part of the city.
414
u
z2
c ve
mve
g u,
v0
z
u
t
t0
exp
1
g u,
mve
u
t
g u,
vp
z0
(1)
(2)
v0
(3)
z0
Where, cve is a consolidation coefficient associated to elastic deformations, equal to k/(mve w); k is the
soils permeability and mve is the volumetric compressibility along the elastic portion of the one
dimensional stress-strain curve, equal to ze/ z = ( /vo)/( z); /vo= C /2.3, where C is the slope
along the compressibility curve in log time versus strain; finally /vo is the slope of a reference one
dimensional stress-strain curve.
Equations 1 to 3 were applied at 21 sites in the central part of the city integrating them numerically
with a finite difference algorithm. The Mexico City clay deposits were modeled considering that the
two main clay strata are confined by permeable layers strata undergoing independent consolidation
415
processes (Ovando and Ossa, 2004). Initial conditions were specified from piezometric readings
obtained at nearby locations. Conditions at the boundaries were specified from pore pressure depletion
rates at the permeable layers that confine the clays. Relevant properties for modelling the
consolidation process were estimated approximately from the results of CPT soundings performed in
each site (compressibilities and permeabilities as well as thicknesses of each substratum); during the
integration process, these properties were up-dated after each time interval.
Resulting isochrone curves were used to obtain effective stress changes which were then used to
calculate settlements in each of the sites under study. Deformations (compressions) of the two main
clay strata were added to produce equal settlement contours at different dates. The map in Fig. 5, for
example, provides settlement contours estimated for the year 2075. The area covered in that map
includes the citys main square, the Cathedral, the National Palace and many other important
architectonic monuments. As seen in the map, calculated settlements are not uniform; differential
settlements that will accumulate in the future are quite large and will endanger some of the buildings
of the zone. Two of the most conspicuous buildings shown in the map, the Metropolitan Cathedral and
the National Palace, have been subjected to interventions to avoid or mitigate damage induced by
differential settlements. The former was underpinned partially with point bearing piles and the latter
was first underexcavated to correct excessive differential settlements and afterwards its subsoil was
hardened selectively to attain a more uniform distribution of compressibilities. In regard to these two
monuments, contours shown in that figure represent one of the possible scenarios that could have
affected them, had the interventions in them not taken place.
Figure 5 shows that resulting future settlements will be far from being uniform and as structures built
on these grounds accumulate differential settlements, irreversible structural damage will gradually
accumulate and build up. Differential settlements induce tilts and distortions which may lead to the
appearance of tension zones in masonries that will eventually produce fissures and cracks. This, in
turn, increases structural vulnerability to other detrimental agents including a reduction of their
capacity to tolerate further differential settlements. In earthquake-prone regions however, differential
settlements increase substantially the seismic vulnerability of structures.
416
Figure 5. Settlement contour lines, in cm, estimated for the year 2075.
417
Historical Background
The Aztecs and other prehispanic peoples in the Basin of Mexico recorded earthquakes and a few
descriptions of the damages they caused have reached modern historians but it is not possible to assess
seismic intensities or degree of damage from these descriptions. Archaeological data have shown that
the pyramids in Tenochtitlan, built from manually compacted clay reinforced with masonry walls
forming cells, suffered local slope failures probably enhanced by settlement differentials (Barrera,
1999). It can be speculated that some of these local failures may have occurred during earthquakes. On
the other hand, it is the authors opinion that the probability of having a massive earthquake induced
slope failure is very small indeed, given the presence of the reinforcing masonry walls within the core
of the pyramids. The houses and palaces for the Aztec royalty were rigid low rise masonry structures
were also exposed to differential settlements making them more vulnerable to suffer damages during
earthquakes on account of their heavy ceilings.
European masons soon learned that in Mexico City heavy and slender structures could not sustain
seismic forces especially if they had tilted or were inclined. Cervantes de Salazar provides the firsts
rule for constructing seismic resistant structures in the Americas which consisted simply in limiting
their height to two stories. Of course, churches, especially their towers and spires did not comply with
this rule. Historians have recorded many accounts of fallen, tilted or collapsed church towers during
earthquakes (Garca Acosta and Surez, 1996). Tilts and distortion brought about by settlement
differentials, for example, prepared the central dome at the church of Santa Teresa la Antigua for its
collapse in the great 1845 earthquake during which the bell tower at San Lorenzo tilted and cracked
diagonally.
418
Still, objective observers that visited the country in the early 19th century considered that earthquake
damage in Mexico City was small, compared to damage and destruction sustained in other cities
(Humboldt, 1822; Ward, 1828). Indeed, most damages concentrated in water and sewage pipes and in
aqueducts. Disasters in the city really began to occur well into the 20th century when newer more
vulnerable structures were built. In the central part of the city where site periods range between 1 to 3
s, approximately, the older more rigid structures having short natural periods (say, 0.3 to 0.5 s) fared
better than some of the newer more flexible constructions with longer natural periods (more than 1 s).
Note that as structures accumulate damage, their natural periods become longer and may even become
dangerously close to the site natural period, especially in the transition zones along the edges of the
old lakes.
An example of how the older colonial buildings behave during an earthquake is provided by looking at
records obtained from a network of seven accelerometers which were installed in the Metropolitan
Cathedra late in 1996. These strong motion instruments have been triggered several times and
information gathered during these events confirmed that seismic motions in the Cathedral's structure
are influenced by a very strong interaction effect with its foundation and the underlying clay strata. An
illustrative example of the soil-structure interaction effects is provided in Fig. 7 which shows three
elastic response spectra (5 % damping) obtained from accelerograms recorded at a site in the western
atrium (free field station), at the basement (crypt level) and at the main dome on 11 January, 1997
during a 7.3 magnitude earthquake whose epicenter was located some 600 km west of Mexico City.
Low period peaks, less than 1 s, which are present in the free field spectrum, are attenuated in the
spectrum calculated at the basement; spectral ordinates show peaks near 1.5 s and these can be
associated to the response of the soil deposits. Spectral peaks at around 2.5 s are due to rocking
motions in the transept, mainly in the N-S direction. Amplification of spectral ordinates is not
significant and this suggests that the transept moved essentially as a rigid body during this earthquake.
Also note that spectral ordinates are rather small; maximum acceleration at the free field station was
only 15 gals. From the analysis of motions recorded on the roof top near the apse and near the western
tower, it was concluded that motions in these two zones of the Cathedral and in its transept are
independent. This fact is explained by the existence of families of fissures separating them.
Figure 7. Elastic response spectra from strong motions recoreded at the Metropolitan Cathedral
on 11 January 1977..
419
Overall, the seismic behavior of the Cathedral has been satisfactory but the situation could change if
additional differential settlements were to accumulate in the future and indeed, this was a major issue
when deciding to underexcavate the cathedral (Meli and Snchez, 1995). Similar conclusions may be
reached when analyzing other colonial structures in the city.
Effects on Dynamic Properties
Local soil conditions, i.e. local site effects, have a major influence on seismic intensity distribution in
the former lake area in Mexico City. In this city, a distinctive feature is the extremely large
amplification of seismic motions associated to periods that coincide with the soft clay deposits natural
periods. Material properties which determine the dynamic behavior of soil deposits, density, shear
modulus and internal damping, being as they are, effective-stress-dependent, are all affected by
regional consolidation induced by deep well pumping. Changes on dynamic soil properties brought
about by pumping-induced regional consolidation have been amply documented from the results of
laboratory and field test (Ovando-Shelley et al, 2007).
The dependency of shear wave velocity on effective stress increments can be stated explicitly from the
following expression for the shear modulus at small strains, Gmax, which was derived from the results
of resonant column and cyclic triaxial tests performed on clay samples retrieved from several sites in
the former lake bed, in Mexico City (Romo, 1995; Romo, 1996):
Gmax
2
s
122 pa
PI I r
0.82
p0
pa
PI I r
(4)
Where is mass density; Vs is shear wave velocity; po is the in situ mean effective stress; pa is the
atmospheric pressure; PI is the plasticity index; Ir is relative consistency. Hence:
Vs 11
pa
PI I r
2
p0
PI Ir
0.41
ut
(5)
pa
u(t) is a pore pressure depletion function obtained from equations 1 to 3, for example. Index
properties, plasticity index and relative consistency, have been included in expressions 4 and 5, as
noted before by other authors (Dobry, 1997).
The complete shear modulus-strain relationship for the Mexico City clays can be formulated by means
of hyperbolic functions of the type (Gonzalez, 2005):
2B
G Gmax 1 H
Gmax 1
r
2B
(6)
Where g is the shear strain; A and B are experimentally determined parameters that also depend on soil
plasticity whereas gr is a reference strain (Romo, 1995). Damping ratios can also be expressed by
means of the same hyperbolic function:
max
min
min
(7)
Where max and min are the maximum and minimum values of damping ratio, experimentally
determined over a convenient range of shear strains.
Effective stress increments brought about by water pumping from the aquifers will also modify
(shorten) the dominant periods of the soft clay deposits undergoing regional consolidation:
420
T0 t
4 h
Gavg
4h
Vavg
avg
(8)
Where the sub-indices refer to average values of shear modulus, mass density and shear wave
propagation velocity. Average shear wave velocity is:
Vsavg t
4 h
Vsi hi t
(9)
hi t
As seen in expressions 8 and 9, the shortening of periods is due to the compression of the clay strata
and to the increase of stiffness or shear wave velocity.
Seismic Response
Seismic response analyses were made using a one dimensional wave propagation model in which the
input motion consists of vertically propagating waves. Such simple models have been used previously
to successfully predict the seismic response of Mexico City clay deposits in the largest part of the old
lake zone (Rosenblueth and Ovando-Shelley, 1991). The model used here solves the equations of
motion using Haskell-Thomsons solution for a stratified medium (Haskell, 1953; Thomson, 1950),
and obtains the response of the soil column using random vibration theory. Soil strata are assumed to
be visco elastic materials characterized by frequency independent, non linear, stiffness-strain and
damping-strain curves such as the ones provided by equations 1 to 3. Material non linearities are
introduced with the linear equivalent method. The theoretical bases of the program are explained
elsewhere (Brcena and Romo, 1994).
Average initial values of the relevant properties for analyzing the seismic response of the Metropolitan
Cathedral site in central Mexico City were taken form a high quality geotechnical sounding reported
by Tamez (Tamez et al, 1997). Static and dynamic soil parameters needed for the analysis were
updated from effective stress increments obtained from the integration of equations 1 to 3, at different
dates in the future; thicknesses of the strata were also adjusted. Input motions at the base of the model
were defined from response spectra obtained from accelerograms recorded at a basalt outcrop in the
south of the city i.e. assuming that the strata underlying the soils below 51 m are rigid.
The evolution of the sites seismic response is examined using input motions from the great
Michoacn Earthquake of 19 September, 1985 which originated along the subduction zone off the
Mexican Pacific coast, 300 km from the city (Mc = 8.1) and from the of 15 June, 1999, whose
epicenter was located 186 km south-east of the city (Mc = 7.1). Motions produced by subduction
quakes in the city are generally rich in low frequency components which are amplified by the soft clay
deposits. Normal faulting events, like the Tehuacn Earthquake, generate motions which are richer in
higher frequency components.
Response spectra obtained when the site was excited by motions recorded during the Great Michoacn
Earthquake of 1985 show that the sites dominant period can reduce substantially in the future, Fig. 8.
If the dominant period shortens due to the stiffening of the clays as they become more consolidated,
maximum spectral amplitudes would increase steadily. With the soil properties obtained in 2000, the
maximum spectral acceleration turned out to be about 0.65 g whereas the value estimated for the year
2100 reached 1.15 g. Maximum ground acceleration, on the other hand, can also increase
substantially: from 0.14 g for the year 2000 to 0.3 in the year 2100.
421
1.2
2060
2040
Sa, g
0.8
2100
2020
0.6
0.4
Year 2000
0.2
0 0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Period, s
Figure 8. Response spectra at the Cathedral site using time-varying shear moduli. Input motion
obtained from records logged at a basalt outcrop during the Great Michoacn Earthquake of
1985.
Nevertheless, spectral amplification i.e. the quotient between spectral ordinates and maximum
ground acceleration would vary over a relatively narrow range at the sites natural period: between
4.0 and 4.8, as seen in Fig. 9. Interestingly, spectral ordinates associated to the sites second mode
displayed a relatively small amplitude, over the 100 years studied here. Furthermore, spectral
amplification below 0.4 s is definitely insignificant. Another remarkable feature is that, even for the
very large spectral ordinates obtained in the later future, the materials behavior would remain mainly
within the linear range.
6
2020
Sa / a
max
2040
2060
2100
2000
2
1
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Period, s
Figure 9. Spectral amplification obtained from the response spectra shown in the previous
figure.
The sites future spectral response to the Tehuacn Earthquake also shows the effect of the sharp
reduction in its natural period. Accordingly, spectral ordinates at that period increased steadily from
2000 to 2040; between this later year to 2060, they remain basically constant and increase noticeably
again in 2100, Fig. 10. On the other hand, spectral ordinates associated to the sites second mode are
rather more significant than for the 1985 event. Maximum ground accelerations could vary from 0.014
g in the year 2000 to 0.05 g in 2100 and spectral ordinates at the first mode from 0.036 g to 0.128 g in
these same years, respectively. Spectral amplifications at the sites natural period could change from
2.2 to 3.2 and from 2.1 to 2.4 at the second mode, Fig. 11. Nonlinear effects would also be negligible
as could have been expected a priori, given that the motions in the Tehuacn event were considerably
less intense than for the Michoacn Earthquake.
422
0.09
2100
0.08
2060
2040
0.07
Sa, g
0.06
0.05
2020
0.04
0.03
2000
0.02
0.01
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Period, s
Figure 10. Response spectra at the Cathedral site using time-varying shear moduli. Input motion
obtained from records logged at a basalt outcrop during the 1999 Tehuacn event.
3.5
max
Sa / a
2060
2100
2040
2020
2.5
2
2000
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Period, s
Figure 11. Spectral amplification obtained from the spectra shown in the previous figure.
CONCLUSIONS
The combined effects of regional subsidence and earthquakes pose serious threats to architectural
monuments in Mexico City. Low rise stiff structures, as most of the buildings classified as monuments
in the city, display low seismic vulnerability, given their intrinsic dynamic properties and given, also,
the characteristics of seismic movements in the surface of the very soft lacustrine clay deposits(long
period nearly monochromatic displacements). Differential settlements brought about by regional
consolidation induced by deep well pumping to extract water from the aquifers that underlie the
former lake bed in the city have increased the vulnerability of those structures on account of the
damage associated to them: cracks, fissures, tilts, structural distortions and the like.
Regional subsidence increases effective stresses within the soft clay masses. As the consolidation of
the clays advances, their static and dynamic properties will change in the future. Changes will occur in
the totality of the former lake zone and given the present trends in the urban and demographical
evolution of the city, regional subsidence will continue to be present in the foreseeable future.
Expected effective stress increments induced by the exploitation of the aquifers were estimated with a
viscoplastic consolidation model which overcomes some of the limitations of Terzaghis consolidation
theory. The equations of this consolidation model were integrated with a finite difference program in
423
which time dependent boundary conditions were imposed, to specify pore pressure depletion rates
from actual piezometric readings. Future expected settlements calculated with this model show that
monuments in the central part of the city will undergo extremely large differential settlements in the
years to come which will, in turn, produce damage that will add to presently existing damage.
Dynamic soil properties and, consequently, dynamic response in the city will evolve. The future
seismic response at a site near the Metropolitan Cathedral was examined studying its response to two
earthquakes having different source mechanisms: the 19 September, 1985 earthquake, a subduction
event, rich in long period components and the 15 June, 1999, Tehuacn Earthquake where short period
components were important. Other seismogenic regions produce earthquakes that also affect Mexico
City but the two ones considered here represent extreme examples of the motions. The seismic
response analysis presented and discussed here are certainly limited in their scope and aims but cant
be considered by any means exceptional. Several general conclusions regarding the future of listed
buildings in central Mexico City can be drawn from these results, pending further research into this
matter:
Depletion of pore pressures within the clayey soils in Mexico City produces changes in their
dynamic properties that can not be ignored.
Stiffening of the clays modifies (shortens) the dominant period of the soil deposits. Damage
related to the apparition of differential settlements will, on the other hand, lengthen the natural
period of old monumental buildings in the city. This combination of effects is potentially very
dangerous to these structures.
Overall shortening of dominant periods will change the zones in which seismic movements are
more intense in the city.
In the case of subduction earthquakes, the most hazardous zones will slowly migrate towards the
centre of the old lake bed where the thicker clay strata.
The transition zone, located near the edges of the lake, where more rigid clay deposits exist, will
become more vulnerable to high frequency events, i.e. deep normal faulting earthquakes or those
produced by neighboring active faults. The seismic vulnerability of damaged old structures may
increase considerably in these areas.
Monuments located in certain parts of central Mexico City, subjected to high, long standing
external loads and to the effects of regional subsidence, like the site studied here, will also
become more vulnerable to high frequency events.
From the above, it is likely that many of those structures will not survive unless decisive actions are
taken to increase their capacity to sustain further differential settlements in the future and reduce future
increments in seismic vulnerability. The authors have identified nearly 30 structures that require
urgent interventions but there are many others that may need to be intervened in the near future.
REFERENCES
Cervantes de Salazar, F. La vida en Mxico en 1554, 1555. Editorial Porra, Mxico, 1978
Musset, A. El Agua en el Valle de Mxico. Centro de Estudios Mexicanos y Centro-Americanos,
Editorial Prtico, Mxico, 1992
Carrillo, N. Influence of Artesian Wells in the Sinking of Mexico City, Proceedings of the Second
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. VII, 1948
Marsal, Ral J. and Mazari, Marcos. The Subsoil of Mexico City, School of Engineering, UNAM,
Mexico, 1959
Tamez, E. Hundimientos diferenciales de edificios coloniales en el Centro Histrico de la Ciudad de
Mxico, Undcima Conferencia Nabor Carrillo, Zacatecas, Sociedad Mexicana de Mecnica de
Suelos, Mxico, 1992
Mazari M. La isla de los perros, El Colegio Nacional, Mxico, 1996
424
Santoyo Villa E., Ovando Shelley, E., Mooser, F and Len, E. Sntesis Geotcnica de la Cuenca del
Valle de Mxico, TGC ediciones, Mxico, 2005
Ovando Shelley, E., Romo M. P., Contreras, N. and Giralt, A. Some Implications of the Future
Evolution of Central Mexico Citys Subsoil Properties due to Water Pumping, Geofsica
Internacional, Vol. 42, No.2, 185-204, Mxico, 2003
Ovando S. E. and Ossa L. A. Modelo elastoviscoplstico para la consolidacin de los suelos y su
aplicacin al hundimiento regional de la ciudad de Mxico, Memorias de la XXII Reunin
Nacional de Mecnica de Suelos, Vol. 1, 291-299, Guadalajara, Mxico, 2004
Ovando Shelley E., Romo, M. P. and Ossa, A. The sinking of Mexico city: Its effects on soil
properties and seismic response, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 27, 333-343,
Mxico, 2007
Yin J. H. and Graham J. Equivalent times and one dimensional elastic viscoplastic modelling of time
dependent stress-strain behavior of clays, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 31(1), 42-52, 1994
Yin J. H. and Graham J. Elastic visco-plastic modelling of one dimensional consolidation,
Geotechnique, 46(3), 515-527, 1996
Hartmut, S, A. Astorga, H. Amann, C. Calvo, W. Kolb, H. Scmidt and J. Winseman. Anatomy of an
evolving island: tectonic and eustatic control in the south Central American fore-arc area.
Sedimentation, Tectonics and Eustasy. Sea-level Changes at Active Margins. David MacDonald,
Editor, Special Publication Number 12, International Association of Sedimentologists, Blackwell
Scientific Publications, London, 1991
Barrera, J. A. El rescate arqueolgico en la Catedral y el Sagrario Metropolitanos de la Ciudad de
Mxico, Excavaciones en la Catedral y el Sagrario Metropolitanos Programa de Arqueologa
Urbana (Coordinador: Eduardo Matos), Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e Historia, Coleccin
Obra Diversa, Mxico, 1999
Garca Acosta, V. and Surez Reynoso, G. Los sismos en la historia de Mxico, Tomo I, UNAM,
CIESAS, Fondo de Cultura Econmica, Mxico, 1996
Humboldt, A. Ensayo poltico sobre el reino de la Nueva Espaa (1822), Editorial Porra, Col.
Sepan Cuntos, Mxico, 1978
Ward, H. G. Mxico en 1827, Fondo de Cultura Econmica, SEP, Lecturas Mexicanas No. 73,
Mxico, 1828
Meli, R. and Snchez, R. Catedral Metropolitana: correccin geomtrica, informe tcnico:
Diagnstico estructural, Asociacin de amigos de la Catedral Metropolitana de Mxico A. C.,
141-188, Mexico City, 1995
Romo M. P. Clay behaviour, ground response and soil-structure interaction studies in Mexico City,
State of the Art Paper, S Prakash Editors, Proc. Third International Conference on Recent
Advances in Geotechnical Engineering and Soil Dynamics, University of Missouri, Rolla, Saint
Louis, Missouri, 1995
Romo M. P. and Ovando E. Modelling the dynamic behaviour of Mexican clays, Proc. XII
International Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Acapulco, Mxico, 1996
Dobry R. and Vucetic M. Dynamic properties and seismic response of soft clay deposits, Mendoza
Mj Editor, Simposio internacional de ingeniera geotcnica de suelos blandos, Sociedad Mexicana
de Mecnica de Suelos, Vol. 2, 49-85, Mxico, 1997
Gonzalez B. M. Modelacin de las Propiedades Dinmicas de Arcillas Marinas, Tesis de Maestra,
Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, Mxico, 2005
Rosenbleuth, E. and Ovando, E. Geotechnical lessons learned from Mexico and other recent
earthquakes, Second International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Engineering
and Soil Dynamics, San Luis, Missouri, II, 1799 1819, 1991
Haskell, N. H. The dispersion of surface waves in multilayered media, Bulletin of the Seismological
Society of America, Vol. 43, 17-34, 1953
Thomson, W. T. Transmission of elastic waves through a stratified soil, Journal of Applied Physics,
21, 89-93, 1950
Brcena, A. and M. P. Romo. RADSH: programa de computadora para analizar depsitos de suelo
estratificados horizontalmente sujetos a excitaciones dinmicas aleatorias, Internal Report,
Instituto de Ingeniera, UNAM, Mxico, 1994
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426
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W2-1004
Associate Professor, School of Civil Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Greece,
Email: ipsych@central.ntua.gr
427
difficulty in modelling the existing damage are two reasons, related to the geometry, that contribute to
the ambiguities of the analysis. The fact that the present state is the cumulative result of a series of
strong seismic events makes things even worse.
Because of these uncertainties, it is evident that the decoding of the present deformed shape of a
classical monument is not a straightforward procedure and, in general, does not lead to unique and
sound conclusions about past earthquakes. In spite of these ambiguities, however, the quantitative
investigation of the response to a number of possible earthquake scenarios can lead to conclusions,
since some scenarios can be established as reasonable assumptions, while others should be excluded.
Such a procedure is applied in this paper for the case study of the seismic history of Athens, Greece,
based on the current state of a column of Olympieion, which is located at the centre of the city. The
results, however, have to be verified from similar analyses for other monuments in the area, before
they can be adopted.
UNCERTAINTIES OF THE BACKWARD ANALYSIS
Non-linearity and sensitivity of the response
The analysis of the seismic response of classical monuments and, in general, of stacks of rigid bodies,
is a very difficult problem, which can only be treated numerically. Several investigators have
examined this problem, analytically or experimentally (Allen et al 1986, Sinopoli 1989a,b, Psycharis
1990, Manos and Demosthenous 1992, Winkler et al 1995, Psycharis et al 2000, Konstantinidis and
Makris 2005, Papantonopoulos et al 2002, Mouzakis et al 2002, Psycharis et al 2003 among others).
All these studies show that the response is non-linear and very sensitive, characteristics which are
evident even to the simplest case of a rocking rigid block.
Due to the non-linearity of the response, it is possible that a structure collapses for a certain earthquake
and it remains stable for the same earthquake magnified to a larger value of the peak ground
acceleration (pga). This behaviour is shown in Fig. 1 for the case of a rocking rigid block, subjected to
the longitudinal component of the Kalamata, Greece, 1986, earthquake, normalized to several values
of pga. For pga=0.93g, the motion of the block is stable, but the maximum angle of rotation is close to
the slenderness angle. As a consequence, a slight increase in the base excitation to pga=0.94g is
enough to topple the block. In the contrary, a larger increase to pga=1.70g produces large rotations in
the opposite direction during the previous half cycle, stabilizing the response. If we continue to
increase the base excitation, the block overturns in the opposite direction from the one shown in Fig.1,
for pga around 2.00g.
The sensitivity of the response, even to trivial changes of the parameters, has been proved analytically
and experimentally. An example is shown in Fig.2, in which the non-repeatability of experiments is
illustrated for the seismic response of a marble model of a Parthenon column (Papantonopoulos et al
2002). The difference between the identical experiments EQ14 and EQ15 concerned a slight
difference in the base motion, due to the alteration of the input signal by the shaking table and
Overturning
1.2
1.0
0.8
pga=0.94g
0.6
0.4
pga=0.93g
0.2
0.0
pga=1.70g
-0.2
-0.4
Time (sec)
10
12
14
Figure 1. Rocking of a rigid block for the Kalamata, 1986 earthquake, normalized to different
values of pga.
428
100
EQ14
Experiment
3DEC
50
100
-50
-100
12
Time (sec)
16
50
-50
-100
20
EQ15
Experiment
3DEC
12
Time (sec)
(a)
16
20
(b)
Figure 2. Comparison of the horizontal top displacement between two identical experiments
for a 1:3 model of a column of the Parthenon (reproduced from antonopoulos et al 2002).
unnoticeable alterations in the initial geometry (the drums were repositioned after each experiment).
These trivial differences caused a significant slippage during experiment EQ15, which was not
observed at experiment EQ14. In Fig.2, the corresponding numerical results, obtained using the code
3DEC (Itasca 1998), are also shown. In this case, the only difference between the two runs concerned
only the small alteration in the base motion (the acceleration recorded on the shaking table was used to
reproduce numerically each experiment), which again produced a slight difference in the response.
It should be mentioned that, in most cases, the numerical analysis could predict reasonably well the
real response of the specimen, as shown in Fig. 2(a). The discrepancy between the numerical analysis
and the experimental data depicted on Fig. 2(b) is rather exceptional. In this sense, it can be said that
the numerical analysis can, in general, predict satisfactorily the real response.
In spite of the good accuracy obtained by the numerical analysis, the aforementioned sensitivity of the
behaviour, even to small variations of the geometry, leads to an inherent uncertainty of the results,
since: (a) the exact modeling of the real structure is practically impossible, especially if imperfections
are present; and (b) the actual geometry of the monument during each era of its life is usually
unknown. Surprisingly enough, however, the overall behaviour may not differ as much as one would
expect, even for significantly different geometries. An example is presented in Fig. 3, in which the
comparison of the response of a single column and of set of two columns connected with architrave is
shown for harmonic base excitation: The two responses are quite similar, although the geometry and
the rocking mechanism are quite different.
0.80
15-drum column
Single column
2 columns with architrav e
0.40
0.00
-0.40
-0.80
Time (sec)
10
15
Figure 3. Comparison of the top displacement between the free-standing (single) column and the
set of two columns connected with architrave, for harmonic base excitation (numerical results).
Parameters used in the numerical model
The modelling of classical monuments as assemblies of rigid blocks requires the definition of several
parameters, the most important of which are the properties at the joints, the coefficient of friction and
the damping. Defining the appropriate values for these parameters is not an easy task in most cases.
Concerning the properties at the joints, it should be noted that most numerical codes cannot handle a
direct contact of rigid blocks, because of numerical instabilities. For this reason, they usually assume
429
elastic contacts at the interface of adjacent blocks. The corresponding coefficients, kn and ks, in the
normal and the tangential directions cannot be directly determined from the material properties.
Experimental data are usually needed, in order to calibrate these coefficients.
The coefficient of friction, , is another parameter that concerns the joint behaviour. The value of this
coefficient is not easily determined, either, and is different at the initiation of the sliding and after it.
Additionally, tests for the determination of usually show a wide dispersion of results. For example,
experiments on marble specimens showed that the angle of friction can vary from 35 to 50
(=0.70 1.20) and that it is affected by the vertical load (Zambas 1989, Papantonopoulos 1995).
However, it seems that the response is not, in general, very sensitive to the value of , except of the
permanent dislocations of the drums, which might be affected in extreme cases. This is shown in Fig.
4, in which the time-histories of the displacements (relative to the base) of three drums of a column of
Olumpieion in Athens are shown for the Kalamata earthquake, normalized to a peak ground velocity
(pgv) of 60 cm/sec. Drum #13 is located at about 4/5 of the height and drum #10 at about 2/3 of the
height. The value of =0.75 (center plot) is typical for marble (Papantonopoulos et al, 2002).
Decreasing this value to =0.55 (left plot) does not affect the residual displacement of the capital, but
increases the displacements of the lower drums. The use of =1.05 (right plot) decreases only slightly
the residual deformations, compared to the case of =0.75.
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.50
0.50
0.50
=0.55
0.00
-0.50
10
15
20
25
30
Time (sec)
35
40
45
= 0.75
0.00
Capital
Drum #13
Drum #10
-0.50
50
10
15
20
25
30
Time (sec)
35
40
45
= 1.05
0.00
Capital
Drum #13
Drum #10
50
-0.50
Capital
Drum #13
Drum #10
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (s ec)
35
40
45
50
Figure 4. Comparison of the displacement of various drums of a marble column, for different
values of the coefficient of friction (numerical results).
The appropriate value of damping that should be used is not obvious, either. Damping originates from
two mechanisms that produce dissipation of energy: friction sliding of the drums and impact between
adjacent blocks during rocking. The dissipation of energy caused by friction is automatically
considered, if the possibility of sliding is included in the analysis. However, impact of blocks cannot
be numerically simulated if elastic properties are considered at the joints. For this reason, Rayleigh
damping is usually added to the numerical model. Comparison of numerical results with experimental
data (Papantonopoulos et al, 2002) showed that, if rocking is dominant, the addition of even a small
damping during the strong motion might over-damp the response; in the contrary, damping should be
added after the strong motion in order to dissipate the motion (Fig. 5).
200
200
Experiment
3DEC
100
100
-100
-100
-200
Experiment
3DEC
10
15
Time (sec)
20
25
30
-200
10
15
Time (sec)
20
25
30
Figure 5. Comparison of experimental and numerical results for the top displacement of a 1:3
model of a column of the Parthenon: (a) zero damping; (b) 0.005 stiffness proportional damping
(reproduced from antonopoulos et al 2002).
430
0.30
0.00
0.00
-0.30
-0.30
0
10
20
30
40
Time (sec)
50
10
20
30
Time (sec)
40
50
Figure 6. Time-histories of the horizontal displacement of the capital for (i) the set of twocolumns and (ii) a hypothetical set of three columns with the third column collapsing
(Olympieion subjected to the Kalamata earthquake normalized to pgv=60 cm/s).
0.60
0.15
0.00
0.00
-0.60
0.60
-0.15
0.15
0.00
0.00
-0.60
0.60
-0.15
0.15
0.00
0.00
-0.60
-0.15
0
25
50
75
Time (sec)
(a)
100
125
150
25
50
75
Time (sec)
100
125
1 50
(b)
Figure 7. Horizontal displacement at different points of the W column of the two-column set of
Olympieion, caused by a series of 3 Kalamata records normalized to pgv=60 cm/s: (a) without
the building on top; (b) with the building on top.
431
432
(a)
(b)
Figure 8. Model considered in the numerical analyses: (a) without the building on top; (b) with
the building on top.
The models considered in the numerical analyses (see Fig. 8) were based on the actual geometry (same
number and dimensions of drums). The drums were modeled as pyramidal segments of 22-sided crosssection (the real columns have 22 flutes). The two pieces of the capital and the base drum were also
modeled as pyramidal segments of 22-sided cross-section. No imperfections were considered in the
model, except of the almost vertical crack at drum #14 of the western column, which split this drum in
two pieces.
The cell of the Athenian stylite was modeled as a rigid block with cross-section equal to the plan
dimensions of the architrave and of weight equal to 1000 kN, in accordance with the dimensions of the
structure given by Bouras 1996. The coefficient of friction between the block representing this
building and the architrave beams was considered large in order to prevent sliding. The model with the
building on top of the architrave can also be thought as a gross representation of the structure in its
original geometry, with the weight of the cell of the Athenian stylite modeling the weight of the roof.
In this sense, the effect of past earthquakes to the original temple, before its collapse, is also
considered approximately.
In the original structure, two steel dowels exist at each joint between drums, oriented randomly in the
directions N-S or E-W. Their cross section varies from 9 to 14 cm2 and their length is 12 to 14 cm. In
the numerical model, the dowels were modeled as non-linear shear connectors with stiffness equal to
5.8 105 kN/m and yield force in shear equal to 220 kN. Horizontal steel connectors initially existed
between the architrave beams too. However, these connectors were removed centuries ago and, for this
reason, they were not considered in the model. In any case, these elements affect mainly the
displacement of the architrave beams and have little effect to the residual displacements of the drums,
which are of the main concern in this analysis.
The joints were considered without cohesion and tensile resistance. For the joint properties, the values
proposed by Papantonopoulos et al 2002 were adopted: kn =5.0 10 6 kPa/m; ks=1.0 106 kPa/m; =0.75.
Zero damping was applied during the first 12 sec of each earthquake motion and 10% of critical, massproportional damping at 0.3 Hz was added after that time. The damping was further increased to 20%
of critical for t>30 sec in order to attenuate the free vibrations and obtain the residual deformation
accurately. Mass-proportional damping was chosen instead of stiffness-proportional one, because the
latter required a smaller time step of integration and longer run-times.
433
0.6
0.6
AIGION (L)
0.0
AIGION (T)
0.0
-0.6
0.4
-0.6
0.4
KALAMATA (E-W)
Acceleration (g)
KALAMATA (N-S)
0.0
0.0
-0.4
0.6
-0.4
0.6
ERZINCAN (E-W)
ERZINCAN (N-S)
0.0
0.0
-0.6
0.2
-0.6
0.2
GRIVA, Edessa (N-S)
0.0
0.0
-0.2
0.3
-0.2
0.3
ATHENS, Syntagma (L)
0.0
-0.3
0.0
-0.3
10
12
Time (sec)
14
16
18
20
10
12
Time (sec)
14
16
18
20
434
435
earthquakes with pgv=60 cm/s; the deformation, which is caused to the column in this case, however,
does not match the pattern of the real deformation. However, the possibility that such an earthquake
has hit Athens during the 2000 years of the life of the monument does not seem reasonable, not only
because the structure collapses in most cases, but also, because this earthquake produces
unrealistically large displacements at the base of the column. This is shown in Fig. 11, in which the
time-histories of the base motion for pgv=60 and 80 cm/s are presented for all records. It is seen that
the base displacement for the Erzincan record is much larger than the corresponding displacements for
the others; this concerns both the maximum displacement during the seismic motion and the residual
one. It should be noted that, although it is not known whether dislocations of the columns, as a whole,
have occured, the current position of the columns and the regularity that is observed in the distance
Figure 10. Residual deformation (magnified 20 times) of the western column caused by the
Kalamata record, single or in a series of three earthquakes, with and without the building on
top.
436
0.30
0.30
0.00
0.00
-0.30
0.30
-0.30
0.30
0.00
-0.30
ERZINCAN
AIGION
KALAMATA
GRIVA, Edessa
ATHENS, Syntagma
0.00
10
15
Time (sec)
20
25
30
-0.30
0
10
15
Time (sec)
20
25
30
Figure 11. Time-histories of the horizontal displacement of the base of the western column for all
the records considered in the analysis, normalized to pgv=60 and 80 cm/s (without the building
on top).
between adjacent ones indicate that such large displacements have not occur. Also, if such a large
sliding (in the order of 20 cm) had happened during a strong earthquake in the past, the trace on the
marble base, which supports the columns, should be visible even today. Such traces do not exist. For
these reasons, it is concluded that it is not probable that a strong earthquake of the Erzincan type has
hit Athens.
Another question that should be answered is whether the displacements that are observed at the
monument could be the result of a large number of smaller earthquakes. For this reason, runs were
performed for the Kalamata and the Syntagma records with pgv=20, 30 and 40 cm/s and the ground
motion repeated up to seven times. These analyses showed that a sequence of 7-8 seismic motions
with pgv=30 cm/s could also be a possible scenario, although there is not reference of such frequent,
quite strong earthquakes in Athens. In the contrary, even a larger number of earthquakes with pgv=20
cm/s could not have this effect.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the possibility of using the current state of classical monuments in order to assess past
earthquake scenarios is investigated. First, the uncertainties and difficulties of such a backward
analysis are presented. In spite of these drawbacks, however, qualitive and quantitive conclusions can
be drawn, since some scenarios lead to reasonable results, while others should be excluded.
The procedure was applied to a case study for the investigation of the seismic history of Athens,
Greece, based on the present dislocations of the drums of a column of Olympieion, a monument
located in the centre of the city. The results show that relatively strong seismic motions with the
frequency content of typical near-field earthquakes could have hit Athens more than once during the
last 2000 years. Such earthquakes, with a peak velocity of 40 60 cm/s, are capable to produce the
dislocations of the drums that are observed at the monument, if repeated three to four times, i.e. for a
return period of about 500 years. Weaker seismic motions, with a pgv of about 30 cm/s can also
produce the measured deformation of the structure, if repeated seven to eight times, corresponding to
an average return period of 250 years, approximately. However, reference of such frequent, mediumsize earthquakes in Athens does not exist, making this scenario rather improbable. Smaller-size
earthquakes with a peak velocity of up to 20 cm/s do not seem capable to bring the monument in its
present damaged state, even if repeated many times.
It should be noted that a very strong near-field earthquake, with a peak velocity up to 100 cm/s, is
possible that has occurred. In that case, only one severe event could have happened in the 2000-year
life of the monument and, thus, this scenario is less probable than the previous one. It also seems
improbable that seismic motions, containing strong pulses of long period, greater than 1.2 sec, have hit
437
the city. Such earthquakes cause significant sliding at the base of the columns, which cannot be
verified at the monument.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A significant part of the work presented in this paper was performed in the framework of a research
program financed by the Greek Earthquake Planning and Protection Organization (OASP), which is
gratefully acknowledged. The author wishes to thank Professor M. Korres of the National Technical
University of Athens for providing the architectural data of the monument and the measurements for
the deformation of the column.
REFERENCES
Allen, R. H., Oppenheim, I. J., Parker A. P. and Bielak, J. On the dynamic response of rigid body
assemblies, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 14: 861-876, 1986.
Bouras, Ch. The so-called cell of the Athenian Stylite, Architectural Studies in Memory of Richard
Krautheimer, C. L. Striker, ed., Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1996.
Itasca, "3 Dimensional Distinct Element Code (3DEC), Theory and Background", Itasca Consulting
Group, 1998.
Konstantinidis, D. and Makris, N. Seismic response analysis of multidrum classical columns,
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 34: 1243-270, 2005.
Manos, G. C. and Demosthenous, M. Dynamic response of rigid bodies subjected to horizontal base
motion, Proceedings, 10th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Madrid, Spain, 28172821, 1992.
Mouzakis, H., Psycharis, I. N., Papastamatiou, D. Y., Carydis, P. G., Papantonopoulos, C. and
Zambas, C., Experimental investigation of the earthquake response of a model of a marble
classical column, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 31: 1681-1698, 2002.
Papantonopoulos, C., Psycharis, I. N., Papastamatiou, D. Y., Lemos, J. V. and Mouzakis, H.
Numerical prediction of the earthquake response of classical columns using the Distinct Element
Method, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 31: 1699-1717, 2002.
Papantonopoulos, C. Temple of Apollo Epicourios: Study of structural restoration, Committee for
the Restoration of the Temple of Apollo Epicourios, 219-221, 1995 (in Greek).
Psycharis, I. N. Dynamic behavior of rocking two-block assemblies, Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics, 19: 555-575, 1990.
Psycharis, I. N., Papastamatiou, D. Y. and Alexandris, A. Parametric investigation of the stability of
classical columns under harmonic and earthquake excitations, Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics, 29: 1093-1109, 2000.
Psycharis, I. N., Lemos, J. V., Papastamatiou, D. Y., Zambas, C. and Papantonopoulos, C. Numerical
study of the seismic behavior of a part of the Parthenon Pronaos, Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics, 32: 2063-2084, 2003.
Sinopoli, A. Dynamic evolution by earthquake excitation of multiblock structures, Proceedings,
Inernational Conference on Structural Conservation of Stone Masonry: Diagnosis, Repair and
Strengthening, Greek Ministry of Culture, Athens, 1989a.
Sinopoli, A. Dynamic analysis of a stone column excited by a sine wave ground motion, Applied
Mechanics Reviews, 44 (11), Part 2: S246-S255, 1989b.
Winkler, T., Meguro, K. and Yamazaki, F. Response of rigid body assemblies to dynamic
excitation, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 24: 1389-1408, 1995.
Zambas, C. Structural problems of the restoration of Parthenon, Committee for the Restoration of
the Monuments of Acropolis of Athens, 2a: 153-180, 1989 (in Greek).
438
439
if possible, to back analyze and evaluate the reliability of the seismic scenarios developed for the
Metropolitan City of Thessaloniki as a whole.
The Walls, still surrounding partially the old town of Thessaloniki were initially built in 315 B.C. by
the king Kassandros and were completed at the time of Great Theodosius (379-395 A.D.). Nowadays,
the Walls extend in kilometres within the civil grid of the modern city but their continuity has been
disrupted due to partial or complete collapse at numerous locations. Historically, due to their dynamic
nature, in the sense that they could be adapted in accordance with civilian needs, thus being repaired
after sieges and following rules of economy and functionality where the art of war was concerned, the
Walls of Thessaloniki (as those of Constantinople, Nicaea and others), did in fact changed
considerably over the centuries (Bouras, 2002) following the heavy fortification requirements that
arose. From the overall Byzantine Walls complex, a specific part was selected for an in-depth study.
The Walls circuit under study is the northern part of the Byzantine fortification, that forms a statically
independent structural system, extending from the beginning of the West Gate (namely Pyrros Gate)
to the main East Gate along the Eptapygriou street, near the Trigonion Tower, inclusive of the two
twin gates at the East section (widened and named thereafter by Anna Palaiologina) up to the circle
tower (Figures 1-5) constructed later. The particular Walls Section was encircling the Byzantine
acropolis (Velenis, 1998) thus separating it from the Ancient Acropolis and it consists of numerous
rectangular (primarily) and triangle defensive towers. This is essentially a monolithic and straight
complex with its main axis (indicated as x-x in Figure 6) being parallel to the East-West direction.The
visible outer face of the superstructure was constructed purely of bricks, whereas alternate bands of
stones and bricks were used for the invisible reverse side of the masonry (Velenis, 1998). The masonry
displays a mixture of construction methods as can be seen in Figure 4.
The particular Land Walls Section was selected primarily for three main reasons: (a) due to its
structural integrity which has remained almost intact within the centuries thus allowing to assume that
its seismic capacity must have not been exceeded for the last 1600 years, (b) due to its overall length
(reaching approximately 500m) that forms one of the most extended preserved parts of the fortification
and (c) due to the additional opportunity that this length provides, to further investigate (in contrast to
what is commonly performed) the potential effect of the (typically neglected) traveling nature of the
incoming seismic waves to the dynamic response of the system.
The scope of this research effort is therefore, to utilize state-of-the-art knowledge and numerical tools
for the pilot study of the seismic performance of the particular Thessaloniki city Land Walls in order
to:
a) verify the good seismic performance of the Walls (at least at the circuit under study) during
the 20/6/1978 Thessaloniki severe earthquake (Ms=6.5).
b) assess the level of safety during future seismic events through appropriate earthquake
scenarios that account for a realistic representation of the overall seismotectonic and local site
conditions.
c) investigate the potential effect of ignoring spatially variability of earthquake ground motion in
the analysis of such long and monolithic structures.
d) if possible, to compare through back numerical analysis, the level of the highest earthquake
excitation (that could have damaged the particular Wall section but apparently has not
occurred yet) with the Maximum Credible Earthquake (MCE) defined through deterministic
seismic hazard assessment for the same area. It is noted that the definition of upper limits on
earthquake ground motions has been identified as the missing piece for seismic hazard
assessment for both deterministic and probabilistic approaches (Bommer, 2002).
The overview of the structural system, the finite element representation, the definition of the reference
earthquake scenario and analysis results are presented in the following.
440
441
Figure 4. Axonometric view of rectangular wall between along the East-West axis (North side
view). After Velenis, 1998.
442
443
Figure 7. Overall strategy for the investigation of the seismic performance of the Byzantine
Walls of Thessaloniki
444
Figure 8. Generation of earthquake ground motion scenario for the city Walls of Thessaloniki
It is noted that for all the above three cases, the Wall complex is excited simultaneously along the
three principal directions, X,Y,Z. Due to the particular features of Case C, it is further discussed in the
following section.
Spatially variable earthquake ground motion along the Land Walls under study
Development of spatially variable seismic ground motion scenarios for the study of the dynamic
response of extended structures (primarily bridges but also dams and pipelines) is attracting increasing
scientific attention after strong evidence that not only seismic motion may differ substantially in terms
of amplitude and frequency content but also that this difference may have a detrimental effect on the
displacements and stresses of the extended structure under certain circumstances (Sextos et al., 2003).
The sources of this spatial and temporal variations of seismic motion have been well identified (Der
Kiureghian & Keshishian, 1997); i.e.: (a) waves travel at a finite velocity, hence they arrive at
consecutive support points with a time delay; (b) wave coherency loss in terms of gradual reduction of
the waves statistical dependence with distance and frequency, due to multiple reflections, refractions
and superpositioning of the incident seismic waves during propagation and (c) variation in local site
conditions that strongly affects wave amplification and frequency content.
For the particular Wall Section, and since the soil conditions are generally stiff, it can be assumed that
from the above sources of spatial variability, the effect of local site conditions and the loss of wave
coherency is rather small; as a result, the asynchronous excitation is estimated solely on the phase lag
as is can be defined by the distance from the reference point and the apparent velocity of seismic
waves (taken equal to V app=2000m/sec). In order to account for the aforementioned time delay at all
base points (nodes) of the 500m long Wall complex, the Finite Element model was internally
programmed to permit the subsequent excitation of each one of the 5830 supporting points i with a
distinct 3-D ground displacement Ui,x, Ui,y , Ui,z which is a function of space and time t and is equal to:
xi
Ui ,x ( xi , yi , zi , t ) U ref , x ( xref , yref , zref , t
)
(1)
Vapp
445
xi
)
Vapp
(2)
xi
)
(3)
Vapp
where xi, yi, zi are the coordinates of a base point i, Uref,x , Uref,y, Uref,z the three component seismic
motion at the reference point, Vapp is the apparent velocity of seismic waves and xref, yref, zref the
coordinates of the reference point (which does not coincide with the zero coordinates due to the slight
rotation along the z-z- axis of the left part of the Wall as seen in Figure 6).
Ui ,z ( xi , yi , zi , t ) U ref , y ( xref , yref , zref , t
446
Figure 10. Variation of normal stresses with time for three characteristic locations
447
It is only few (two-three) peaks for each critical location that the stresses developed reach the available
tensile strength of 0.15MPa (being 0.15, 0.12 and 0.13MPa respectively). On the contrary, the
effective tensile stress developed (as taken approximately equal to 2/3 of the maximum) does not
exceed 0.1MPa on average for the most critical locations of the structure. It is noted however that
strictly speaking, the critical checks should be performed at masonry sections instead of local points.
Nevertheless, the overall assessment is that seismic demand developed is clearly inferior to the
estimated capacity of the Walls.
In terms of shear stresses, the most critical location was identified to be the North side of the East Gate
as depicted in Figure 11. Notably, both the shear stresses developed and the shear strength are a
function of time as the latter depend on the compression stresses which also vary in time. For the
assessment of the safety factor against shear, the following equation was used according to the
provisions of Eurocode 6:
f vk ( t )
f vk 0
0.40
z (t )
(4)
where fvk(t) is the shear strength of unreinforced masonry in time, fvk0 is the shear strength of mortar
(taken equal to 0.1MPa) and z(t) is the normal compression stress at the same location. As it is seen in
Figure 11, the safety factor against shear varies between 1.5 and 2.5 in the extreme case, but it can be
estimated to be clearly greater than 2.0 on average. As a result, as was observed for the normal (tensile
and compression) stresses the performance of the Wall structure is very good also for the Case B
earthquake scenario.
This observation is interesting in the sense that, as the Microzoning-induced seismic intensity refers to
a return period of 475 years, it can be claimed that the particular level of seismic forces predicted for
T=475 years is not adequate to produce significant damage to the Wall structure a fact that is
anticipated since the structure is not known to have suffered extensive damage over the entire period
of 16 centuries. As a result, both the satisfactory future seismic performance of the Walls and the
predictions of the seismic hazard assessment for the Thesaloniki area are (if not explicitly confirmed)
at least not counteracted by the refined numerical analysis.
Figure 11. Variation of shear stresses with time. East city Walls gate (North view)
448
Seismic response of Land Walls under study in the time domain under asynchronous excitation
Following the dynamic analysis of the system for Case A and Case B earthquake scenarios, it was also
deemed interesting to investigate the potential effect of ignoring (as it is commonly the case) the
propagating nature of the travelling waves. As already discussed, the Walls where excited with 5830
spatially and temporary variable ground displacement vectors that were enforced to the corresponding
base nodes according to equations (1)-(3). Figure 12 illustrates the variation of normal stresses with
time under asynchronous excitation for the three characteristic and most critical locations identified
(i.e. West Gate, East Gate and East main Wall). By comparing these stresses derived from the
synchronous (Figure 10) and asynchronous excitation, it can be observed that although the response
can be considered as rather similar, the extremes of the stresses are different. In particular, the extreme
tensile stress at the East Gate has increased by 50% (from 0.12MPa to 0.19MPa) while the extreme
tensile stress at the East Main Wall has decreased by 40% (from 0.13MPa to 0.08MPa). Especially for
the middle point (on the East Gate) the maximum stresses occur at a slightly different time (7.15 sec
instead of 7.02 sec). Such distinct response under asynchronous earthquake ground motion has also
been observed in a large number of bridges (Sextos et al., 2005) and is pronounced in the case of long
and stiff (monolithical) structures (Zerva, 1990, Tubino et al., 2003) due to the excitation of higher
(primarily antisymmetric) modes (Sextos et al., 2004, 2006) and the subsequent development of
additional pseudo-static forces. However, it is also noted that the effective tensile and compressive
stresses are again lower than the estimated corresponding strength, hence the comments made
regarding the satisfactory historical and future performance of the Land Walls under study remain
valid.
In can be generally stated though, that the differences observed between the synchronous and the
asynchronous excitation of the particular Wall Section, even if they do not impose a threat for the
structural integrity of the system, are not negligible if one considers that due to the very stiff (rock)
formations at the base of the Wall circuit, the variability of earthquake ground motion was attributed
only to the time delay of the seismic waves and not to equally if not more important coherency loss
and local site conditions variation. As a result, the spatially variable nature of the incoming seismic
waves should not be a-priori neglected when assessing the seismic performance of long and high wall
structures, as there is high probability that ignoring asynchronous excitation, certain aspects of their
dynamic response that are related to their inherent stiffness as a structural system and the potential
excitation of higher modes may be disregarded.
Figure 12. Variation of normal stresses with time under asynchronous excitation for three
characteristic locations
449
CONCLUSIONS
This paper is an attempt to propose a refined approach towards the assessment of the seismic
performance of a part of the Land Byzantine Walls of the city of Thessaloniki. Utilizing advanced
numerical tools and generating various earthquake ground motion scenarios, a 500m long section of
the Walls is studied in the time domain under both synchronous and asynchronous excitation. The
main conclusion drawn can be summarized as follows:
It is feasible to study the dynamic and seismic response of extended systems such as high Walls
through refined finite element models and reliable estimates of the overall geotechnical,
seismological and structural conditions.
For the particular Wall Section under study, its good performance during the severe 1978
Thessaloniki earthquake (20/06/1978, s=6.4, PGA=0.15g) was verified. A similarly good
performance was numerically estimated for another part of the city Walls (Stylianidis and
Sextos, 2006) as well, where the results also indicated that the particular system studied could
resist at least twice the earthquake load imposed during the 1978 earthquake without
significant damage.
It was also numerically predicted that the particular Wall Section should not be expected to
suffer significant damage for earthquakes with a return period of 475 years. As a result, both
the satisfactory future seismic performance of the Walls and the predictions of the seismic
hazard assessment for the Thessaloniki area are (if not explicitly confirmed) at least not
counteracted by the refined numerical analysis.
The overall process adopted and proposed may be potentially implemented in a larger scale as a
means to trace (through back analysis) the seismic history of monuments and possibly to
assess an upper bound of the historical seismicity of a particular region or city.
In the framework of the process proposed, the spatially variable nature of the incoming seismic
waves should not be a-priori neglected, since it was shown that (as for bridges and other stiff
and long structures) the excitation of higher modes may impose significant pseudo-static
forces that did not develop under synchronous excitation.
Further investigation is certainly required with emphasis on the potential effect of material or
geometrical non-linearities (i.e. cracking and/or sliding/rocking at certain interfaces).
Moreover, it is evident that the reliability of the methodology adopted is strongly dependent
on the reliability in estimating the mechanical properties of the superstructure and foundation
soil materials involved (which can be also spatially variable), as well as on the accuracy of the
geometrical data that are used for finite element development.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Prof. G. Velenis for his assistance in determining the historical phases
and construction methods of the city Walls circuit under study.
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European Strong-Motion Data. CD-ROM collection. Council of European Communities.
Environment and Climate Programme. ENV4-CT97-0397. Bruxelles. Belgium
Anastasiadis A., Raptakis D., Pitilakis K. 2001. Thessalonikis Detailed Microzoning: Subsurface
Structure as basis for Site Response Analysis, Pure and Applied Geophysics Pageoph, Vol.
158(12), 2597-2633.
ANSYS Engineering Analysis System 2005. User and Theoretical Manual. ANSYS, Inc., Southpointe,
Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, Version 10.0.
450
Bouras, C. 2002. The Economic History of Byzantium: From the Seventh through the Fifteenth
Century, Laiou, A. (Editor in-Chief), Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University,
Washington,D.C.
Bommer, J. (2002) Deterministic vs. Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment. An exaggerated and
obstructive dichotomy, Journal of Earthquake Engineering, 6 (special issue no.1), 43-73.
Casolo, S. (1998) A three-dimensional model for vulnerability analysis of slender medieval masonry
towers, Journal of Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 4, 487-512.
CEN. 2004. Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance. EN 1998-1 General rules,
seismic actions and rules for buildings, Brussels.
CEN. 2004. Eurocode 6. Design of masonry structures. ENV 1996-1 General Rules, Brussels.
Der Kiureghian, A. (1996) A coherency model for spatially varying ground motions, Earthquake
Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 25, 99-111.
Galasco, A., Lagomarsino, S., Penna, A. & Resemini. S. (2004) Non-linear seismic analysis of
masonry structures, 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, Canada, Paper
No. 843.
Manos, G. C., Soulis, V. J. and Diagouma, A. (2004) Preliminary numerical investigation of the
dynamic characteristics of historical monuments, 13th World Conference on Earthquake
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Rota, M., Pecker, A., Bolognini, D. and Pinho, R. (2005) A methodology for seismic vulnerability of
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tools, Earthquake Engineering Structural Dynamics, 32, 607-629.
Sextos, A., Kappos, A. and Mergos P. (2004) Effect of Soil-Structure Interaction and Spatial
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World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, Canada, Paper No. 2298.
Sextos, A., Kappos, A. and Pitilakis, K. (2005) Recent developments on the effect of asynchronous
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Greece Japan Workshop: Seismic Design, Observation and Retrofit of Foundations, 211-228.
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the seismic history of the city of Thessaloniki, 1st Hellenic Conference on rehabilitation works,
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Tubino, F. Carassale, L. & S. Giovanni (2003) Seismic response of multi-supported structures by
proper orthogonal decomposition, Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 32, 1639-1654.
Velenis, G. (1998) The Walls of Thessaloniki: From Kasandrus to Heraklios, University Studio
Press, Thessaloniki, (in Greek).
Zerva, A. (1990) Response of multi-span beams to spatially incoherent seismic ground motions,
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 19(6), 819-832.
451
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W2-1010
INTRODUCTION
Architectural monuments, being under the circumstances of geological environment, also including
engineering and economical activity of human, get two types of impacts. First is demolition of
brickwork of a monument which brings to the deformation of base stock. Second is the demolition of
monuments takes place secretly and relates with changes, states and behavior of foundation soil. In the
term of the second impact the destruction is intensively developed when the change increases because
of economical activity of humans. This is the very factor which becomes more ruinous for
architectural monuments and as times go by its impact will go up. These causes motivated to a
development work of researching the man-caused impact on architectural monuments preservation to
determine a constructions deformation diagnosis in order to chose right treatment course and further
partial and full convalescence. This kind of treatment can be incorrect, and then man-caused factors
impact can not only be reduced but can high up as well. Ignoring such impacts, which are often
noticed during restoration because of lack of knowledge, take place on account of methodical
literatures absence, absence of regulation documents on registration of man-caused factors for
monument safety. As the impact of these factors has invisible character their appearance can be caught
only on a final state of the monuments demolition process.
INFLUENCE OF CAPILLARY WATER ON CONSTRUCTION
Determination of the diagnosis of architectural monuments` deformation reasons requires clear view of
behaviors and structure of that geological environment which consists of the subsystem sphere of
interaction of geological environment with the architectural monument. So the necessity of taking
engineering and geological information is occurred, information content which allows solving the
issue problem of finding the cause and explaining the phenomena of researched object, deformation of
architectural monuments.
1
452
The importance of determining the role of hydrological factors of preserving architectural monuments
is considerable and has substantial meaning while diagnosing demolition causes of foundation soil
behavior, foundations, walls of monuments. From the other hand, diversity and uncertainty of impact
conditions, appearances of these factors and their inadequacy investigation are the main causes of
interpreting the right reasons. And these cause this or that hydro geological factors. Such confusion
sometimes brings to the acceptation of an absurd decision which can become the object of huge harm
than to save primary conditions.
Underground water adjacent to the surface and aeration zone are always the object of interest, i.e.
those hydro geological objects that closely interact with monument foundations and determine the
conditions of development of exogenous geological processes in terms of monuments and geological
environment interaction. The latter can be divided into aeration and logged zones. The permeable soil
of the logged zone is waterlogged under hydrostatic pressure. And pore spaces of aeration zone are
not filled by water under hydrostatic pressure but they can be filled by sporadic seasonal water (land
water) which is formed on impermeable soil. If the impermeable soil is between logged and nonlogged soil then it is belonged to an aeration zone.
There is usually one aeration zone and one logged zone, which one of them is under the aeration zone.
However, in some cases, there two or more zones of each belt can be apportioned. If there are two
aeration zones then the lowest zone of aeration is situated between the highest and lowest logged
zones.
Aeration zone according to its water content and its circulation can be divided into three belts: soil
moisture belt, internal belt and last one is capillary cover belt.
The soil moisture belt is adjacent to the surface zone where water evaporates into atmosphere in a big
amount in its result it transforms to plants and into air. Power of this belt is diverse according to its
type and flora. Where there is a grass cover consists 0.1 0.15 m. and where there are gardens and
parks this figure goes up rather higher. Moisture of soil belt depends on its hydroscopic water, of
which its molecular adhesion saves from evaporation and also determines its balance with atmospheric
vaporous water. Soil water is formed at the interaction moment of wet air with dry soil.
Capillary cover determines the belt which is above the logged zone, that contains capillary pores (0.1
mk) and is in permanent contact with the waterlogged zone. Water of the capillary cover is above this
zone and under the influence of capillary drains which rise up along the walls and pro rata to the pore
soil diameter. That is why the height of capillary rise depends on soil behavior and its moisture. For
dry sand soil the height of capillary rise is only few dozens centimeters (in non granulated sands
0.15-0.35 m, small granulated sands 0.35- 1.0 m). In damp condition the height of capillary rise of
sand reaches for 3-4 times higher (3). Clay sand reaches 1.0 1.5 M., Uliginose soils 2.4 m., loamy
soil from 3-to 4 m. Capillary water in clay can raise to 8.0 m., and in losses 4.0 m.
Rising of water in soil through capillary pores can be defined by this formula:
Hk=0,3/d
(1)
453
negative condition changes of soil foundation, given by its moisture. So, for example, penetration into
capillary water bases causes decrease of its coherence and solidity.
Chemical structure of water also affects on the height of capillary rising; particularly as a result of
chlorous and sulphureous natrium presence in water in moist integument loam raising these saline
through capillaries happens differently. Penetration of these salines brings to that in lower part of
loams sulphates predominate, and in upper one chlorides, greater maintenance of the latters in upper
part of slit is connected also with that chlorides diffuse faster than sulphates. Its especially important
to take that into account now, when salt is used against the icy cover of pavements and roads, which
then migrates up trough seepage of surface water along the capillary.
In this case water first penetrates into foundation soil capillaries, into the construction materials of the
foundation and the walls, consequently it causes the appearance of dampens on not only frame
constructions and interiors, but also brings to the penetration of salty ingredients into whitewash,
natural building materials, layer and their chemical destruction. Capillary water movement in soil goes
not only from down to up, but also tends to impact side of capillary force, which occurs on the
boundary of different components: foundation soil and foundation material. On this basis there is
molecular interaction of water and air with inner surface of ore space of brick work material, in its
wetting and formation of meniscus pores, determining rising force.
Between soil water and capillary cover there is an interim belt of aeration zone. Water occurring onto
this zone with its mass goes down to the logged zone or is kept in capillary pores of transition belt and
is called water of intermediate belt. Up and down boundaries of internal belt is defined according to
local conditions stipulating for the peculiarity of soil dampness regime of aeration zone.
Intervening belt of aeration zone can be missed and then capillary cover closely gets to soil water.
Such phenomenon appears at the time of historical territories impoundment. In this case straight
passage of ground water into atmosphere occurs with a help of evaporation.
Possibility of soil humidity changing aeration zone in the time and space depends on factors
influences which determine distribution of moisture in this zone. Particularly, soil humidity of aeration
zone depends on absorbing ability of soil, and that ability primarily depends on its characteristics. The
surface infrastructure condition which determines evaporation amount impacts on soil moisture. That
is why in usual conditions soil moisture goes down when evaporation takes place. But soil moisture
increases after rain. However if the surface is covered with steam-proof materials like concrete or
asphalt, evaporation dramatically decreases and soil moisture distinctly increases in spite of
atmospheric precipitates seepage exception. In this way natural soil moisture of aeration zone reflects
influence both of soil content and seepage, evaporation conditions.
Architecture monuments have great influence on evaporation way, under which it gets smaller or
entirely excludes. This throws into augmentation of aeration zone, especially in the central part of the
buildings. Peoples technology of buildings maintenance produced the struggle manners with
moisture accumulation under buildings concluded in a facility of cellar which is ventilated in summer
time. Such measure used to provide evaporation of moisture from soil pores and to exclude the
capacity of fully absorbing ability of the grounds. This trick permitted to except moisture
accumulation in soils under the monuments building and its further penetration into bearing
constructions and interiors. As an example can be taken foundations of Arystan-Babs mausoleum
walls.
In the process of researching, geotechnical and restoration measures, escort of process and quality of
geotechnical and engineering works, control of temperature-humidity conditions was organized.
454
Organization of constant monitoring works and environment has a great importance. Monitoring on
Arystan-Babs mausoleum must include:
- Supervision of UPV changing before and after dewatering,
- Constant control of old splits on the fronts and lurking of new ones appearance,
- Geodetic control of vertical and horizontal deformations of longitudinal and cross-cut walls,
especially buttresses;
- Registration of a ventilation trench and pipes;
- Measurement of TVR parameters to define suitable exploitation parameters;
- Control of measuring the salinization of brick walls and foundations;
- Control on a change of chemical behavior of underground water and its link with agriculture land;
- Gynecological control on ground and underground space.
To provide these tasks it is necessary to be equipped with modern facilities.
CONCLUSION
As it is shown within the world practice, salinization process in favorable geological and hydro
geological conditions takes place on many historical monuments, especially in regions with hot
climate with a notable temperature difference of atmosphere. The process takes place in a capillary
zone in a cyclic way and it can be accompanied by soil grain recovery scoping with its extent
(Massarsh K.P.)(1).This effect can cause a wall crack, particularly on weak joint parts. One of the
starts of solving this problem is decreasing capillary zone below the daytime surface.
Preservation of such monument as Aristan-Bab mouselum is a worldwide problem. It has a link with
environmental and technogeneous effects. In most cases geotechnical and hydro geological conditions
play the most important role. Capillary water rise process in clay soil and pore materials with
455
salinization is observed on most historical monuments, particularly in regions with hot climate with a
notable temperature difference of atmosphere.
In order to work out a special project on a regulation moisture regime of ground and underground soil
damp of the underground parts of mausoleum frontward (Technologicak scheme of SR, cipher 778g/04) NIPI PMK has offered to use an evaporation method with the help of air ventilation through
pore material backfilling outside, inside and particularly the lowest parts of the trench, and brick walls
(foundations). Moisture ventilation and evaporation intensity is stimulated with a fixation of vertical
asbestos-cement pipes with a diameter 100 mm.
The project worked out by NIPI PMK SR (6)can not find all decisions connected with geotechnical
problems of the monument. The most complex problem is appeared to fight against salinization.
There are many ways of finding a solution of the problem, but detailed study of the object might be
more useful.
REFERENCES
Massarsh K.P. Preservation of Egyptian monuments of the pharaoh epoch. Reconstruction of cities
and geotechnical construction #7. St.Petersburg, 2003-2004, page 60
Abramov S.K. Underground drainage in industrial and urban development. M.: Stroizdat, 1973, 280
Pashkin E.M. Engineering geology. M., Architecture-C, 2005, 264
Pashkin E.M., Bessonov G.B. Deformation diagnosis of architectural monuments. M., Stroizdat, 1984
Architectural monument restoration methods. Under the editorship of E.V.Michailovskogo M.:
Stroizdat, 1977
A project work documentation on Mausoleum Arystan-Babs. NIPI PMK, Almaty city, 2004 (cipher
778-g/04).
456
ABSTRACT
Observations of seismic damage and observations of earthquake engineering are used to provide some
constraints to the parameters of the AD365 Eastern Mediterranean earthquake. This is a very particular
and poorly understood event: the Eastern Mediterranean has been shaken in the last 2,000 years by
numerous earthquakes but only this specific event became a legend reported by dozens of ancient
writers for centuries.
Different pieces of evidence (historical, archaeological, geomorphological, marine biological,
radiocarbon datings) provide evidence for a destructive tsunami, impressive coastal uplift and
subsidence and earthquake devastation in various parts of the Eastern Mediterranean, especially the
Nile Delta, Cyprus, Crete, Libya and Sicily in the 4th c. AD. A systematic comparative analysis and
evaluation of these data revealed that all these effects can be assigned to a single seismic sequence in
AD365. This earthquake was associated with a reverse-fault earthquake of minimum magnitude 8.5
offshore SW of Crete, as elastic dislocation analysis of the up to 9m uplift of the coasts of western
Crete reveals.
Still, widespread damage in ancient buildings in Crete, Cyprus, Libya and Sicily during this
earthquake testifies to short period, conspicuously nearly local seismic waves, while the possibility
of local amplification of seismic intensities, or of significant modification of spectral characteristics of
seismic waves in remote areas (for instance Cyprus) is unlikely.
We can therefore conclude that while ancient texts are likely to report a single giant earthquake, the
available evidence indicates a seismic sequence with at least two or three major events which occurred
in a short time interval in summer AD365.
Key Words: Eastern Mediterranean, earthquake, Crete, elastic dislocation, AD365, short-period
structures
1
2
Ass. Professor, Dept of Civil Engineering, Patras University, Patras 26500, Greece, stiros@upatras.gr
Dept of Infrastructure, Tech. University of Larisa, Larisa 41110, Greece, kontogianni@kar.forthnet.gr
457
INTRODUCTION
Historical sources report numerous earthquakes in the Eastern Mediterranean, but among them,
only the July 21 st, AD365 tsunami-associated earthquake became a legend for more than a millennium.
There is precise information that this tsunami flooded coasts of Egypt, as well as other coasts, killing
tens of thousands of people, an event commemorated for more than 200 years as the Day of Horror,
while more than 40 usually vague ancient reports provide information for widespread destruction
during the same more or less period, especially the destruction of 100 towns in Crete (for a summary,
see Guidoboni et al., 1994; Stiros, 2001, Stiros and Papageorgiou, 2001; Stiros and Drakos, 2006).
Based on this evidence, this earthquake is included in various seismological catalogues as an event
with magnitude 8-8.3 (Ambraseys et al., 1994; Papazachos and Papazachou, 1997).
Apart from historical data, there is geological and archaeological evidence for this earthquake: an
up to 9m uplift of western Crete, dated by radiocarbon data in the middle of the 4th century (Pirazzoli
et al., 1982; Kelletat, 1991), as well as evidence of widespread destruction in archaeological sites
mainly in Crete, Libya and Cyprus, precisely dated mostly by coins (accuracy in dating between
months to a few years; Stiros, 2001; Stiros and Papageorgiou, 2001).
Despite all this evidence, it remains a matter of debate whether the AD365 earthquake was a single,
regionally catastrophic earthquake with magnitude above 8, a 'universal', giant earthquake
(terraemotu per totum orbem facto, Migne, PL 27, 694) followed by a tsunami which swept
numerous Mediterranean coasts, a strong seismic sequence, or an amalgamation of at least 10 different
earthquakes which occurred between a long time period AD355- AD450 (see Guidoboni et al., 1994;
Ambraseys et al., 1994; for a critical review see Stiros, 2001; Stiros and Drakos, 2006).
In this article we try to contribute in the solution of this problem from the point of view of earthquake
engineering. In particular, based on the geography of damage can be safely assigned to a very short
time interval defined by the frequent alternation of Emperors during a period of decline of the Roman
Empire we try to investigate whether seismic waves generated by the fault derived from the elastic
dislocation analysis of the coastal uplift in Crete can explain the collapse of the type of structures
(more precisely their spectral characteristics) deduced from archaeological studies.
This is an inverse approach to a basic problem of geotechnical engineering applied to historical and
archaeological sites- an effort at modeling of a seismic sequence based on the reported or inferred
seismic damage, while the common problem is to model the earthquake vulnerability of ancient
remains.
GEOGRAPHY OF DESTRUCTION
Systematic archaeological excavations in Crete, Cyprus, Libya, Southern Italy have revealed clear
signs of extensive seismic destructions (including earthquake victims, with more spectacular those of
Kourion at Paphos, Cyprus, see Sorren, 1988, Sorren and Davis, 1985), which in many cases fall
within a period some months to a few decades long, correlating with literary evidence for a regionally
destructive event (or sequence of events) in AD365 (Table 1; Fig. 1; Stiros, 2001; Stiros and Drakos,
2006). In many cases this dating is based on inscriptions and on numismatic evidence found in
destruction layers defining upper and lower bounds of seismic destructions. Given the political
instability of the period, with emperors and consequently coins figuring emperors, changing
frequently, this dating is accurate even to within months or years (Stiros, 2001; Stiros and
Papageorgiou, 2001).
458
Table 1. Ancient sites destroyed by earthquakes in circa AD365. After Stiros and Drakos (2006).
Crete
Kissamos, West Crete
Eleutherna, West Crete
Gortyn, Central Crete
Libya
Leptis Magna, Tripolitis, SW coast
Sabratha, Tripolitis, SW coast
Balagrae (El Beida), Cyrenaica, NE coast
Cyrene, Cyrenaica, NE coast
Ptolemais, Cyrenaica, NE coast
Cyprus
Kourion and Paphos
Sicily
Agrigento
Selinunte, Temple C
Reggio Calabria (S. mainland Italy)
Figure 1. Location and summary map. Areas for which there is clear archaeological and
historical evidence for destruction caused by the AD365 earthquake are dotted. An arrow points
to the Nile Delta, affected by the tsunami associated with this earthquake.
FAULT MODELING
Except for the tsunami, for which no clear evidence has still been found, the most important geological
effect of the 365 earthquake is the up to 9m episodic uplift and tilting of western Crete which can
safely be assigned to the 365 earthquake (Fig. 2; Pirazzoli et al., 1982; Kelletat, 1991).
459
Figure 2. Contours of uplift along the coasts of western Crete and of Antikithira Islet, dated to
circa AD365 by 14C (simplified after Pirazzoli et. al., 1982).
Using the theory of elastic dislocation, observations of surface deformation (mostly geodetic data in
the broad or narrow sense of the word, such as displacements relative to the sea-level) and specific
closed functions (Okada, 1985) it is possible to estimate the geometric characteristics (orientation,
geometric characteristics, amount and direction of slip) and subsequently the seismic moment and
magnitude of the causative fault either as though formal inversion or through iterative approximations.
This last approach was adopted in the case of the coastal uplift of Crete and using the RNGCHN
software (Feigl and Dupre, 1999) we computed a least-constraint, best-fitting fault based on the
following reasonable assumptions:
(1) Observed uplift is a very large-scale effect, and hence it can only be related to a major
reverse fault along the Hellenic Trench (e.g. McKenzie, 1978; Papazachos and Papazachou, 1997;
Kontogianni et al., 2002).
(2) The contours of uplift of Fig. 2 are taken to reflect those of the AD365 earthquake, and the
possibility of an amalgamation of various effects, including earthquakes, is rather trivial.
(3) We focused on the most conservative solution, i.e. to fault that corresponds to a minimum
seismic moment
. The latter is related to the magnitude w of the corresponding earthquake
according to the formulae
M0
u
(1)
Mw
11
0.6666 log M 0 16
where =310 dynecm is shear modulus of the earths crust taken constant,
area of the seismic fault, and u the seismic slip (Papazachos, 1997).
(2)
the (inclined) surface
Based on such constraints a large number of possible fault models responsible for the uplift were
calculated. Among them, the most favourable is a model corresponding to a thrust fault cutting
through the crust to the sea bottom offshore Crete, and causing an earthquake of minimum magnitude
8.5. The parameters of our preferred solution are shown in Table 2, while predicted uplift in Figure 3.
The trace of this fault on the seabed is shown in Figure 4, and correlates with a major bathymetric
anomaly. As it can be deduced from Figure 5, the fit between observations and predictions of coastal
uplift are very good, and within the range of accuracy of our data (see above).
460
Table 2. Parameters of the minimum fault responsible for the uplift of Crete in AD365.
strike
(o)
dip
(o)
292.5
40
105
100
slip
(m)
seismic
moment
(dynecm)
corresponding
magnitude
(Mw )
16
5.041028
8.5
Figure 3. Contours of uplift predicted for the fault of Table 2 using elastic dislocation analysis.
Parallel dense contours correspond to the causative thrust. Subsidence offshore is not shown.
Figure 4. Bathymetry in the vicinity of West Crete. A dashed line indicates the approximate seabed trace of the AD365 fault (minimum fault model). Fault length may extend to NW without
any effect on the fitting.
461
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Distance (km)
462
Figure 6. Suggested focal volumes for the major shocks of the AD365 seismic sequence.
CONCLUSION
The widespread destruction associated with the AD365 earthquake requires short period waves which
could affect near local areas only. This constraint imposed by the theory of earthquake engineering
indicates that the AD365 earthquake could not have been a single giant earthquake, but it was a
seismic sequence consisting of at least two or three major events which occurred in a short time
interval in the summer of AD365 and they gave the impression of a single event to ancient writers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Discussions with A. Papageorgiou are acknowledged. This is a contribution to the research project
EPAN-DP28 of the Greek Secretariat for Research and Technology.
REFERENCES
Ambraseys N, Melville C and Adams R. The seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea. Cambridge
University Press, 1994.
Feigl K and Dupre E. RNGCHN: a program to calculate displacement components from dislocations
on an elastic half-space with applications for modeling geodetic measurements of crustal
deformation. Computers and Geosciences. 25, 695-704, 1999.
Guidoboni E, Comastri A and Traina G. Catalogue of ancient earthquakes in the Mediterranean up to
the 10th century. Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica, Roma, 1994.
Kelletat D. The 1550 B.P. tectonic event in the Eastern Mediterranean as a basis for assessing the
intensity of shore processes. Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, 81, 181-194, 1991.
Kontogianni V, Tsoulos N and Stiros S. Coastal uplift, earthquakes and active faulting of Rhodes
Island (Aegean Arc): Modeling based on geodetic inversion. Marine Geology, 186, 299-317, 2002.
463
McKenzie D. Active tectonics of the Alpine- Himalayan belt: the Aegean Sea and surrounding
regions. Geophys. J. Royal astron. Soc. 55, 217-254, 1978.
Okada Y. Surface deformation due to shear and tensile faults in a half space. Bull. Seism. Soc.
America. 75, 1135-1154, 1985.
Papazachos B. Introduction to seismology (in Greek). Zitis, Thessaloniki, 1997
Papazachos B and Papazachou C The earthquakes of Greece. Zitis, Thessaloniki, 304pp, 1997.
Pirazzoli P, Thommeret J, Thommeret Y, Laborel J and Montagionni L. Crustal block movements
from Holocene shorelines: Crete and Antikythira (Greece), Tectonophysics, 68, 27-43, 1982.
Pirazzoli P, Laborel J and Stiros S. Earthquake clustering in the Eastern Mediterranean during
historical times. Journal of Geophysical Research, 101, B3, 6083-6097, 1996.
Plafker G and Savage J. Mechanism of the Chilean earthquakes of May 21 and 22, 1960. Geological
Soc. Am. Bull., 81, 1001-1030, 1970.
Sorren D. The day the world ended at Kourion- Reconstructing an ancient earthquake. National
Geographic Magazine, 174, 30-53, 1988.
Sorren D and Davis T. Seismic archaeology at Kourion: the 1984 campaign. Report of the
Department of Antiquities, Cyprus, 293-301& pl. LVI, 1985.
Stiros S The AD 365 Crete earthquake and possible seismic clustering during the 4-6 th centuries AD
in the Eastern Mediterranean: a review of historical and archaeological data. Journal of Structural
Geology, 23, 545-562, 2001
Stiros S and Drakos A, A fault-model for the tsunami-associated, magnitude 8.5 Eastern
Mediterranean, AD365 earthquake. Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, 146, 125-137, 2006
Stiros S and Papageorgiou S. Seismicity of Western Crete and the destruction of the town of Kisamos
at AD365: Archaeological evidence. Journal of Seismology, 5, 381-397, 2001.
464
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W2-1014
INTRODUCTION
A significant part of historical structures and monuments are masonry structures. Load bearing
masonries appear to be highly vulnerable to earthquake actions. This is ought to their low tensile
strength, their geometrical peculiarities, past earthquake damages and cracks, fatigue phenomena,
degradation, lack of proper conservation or even incompatible human interventions. In modern
societies, historical structures and monuments architectural and social value as world heritage
carriers imposes the need for their structural protection against earthquake ground motions.
During the last years, considerable research has been carried out, aiming at the investigation of the
causes of damage and the development of technologies suitable for seismic retrofit and rehabilitation
of existing masonry structures. Research has been either experimentally or analytically orientated,
often focusing on the exploitation of past damage observations, in order to comprehend the pathology
of the structure before proceeding with any intervention measures. For the analytical evaluation of
historical structures seismic response, two main sets of information should be taken into
consideration. The first one involves structural properties (i.e. material strength, dynamic properties)
and the latter concerns the parameters characterizing the seismic event (i.e. earthquake period,
amplitude of vibration, direction). The interaction of these internal and external parameters,
1
Institute of Structural Analysis and Aseismic Research, National Technical University of Athens,
Email: isaasrsyr@central.ntua.gr
2
Institute of Structural Analysis and Aseismic Research, National Technical University of Athens,
Email: akadon@central.ntua.gr
3
Institute of Structural Analysis and Aseismic Research, National Technical University of Athens,
Email: olgamvr2@central.ntua.gr
465
respectively, results in the final seismic performance. In both cases, many uncertainties are introduced
during the structural and earthquake simulation.
In this paper an overview of the peculiar characteristics of masonry structures concerning their
earthquake response is presented. This is achieved through the analytical investigation of typical
examples of masonry structures, using the finite element method and specialized failure and
vulnerability evaluation methodologies. The obtained results are exploited for an attempt to classify
historical masonry structures, aimed at correlating their seismic response with their dynamic properties
and applied earthquake parameters.
Furthermore, modification of historical masonry structures seismic performance, when passive
control dampers are applied, is assessed. In addition to the advantages offered concerning the
minimization of displacements and the increase of the damping energy, this technique is highly
recommended because it complies with the basic principles of reversibility, compatibility,
minimization of interventions and durability.
466
467
the wall area that has failed divided by the total wall area, as seen in Equation 1. This type of index
can provide an indication of the damage extent and of the repair cost for a wall surface.
D .I .
A fail
Atot
(1)
CASE STUDIES
Generally
In this paper, some examples of historical masonry structures are presented, in order to investigate the
seismic response of some typical structural types. These case studies are existing structures and they
involve: a stiff Byzantine church, with a geometrically complex load-bearing system (church of
Kaisariani Monastery, Athens); a neoclassical four story building of non rectangular plan (Pagrati,
Athens); a railway arch bridge of a curve span of 116,00 m (Manari, Peloponnese); a bell tower, 22,00
m tall (Saint John, Symi, Greece) and a slender Minaret of 27,00 m height (Islamic Mosque, Larnaca,
Cyprus).
Wherever needed, the seismic retrofitting of these historical structures is investigated, using passive
control dampers. This retrofitting technique can result in improvement of the earthquake response of
historical structures, through the dissipation of seismic energy by dampers. Its efficiency is
demonstrated in terms of displacements diminuation, failure reduction and residual vulnerability, for
the peak ground accelerations considered.
Moni Kaisarianis
Moni Kaisarianis is part of a Byzantine monastery, built during 11th and 12th century, on the ruins of
a paleochristian Basilica.
468
of this type of finite elements was made considering the peculiarities of the geometry of the structure
(wall width variations, openings etc.). The finite element model is shown in Figure 3. For the
modelling, SAP2000 v.9 software has been used.
/ 1-
/ 1-
B
3
/ 1-
(3)
/ 1-
B
3
/ 1-
(4)
/ 1-
(2)
After all three equivalent biaxial stress states have been calculated, failure analysis was performed and
superposition of results was made. In Figure 4, the graphical FAILURE output is showed. Dark
shadowed areas represent areas that have failed under the given earthquake and they are indicative of
the location of failure and not of the wall plane on which failure occurs. In a colour print, outputs
distinguish much better between different kinds of failure.
The assessment of the structural vulnerability was made through a fragility curve diagram. The seismic
469
hazard was considered to be the PGA having the discrete values: 0,16g, 0,24g, 0,32g and 0,40g. The
observation factor was determined to be masonrys strength in tension with a range of values from
120-480 KPa and an increment step of 40 KPa. For the statistical elaboration of parametric analyses
failure results, the normal and lognormal distributions have been implemented. The fragility curves
diagram for the normal distribution is presented in Figure 5.
Figure 4. Failure analysis for the front wall of Moni Kaisarianis Church
470
471
balance before and after dampers application. Additionally, Figure 11 presents in the same diagram the
kinetic energy of the two models.
Figure 10.Energy balance for the unretrofitted (a) and the retrofitted (b) model
Figure 11.Kinetic energy for the unretrofitted and the retrofitted model
Bell tower of Saint John at the island of Simi
The bell tower of Saint John at Simi consists of seven different parts. Its base is of rectangular shape
of 4,95x4,95 m2 area and its total height is 22,00 m. Its plan dimensions are decreased along its height,
as can be seen in Figure 12. Its main load bearing system is masonry, however some reinforced
concrete and steel members have been added after the initial building of the structure. The bell tower
has suffered an earthquake in 1933 resulting in obvious residual deformation of its upper part.
Furthermore, its location next to the sea has contributed significantly to the degradation of materials as
well as to the corrosion of steel members and of concrete reinforcement (Kazakos, 2003).
For the analysis, a finite element model has been developed. For the assessment of soil-structure
interaction, an elastic semi-space was considered for the foundation of the structure, as presented in
Figure 13. The semi-space was simulated using three-dimensional solid finite elements, with
472
15,5x15,5 m2 area dimensions. Its depth was taken as 12 m, under the base of the structure. Soil
dimensions were determined so as to comprise the soil mass where non-negligible stresses are
developed. On the vertical faces of the semi-space, horizontal restraints were applied, while its base
was pinned.
The proposed retrofitting of the structure involves the application of a dampers system. Dampers are
placed as seen in Figure 13. The diminuation of the kinetic energy is seen in Figure 14.
Figure 14.Kinetic energy for the unretrofitted and the retrofitted model
Jami Kepir at Larnaca
The case of a masonry Minaret, part of an Islamic Mosque, situated in Larnaca, Cyprus, has been
investigated. The ratio of its height (19,50 m) to its base diameter (2,00 m), classify it as slender
structure, characterized by high flexibility and cantilever response (Figure 15). The soil-structure
interaction has been taken into consideration, as in the case of the aforementioned bell tower. The
elastic semi-space dimensions are 20x20x30 m3. For the rehabilitation of the structure the use of
473
dampers has been proposed, as seen in the analytical model of Figure 16. The effective stiffness was
taken as c=100 KNsec/m. Energy balance results, before and after retrofitting, are presented in Figure
17.
Correlation of the seismic performance with earthquake parameters
The seismic response of a structure results from the interaction of its dynamic properties with
earthquake characteristics. When the earthquake frequency coincides with the historical structures
natural frequency, the vibration amplitude is maximized and damage is more probable.
Figure 17. Energy balance for the unretrofitted (a) and the retrofitted (b) minaret
Byzantine churches are usually stiff structures with low values of natural periods and consequently
they are mainly affected by high frequency ground motions, which usually occur near the epicenter of
the seismic activity. On the contrary, slender structures such as minarets have high eigenperiods and
they are affected by low frequency earthquakes, at a distance from the epicenter. Soil properties are
also crucial parameters affecting the seismic wave propagation, and determining in this way the final
seismic excitation applied on the structure.
474
On this basis, the dynamic properties of the investigated case studies, which have been calculated by
finite element analysis, can be used for the assessment of the vulnerability of each structure, when
subjected to an earthquake event. According to the eigenperiod of the structure, the applied Peak
Spectrum Acceleration (PSA) differs, as seen in Figure 18, for each reference earthquake. Vertical
arrows correspond to eigenperiod values for each one of the investigated structures.
Figure 18.. Seismic spectra for various earthquakes and natural periods
for the investigated case-studies
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a methodology is proposed for the analytical evaluation of the response of historical
structures. The methodology comprises the application of specialized software and methodologies,
developed for the failure evaluation and seismic vulnerability assessment of masonry structures.
For the demonstration of the proposed methodology some case studies have been selected, which are
typical examples of historical masonry structures. Their structural analysis was performed using the
finite element method and the elaboration of finite element computer stress output led to failure
analysis results, as well as vulnerability evaluation through a fragility curves diagram. In some cases
the soil-structure interaction was investigated by simulating the soil with three-dimensional solid
elements.
Wherever was needed, the retrofitting of these historical structures has been investigated using passive
control dampers. Their efficiency was proved in terms of energy dissipation and kinetic energy.
According to the dynamic properties of the investigated structures, their seismic vulnerability was
further evaluated for diverse earthquakes. According to the eigenperiod of the structure, the applied
Peak Spectrum Acceleration (PSA) differs, for each reference earthquake. Stiff structures like
Byzantine churches are proved to be affected more by high frequency ground motions, while slender
structures like the Minaret are more vulnerable to low frequency seismic excitations.
475
REFERENCES
Kazakos J. Application of the Finite Element Method for the Evaluation of the Structural
Performance of Historical Structures and Monuments. The case study of the Bell Tower of Saint
Jonn Prodromos of Simi, Master Thesis, Postgraduate course Protection of Historical
Structures: Materials and Interventions, National Technical University of Athens, 2003.
Syrmakezis C.A., Antonopoulos, A.K. & Mavrouli, O.A. Historical structures Vulnerability
Evaluation using Fragility Curves, Proc. of the Tenth International Conference on Civil, Structural
and Environmental Engineering Computing, 29 August-2 September 2005, Rome, Italy.
Syrmakezis C.A. Earthquake Protection of Historical Masonry Structures using Passive Control
Systems Proc. of 4th China-Japan-US Symposium on Structural Control and Monitoring, 16-17
October 2006, China.
Syrmakezis C. A., Asteris P. G, Antonopoulos A. K, Mavrouli O. A Stress-Failure Analysis of
Masonry Structures under Earthquake Loading Proc. of the Symposium on Fracture and Failure of
Natural Building Stones Applications in the Restoration of Ancient Monuments, 16th European
Conference of Fracture: Failure Analysis of Nano and Engineering Materials and Structures, 3-7
July 2006, Alexandroupoli, Greece.
Syrmakezis C.A., Asteris P.G. Masonry Failure Criterion under Biaxial Stress State. Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, p. 58-64, 2001.
476
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W2-1006
Keywords: historic structures, three-leaf masonry, grouting, ternary grout, hydraulic lime based grout,
compressive strength.
INTRODUCTION
Three-leaf (stone or brick) masonry constitutes a construction type that is very common in structures
belonging to the built cultural heritage in Europe: Two external leaves (made of stone or brick
masonry) are constructed with a void of varying thickness between them. The space between the two
external leaves is filled with a loose, low strength material made of small pieces of stones and/or
bricks and mortar. This type of masonry is very vulnerable to various actions. In fact, as the bond
between the external and the interior leaves is deteriorated or lost with time (either due to decay of the
materials or due to vertical and horizontal in- and out-of-plane actions), masonry does not behave as a
whole. The slenderness of the external leaves (that resist the major part of any imposed action) is
increased and the probability of severe damages or even collapse is enhanced.
Grouting is one of the most common intervention techniques applied to improve the mechanical
properties of the interior weak leaf mainly, as well as to re-instate the collaboration between external
and internal leaves in three leaf masonry. This technique was proven to be efficient and it is well
accepted by Conservators, although it is clearly a non-reversible technique. It should be noted that,
although grouting is a technique applied to enhance the mechanical properties of masonry subjected to
1
Associate Professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Greece,
Email: elvintz@central.ntua.gr
477
any kind of actions, the importance of both compressive and shear strength upgrading when historic
structures are subjected to seismic actions cannot be overemphasized.
Due to the importance of the subject, considerable research effort was devoted to this technique during
the last almost two decades, both to design grouts adequate for injection into small voids and cracks
and to measure the enhanced mechanical properties of masonry after grouting.
This paper offers a survey of the literature related to the mechanical properties of three-leaf masonry
in compression or in diagonal compression, before and after grouting.
e
i
fe,E e,
fi,Ei ,
/Ee
/Ei
Fe
Fi
e
i
te ti
te
te ' ti'
t =te(1+ e e/Ee )
ti '=ti(1+ i i /Ei)
'
e
Figure 1. Stresses and deformations in external leaves and filling material in a three-leaf
masonry subjected to compression (out-of-scale)
The latter is, on the contrary, under the beneficial confinement offered by the external leaves, thus
improving somehow its poor mechanical properties. This behaviour leads to the failure mode that was
observed in all specimens subjected to compression (Figure 2): As the load on masonry increases,
cracking is initiated both on the faces of the wallettes and on their sides. Vertical cracks on faces of the
specimens pass through mortar joints or they cross also stones and bricks, depending on the relative
strengths of the materials. On the other hand, transverse (vertical) cracks appear along the interface
between the external and the internal leaves mainly, whereas in a number of cases, cracks open within
478
the filling material as well. The mechanism leading to the failure of masonry can be detected if one
observes the development of the vertical cracks in masonry.
FACE 1
SIDE 1
FACE 2
SIDE 2
Figure 2. Typical failure mode of three-leaf masonry in compression (Vintzileou et al., 2006)
In fact, as shown in Table 1, the opening of transverse cracks is substantial larger than the opening of
those appearing on the faces of masonry. This shows clearly that once transverse cracks are formed,
each leaf behaves almost independently from the others. As the slenderness of each leaf is
substantially larger than that of the whole element, out-of-plane deformation of the external leaves
becomes apparent, as the compression load increases. This phenomenon is accentuated by the
horizontal deformations imposed by the filling material (Figure 1).
When masonry is grouted (using a high injectability grout) all voids and cracks are filled down to a
size of some tenths of millimetre. The major part of the injected material improves the behaviour of
the filling material, as well as that of the interfaces, whereas, secondarily, the properties of the external
leaves are also enhanced. Thus, masonry is more or less homogenized. As a result, (a) the contribution
of the filling material to the resistance against the compression load is increased. Thus, the stresses on
the external leaves are reduced. On the other hand, (b) the difference in the deformability properties of
the leaves decreases. Thus, the additional horizontal deformations on the external leaves, due to the
lateral dilatancy of the filling material are also reduced. Last but not least (c) the grout contributes to
the enhancement of the bond along the interfaces between consecutive leaves. As a result, the opening
of (critical) transverse cracks is delayed and the compressive strength of masonry is enhanced. The
delay in the appearance of transverse cracks is observed in experimental results. In fact, as shown in
Table 1, although before grouting, transverse crack openings (wtrans) of the order of several millimetres
were measured at the moment of attainment of the compressive strength of ungrouted masonry (f wc,0),
for the same value of compressive stress, the opening of transverse cracks in the grouted wallettes
(w trans,fwc0) is practically equal to zero. Nevertheless, when the resistance of (grouted) interfaces is
reached, separation between leaves takes place and the final mechanism of failure is similar to that
occurring in masonry before grouting or in thick single-leaf masonry.
Mechanical properties of ungrouted masonry in compression
On the basis of the experimental summarized in Table 1, the following comments can be made:
(a) The compressive strength of masonry units is not a decisive parameter for the compressive strength
of ungrouted masonry: Compare, for example, the values of compressive strength of masonry
measured by Vintzileou et al. (1995) on wallettes made of stones having compressive strength equal to
100N/mm2, with those obtained by Toumbakari (2002) (for compressive strength of stones equal to 55
N/mm2). On the contrary,
(b) It seems that the compressive strength of mortar and that of the filling material affect more the
compressive strength of masonry. In fact, the wallettes tested by Toumbakari (2002) reached, in
general, higher compressive strengths than the wallettes tested by Vintzileou et al. (1995) thanks to the
higher compressive strength of both filling material and mortar.
479
(c) The values of the compressive strength of masonry, measured on identical wallettes, present a
difference of approximately 30% between the minimum and the maximum value. This fact is taken
into account in Section 4, when the estimation of the compressive strength of masonry is attempted.
(d) The ratio of modulus of elasticity (measured at a stress level approximately equal to 0.3f wc,0) to
compressive strength of ungrouted masonry seems to be very scattered (Figure 3). However, as it is
the case for modern masonries as well, most of the values of this ratio lie between 500 and 1500.
(e) The values of vertical strain corresponding to the compressive strength of masonry before grouting
are very scattered (Figure 4). However, if one excludes the very high ultimate strain values measured
by Valluzzi (2000), it seems that for the types of masonry tested within the examined programs, the
most frequent values of wu,0 are between 0.001 and 0.0025.
Vintzileou et al., 1995
Toumbakari et al., 2002
Valluzzi, 2000
Vintzileou et al., 2006
2.8
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.6
2.4
2.2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.8
1.6
0.8
0.6
1.4
0.4
0.2
0
1.2
0
Ew,0 /fwc,0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
wu,0
480
interfaces contribute to delayed opening of transverse cracks that lead to failure of masonry. In fact,
shear tests on such interfaces (Toumbakari, 2002) have proven that the maximum bond resistance
obtained by (lower compressive strength) ternary grouts was equal or even higher than the bond
resistance of (higher compressive strength) cement grout to in situ materials interfaces. This result was
fully confirmed by a systematic experimental investigation conducted by Adami et al. (2007).
Vintzileou et al., 1995
Toumbakari, 2002
Valluzzi, 2000
Vintzileou et al., 2006
5.5
30
5
4.5
25
4
3.5
20
3
15
2.5
2
10
1.5
5
1
0.5
0.2
0.4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
0.6
0.8
f gr,t/fgr,c
fgr,c(N/mm2)
2.5
5.5
5
4.5
1.5
4
3.5
1
3
2.5
0.5
1.5
0
fgr,t(N/mm 2)
10
15
20
25
30
fgr,c (N/mm2 )
As bond properties depend on the tensile strength of the binding material, one may expect a better
correlation between the compressive strength of the grouted masonry and the tensile strength of the
grout. A first positive sign for the validity of this assumption is the fact that, as shown in Figure 6, the
ratio between compressive and tensile strength of grout is not constant. On the contrary, there is a
clear tendency of the f gr,t/fgr,c ratio to increase for decreasing compressive strength of the grout. It
should be noted that, as shown in the same Figure 6, for compressive strength of grout varying
481
between 3.0 and 10.0 N/mm2 (corresponding to ternary and to hydraulic lime based grouts), the values
of the f gr,t/f gr,c ratio vary between 0.20 and 0.60. It is not, however, possible to find a relationship
between the compressive strength of the grout and the f gr,t/f gr,c ratio, on the basis of the available test
data.
(d) Furthermore, in Figure 7, the experimental compressive strength values are plotted against the
tensile strength of the respective grout. Taking into account the differences from one series of tests to
the others (in geometry, quality of materials used, construction details, etc.), the quite linear
correlation between fwc,s and fgr,t may be considered as satisfactory. This result (a) explains the fact that
high compressive strength grouts are not as efficient as it might be expected from the mechanical point
of view and, more important, (b) it proves that ternary and hydraulic lime based grouts, that are
expected to satisfy durability requirements, may also enhance the mechanical properties of three-leaf
masonry to a level that complies with the bearing capacity requirements set for historic structures.
(e) The experimental results show that, in general, the stiffness of the grouted masonry (expressed by
means of the modulus of elasticity) is higher than the stiffness of the ungrouted wallettes. Although
the experimental results are quite scattered in this respect, the vast majority of Ewc,s/Ewc,0 values do not
exceed 1.60. Furthermore, the data of Table 2 show that strength enhancement is higher than stiffness
enhancement. Thus, the ratio between the modulus of elasticity and the compressive strength of
masonry after grouting is, as a rule, smaller than the respective ratio before grouting.
(f) Another important finding is illustrated in Figure 8: When a medium to low strength grout is used,
i.e. a grout with reduced cement content or a hydraulic lime based grout, the strain corresponding to
the compressive strength of the grouted masonry is larger than that of the ungrouted masonry. The
opposite occurs in case of cement-based grouts. It seems, therefore, that grouting with cement-based
mixes leads to more brittle behaviour of masonry, whereas ternary and hydraulic lime based grouts
allow masonry to sustain larger compressive strains before its maximum resistance is reached. This is
another sign in favour of the use of low to medium strength grouts.
Mechanical properties of grouted masonry in diagonal tension or in shear
The effect of grouting on the shear strength of three leaf masonry was measured either by testing walls
under vertical load and horizontal force (Tomazevic et al, 1982 and 1993) or by testing wallettes in
diagonal compression. As shown in Table 2, although the available results are rather limited in
number, it is evident that grouting leads to substantial strength enhancement. In this case as well, it
may be observed that the strength increase is definitely not proportional to the compressive strength of
the grout. The significant increase of the stress at failure obtained with medium to low strength grouts
suggests that, in this case too, the decisive parameter is the bond between grout and in situ materials.
Tomazevic et al. (1982) reached similar results through testing of walls in shear (under simultaneous
vertical load). The masonry was constructed in various ways to simulate those of historic structures in
Slovenia. The walls were grouted with a cement grout. The authors found in most cases an increase of
shear resistance varying between 110% and 250%, associated with a rather slight decrease of the
horizontal displacement at maximum shear resistance (between 10% and 30%). It should be noted that
the walls, subjected to cyclic horizontal forces exhibited a quite stable behaviour, without significant
force response degradation for imposed angular distortions up to 1%.
It has to be noted that the available experimental results regarding the shear behaviour of ungrouted
and grouted masonry or walls are rather scarce and they do not allow for reliable prediction of the
efficiency of grouting to be made.
482
Analytical modelling of three-leaf masonry walls using finite element methods was attempted by
several researchers (see i.a. Binda et al., 1991, Binda et al., 1994, Binda et al., 2006). In several cases,
the researchers were able to reproduce experimental stress-strain curves quite accurately. Nevertheless,
such valuable works, although they contribute to the understanding of the behaviour of three-leaf
masonry, did not yet yield sound engineering models that could be used in the design of interventions
to historic masonries by means of grouts. Thus, there is still a need for simple physical models that
would allow for the compressive strength of three-leaf masonry before and after grouting to be
predicted. Although in case of major monuments it may be possible or advisable to conduct tests, in
order to determine the mechanical properties of masonry in a reliable way, in the general case of
interventions either to less important historic structures or to buildings belonging to urban nuclei,
neither the time nor the funds are available for such an experimental campaign. Therefore, the
availability of simple (but physically sound) formulae is of great importance.
In what follows, an attempt is made to apply to the available experimental results existing formulae, as
well as to improve them, taking into account the observed behaviour, as described in the previous
sections.
Estimation of the compressive strength of three-leaf masonry before grouting
Simple available formulae allowing for the estimation of the compressive strength of grouted threeleaf masonry, require the compressive strength of ungrouted masonry to be estimated as well. For this
purpose, Valluzzi (2004) suggests that the compressive strength of the external leaves can be measured
in situ, applying the flat jacks technique. The compressive strength of the filling material can be
measured in the laboratory, on cores taken in situ. Subsequently, an engineering model is needed, in
order to calculate the compressive strength of three-leaf masonry.
The simple model, proposed by Egermann (1993) could be used for this purpose. Nevertheless,
according to this model, two parameters need to be estimated, in order to take into account the
interaction between external leaves and filling material, as described in Figure 1. As stated by
Egermann himself, however, the actual state of knowledge does not allow for accurate estimation of
those two parameters.
Tassios (2004) derived closed formulae for the estimation of the compressive strength of ungrouted
masonry, based on the model by Egermann (1993) and taking into account the available experimental
data. Formulae by Tassios proved to predict rather satisfactorily the compressive strengths measured
by Valluzzi (2000), Toumbakari (2002) and Vintzileou et al. (1995).
Estimation of the compressive strength of three-leaf masonry after grouting
(a) In Vintzileou et al. (1995), a simple formula is developed, allowing for the calculation of the
compressive strength of three-leaf masonry after grouting. The development of the formula is based on
the following assumption: Grouting does not affect significantly the mechanical properties of the
external leaves. In reality, when masonry is cracked, grout fills the cracks, as well as voids in the
mortar and, to some extent, also pores of the materials. Nevertheless, it is on the safe side to assume
that through grouting, the initial compressive strength of the external leaves is re-instated.
On the contrary, grouting contributes to the substantial improvement of mechanical properties of the
infill. The strength enhancement of the infill is taken proportional to the square root of the
compressive strength of the grout (as an indicator of its tensile strength), as failure of masonry is due
to the opening of vertical cracks. This type of failure is governed by the tensile strength of the
materials rather than by their compressive strength. The contribution of the strengthened infill material
to the compressive strength of masonry is proportional to the ratio Vi/Vw (Vi denotes the volume of
infill material in the total volume, Vw , of the wall). Thus, the following formula was derived:
f wc, i
f wc, 0 (1 1.25
Vi f gr ,c
)
Vw f wc,0
(1)
483
This formula was applied to the available experimental results presented in Table 1 (Figure 9). It
seems that, in general, the formula overestimates the compressive strength of grouted masonry.
However, if a Rd value equal to 1.35 is applied, the formula can yield safe values for the design of
grouted three-leaf masonry.
(b) Valluzzi (2004) offers a modified version of Equation (1). On the basis of her systematic testing of
cylinders made of filling material and grouted with hydraulic lime based grouts, an empirical formula
was proposed for the prediction of the compressive strength of the grouted infill material, as follows:
f i,s 0.31f gr1.18
(2)
,c
Thus, the compressive strength of the compressive strength of masonry is calculated using the
following expression:
f wc,i
f wc, 0 (1
Vi fi ,s
)
Vw f wc, 0
(3)
Equation (3) overestimates the compressive strength of grouted three-leaf masonry in most of cases.
Thus, to yield values adequate for the design of grouted masonry, a Rd value equal to 1.80 should be
applied to the predicted values.
(c) The available results from testing cylinders made of filling material before and after grouting, i.e.
results by Miltiadou (1990), Valluzzi (2004), Vintzileou et al., 2006, as well as DTRR (2006), were
evaluated, in order to derive an expression for the compressive strength of grouted filling material.
Taking into account (i) the observations made in previous sections and (ii) the fact that there is a clear
trend to apply only ternary or hydraulic lime based grouts to historic masonry, an effort is made to
relate the compressive strength of the grouted filling material with the tensile strength of the grout
only for those cylinders that were grouted with either ternary or hydraulic lime based grout. Thus, the
following expression was derived:
f i,s
Vintzileou et al., 1995
Toumbakari, 2002
Valluzzi, 2000
Vintzileou et al., 2006
(4)
1.60 0.50f gr , t
3.5
2.5
~1.35
Rd
2.5
1.5
2
1.5
1
1
0.5
0.5
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
pred.fi,s (N/mm2)
484
Thus, based on the assumption adopted in Vintzileou et al. (1995), equation (3) can be applied, with fi,s
taken from equation (4). The application of this alternative expression to the available experimental
results is shown in Figure 12. This expression seems to offer a rather conservative estimation of the
compressive strength of grouted masonry that can be used in design.
Toumbakari, 2002
Valluzzi, 2000
Vintzileou et al., 2006
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
(fwc,i/fwc,0)pred.
Figure 11. Comparison between predicted and experimental strength enhancement, based on
Equation (4). The compressive strength of grouted filling material is calculated from Equation
(2)
CONCLUSIONS
The survey of literature presented in this paper allows for the following conclusions to be
drawn:
1. Three-leaf masonry subjected to compression exhibited in all cases the same behaviour and the
2.
3.
4.
5.
same failure mode. Although there is a significant inherent scatter of the experimental data, the
effect of parameters, such as mechanical properties of constituent materials, strength of filling
material, etc., on the compressive strength of ungrouted masonry was detected and explained.
The positive effect of grouting on the compressive strength of three-leaf masonry, as well as on its
overall behaviour was proven by the totality of experimental results. Furthermore,
The preponderance of ternary and hydraulic lime based grouts was demonstrated, as they offer
significant enhancement of compressive strength, associated with substantial increase of the strain
at strength. On the contrary, cement based grouts (of equal injectability and significantly higher
compressive strength) do not contribute to further increase of the compressive strength of masonry,
whereas they lead to a rather brittle behaviour.
The advantages of ternary and hydraulic lime based grouts (due to their improved bond properties
with the in situ materials) become more important due to the durability ensured by the use of
materials that are compatible with the existing ones from the physical-chemical point of view.
Simple empirical formulae, based, however, on the Mechanics of three-leaf masonry were proven
adequate for the prediction of the compressive strength of grouted masonry. It should be noted,
however, that further research is needed towards the development of physical models able to
describe the behaviour of three-leaf masonry before and after grouting.
REFERENCES
485
Vintzileou, E. and Tassios, T.P. 1995. Three-leaf stone masonry strengthened by injecting cement
grouts. Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.121, No.5, May, pp. 848-856.
Toumbakari E.-E. 2002. Lime-pozzolan-cement grouts and their structural effects on composite
masonry walls. Doctor Thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.
Valluzzi M.-R. 2000. Comportamento meccanico di murature storiche consolidate con materiali e
tecniche a base di calce. Doctor Thesis, University of Trieste.
Vintzileou E., Miltiadou-Fezans A. 2006. Mechanical properties of three-leaf stone masonry grouted
with ternary or hydraulic lime based grouts. Submitted to Engineering Structures.
Egermann R. 1993. Investigation on the load bearing behavior of multiple leaf masonry. Proceedings
IABSE Symposium Structural Preservation of the Architectural Heritage, Rome, pp. 305-312.
Binda L., Pina-Henriques J., Anzani A., Fontana A., Lourenco P.B. 2006. A contribution for the
understanding of load-transfer mechanisms in multi-leaf masonry walls : Testing and modelling.
Elsevier, Engineering Structures, 28, pp. 1132-1147
Adami C.-E., Vintzileou E., 2007. Interventions to historic masonries: Investigation of the bond
mechanism between stones or bricks and grouts. Accepted for publication in Materials and
Structures, RILEM.
Tomazevic M., Sheppard P. 1982. The strengthening of stone-masonry buildings for revitalization in
seismic regions. 7th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Athens, Vol. 5, pp. 275-282
Tomazevic M., Apih V. 1993. The strengthening of stone-masonry walls by injecting the masonryfriendly grouts. European Earthquake Engineering, 1, pp. 10-20
Binda L., Fontana A., Anti L. 1991. Load transfer in multiple-leaf masonry walls. Proceedings, 9th
International Brick Block Masonry Conference, pp. 1488-1497.
Binda L., Fontana A., Mirabella Roberti G. 1994. Mechanical behaviour and stress distribution in
multiple-leaf walls. Proceedings, 10th International Brick Block Masonry Conference, pp. 51-59.
Valluzzi M.-R. 2004. Consolidamento di murature in pietra. Iniezioni di calce idraulica naturale.
Collana Scientifica REFICERE, Gruppo Editoriale Faenza Editrice S.p.a., 128pp.
Tassios,T.P. 2004. Rehabilitation of three-leaf masonry. In Evoluzione nella sperimentazione per le
costruzioni, Seminario Internazionale, 26 Sept- 3Oct., Centro Internationale di Aggiornamento
Sperimentale Scientifico (CIAS)
Valluzzi M.-R., da Porto F., Modena C. 2001. Behaviour of multi-leaf stone masonrry walls
strengthened by different intervention techniques. Proceedings 3rd International Seminar on
Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions, Lourenco P.B., Roca P. (ed.), pp. 1023-1032.
486
SpeciDimensions
te/ti/te
men
(m)
Vintzileou/Tassios (1995)
(1)
1
0.6x0.4x1.2
130/140/130
2
0.6x0.4x1.2
130/140/130
(1)
3
0.6x0.4x1.2
130/140/130
4
0.6x0.4x1.2
130/140/130
5
0.6x0.4x1.2
130/140/130
6
0.6x0.4x1.2
130/140/130
7
0.6x0.4x1.2
130/140/130
8
0.6x0.4x1.2
130/140/130
Toumbakari (2002)
BC1
0.6x0.4x1.2
90/220/90
BC2
0.6x0.4x1.2
90/220/90
BC3
0.6x0.4x1.2
90/220/90
BC4
0.6x0.4x1.2
90/220/90
(1)
BC5
0.6x0.4x1.2
90/220/90
SC1
0.6x0.4x1.2
130/140/130
SC2
0.6x0.4x1.2
130/140/130
SC3
0.6x0.4x1.2
130/140/130
SC4
0.6x0.4x1.2
130/140/130
Valluzzi, da Porto, Modena (2001)
5I1
0.8x0.5x1.4
180/140/180
6I1
0.8x0.5x1.4
180/140/180
13I1
0.8x0.5x1.4
180/140/180
1I2
0.8x0.5x1.4
180/140/180
8I2
0.8x0.5x1.4
180/140/180
16I2
0.8x0.5x1.4
180/140/180
12I1T
0.8x0.5x1.4
180/140/180
14I1R
0.8x0.5x1.4
180/140/180
17I1RT 0.8x0.5x1.4
180/140/180
Vintzileou, Miltiadou-Fezans (2006)
1
1.0x0.45x1.2 190/120/140
2
1.0x0.45x1.2 190/120/140
3
1.0x0.45x1.2 190/120/140
fm,c
2
(N/mm )
1.70
1.70
1.70
1.70
1.70
1.70
1.70
1.70
3.40
3.40
3.40
3.40
3.40
3.40
3.40
3.40
3.40
1.57
1.57
1.57
1.57
1.57
1.57
1.57
1.57
1.57
4.35
4.35
4.35
fc,units
2
(N/mm )
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
25
25
25
25
25
55
55
55
55
164
164
164
164
164
164
164
164
164
25
25
25
0.15
0.15
0.15
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
fi,c
2
(N/mm )
4.5/2.5
8.16/2.2
4.5/2.5
5.1/0.8
5.1/0.8
5.1/0.8
3.2/0.4
3.2/0.4
3.2/0.4
5.1/0.8
5.1/0.8
5.1/0.8
7.3/1.7
9.0/1.1
19.5/4.5
7.3/1.7
7.3/1.7
9.0/1.1
19.5/4.5
7.3/1.7
7.3/1.7
30/2.5
30/2.5
30/2.5
30/2.5
13/1.4
30/2.5
13/1.4
fgr,c/fgr,t
2
(N/mm )
32.8
40
36.4
54.2
54.2
41.5
54.2
47.8
47.8
54.2
60.6
47.8
30.0
50.0
46.0
31.0
23.0
19.0
25.0
43.8
67.0
31.75
34.72
29.8
29.8
29.8
Vgr/Vw
(%)
1.82
1.74
2.26
1.45
1.95
1.97
1.91
-
2.41
2.09
2.18
2.28
2.02
2.09
2.65
2.71
2.10
1.30
2.40
1.60
1.70
1.35
-
fwc,0
2
(N/mm )
3.00
3.75
3.73
2.49
2.49
2.54
2.57
1.82
2.48
2.59
2.14
3.06
5.04
3.15
2.91
3.00
3.86
3.25
3.36
3.51
3.29
3.10
4.30
4.20
4.05
3.70
3.00
fwc,i
2
(N/mm )
1000
1440
1500
2390
2029
1450
1559
-
729.6
1018.3
1097.6
1144.9
720.4
1138.7
1374.8
1443.3
7000
2706
5000
4442
5670
5625
-
Ew0
2
(N/mm )
1200
1550
1300
2273
3093
3992
3449
2367
1223
1336
1617
1772
2238.2
1564.9
1404.8
1040.4
1170.2
1622.2
1558.6
1187.6
1014.5
6250
5971
7778
8438
15413
3333
Ews
2
(N/mm )
Table 1. Geometrical and mechanical properties of wallettes and main experimental findings
0.0016
0.0025
0.00363
0.00457
0.0062
0.00622
-
0.00312
0.00185
0.00234
0.00231
0.00142
0.00165
0.00173
0.00211
0.00104
0.00141
0.0008
0.0028
0.00058
-
0.0025
0.0039
0.00726
0.00571
0.00991
0.00625
0.0072
0.0107
0.00818
0.00821
0.00824
0.00242
0.00254
0.00155
0.00294
0.00314
0.00355
0.00233
0.00245
0.00349
0.0006
0.0011
0.0012
0.0010
0.0009
0.0009
wu,s
()
wu,0
()
487
Table 1 (contd.)
Wallette
wvert
(mm)
wtrans
(mm)
wtrans,
fwc,0
wtrans,fwci
(mm)
Ew0/ fwc,0
0.00
-
3333
2081
2083
2776
3335
4167
Ews/ fwc,s
fwc,i/ fwc,0
Ews/ Ew0
wu,s/
wu,0
(mm)
Vintzileou/Tassios (1995)
1
1.00
0.231
0.00
2
0.27
3
3.00
4
2.533
5
1.50
7.59
0.00
6
1.81
0.00
7
8
Toumbakari (2002)
BC1
BC2
7.07
0.15
BC3
2.69
0.86
BC4
2.32
0.38
BC5
2.00
0.03
SC1
2.89
0.03
SC2
6.9
0.01
SC3
3.63
0.51
SC4
2.84
1.01
Valluzzi, da Porto, Modena (2001)
5I1
2.25
0.002
6I1
9.2
0.0015
13I1
0.06
1I2
3.97
0.16
8I2
5.9
0.04
16I2
0.11
12I1T
0.02
14I1R
0.01
17I1RT
0.0005
Vintzileou, Miltiadou-Fezans (2006)
1
0.78
8.2
0.0
2
0.26
4.8
0.0
3
1.55
4.0
0.0
1.035
1.325
1.3
0.125
1.17
5.04
2.59
4.03
1.80
2.19
0.60
2.33
2.98
302.7
487.2
503.5
502.1
356.6
544.8
518.8
532.6
4.59
8.55
13.85
3.67
4.95
9.45
7.95
9.8
10.95
1648
1040
3.2
1.3
2.6
550
828
655
736
816
1048
1.48
0.89
0.58
1389
1.80
1.19
0.78
1852
2083
4166
1111
2.47
3.00
1.37
1.50
0.43
1.72
1.31
1.39
1.38
1.69
1.61
1.61
1.32
1.21
2.14
1.38
0.95
1.02
2.25
1.37
0.86
0.70
0.81
0.84
1.26
1.36
2.50
1.41
1.42
1.65
1.72
1.28
0.95
1.52
2.00
1.25
1.30
0.95
2.37
1.52
1.00
1.16
1.65
2.16
1.65
1.20
1.08
0.87
1.56
1.36
444
497
483
347
303
499
464
338
308
913
1242
1572
1342
1300
493
516
756
579
400
413
349
Mechanical
properties of
grout
fc
ft,fl
(MPa)
(MPa)
Mechanical properties of
grouted specimens
SpeciDimensions
ft
whor
ft,f
whor,ft
v
v,f
f
men
(m)
(MPa) ()
(mm)
(MPa)
() (mm)
Toumbakari (2002)
SDC1
0.8x0.8x0.4
0.47
0. 9
0.85
15.9
3.4
0.50
1.36 0.47
1.1
SDC2
0.8x0.8x0.4
0.34
1.2
0.71
19.5
4.5
0.68
1.17 0.05
2.0
SDC3
0.8x0.8x0.4
0.28
1.5
1.20
7.8
2.5
0.59
2.65 0.02
2.1
BDC1
0.8x0.8x0.4
0.44
0.8
0.50
7.8
2.5
0.60
1.56 0.17
1.4
BDC2
0.8x0.8x0.4
0.34
0.3
1.07
15.9
3.4
0.73
1.07 0.02
2.2
BDC3
0.8x0.8x0.4
0.35
0.6
0.50
19.5
4.5
0.75
1.02 0.02
2.1
Vintzileou et al. 1995
9
(0.15)
30
0.64
10
(0.15)
30
0.64
Vintzileou et al., Miltiadou et al. (2006)
4
1.0x1.0x0.45
0.10
2.1
5.2
4.5
2.52
0.22
1.00
0
2.2
5
1.0x1.0x0.45
0.10
1.1
0.2
8.2
2.29
0.34
0.80
0
3.4
6
1.0x1.0x0.45
0.10
1.0
1.5
4.5
2.52
0.23
1.40
0
2.3
ft and v: tensile strength and respective vertical strain of ungrouted specimen, fc and ft,fl: compressive and
flexural strength of grout, ft,f and v,f: tensile strength and respective vertical strain of grouted specimen,
whor : sum of vertical crack openings on the face of the ungrouted specimen (at ft), whor,ft : sum of vertical
crack openings on the face of the grouted specimen (at ft ), f=ft,f/ft
488
WORKSHOP 4
How can earthquake geotechnical
engineering contribute to safer design of
structures to resist earthquakes?
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W4-1001
INTRODUCTION
Behaviour of piles in liquefying soils is very complex involving rapid change in stiffness and strength
of soils, large ground deformation and significant inertial loads from the superstructure. A rigorous
analysis simulating this process in detail, such as the seismic effective stress analysis, imposes high
demands on the user in terms of required input data and understanding of the adopted numerical
procedures. On the other hand, when using design-oriented analyses based on the pseudo-static
approach, one encounters great difficulties in the selection of appropriate values for the parameters of
the simplified analysis because nearly all parameters used in the simplified model are subject to large
variation in the course of the pore pressure build-up and eventual liquefaction. Thus, the key issues in
the analysis of piles are quite different for the advanced seismic effective stress analysis and simplified
pseudo-static analysis. This paper addresses some of the key issues in the application of these two
methods of analysis to piles in liquefying soils.
University
of
Canterbury,
New
Zealand,
Email:
489
before or at the time of development of complete liquefaction in the layer and was accompanied with
high ground accelerations of about 0.4g. During this phase of intense ground shaking and development
of liquefaction, the piles were subjected to kinematic loads due to ground movement and inertial loads
due to vibrations of the superstructure. Both these loads are oscillatory in nature with magnitudes and
spatial distribution dependent on a number of factors including ground motion characteristics, soil
density, presence of non-liquefied crust layer at the ground surface, and predominant periods of the
ground and superstructure, among others.
In sloping ground or backfills behind waterfront structures the liquefaction may result in unilateral
ground displacements due to lateral spreading, as indicated with the dashed line in Figure 1b. Lateral
CYCLIC PHASE
200
v'
150
100
50
(a)
0
0
Horizontal displacement
(cm)
SPREADING PHASE
90
60
30
0
10
15
20
-30
-60
(b)
Cyclic displacement
10
Time (seconds)
15
20
(c)
Figure 1. Illustration of ground response in liquefying soils and effects on piles: (a) Excess pore
water pressure; (b) Lateral ground displacement; (c) loads on pile during the cyclic phase and
lateral spreading
490
spreads typically result in large permanent displacements of up to several meters in the down-slope
direction or towards waterways. Provided that driving shear stresses exist in the ground, lateral
spreading may be initiated during the intense pore pressure build up, at the onset of liquefaction or
after the development of complete liquefaction. As compared to the cyclic phase of the response,
ground displacements are approximately one order of magnitude bigger and inertial loads are
relatively smaller during the lateral spreading, as illustrated schematically in Figure 1c. These large
differences in liquefaction characteristics and loads on the pile between the cyclic phase and lateral
spreading phase need to be accounted for in the analysis of piles.
491
a)
SHEET
PILE
FOOTING
Coarse sand
PILE
Loose
Toyoura sand
(Dr = 35%)
150
40
90cm
Loose T.S.
(35%)
50
75
175
Figure 2. Schematic plot of physical model used in the shake table test
16-3
Diana-J
30
Liqca
20
16-2
15-3
15-2
16-2
14-1
14-1 (2-D)
10
16-1
Computed = Measured
15-1
14-3
10
20
30
Measured displacement (mm)
Diana-J
60
Liqca
16-2
14-1
(2-D)
40
Computed = Measured
20
15-2
14-3
16-1
16-3
15-1
14-1
15-3
16-2
14-2
00
20
40
60
Measured displacement (cm)
Figure 3. Comparison between computed and measured displacements of footing and sheet pile
provides reasonably good accuracy in predicting the excess pore pressures and ground deformation in
order to allow proper evaluation of the soil-pile interaction effects.
The initial stress conditions and anticipated ground deformation pattern are equally important for a
correct prediction of pile behaviour. In the above study, for example, detailed initial stress analyses
were conducted in order to identify the initial stress in the soil deposit before the application of
shaking. Specific boundary conditions and soil-pile interfaces were also defined in order to allow
development of large displacements and deformation pattern associated with lateral spreading. In fact,
the latter was found to be one of the major reasons for the underestimation of sheet pile displacements
in the analyses. The aforementioned modelling issues together with inherent limitations of a particular
numerical procedure define the second critical issue in the application of the seismic effective stress
analysis. The complexities associated with current constitutive soil models and numerical procedures
probably explain why this analysis in spite of the unparalleled capability has not found yet an adequate
use in the engineering practice.
492
PSEUDO-STATIC ANALYSIS
Unlike the advanced effective stress analysis which aims at simulating the complex soil-pile
interaction as liquefaction develops through time, the pseudo-static analysis aims at estimating the
maximum pile response by using a relatively simple model and small number of engineering
parameters. The key issue in such analysis is thus the selection of appropriate values for the
parameters that represent the soil conditions and loads at the time when the maximum response of the
pile develops. As discussed in the previous sections, the liquefaction characteristics and lateral loads
on piles vary significantly in the course of the development of liquefaction and are quite different
between the cyclic phase and subsequent lateral spreading phase of the response. For this reason, the
cyclic phase and lateral spreading phase have to be treated separately in the pseudo-static analysis.
A conventional beam-spring model allowing for stiffness and strength reduction in the liquefied layer,
large movement of the liquefied soil, lateral soil pressure from the crust layer and lateral load on the
pile due to inertial effects is shown in Figure 4. While this model generally permits modelling of
multiple layers with different load-deformation spring properties, in essence it distinguishes between
three distinct layers: non-liquefiable crust layer at the ground surface, liquefiable layer and nonliquefiable base layer. As indicated in Figure 4, degraded stiffness and strength are used for the
liquefied soil, and it is assumed that the crust layer moves as a rigid body on top of the liquefied soil.
The characterization of nonlinear behaviour of the soil and pile shown in Figure 5 is probably the
simplest one that allows adequate treatment of nonlinear behaviour of the soil and pile. Here, the
bilinear p- relationships for the soil are defined by an initial stiffness using the conventional subgrade
reaction approach and by an ultimate lateral soil pressure, pmax. The subgrade reaction coefficients k
can be evaluated using empirical correlations based on the elastic moduli of the soil or SPT blow
count while the ultimate lateral pressure for the non-liquefied layers can be estimated using a factored
Rankine passive pressure, as described in Cubrinovski and Ishihara (2004).
a) Cross section
b) Soil-pile model
Upper foundation
Non-liquefied
crust layer
c) Numerical scheme
UG UP
Lateral load
H1
Ground
displacement
Liquefied
layer
H2
Degraded
stiffness &
strength
Pile
Deformed pile
Non-liquefied
base layer
H3
Pile
Soil spring
493
Hf
Footing
Surface layer
H1
k1 p1-max
UG2
M
p
2
Liquefied
layer
k2 p2-max
Pile
H2
Ground
displacement
H3
Base layer
Do
k 3 p3-max
Key parameters in this model are the magnitude of lateral ground displacement (U G2), ultimate lateral
pressure from the crust layer (p 1-max), and stiffness and strength reduction in the liquefied layer as
represented by the stiffness degradation factor 2 and ultimate pressure p2-max respectively. Some
guidance in the selection of the ultimate pressure from the crust layer and variation in the magnitude
of lateral ground displacement can be found in Cubrinovski at al. (2007). Here, effects of the ultimate
pressure form the liquefied soil are examined somewhat in detail.
Cyclic Phase
Assuming that the peak response of the pile during the cyclic phase occurs at or before the onset of
liquefaction, which is a reasonable assumption according to observations from experiments and
analyses, then the following reasoning can be applied to the analysis of piles: (i) The value of 2
commonly varies within a relatively small range of values between 1/20 and 1/10; (ii) The magnitude
of cyclic ground displacements can be estimated reasonably well using simple procedures analogue to
those for evaluation of liquefaction triggering based on empirical SPT / CPT charts, as suggested by
Tokimatsu and Asaka (1998) for example; (iii) The relative displacement between the soil and the pile
is often less than that required for mobilizing the ultimate soil pressure from the crust and liquefied
layers; (iv) In addition to the large kinematic loads due to lateral ground movement, the piles are
subjected to significant inertial loads from the superstructure. The above basically implies that often
the particular values of 2, UG2 and p2-max are not critically important, but rather the key issue in the
analysis of piles during the cyclic phase is how to combine the kinematic loads and inertial loads on
the pile since the peak values of these oscillatory loads do not necessarily occur at the same time.
Clear and simple rules for combining the ground displacements and inertial loads from the
superstructure in the simplified pseudo-static analysis have not been established yet, though some
suggestions may be found in Tamura and Tokimatsu (2005) and Liyanapathirana and Poulos (2005).
Lateral Spreading Phase
In the lateral spreading phase, the potential variation in key parameters is much more significant and
involves: (i) Variation in 2 over relatively wide range of values between 1/1000 and 1/50; (ii) Large
uncertainty in the magnitude of lateral displacement and scatter in the estimates based on empirical
correlations for lateral spreads; (iii) Relative displacements between the soil and pile sufficiently large
to mobilize the ultimate soil pressure from the crust layer and liquefied layer; (iv) Small contribution
of inertial loads relative to the kinematic loads. Thus, in the case of lateral spreading, the values of p1max , 2, UG2 and p2-max involve great variation and uncertainty associated with the strength and stiffness
of liquefying soils, post-liquefaction spreading displacements and ultimate pressure from the non-
494
liquefied crust layer at the ground surface. Detailed discussion on the modelling of the crust layer and
selection of p1-max is given in a companion paper presented at this conference whereas here the
combined effects of parameters of the liquefied layer UG2, 2 and p2-max are briefly illustrated through
an application of the analysis to a case study.
Figure 6. Soil profile and SPT blow count at the investigated site
495
60
p
50
Su-ub
S
u-lb
u-ub
Upper
bound
30
(kPa)
40
u-bf
Best-fit
20
S
10
0
u-lb
Lower bound
10
15
20
(N )
1 60cs
5
Mu
10
My
Mc
15
20
Mu
My
Su-lb
Su-bf
Su-ub
Eq. Linear
Mc
25
-10 -5
0
5
10
Bending moment (MN-m)
10
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Figure 7. Residual strength (Su) of sandy soils back-calculated from case histories (after Seed
and Harder, 1990)
15
20
Eq. Linear
Su-ub
Su-bf
Su-lb
Applied ground
displacement
25
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Displacement (m)
Figure 8. Effects of ultimate pressure from the liquefied soil on the pile response
conducted for comparison purpose. By and large, the pile response decreases with decreasing ultimate
pressure from the liquefied layer.
Figure 9 shows the relative displacement between the soil and the pile plotted together with the
reference yield displacement of the soil, for the three analysis cases with different Su values. Here, the
shaded areas denote zones over which yielding occurs in the soil. In other words, throughout these
depths, the ultimate soil pressure is applied to the pile. Note that the resultant load on the pile increases
with increasing ultimate lateral pressure from the soil, with the largest response being observed when
Su-ub was used as a limiting lateral soil pressure. The equivalent linear analysis overestimates the pile
response and is not applicable in this case. The relative contributions of the crust and liquefied layers
to the total pile also change with the value of Su . As the value of Su decreases the role of the liquefied
layer diminishes.
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0
S
Su-lb
5
10
15
Relative
displacement,
20
Yield
displacement,
u-ub
5
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
5
Depth (m)
u-bf
10
15
20
10
15
20
25
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Displacement (m)
25
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Displacement (m)
25
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Displacement (m)
Figure 9. Effects of ultimate pressure from the liquefied soil on soil yielding
The reasoning behind placing limits upon the ultimate pressure exerted from the liquefied soil is to
avoid unrealistic loads being imposed in situations with very large ground displacements. Figure 10
shows how the bending moment of the considered pile varies with different levels of ground
displacement, for an assumed value of 2 = 1/50. It can be seen that when limits are placed on the
ultimate pressure, different levels of ground displacement yield virtually the same response. This
clearly demonstrates that for any given set of values for 2 and p2-max there exists a threshold
magnitude of lateral ground displacement above which the pile response is practically unaffected by
the magnitude of ground displacement. Hence, for many analysis cases, a specific determination of the
magnitude of lateral spreading displacement may not be needed.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Su-bf
Su-ub
10
Su-lb
Ground
displacement
0.5m
1m
2m
3m
15
Eq. Linear
The effective stress analysis aims at detailed modelling of the complex soil-pile interaction in
liquefying soils, and hence, this analysis procedure is quite complex and burdened by the large number
of parameters and expertise needed for its execution. Two critical issues in the seismic effective stress
analysis are: (i) the performance of the constitutive soil model, both in terms of its modelling
capability and proper implementation by the user, and (ii) details of numerical modelling including
initial stress state, boundary conditions and possible effects of the adopted numerical procedures.
Figure 10. Effects of ultimate pressure from the liquefied soil on soil yielding
497
The pseudo-static analysis is a simple design-oriented approach that uses conventional engineering
parameters and modelling for estimation of the maximum pile response. Liquefaction characteristics
and lateral loads on piles are quite different between the cyclic phase and subsequent lateral spreading
phase of the response, and therefore, these two phases have to be treated separately in the pseudostatic analysis.
When evaluating the pile response during the cyclic phase, the key issue in the pseudo-static analysis
is how to combine the kinematic loads due to ground movement and inertial loads from the
superstructure. For the lateral spreading phase on the other hand, the combined effects of parameters
of the crust layer and liquefied layer p1-max, UG2 , 2 and p2-max are important. It is important to note,
however, that for an assumed stiffness and strength of the liquefied soil (set of values for 2 and p2max ), there is a threshold lateral ground displacement UG2 above which the pile response is practically
unaffected by the magnitude of ground displacement. This simplifies the use of the pseudo-static
analysis and eliminates the need for an accurate estimate of the magnitude of lateral spreading
displacement.
REFERENCES
Cubrinovski, M., Ishihara, K. and Furukawazono, K. (1999). Analysis of full-scale tests on piles in
deposits subjected to liquefaction, Proc. 2nd International Conference on Earthquake Geotechnical
Engineering, Lisbon, Vol. 2, 567-572.
Cubrinovski, M., Ishihara, K. and Kijima, T. (2001). Effects of liquefaction on seismic response of a
storage tank on pile foundations, Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Recent Advances in Geotechnical
Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, San Diego, CD-ROM, 6.15.
Cubrinovski, M. and Ishihara, K. (2004). Simplified method for analysis of piles undergoing lateral
spreading in liquefied soils, Soils and Foundations, Vol. 44, No. 25: 119-133.
Cubrinovski, M., Ishihara, K. and Poulos, H. (2007). Pseudostatic analysis of piles subjected to lateral
spreading, Special Issue Bulletin of NZ Society for Earthquake Engineering (to be published).
Liyanapathirana, D.S. and Poulos, H.G. (2005). Pseudostatic approach for seismic analysis of piles in
liquefying soil. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 131, No.
12: 1480-1487.
Seed, R.B. and Harder, L.F. (1991). SPT-based analysis of cyclic pore pressure generation and
undrained residual strength, H. Bolton Seed Memorial Symposium Proc., Vol. 2: 351-376.
Tamura, S. and Tokimatsu, K. (2005). Seismic earth pressure acting on embedded footing based on
large-scale shaking table tests, ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication 145: 83-96.
Tanimoto, S., Tamura, K. and Okamura, M. 2003. Shaking table tests on earth pressures on a pile
group due to liquefaction-induced ground flow. Journal of Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 27, Paper
No. 339 (in Japanese).
Tokimatsu, K. and Asaka, Y. (1998). Effects of liquefaction-induced ground displacements on pile
performance in the 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu earthquake, Special Issue of Soils and Foundations,
September 1998: 163-177.
Uzuoka, R., Sento, N., Yashima, A. and Zhang, F. (2002). Three-dimensional effective stress analysis
of a damaged group-pile foundation adjacent to a quay wall. Journal of the Japan Association for
Earthquake Engineering, 2(2): 1-14 (in Japanese).
Uzuoka, R., Sento, Kazama, M., N., Yashima, A., Zhang, F. and Oka, F. (2007). Three-dimensional
numerical simulation of earthquake damage to group-piles in liquefied ground. Soil Dynamics and
Earthquake Engineering, 27(5): 395-413.
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4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No.W4-1004
INTRODUCTION
The occurrence of an earthquake is so sudden and the impact so devastating that seismic risk can not
be reduced by relying only on preparedness, response and recovery. Public authorities in seismicprone countries are typically responsible for protecting public safety and coordinating emergency
response and reconstruction. Due to the massive financial investments needed, the long term benefits
and the nation-wide social protection aims, public authorities are also responsible for assessing and
mitigating public earthquake risk. However, in absence of any seismic emergency, resources are not
usually allocated to implement policies and strategies for seismic risk mitigation. This is the main
reason why significant innovation and action programs for seismic risk reduction are usually
introduced just after destructive earthquakes, when society is devastated and the risk is highly
perceived.
Though having developed a significant experience in earthquake recovery, dating back several
centuries (Goretti & Di Pasquale, 2002), Italy did not go beyond the above described approach on
seismic risk mitigation. For instance, significant improvements in seismic code and seismic zonation
have been implemented only after destructive earthquakes, while direct activities for the reduction of
seismic vulnerability of buildings have been implemented almost exclusively in the areas affected by
recent strong earthquakes.
1
Director, Seismic Risk and Post-Emergency Office, Department of Civil Protection, Rome, Italy,
Email: mauro.dolce@protezionecivile.it
2
Executive, Seismic Risk and Post-Emergency Office, Department of Civil Protection, Rome, Italy.
3
Official, Seismic Risk and Post-Emergency Office, Department of Civil Protection, Rome, Italy.
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The 2002 Molise-Puglia earthquake, when the collapse of the primary school of S.Giuliano di Puglia
killed 27 pupils, had a strong impact on public opinion and pushed public authorities to start a new and
more comprehensive action plan. The National Civil Protection was the main promoter and actor of
the changes that were deemed as necessary and urgent, as well as of the medium and long term
actions. In this paper such actions will be described and discussed.
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hazardous seismic zone I was proposed to remain almost unchanged. For instance, S. Giuliano di
Puglia would have been included in zone II (PGA=0.25g, shear coefficient 0.07), while it was not in
the 1980 zonation, thus allowing buildings to be designed accounting for only gravity loads.
In this framework of advances in research of seismic code and seismic zonation, but stagnation of
innovation into practice, Molise-Puglia 2002 earthquake occurred. Despite the moderate magnitude,
MW=5.7, the impact was severe with 30 victims, including 27 children and 1 teacher in one school
collapse, and 173 serious injuries. Immediately it was realised that public authorities had not been able
in the past to guarantee appropriate building safety levels, especially in case of strategic buildings or
buildings with relevant consequences in case of collapse, as schools. A process of revision of both
national seismic building code and national seismic zonation started, together with a national plan for
the assessment and retrofit of strategic and relevant buildings, infrastructures and cultural heritage.
In this paper the impact of the 2002 Molise-Puglia earthquake is described. Lessons learnt are then
discussed and the main programs and actions implemented to mitigate seismic risk in Italy are
reported.
Figure 1. 2002 Molise-Puglia earthquake felt intensities (MCS scale, modified by Galli & Molin,
2004).
The extent of damage varied among the impacted municipalities, with most of the structural damage,
all 30 fatalities, and 61 out of 173 total serious injuries in the small village of San Giuliano di Puglia
(population 1,163). In addition to the 27 children and one teacher died in the collapsed school, two
elderly women were killed in building collapses a few blocks from the school. At 16:08 on November
1, an Mw 5.7 aftershock significantly worsened existing damage, causing additional homeless and
anxiety in the population and in the search and rescue teams. In addition to the main shocks, around
200 smaller shocks (M 2.5 to 3.5) occurred in the first 60 hours following the initial event.
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Figure 2. Observed failure modes in masonry buildings: a) wall separation, b) out of plane
wall overturning, c) in plane wall shear failure, d) roof collapse.
People that were unable to return in their home were accommodated in emergency shelters. The
number of shelter seekers increased from an estimated 1,100 on October 31, to more than 3,000 on
November 1 and rose to almost 12,000 by the end of the first week. Emergency shelter operations
continued for more than two months, with the last shelter closing on January 15, 2003 (Galanti et al,
2004). Ultimately, 31 tent champs were established and a surplus of beds was finally available.
Moreover a total of 535 prefabricated houses were provided, 268 of which were constructed in the
temporary village of San Giuliano, and the remainder in numerous villages throughout the damaged
region. The temporary village, including a primary school, town hall, market, pharmacy, and social
centre, was located approximately one kilometer from the damaged town, in a less vulnerable site.
Due to the consequences of the San Giuliano di Puglia school collapse, the schools in the Molise
Region received widespread attention. All the schools were closed following the earthquake for
damage inspections and seismic evaluations, and remained closed for more than two weeks. 80% of
them were found to have little or no damage (Augenti et al, 2004). Requested temporary classrooms
and requested temporary residences for homeless in each municipality are reported in (Galanti et al.,
2005). The most common features determining seismic vulnerability of school buildings are examined
in (Dolce, 2002).
LESSONS LEARNT
Due to its devastating impact, the Molise-Puglia earthquake represented a moment of positive
criticism of all the ongoing aspects of seismic risk reduction: mitigation, preparedness, response and
recovery. Several lesson were learnt. They are briefly reported in this paragraph.
In the affected area earthquakes occurred several centuries ago. In 1456 earthquake damage was
reported in many villages. Most severe effects were reported during the 1627 earthquake. In 1805
seismic intensity was at the damage onset. No destructive earthquake occurred in the area. Lesson
learnt is to beware of areas with rare events. People forget easily the consequences of seismic events,
making it difficult to develop any local seismic culture in the area.
The historical centre of S. Giuliano was built on rock, while the expansion area, where most of the
damage occurred, was built on soft clay soil. A similar event in absence of the expansion area on soft
soil would not have produced the same disaster. Lesson learnt is that site effects can play a critical role
in transforming a non-destructive earthquake in a devastating event and that an incorrect land use
contributed to the disastrous outcome. No destructive earthquake was reported in the past probably
because villages were, originally, built on rock.
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Since 1998 it was known that the affected area should have been classified as moderate seismicity
area, according to a hazard map with wide scientific consensus. However involved national authorities
did not update the seismic zonation at that time. Moreover the Italian building code was obsolete and
unnecessary misleading and unclear. A behavior factor was implicitly assumed in the code, without
enforcing the necessary detailing. Capacity design was not addressed. It was probably the most
obsolete code among developed, seismic prone, countries. Lesson learnt is that authorities should act
according to the latest available information having reached a wide scientific consensus. There was an
considerable gap between consolidated scientific knowledge and transfer of this knowledge into
practice. Moreover, keeping the norm unchanged for a long time increased the indolence of engineers
in updating their professional skill and the difficulties in their learning and put into practice new
design principles and procedures.
Due to the obsolescence of both seismic code and seismic zonation, buildings constructed in the past
are not safe enough and are not so safe as they could have been. Lesson learnt is that there is an urgent
need of seismic assessment of the buildings and infrastructures having a crucial role in emergency or
with relevant consequences in case of collapse.
Due to the absence of any seismic awareness, local authorities were not ready to manage seismic
emergency. The relief model used by National Civil Protection was paternalistic, telling local
authorities what to do and how to do. Lesson learnt is that local authorities should not be left alone in
emergency preparedness, but central authorities should support and periodically check local authorities
preparedness.
Besides the above listed lessons learnt, other were learnt in several aspects of seismic risk reduction.
In the following, the only technical emergency management, that is building post-earthquake safety
inspection, is examined. During the safety assessment it happened sometimes that survey forms
different from the official ones were used by local authorities. If this sped up the survey, it also posed
difficulties in the harmonization and computerisation of results. In epicentral areas an exhaustive
survey turned out to be very effective. Although it required a slightly greater effort, it considerably
reduced the time needed to identify buildings and to access buildings in case the owners evacuated
their houses. During the inspection management, it turned out that management of the safety
assessment should be preferably at local than centralized level. It requires probably more people
devoted to the management, but it allows an immediate data validation and the establishment of maps
or GIS systems. Inspectors training is essential for a common basis language and hence for a reliable
judgment about building safety and for reliable data collection. The resources required, during the
emergency, to inspect building, manage inspections, computerised forms, train inspectors are
approximately in the range of 1 working day for every 2.3 inspected buildings.
Lessons learnt are that the process of homogenisation of procedures and forms should continue all
over Italy; the feasibility of an exhaustive survey should be explored in case of destructive earthquake
or in densely populated areas; new inspection management solutions, making use also of palm
computers, directly connected to GIS should be explored; during the emergency, a permanent staff
should be devoted to training; procedures have to be revised in order to increase performances.
IMPLEMENTED ACTIONS
Based on the lessons learnt after the Molise-Puglia earthquake, Several actions have been
implemented to reduce the impact of future seismic events. Most of them could be undertaken in a
very short time, by exploiting the rich scientific and technological background developed in Italy in
the seismological and earthquake engineering fields during the 80s and 90s. They can be
summarized in:
Transferring SoA knowledge into updated seismic zonation and national norms;
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Transferring SoA knowledge to engineers, professionals and operators involved in the design
and construction process and implementing SoA knowledge into reliable software tools;
Re-addressing and funding research activities to get products which can immediately and
robustly exploited in the seismic mitigation process;
Allocating adequate funds for seismic risk mitigation, to make seismic safety assessment and
rehabilitation of existing constructions.
These actions are summarized In the following paragraphs.
Implementing a new seismic zonation
As already discussed, the area stricken by the 2002 earthquake was not considered as seismic and,
hence, constructions were not built according to the seismic code, although it was known, from
available hazard studies, that accelerations of the order of 0.2 g were expected with a return period of
475 years. This unfavorable situation was mainly originated by the existing gap between scientific
knowledge and its translation into risk mitigation tools. This gap was considered unacceptable by the
Government, who established a specific Working Group to obtain scientific advices on the possible
upgrade of both seismic zonation and seismic code (Decree of the Under-Secretary of State n. 4485 of
December 4, 2002). The proposal was prepared in a very short time and on march 20, 2003, the Prime
Minister issued the by-law n. 3274 concerning initial items on the general criteria for seismic
zonation of the national territory and on seismic code.
Usually the seismic code is updated with a decree of the Minister of Infrastructures and of the Minister
of the Interior, after the agreements of the High Council for Public Works, the National Council for
Research and the Unified State-Regions Conference. For the seismic zonation a similar procedure has
been usually adopted in the past. However, since 1998, the State provides the only general criteria for
the zonation, while Regions have to apply these criteria to precisely select the grade of seismicity of
each municipality. As these procedures take normally a long time, the Government decided a quicker
way to put into actions a new code and a new seismic zonation: the by-law procedure. The by-law is
an instrument usually adopted for emergency measures, typical of civil protection actions after
disasters. However, the title of the act clearly stresses the character of a first step to be followed by
further upgrades, planning a progressive return to the standard procedure. In more detail, the by-law n.
3274:
provides a new seismic zonation of the national territory, using the results of a previous
Working Group established in 1998, but not reducing the seismicity with respect to the
previous decrees;
gives general criteria for seismic zonation and requires that Regions, that are responsible for
seismic zonation, enforce the zonation on the basis of the general criteria, modifying the
seismicity by at most 1 grade in each municipality with respect to the new zonation;
After the promulgation of the by-law, all the 8103 Italian municipalities were considered as seismic
with different grades from 1 (highest hazard, PGA = 0.35 g) to 4 (very low hazard, PGA = 0.05g). In
the subsequent months, almost all the Regions adopted or modified the seismic zonation according to
the above items. As any sudden and enforced application of the new seismic zonation would have
caused obvious difficulties in building design, the by-law allowed the owners to freely choose the
new seismic zonation or the old one for a transition period of 18 months.
An important aspect of the seismic shaking, again emphasized by the S.Giuliano Earthquake, is related
to seismic amplification effects and then to microzonation. This also is a concern of the Regions, that
could use totally different criteria, one with respect to the other. In order to harmonize the approaches
and the utilization of microzonation for design and urban and emergency planning, DPC has enforced
a working group involving experts from all the Regions. The working group is drafting guidelines,
whose final version should be available by the end of the year.
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established, which has recently been extended to the end of 2007, due to the important modifications
that are being made and the need to check the internal consistency of the various parts of the norms.
Implementing professional training and software tools
The new code has been presented in many congresses and workshops since 2003, and a specific
training program has been actuated in cooperation with the professional associations of engineers and
architects. Obviously, so many important changes, after 20 years in which the code remained
substantially unchanged, caused difficulties in the application of the new code. For this reason some
tens of thousands of professionals, mainly engineers, attended short courses of typically 60 hours. A
unified format of the courses was established by the technical associations along with the Civil
Protection Department. The courses were so conceived as to provide the general concepts of modern
earthquake engineering (from structural dynamic principles to non linear structural behavior, from
limit state design to performance-based design, from structural detailing for high ductility to seismic
isolation and other modern seismic protection technologies) as well as to explain how these concepts
were implemented in the new seismic code. The courses were normally given by university teachers,
involved in earthquake engineering research. Although it cannot be thought that attending a 60-hours
course is sufficient to fully understand all the modern design and verification process implied by
modern seismic codes, a considerable step-forward has been made by many engineers in overcoming
some old design concepts as the unmovable standpoint of their professional activities. Moreover, also
the construction practice is expected to improve, due to the awareness and the better understanding of
the consequences in terms of damage of incorrect structural design and detailing. However greater
efforts should be made to involve in this process also construction companies, master builders and
workers. The interactions and exchanges of opinions with the most skilled engineers was also very
useful to improve the provisions contained in the second version of the new seismic code.
Given the nowadays design practice, it is unconceivable to fully implement new design and
verification procedures without the availability of reliable software tools. This strong requirement was
one of the reason for the postponement of the full enforcement of the new seismic code. However, due
to the supply and demand market law, no special action was needed in order to push the software
houses to implement the new rules and procedures of the seismic code in their structural analysis and
design software. The needed rigor to implement new procedures in computer programs determined
some interactions between the software producers and the seismic code committee, aimed at
eliminating some inconsistencies in the norm. On the other hand, not all the software tools are based
on a correct interpretation of the new criteria and rules, but this is an unavoidable aspect of the free
market. A specific action, which has not been implemented yet, should be based on the preparation of
some benchmark structures to test at least the basic features of the software tools.
Re-addressing research activities
After the Molise earthquake, the attention to seismic problems has raised considerably, and the
research activities in the field have experienced a new vigor. However it was understood that the
research activities had to be re-oriented in order to meet the actual needs for the improvement of the
prevention actions. It was acknowledged that experimental testing on large-scale structures, subassemblages and seismic devices is essential to understand the complex non linear and near-collapse
behavior of real structural systems and then to make well-grounded ultimate limit state verification
criteria and procedures. Moreover, it was recognized that a strong coordination and integration of
activities carried out in several research institutions is required, in order to maximize the use of costly
experimental tests and better finalize research findings to new design criteria and rules, to be include
in seismic codes, manuals, guidelines.
Due to the above reasons, the by-law 3274 has also assigned funds to create a new network of
laboratories of seismic engineering (ReLUIS, Rete dei Laboratori Universitari di Ingegneria Sismica,
http://www.reluis.it) and a new research and training centre (EUCENTRE: EUropean CENtre for
Training and Research in Earthquake engineering, http://www.eucentre.it ) with the aim to support the
progress in knowledge and the transfer of scientific results into best practices, through guidelines, pre-
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normative documents and other tools for the reduction of seismic risk, as well as the training of
technical operators. The ReLUIS Consortium is made by the 4 Italian largest experimental facilities,
i.e. the structural engineering laboratories of the Unversity of Naples (2 DoF, Dual table system, with
two synchronous or asyncronous 3x3 mq, 20t mass, 1.0 m/s shaking tables), the University of Pavia
EUCENTRE (1 DoF, Large mass shaking table 5.60x7 mq, 140 t mass, 2.0 m/s and a reaction wall), of
the University of Basilicata and University of Trento (reaction walls and oleo-dynamic systems for
pseudo dynamic and dynamic testing of structures and components). The ENEA Laboratory, with a 6
DoF shaking table (4.0x4.0 mq, 20 t mass, 0.5 m/s), is associated to ReLUIS. A great 3-years research
project on Earthquake Engineering has been funded by the National Department of Civil Protection in
2005, to improve knowledge and providing high quality products that can be of immediate use for the
reduction of seismic risk (pre-normative documents, norm proposals, guidelines, databases, etc.). The
DPC-ReLUIS Project involves 40 Italian universities and research institutions and is the biggest one
ever launched in Italy. The large facilities of EUCENTRE have been funded by DPC, to start a large
scale structure experimental program, in order to improve the understanding of the seismic response of
real structure. EUCENTRE has also implemented a machine for seismic device testing, able to test
large seismic isolators in shear-compression tests, applying up to 50000 kN compression force and
2000 kN shear force. A smaller seismic device testing machine has also been upgraded (to reach
15000 kN compression force and 1000 kN shear force) at the laboratory of the University of
Basilicata, with the DPC funds. These new apparatuses will permit not only to make research and set
up new seismic code provisions, but also to meet the increasing demand of full-scale seismic device
testing for the most advanced applications of seismic technologies.
RELUIS and EUCENTRE, along with INGV (National Institute for Geophysics and Volcanology)
have been included in the network of the Capacity Centers of the Italian Civil Protection Department.
With this role, they are part of the National Civil Protection System, and are also involved in the postevent activities, such as, for instance, the damage and usability investigation of buildings and the
temporary monitoring of strategic structures, under the coordination of DPC.
Implementing actions for seismic risk mitigation
The benefits of the adoption of a new seismic code will develop slowly in the long run because only
new constructions will be safe, while the existing constructions would remain unsafe, unless a specific
action is undertaken. Italy is a nation with a very important cultural heritage, as well as a quite old
building stock. Moreover, the seismic classification has been developed for a long time following
earthquakes, and only in the 80s the zonation was revised on the basis of an hazard study. For these
reasons most of the constructions now in seismic areas were built with no seismic provisions. Today
only one building out of 4 is seismically designed, thus having some lateral force resistance. Among
these buildings there are also strategic buildings (hospitals, municipalities, barracks of fire brigades,
army, etc.) and buildings relevant for the possible consequences of collapse (schools, theatres, stations,
airports). According to the new seismic code, strategic buildings should be immediately operational
after an earthquake and relevant buildings are supposed not to collapse: however, due to the lack of
seismic provisions, most of them can not probably guarantee the aforesaid performances. So, again
with the by-law 3274, the government has promoted the seismic assessment of strategic and relevant
constructions, with priority for those in the highest seismic zones (1 and 2), asking for a complete
evaluation in five years. Strategic and relevant constructions include not only buildings, but also
important infrastructures and industrial installations. It is not possible to evaluate exactly the number
of construction to be assessed, even focusing the attention on buildings only, because also private
buildings with mixed occupancy are included, but a lower bound estimate leads to a number of about
70.000 buildings. This is a very important and demanding operation, considering that the assessment
has to be performed by engineering evaluations fulfilling the new code. Many Regions, State
Organizations and also private owners have started to assess their estate, but activities are slowed
down by the large amount of economical resources needed. So other two by-laws: n. 3362 (for Region
estate), and n. 3376 (for State Organisation estate) have been promulgated, to give financial
contributions for the seismic evaluation and the retrofitting of strategic or important public
constructions. 263 million of euros have been allocated up to now. Due to the quasi-federal
organization of the Italian State, where the Regions assume the co-responsibility for Civil Protection,
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2/3 of the funds are transferred to them to co-finance the costs for the above said operations. This
virtuous co-financing mechanism has considerably amplified the positive effects of this process,
although it has been considerably slowed down by the long bureaucratic procedures required to make
money available, especially to the beneficiary state administrations.
More than 6000 seismic safety verifications ad more than 200 retrofitting interventions have been
funded. Though significant, these figures represent only a small part of the strategic and relevant
constructions that should be potentially involved in this process. The fund allocations ruled by by-laws
3362/04 and 3376/04 have provided an important chance to be exploited at the best, with the
collaboration of Public Adminitrations, professionals, universities and associations. At the same time
other resources have become available for safety upgrading (electrical, fire, but mainly seismic) of
school buildings. About 40.000 public schools exist in Italy and the retrofitting costs are expected to
be extremely high, in the order of several billions of euros. An initial program has been already funded
with about 300 million euros to upgrade or retrofit the most risky schools (Dolce et al. 2007).
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper lessons learnt and implemented actions after the 2002 Molise earthquake have been
summarized. The earthquake by itself was not strong: in the last 25 years several destructive
earthquakes in Italy caused much more damage and casualties. Nevertheless the death of 27 classmates
and of their teacher, in a zone not considered before as seismic, made clear, also to the wide public
opinion, that the safety conditions of many buildings and schools were inadequate and that a wide gap
existed between scientific knowledge and implemented actions for seismic prevention.
The earthquake was also a further test of the Italian emergency management system (Augustus
method), characterized by a flexible system composed by many bodies (army, regions, municipalities,
volunteers, red cross) under the central coordination of the National Civil Protection. The system
proved to be adequate, mainly because it makes possible to involve a growing number of bodies and
resources, according to the needs of the event. The dynamically allocated functions in the coordination
centres (CCS, COM and COC) and the coordinated cooperation of all the bodies involved proved to be
efficient. Also a contribution to the efficiency came from the preliminary loss estimates made by
means of a specific simulation code in the first hours after the event.
It was evident, as many times in the past, that, after an earthquake, attention to seismic risk raises
sharply. The inadequacy of prevention actions is then perceived by public opinion, making important
changes in codes and regulations possible. In this particular circumstance the seismic code and the
seismic zonation were revised. This produced initially disconcert and difficulties in the application of
the new rules, but also an extraordinary effort at all levels to disseminate new design philosophies:
from professionals to scientific and administrative structures. But, probably, the most important
novelty is that direct risk mitigation countermeasures were undertaken at national levels, by making
the safety verification of strategic and relevant structures compulsory in a limited time framework and
by allocating funds, though limited, to support the start of this action. This effort will certainly results
in the enhancement of seismic awareness and a safer building stock against earthquakes. However the
seismic prevention action at national level can be considered being only at a beginning stage. Actually
measures were taken only after seismic events in the past, but they were limited to the stricken area
and involved only, or mainly, damaged buildings. Some other initiatives were undertaken in limited
areas. In order to become fully effective, actions for a long term perspective are necessary in the
future, with the certainty of the availability of resources. The management of these first fund
allocations can be a precious experience for future developments.
REFERENCES
509
Augenti, N., Cosenza, E., Dolce, M., Manfredi, G., Masi, A., Samela, L., Performance of School
Buildings during the 2002 Molise, Italy, Earthquake, Earthquake Spectra 20, Special Issue 1, 2002
Molise, Italy, Earthquake Reconnaissance Report, edited by P. Bazzurro and J. Maffei, pp 257-270,
2004
Baggio C., Bernardini A., Colozza R., Corazza L., Della Bella M., Di Pasquale G., Dolce M., Goretti
A., Martinelli A., Orsini G., Papa F., Zuccaro G., Manuale per la compilazione della scheda di 1
livello di rilevamento danno, pronto intervento e agibilit per edifici ordinari nellemergenza postsismica (AeDES), Dipartimento della Protezione Civile, Roma, August 2002.
Decanini, L., Di Pasquale, G., Galli, P., Mollaioli, F., San, T., Seismic hazard and seismic zonation
of the Region affected by the Molise sequence of October 31 November 1, 2002, Earthquake
Spectra 20, Special Issue 1, 2002 Molise, Italy, Earthquake Reconnaissance Report, edited by P.
Bazzurro and J. Maffei, pp 131-165, 2004.
Decree of the President of the Republic n. 380/2001: Unified codes and regulations concerning the
building construction
Decree of the Prime Minister n.3431, Further modifications to the by-law decree n. 3274/03
concerning initials items on the general criteria for seismic zonation of the national territory and on
seismic code, may, 3, 2005.
Decree of the Under-Secretary of State n. 4485 of December 4, 2002 devoted to obtain an authoritative
technical-scientific contribution for a new seismic code and the general criteria for a new seismic
zonation.
Di Pasquale, G., Fralleone A., Pizza A.G. and Serra C., The Italian seismic code and its history, in
La classificazione e la normative sismica italiana dal 1909 al 1984, Report edited by R. De Marco
and M.G. Martini, Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Rome, 1999.
Dolce M., Seismic Safety of Schools in Italy, Proc. of the Ad Hoc Experts Group Meeting on
Earthquake Safety in Schools, 9-11 February 2004, Paris, France.DPC, Report to the European
Community on 31 October 2002 Molise-Puglia Earthquake, Technical Report, National Seismic
Survey, Rome, Italy, 2002 (In Italian).
Dolce M., Galanti E., De Sortis A., Di Pasquale G., Goretti A., Ferlito R., Papa F., Papa S., Pizza A. G.,
Sergio S., Severino M., Iniziative nazionali per la valutazione e riduzione del rischio sismico, Proc.
12 Convegno LIngegneria Sismica in Italia, June 2007, Pisa.
Foster, B., Kodama, S., Emergency Management, Recovery and Reconstruction Following the 2002
Molise, Italy, Earthquake, Earthquake Spectra 20, Special Issue 1, 2002 Molise, Italy, Earthquake
Reconnaissance Report, edited by P. Bazzurro and J. Maffei, pp 323-339, 2004.
Galanti, E., Goretti, A., Foster, B., Di Pasquale, G., Managing Civil Protection, in Oliveira C.S.,
Roca A., Goula X. (editors), Assessing and Managing Earthquake Risk, Kluwer ed., The
Netherlands, 2005.
Galanti, E., Albanese, V., De Sortis, A., Papa, F., Sergio, S., Molise-Puglia Earthquake: Emergency
Management, Temporary Shelters and Short Term Countermeasures, Ingegneria Sismica, Anno
XXI, Vol. 1, Patron Editor, Bologna, Italy, pp. 26-33, 2004 (In Italian).
Galli, P., Molin, D., Macroseismic survey of the 2002 Molise, Italy, earthquake and historical
seismicity of San Giuliano di Puglia, Earthquake Spectra, 20, Special Issue 1, 2002 Molise, Italy,
Earthquake Reconnaissance Report, edited by P. Bazzurro and J. Maffei, pp 39-52, 2004.
Goretti, A., Di Pasquale, G., An Overview of Post-Earthquake Damage Assessment in Italy, EERI
Invitational Workshop An Action Plan to Develop Earthquake Damage and Loss Data Protocols,
19-20 September, Pasadena, CA, 2002.
Goretti, A., Di Pasquale, G., Building Inspection and Damage Data of the Molise Earthquake
Sequence of October 31-November 1, 2002, Earthquake Spectra 20, Special Issue 1, 2002 Molise,
Italy, Earthquake Reconnaissance Report, edited by P. Bazzurro and J. Maffei, pp 167-190, 2004.
510
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W4-1003
Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Catania, Italy, Email:
mmaugeri@dica.unict.it
2
Researcher, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Catania, Italy, Email:
fcastelli@dica.unict.it
3
Researcher, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Catania, Italy, Email:
mmassimi@dica.unict.it
511
applications in common engineering practise. This gap enables the reduction of victims and looses due
to earthquake, which has been increased exponentially in the last twenty years. A new trend to cover
this gap and to go towards applied research in the field of Earthquake Engineering can be the
Geotechnical Engineering.
The contribution of geotechnical Engineering is a key-point for safer design of earthquake resistant
buildings from many points of view. Preliminarily, the stability of the environment against landslides
and liquefactions has to be checked. Subsequently, local site response has to be checked to evaluate
the site response spectra, on which is based the design spectra, to define the seismic loading to which
the structure must resist. Finally, the role of Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering is to analyse
foundation settlements and stability, including soil-structure interaction.
About the stability of the environment, frequently landslides occur during medium-high earthquakes,
as in the case of 1980 Irpinia earthquake (M = 6,5), where large landslide of about 1-2 km occurred in
the towns of Boniventre, Senerchia and Calitri. Particularly, the Calitri landslide (Crespellani et al.,
1996) caused many house collapses. During the 2001 El Salvador earthquake (M = 7,6) a very large
landslide caused the destruction of many houses and the deaths of about five hundred people, about
the same amount of victims caused by the building shaking due to the earthquake. The liquefaction
phenomenon occurred during the 1964 Niigata earthquake (Towhata, 2004), as well as the 1964
Alaska earthquake caused the loose of many buildings, which were severely rotated without suffering
any structural damage. Particularly dangerous for the stability of the environment is the combined
effect of liquefaction in an area prone to landslides. This combined effect, as in the case of 1999
Kocaeli earthquake, leads to lateral flow failures (Biondi et al., 2002) producing severe displacements
to some buildings that move significantly towards the sea.
The stability of the site where a building is founded is outside the aim of the present paper, while the
local site response is taken into account, because it is a fundamental aspect to evaluate the design
spectra to be used for the seismic design of structures. The evaluation of the seismic action that acts on
a building is the most unknown aspect of the whole procedure for seismic design of a building.
Generally the seismic action is prescribed by national regulations on the basis of a probabilistic
approach. Actually, very often in the past, the seismic actions recorded during destructive earthquakes
were higher than those prescribed by national regulations. Alternatively to the probabilistic approach
the deterministic approach, based on the modelling of the source mechanism can be used.
The evaluation of seismic action is a multidisciplinary problem, involving geologists, geophysics and
geotechnical engineers; particularly for the evaluation of the site effects the role of Geotechnical
Earthquake Engineering is fundamental. As the seismic action is a preliminary aspect for the design of
earthquake resistant buildings, the next paragraph will be devoted to the site response assessment, for
the evaluation of the design earthquake, which was used for the two case histories, which will be
illustrated in the following.
SITE RESPONSE ASSESSMENT
The seismic action is generally prescribed by probabilistic approach, considering the probability of
exceeding a certain level during the life of the constructions. In Italy the probabilistic evaluation of the
seismic action is based on the probability of exceeding of 10% in 50 years, considering only the
earthquakes with a return period less than 475 years. This criterion is not a conservative one, because
generally speaking the life of the construction exceeds 50 years; in fact in many Italian medieval cities
the buildings are standing from more than 500 years.
The Code of Federal Regulations of the USA requires new municipal solid waste landfills to be
designed either for a maximum horizontal acceleration taken from a published seismic map for a 10
percent probability of exceedance (90 percent probability of non exceedance) in a 250-year exposure
period or on the basis of a site specific analysis. The related return period for the map-based
acceleration is 2375 years.
512
Increasing the historical knowledge of past earthquakes, the probabilistic approach leads to update the
seismic action, which has been changed in the past in Italy (Figure 1), so, buildings designed to resist
to the given seismic action at the time of construction earthquakes could be not resisting at the updated
seismic action.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Seismic action: (a) Seismic hazard map of Italy in terms of acceleration proposed by
the GNDT on 1984. (b) Seismic hazard map of Italy in terms of acceleration attached to the
Ordinance O.P.C.M. 3274/2003 according to the Civil Defence of Italy.
Alternatively to the probabilistic approach, the procedure for the evaluation of the design earthquake
takes into consideration the deterministic approach based on the evaluation of source mechanism. For
the two case histories considered, a comparison between the probabilistic seismic action given by the
Italian regulation and the deterministic seismic action based on the modelling of the source mechanism
of the scenario earthquake has been performed.
The scenario earthquake considered is the January 1693 events, as the biggest one, and the December
1990 as a low earthquake (Figure 2). The geological, geophysical and laboratory investigations
performed provide additional constraints to the surface geological setting of the area as well as to the
parameterization of the physical models. Numerical simulations have been applied with the twofold
aim of estimating strong ground motion scenarios for different earthquake hypotheses and evaluating
the effectiveness of 1-D non-linear and 2-D linear methods for the estimation of the local response.
The use of advanced methods capable of generating of synthetic seismograms can give a valuable
insight into the evaluation of a seismic ground motion scenario. The reference event is the catastrophic
earthquake (M7+) that struck Eastern Sicily on January 11, 1693 is linked to the Ibleo-Maltese fault
system, which is the major seismogenic structure of Eastern Sicily.
The deterministic approach (Bottari et al., 2003) is based on the modelling of the Ibleo-Maltese fault.
The fault was modelled by two rectangular sub faults, characterised by the southern segment, 51 km
long and 13 km wide, and the northern one, 22 km long and 13 km wide. The longest segment, with a
346 strike, is facing the coast between Siracusa and Augusta; the shorter segment, with a 352 strike, is
placed in the Gulf of Catania. The two sub faults were sub-divided by a grid of seismic point sources.
For each seismic point source the seismogram was computed by the model summation method
developed by Panza et al., (2000). For the summation of the point-source seismograms each one was
513
delayed according to the rupture propagation times on the fault, scaled to include the distribution of
energy release on the fault (Sara et al., 1998). Three source mechanisms were considered: i) the fault
rupture towards North; ii) the fault rupture towards South; iii) the bilateral fault rupture (Figure 3).
The accelerograms were computed at the city of Noto for the three rupture models and for three
different positions of the receiver, located at the surface and at the depths of 30 m and 70 m,
considering as scenario earthquake the destructive January 11, 1693 earthquake.
The seismicity of the Ibleo-Maltese escarpment is rather anomalous, since it generates a very low
number of low to medium earthquakes. Consequently, there are only few events that can be used to
validate numerical simulations of 1693 earthquake. The December 13, 1990, M = 5,8 earthquake
(Figure 2.b) is actually the only medium size event occurred along the northern segments of the IbleoMaltese system, which was recorded instrumentally. This earthquake is associated to a rupture of the
transcurrent segment of the Ibleo-Maltese fault, and it was recorded by the ENEA-ENEL
accelerometric network.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. The scenario earthquakes: (a) Isoseismal map of the January 11, 1693 scenario
strong earthquake. (b) Isoseismal Map of the December 13, 1990 scenario low
earthquake; the ground acceleration recorded at Catania (2.43 m/s2) has amplitudes
about 2,5 times larger than that recorded at Sortino (1.003m/s2), although both stations
are at about the same epicentral distance (about 30 km).
Noto
Noto
Noto
514
Another reason of interest for modelling this earthquake is the fact that the seismogram recorded by
the Catania ENEA-ENEL station shows anomalously large ground accelerations. The ground
acceleration recorded at Catania (2,43 m/s2) has amplitudes about 2,5 times larger than that recorded at
Sortino (1,003 m/s2), although both stations are at about the same epicentral distance (about 30 km)
(Figure 2). These anomalies can be attributed mainly to local site effects. The use of a method, the 2-D
Chebyshev spectral element method, which solves the seismic full-wave propagation through a
complex geological structure, is then of maximum interest to verify this kind of hypothesis
(Laurenzano and Priolo, 2005).
Based on the synthetic accelerograms virtually recorded at a depth of 30 m, the site response was
checked by a 1-D non linear model for the evaluation of the design spectra for the two case histories.
The two case histories of old structures, damaged by the moderate Sicilian earthquake (Italy) of 13th
December 1990 are: the Noto Cathedral, founded on shallow foundation, and the concrete buildings in
Augusta, founded on pile foundations.
For both the case histories the retrofitting of the foundations the behaviour of existing foundations was
analysed, which is very often ignored in engineering practice. In both the cases the retrofitting of the
foundations gives a remarkable contribution to a safer design of the super-structure, and also, it have
influenced significantly the retrofitting of the same super-structure.
SEISMIC IMPROVEMENT OF THE SHALLOW FOUNDATION OF NOTO CATHEDRAL
The case history
Due to the December 13, 1990 East Sicilian earthquake the Noto Cathedral, one of the most important
symbols of the Sicilian Baroque, which was declared a World Cultural Heritage by UNESCO, suffered
many and spread cracks. These leaded, on March 1996, to the collapse of the piers on the right side of
the main nave, as well as to the collapse of the roof of the main nave and right naves and to the
collapse of the dome (Figure 4). The huge damage and the historical-monumental importance of the
cathedral leaded to deep and numerous investigations both on the structure (Binda et al, 1999) and on
the foundation soil (Cavallaro et al., 2003), in order to discover the reasons of so huge damage and to
plan carefully the reconstruction of the cathedral. The structural investigations clearly revealed that the
occurred damage was mainly due to the poor workmanship of the piers, the excavation of a hole inside
one of the piers and the reinforced concrete roof, recently made instead of the original wood roof. This
reinforced concrete roof stiffly connected all the piers including the weaker pier with the hole inside it,
so that the failure of the weaker pier leaded to the failure of many other piers on the right side, as well
as to the failure of the naves and of the dome. Certainly other factors contributed to have an
earthquake poorly resistant structure, such as the absence of connections between all the foundations,
whose embedment changed from 0 to 2.40 m without any logical reasons.
Figure 4. View of the collapsed Noto Cathedral after the damage caused
by the 1990 South-East Sicilian earthquake.
515
Site characterization
The geotechnical characterization of the foundation soil of Noto Cathedral involved an area of 3200
m2 (40 m x 80 m) up to a depth of 81 m. Both in-situ tests and laboratory tests were made; in
particular, in situ dynamic tests (SAWS, D-H, C-H) and laboratory dynamic tests (RCT, CLTST,
CLTxT) were performed.
The soil underneath Noto Cathedral consists mainly of: a) talus material up to a depth variable in the
range of 0.5 5.5 m; b) highly weathered, weakly cemented, limestone, sometimes with a large clay
content, up to a depth variable in the range of 12.0 21.5 m; c) sandy clay, which lies below the
limestone and is sometimes mixed with it.
The main results of the geotechnical characterization are reported in Cavallaro et al. (2003) and
Cavallaro and Maugeri (2003). As regards the general characteristics and index properties of Noto
Pliocene soil, which mainly consists on a medium stiff, overconsolidated lighted cemented silty-claysand, it was found: wn = 12-37 %; wL = 37-69 %; wP = 17-22 %; IP = 15-47 %. As regards the strength
parameters it was found: c = 0 85 kPa; = 16 33. In general the site characterization showed a
low degree of homogeneity with depth.
The comparison between SPT tests and CLTST and RCT tests allowed to estimate the shear modulus
(G 0) profiles with the depth. In particular, utilizing the results of the SPT tests, the profiles of the shear
wave velocity V s were obtained through the empirical correlations given by Ohta and Goto (1978) and
Yoshida and Motonori (1988). The value of Vs,30 is in the range of 180 360 m/s, thus, according to
EC8 (EC8-Part 1, 2003), the foundation soil can be classified of a ground type C.
By means of the RCT tests the variations of the shear modulus G and of the damping ratio D with the
shear strain were evaluated. The experimental results were interpolated utilizing the following
expressions by Yokota et al. (1981), in which = 15, = 1.28, = 25.6 and = 1.952 (Figure 5):
G( )
G0
D( )(%)
1
1
(1)
(%)
G
Go
exp
1.2
(2)
100
S3C1 - 9.00 m - IP = 15
S1C1 - 13.00 m - IP = 33
S7C2 - 15.50 m - IP = 27
S4C2 - 22.20 m - IP = 22
S1C3 - 51.00 m - IP = 36
Yokota et al. (1981)
0.6
0.4
0.2
S3C1 - 9.00 m - IP = 15
S1C1 - 13.00 m - IP = 33
S7C2 - 15.50 m - IP = 27
S4C2 - 22.20 m - IP = 22
S1C3 - 51.00 m - IP = 36
Yokota et al. (1981)
D [%]
G/Go
0.8
0
0.0001
10
1
0.001
0.01
[%]
(a)
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
G/Go
(b)
516
As regards the soil-structure interaction analyses, discussed in the following, only the first soil layer of
dry clayey limestone was taken into account. According to Richards et al. (1993), for the analysed
case the possible failure surface could be localized in this first layer. This layer is characterized by: =
19.30 kN/m3 , G0 = 92 MPa, = 0.30, c = 15 kPa, = 24.
Site dependent design spectrum
In order to define a design spectrum, which takes in account the site effects, a response analysis of the
foundation soil were performed. For the evaluation of the seismic input, the deterministic criterion was
used. In particular, the synthetic accelerograms, obtained through the source mechanism model
discussed in the paragraph Site response assessment and virtually recorded in Noto at the depth
equal to 30 m, were utilised as seismic input at the bedrock, considering that for the Noto Cathedral
foundation soil, the bedrock (Vs 800 m/s) was at the depth of 4550 m.
The analysis of the dynamic behaviour of the foundation soil was performed by means of the 1-D non
linear GEODIN code (Frenna and Maugeri, 1995), in which the expressions (1) and (2) were
implemented, to take into account soil non-linearity. In particular, for the profiles related to the
boreholes outside the cathedral, the free-field conditions were supposed; instead, for the profiles
related to the boreholes underneath the cathedral, utilising a simplified procedure, a surcharge applied
on the soil surface was considered, in order to simulate the load transferred from the foundation to the
soil (Massimino and Maugeri, 2003a). The obtained elastic response spectra were transformed into
design inelastic spectra, considering the following expressions (Giuffr and Giannini, 1982):
Sd
g
Se / g
b
(3)
where:
for T T0
with q 0 1
b 1 2 q0 1
1 0.87
T
T
1 0.5
T0
T0
(4.a)
1 0.87
(4.b)
0. 05T0
for T T0
b 1
0.05T
where S e is the ordinate of the elastic response spectrum, Sd is the ordinate of the design inelastic
spectrum, according to the terminology of the EC8, T0 is equal to 0.5 sec according to Giuffr and
Giannini (1982) and is the structural ductility, considered equal to 2.0 for the Noto Cathedral.
Starting from all the obtained inelastic spectra, the inelastic medium spectrum was computed.
Subsequently, the last one was compared with that suggested by EC8 (EC8-Part 1, 2003) for a ground
type C, a behaviour factor q = 2.5 and a structure damping ratio = 10% (Figure 6). On the basis of
this comparison the site dependent design spectrum shown in Figure 6 was proposed. Its expression is
given by (Masssimino and Maugeri, 2003a):
for 0 T TB
for TB T TC
Sd
ag S S L 1
Sd
T 2.5
1
TB q
(5.a)
2.5
q
(5.b)
a g S SL
517
for TC T TD
Sd
ag S S L
2.5
q
TC
T
(5.c)
for T
Sd
ag S SL
2.5
q
TCTD
T2
(5.d)
TD
More precisely, the proposed design spectrum was obtained from the inelastic EC8 spectrum,
changing the values of some parameters and adding the two SL and parameters. In particular, the
values of TB and TC were changed (TB = 0.10 sec and TC = 0.75 sec), in order to enlarge the constant
part characterized by the peak value, in agreement with other seismic codes, such as the NEHRP-97
code (NEHRP, 1997) and different recent earthquake (Bucharest 1977, Mexico City 1985 and Kobe
1995) recordings (Mylonakis and Gazetas, 2000). The new SL (SL = 1.1) parameter represents the ratio
between the mean ordinate of the inelastic medium spectrum in the range TB - TC and the maximum
ordinate of the inelastic EC8 spectrum. So, SL represents the local soil parameter for the Noto
Cathedral foundation soil, to be multiplied to the soil factor S provided by EC8. Finally, the new (
= 1.2) parameter was introduced in order to catch the decreasing part of the inelastic medium
spectrum, maintaining ordinates bigger than the ones of the EC8 spectrum. As it is possible to see
from Figure 6, the maximum design seismic coefficient is equal to 0.22.
0.3
0.25
0.2
Sd/g
0.15
0.1
0
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.25
2.5
T (sec)
518
displacements, which could compromise the stability of the superstructure. Figure 9 shows the external
wall underpinning.
About the overstructure it was decided not only to rebuilt all that had collapsed, i.e. the piers on the
right side of the main nave, the roof of the naves and the dome, but also to pull down and rebuilt the
piers on the left of the nave, to realize a deeper foundation embedment and, above all, because the
standing piers had significant damage and however they had been made with a poor workmanship,
which was the principal reason of the big collapse of the cathedral (De Benedictis and Tringali, 2000;
Tringali and De Benedictis, 2001a, b). Figure 10.a shows the demolition phase of a pier on the left of
the main nave; Figure 10.b shows the excavation to realize the deeper pier foundation level; Figure
10.c shows the scheme of the new pier with its foundations.
External wall
Inverted arches
Tie rods
Inverted arches
External walls underpinning
0.0
b) LONGITUDINAL SECTION
5.0
10.0
Tie rods
SEZIONE LONGITUDINALE
Inveted arches
519
Furthermore, considering that the previous reinforced-concrete roof connecting stiffly the piers
significantly contributed to increase the damage occurred on March 1996, it was decided to rebuilt the
roof with its original configuration, i.e. to rebuilt a typical wood roof. To reduce the stress level on the
lateral arches, six tie rods per arch were utilized: two below the arch and four inside the arch
(Massimino et al., 2004). At the same time, the soil-structure interaction analysis, reported in the
following, shows that for the central arches, which can be greatly stressed due to foundation
movements, a reinforcement was also needed. In order to guarantee a nice view inside the cathedral,
carbon fibers were utilized instead of tie rods.
TIE RODS
OLD FOUNDATION
NEW FOUNDATION
SAND LAYER
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 10. Improvement of the Noto Cathedral foundations: a) demolition of a damaged pier; b)
excavation to built the new foundation; c) construction scheme of the new foundation and pier.
Soil-structure interaction
The study of soil-structure interaction phenomenon was devoted to investigate on the displacement
and stress distributions on the whole structure, including its foundations. In particular, the Authors
refer here on the typical transversal section not crossing the dome. This transversal section was
520
investigated not including (Figure 11.a) and including (Figure 11.b) the tie rods discussed in the
previous paragraph Main aspects of the reconstruction design. The carbon fibers were not
considered in the numerical analyses, because the decision to use carbon fibers was taken after the
performed analyses.
The study of masonry structures should be carried out by complex 2-D and/or 3-D modeling; however,
simplified 2-D FEM models, as the one shown in Figure 11, can be adopted in the cases in which the
masonry structures can be assimilated to frame structures, i.e. in the case of structures characterized by
slim load-bearing walls. In order to take into account the foundation soil deformability, three springs
per node, for the 1, 11, 33 and 43 foundation nodes, were considered, so vertical and horizontal
foundation displacements and foundation rotations were allowed. These springs characterize the three
degrees-of-freedom of the four soil-foundation macro-elements related to nodes Nos. 1, 11, 33 and 43.
For these springs the elasto-hypoplastic constitutive model (SFCM) reported in di Prisco et al. (2003)
was utilized, while for the superstructure the elastic-linear model was considered.
22
22
21
19
20
22
23
21
23
24
24
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17
27
18
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5
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4
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8 9 15
16
14
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33
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60
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40
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33
42
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(a)
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40
32
11
2
1
1
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2
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11
48
46
47
49
48
50
33
51
43
42
35
52
49
44
50
53
43
54
(b)
Figure 11. Plane structural scheme of Noto Cathedral employed for the
numerical analyses: a) without tie rods; b) with tie rods.
The initial values of the horizontal, vertical and rocking stiffnesses Kh , Kv, K for the above-mentioned
springs were determined following the Gazetas (1991) approach for embedded foundations (Table 1).
Two types of equivalent rectangular foundations were considered: the first foundation, under the piers
(nodes 11 and 33 of Figure 11), characterized by a width B = 4.30 m, a length L = 7.0 m and an height
D = 2.50 m; the second foundation, under the external walls (nodes 1 and 43, Figure 11), characterized
by a width B = 5.30 m, a length L = 8.0 m and an height D = 1.25 m.
The SFCM constitutive parameters, which had to add to the previously defined elastic spring
stiffnesses are reported in Table 2. Among them, V m, , , characterize the failure locus, R0, , ,
and characterize the plastic stiffness, 1 and 2, 3 characterize the cyclic mechanical behavior. Some
of these parameters (Vm, , , R0) were directly evaluated for the investigated case history, some other
parameters (
, ,
) were assumed to be the same of those previously calibrated for sandy soil (di
Prisco et al., 2006), considering that the last ones have a small influence on the calculated results
(Montrasio and Nova, 1997). For the remaining constitutive parameters 1 and 2 = 3, which must be
determined by calibration tests on the macro-elements, the values obtained by di Prisco et al. (2003)
on small scale and large scale experimental test results in dense sand were used.
521
Kv (MN/m)
K (MNm)
2500
2385
22802
2847
2373
27144
Foundation of the
external walls
Foundation of the
columns
Table 2. Constitutive parameters of the elasto-hypoplastic SFCM model (di Prisco et al., 2006).
FOUNDATION
CHARACTERISTICS
MODEL PARAMETERS
Node
B (m)
D (m)
1 - 43
8.00
1.25
0.95
2.83
1.71
0.40
0.40
0.80
0.286
11 - 33
7.00
2.50
0.95
2.83
1.71
0.54
0.46
0.80
0.286
R0
(kN/m)
VM (kN)
20
86349
25585
20
100393
26028
The frames shown in Figure 11 were firstly investigated by means of the pseudo-static approach, i.e.
applying to each node of the frames the following two forces: a vertical force Wi, which represents the
weight of the sub-structure related to the i th node, evaluated by means of the influence area criterion;
and a horizontal force, equal to Hi = kh Wi, being kh the seismic coefficient fixed equal to 0.22
according to Figure 6. The results of this analysis are shown in Table 3 in terms of horizontal and
vertical foundation displacements not including and including tie rods. Figure 12 shows the deformed
configuration of the frame with tie rods. The tie rods, crossing the lateral arches as well as the
foundations, reduce significantly the relative movements, leading to a less severe stress distribution.
To analyze the behaviour of the cathedral under a moderate and more frequent earthquake, an
additional pseudo-static FEM analysis is performed to the frame of Figure 11.b, utilizing a seismic
coefficient kh* = 0.6 kh, i.e. kh* = 0.143. The horizontal and vertical foundation displacements obtained
from this second analysis are reported in Table 4.
Figure 12. Deformed configuration of the structure, considering tie rods and the elastohypoplastic SFCM soil model - pseudo-static approach (after di Prisco et al., 2006).
522
Table 3. Horizontal (u) and vertical (v) foundation displacements not considering
and considering the tie rods - pseudo-static approach (after di Prisco et al., 2006).
WITHOUT TIE RODS
u (mm)
v (mm)
16.30
36.36
12.46
43.56
22.68
39.85
34.92
42.30
NODE
1
11
33
43
Table 4. Horizontal (u) and vertical (v) foundation displacements considering the tie rods
and a seismic coefficient equal to 0.143 - pseudo-static approach (after di Prisco et al., 2006).
NODE
1
11
33
43
u (mm)
3.73
4.62
7.91
14.29
v (mm)
22.93
25.88
23.58
25.15
The pseudo-static approach represents certainly the most simple and thus utilized approach to study
seismic soil-structure interaction. Nevertheless, it can often lead to erroneous results mainly because
two factors are disregarded: the cyclic change of loading distribution within the structure and the
effect of the input frequency content. Very interesting results were obtained considering only the
former factor and so performing numerical cyclic quasi-static analyses, i. e. applying to each node the
constant vertical force Wi and a horizontal force Hi(t). The seismic coefficient kh* = 0.143 was
considered, due also to the severity of a cyclic input of constant amplitude. In this case it is possible to
observe a decrease with time in the value of the vertical force V for the node No. 1, that leaded to a
very dangerous generalized stress path, because the image point approached the horizontal vs vertical
failure locus in the sliding branch (Figure 13). Table 5 reports, finally, the horizontal and vertical
foundation displacements obtained with the cyclic analysis. Comparing the results of Tables 4 and 5 it
is possible to observe with the cyclic analysis a more uniform distribution of the horizontal foundation
displacements due to the change of loading distribution within the structure, and more severe vertical
foundation displacements, due to the cyclic nature of the applied horizontal forces.
N o de 1
V -H
3000
H (kN)
1500
0
0
1 0000
200 00
30000
-1500
Loading pa th
F ailure locus
-3000
V (kN )
Figure 13. Horizontal (H) versus vertical (V) loading paths and corresponding failure locus
for node No. 1 cyclic quasi-static analysis (after di Prisco et al., 2006).
523
Table 5. Horizontal (u) and vertical (v) foundation displacements considering the tie rods
and a seismic coefficient equal to 0.143 - cyclic analysis (after di Prisco et al., 2006).
NODE
1
11
33
43
u (mm)
7.13
4.64
4.70
5.62
v (mm)
37.20
29.09
27.90
31.16
524
The site was well investigated by means of laboratory and in-situ tests including seismic tests. Seismic
action has been evaluated by the deterministic approach (Frenna & Maugeri, 1995; Maugeri & Frenna,
1995). A site depending response spectrum has been determined, then a design spectrum more severe
than that adopted by the Italian Seismic Regulation has been derived.
For evaluating the possibility to repair the buildings, an investigation on soil, structures and
foundations was carried out. The foundation system is composed of footings on piles. Tie beams
connect the individual footings in the longitudinal and transverse directions of the building but the
connection is partially absent along the central longitudinal alignment. The nominal diameter of the
piles is 50 cm with a length of about 20 m.
The visual inspection and survey of the foundation was ensured by a perimetral excavation along the
east, south and west sides of the building (Figure 15). The depth of the excavation was about 3 m,
allowing for the inspection of the footings, the tie beams and of the stem of the piles for about 1.80 m.
No signs of damage clearly attributable to the seismic action could be found. Nevertheless, vertical
and horizontal loading tests on two single pile tests were conducted. Also tests on a three-piles group
were carried out. Loading tests showed that the seismic actions have not damaged the effectiveness of
the soil-pile system. By the way considering a seismic action more severe than that adopted by the
Italian Seismic Regulation, a number of piles were added.
Site characterization
The investigated area has plane dimensions of 4100 m 2 (Figure 16). A detailed description of the soil
properties was reported by Castelli & Maugeri (2004).The thickness of the deposits varies from 50 up
to 300 m. The upper part of these deposits mainly consist of alternating layers of grey-silty-clay and
sandy-clay which is locally called Augusta Clay. Layers of sand were found at depths of between 9
and 12 m. The lower deposits mainly consist of a medium stiff, over-consolidated marine clay with
low to medium plasticity index.
The index properties and the mechanical characteristics of the Augusta clay derived from the
laboratory tests are: the clay fraction is prevalently in the range of between 60 70%; the silt fraction
is in the range of about 25 40%; the values of the natural moisture content wn prevalently range
between 30 and 35%. Characteristics values for the Atterberg limits are: wl = 60 65% and wp = 22
26%, with a plasticity index PI = 30 40%.
Finally, an assessment of the values of the undrained shear strength cu determined by dilatometer tests,
cone penetration tests and laboratory tests has been carried out. To express the variation of the
undrained shear strength versus depth, the following relationship was derived: cu (kPa) = 7.5 z, where
z is the depth from the ground surface.
525
Cross-hole and down-hole tests indicate an average value of the shear waves velocity equal to Vs = 320
m/s up to -10 m from the ground surface. An average value of the shear waves velocity approximately
equal to Vs = 530 m/s can be estimated up to -30 m from the ground surface.
The small strain shear modulus of soil Go can be considered an essential parameter for estimation of
the soil response, especially for dynamic loading conditions. The modulus Go was determined both by
in-situ than by laboratory tests. In laboratory the shear modulus (G) and the damping ratio (D) was
determined by Resonant Column tests (RCT) and cyclic loading torsional shear tests (CLTST) (Figure
17), even if it was attempted to assess Go also by means of empirical correlations based on in-situ test
results (Cavallaro et al., 1996). By laboratory tests, the values of Go were determined at shear strain
levels less than 0,001 %.
Figure 16. Layout of the site with the location of buildings and in situ tests
It is possible to observe that quite a good agreement exists between the laboratory and in-situ test
results. In particular, the values of Go for the upper silty-clay steadily increase from 20 to 80 MPa with
depth. In the transition zone, where stiff sand layers are present, Go increases up to 110 MPa
(Cavallaro et al., 1996). In the lower blue-grey clay Go values range in the range 80 up to 120 MPa. A
small difference between the values of shear modulus Go determined by this last procedure and the
values derived by resonant column tests can be observed in the first 10 m below the ground surface
(Maugeri & Castelli, 2007).
1.2
100
Test. N. 1
Test. N. 2
Test. N. 3
Test. N. 4
Test. N. 5
Yokota et al. (1981)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.0001
D [%]
G/Go
0.8
Test. N. 1
Test. N. 2
Test. N. 3
Test. N. 4
Test. N. 5
Yokota et al. (1981)
10
1
0.001
0.01
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
G/Go
526
earthquake was of moderate magnitude, it caused 19 victims and severe damages to buildings and
infrastructures. The estimation of damages caused by the 13th December 1990 South-Eastern Sicily
earthquake, has emphasized the effects of the phenomenon of local amplification, which caused
serious damages to concrete type of structures.
The response of the soil, schematized as a one-dimensional system with several degrees of freedom
and lumped masses, has been evaluated with a hysteretical-simplified 1-D model, through the
integration of the system of differential equations of the dynamic equilibrium with variable
coefficients, using the Newmarks numerical integration method step-by-step (Maugeri & Frenna,
1987). The model is capable to take into account the decay of the elastic shear modulus with strain.
The excitation at the base of the model were the accelerograms of the 13th December, 1990 earthquake
recorded at Sortino E-W, which is the most representative among those made on rock (Figure 18).
Related to the seismic characteristics of the area, to analyze the possibility that even more intense
earthquake than the one recorded on 13th December, 1990 could occur, the accelerations and the
frequencies of the recordings at Sortino E-W have been scaled up to a maximum acceleration 0,3g and
the predominant period of earthquake T = 0,5 sec.
Figure 18. Accelerogram recorded at Sortino E-W during the 1990 Sicilian earthquake
The model for the evaluation of the seismic soil response (Maugeri & Frenna, 1987) requires the
knowledge of the depth of the conventional bedrock. In this case it has been placed 80 m below the
ground surface. The numerical analysis provides the time-history response of displacements, velocity
and accelerations. Figure 19 shows the profiles of the numerical results versus depth (Maugeri &
Frenna, 1995; Frenna & Maugeri, 1995).
527
Based on the 1-D seismic soil response (Maugeri & Frenna, 1987) and on the deterministic modelling
of the source mechanism (Bottari et al., 2003) of the 1693 destructive earthquake, as reported above,
the design spectra, more severe than that prescribed by the Italian Seismic Regulation at the time of
the work, has been evaluated (Figure 20) and used for the retrofitting work described in the following.
1.00
Design Earthquake
Italian Code II cat. e=1
Italian Code II cat. e=1.3
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
T (s)
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
(a)
(b)
Figure 21. View of a loading test on pile: a) vertical loading b) horizontal loading
528
(a)
(b)
10
12
14
16
18
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.5
0.4
1.0
0.6
1.5
0.8
2.0
1.0
2.5
1.2
3.0
1.4
3.5
1.6
4.0
1.8
Test no.1
4.5
2.0
12
15
18
21
Test no.2
5.0
(a)
(b)
Figure 23. Single pile horizontal loading test results: a) Test no.1, b) Test no.2
Foundation retrofitting
A detailed description of the solutions adopted for the seismic retrofitting of the case study building
was reported by Oliveto & Decanini (1998). These solutions can be synthetically reported as follow:
1. substitution of the loosened soil;
529
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The excavation required for the visual inspection of the foundation and the piles loosened the soil
along the perimeter of the building. The excavations for the enlargement of the foundation and for the
connection with the existing one caused further loosening. For this reason all the loosened soil was
removed and substituted by cemented gravel. The soil substitution was extended to the perimeter of
the foundation for a depth of 3 m and a width of 2 m.
The vertical and horizontal load-bearing capacities of the existing pile foundation were not sufficient
for the design seismic actions. A strengthening of the foundation was necessary especially in the areas
adjacent to the stiffening cores. Thirty-six new piles of 50 cm in diameter and 25 m in length, longer
than the existing piles, were disposed as reported in the following.
(a)
(b)
Figure 24. a) View of the piles group, b) Horizontal loading test on piles group
Horizontal Load [kN]
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Pile Group
530
The stiffening cores and corner elements by shear walls (Figure 26.a), involve a concentration of
vertical and horizontal forces in the pile groups around the foot of the shear walls and also for this
reason the pile foundation was retrofitted by the increment of the number of piles and its length
(Figure 26.b).
(a)
(b)
Figure 26. Seismic retrofitting of the Augusta building: a) structure retrofitting
b) foundation retrofitting
Inertial soil-pile group interaction
In the last decades several simplified approaches for the analysis of single piles or pile groups have
been developed that can be used with little computational effort. These methods have given results that
are often in remarkable agreement with the mathematical models (Novak, 1974; Markis & Gazetas,
1992; Abghari & Chai, 1995; Tabesh & Poulos, 2001).
Pseudo-static approaches, as example, for the seismic analysis and design of foundations are attractive
for design engineers because they are simple, when compared to difficult and more complex dynamic
analyses. There are two sources of loading of the pile: inertial loading of the pile head, caused by
the lateral forces imposed on the structure by the earthquake and which are then imposed on the piles,
and kinematic loading along the length of the pile, imposed by the lateral ground movements
developed by the earthquake, as will be illustrated in the following section.
Several approaches are currently available to analyze the soil-pile interaction subjected to lateral load
ranging from complex models, as non linear dynamic analysis by 2D or 3D finite element methods, to
the use of simplified approaches as limit equilibrium (LE) approach and p-y analysis approach.
The p-y approach for analyzing the response of laterally loaded piles is essentially a modification of
the basic Winkler model, where p is the soil pressure per unit length of pile and y is the pile deflection.
The soil is represented by a series of nonlinear p-y curves that vary with depth and soil type. The p-y
method is still widespread in practice and based on literature review it appears to be one of the most
used methods for civil engineers.
531
An improvement of these approaches can be achieved if more reliable and relevant soil properties are
adopted in defining the input parameters even if the design method is empirical or semi-empirical. The
shear modulus Go and for clayely soils, the undrained shear strength cu, can be considered essential
parameters for the estimation of the soil response, especially in the case of dynamic loading.
Researches based on results of field tests on full scale piles, both in cohesive than in cohesionless soil,
suggests to employ non linear p-y relationship (Reese et al., 1974; Reese & Welch, 1975; Reese &
Van Impe, 2001; Juirnarongrit & Ashford, 2006), thus in the proposed approach a hyperbolic p-y
relationship has been adopted:
p( z )
yp( z )
yp( z )
1
Esi( z ) p lim ( z )
(6)
where Esi [FL-2] is the initial modulus of horizontal sub-grade reaction, yp [L] is the pile lateral
deflection, p and plim [FL-2] are the mobilized and the ultimate horizontal soil resistance respectively.
Another term that is sometimes used in place of Esi is the coefficient of horizontal sub-grade reaction
kh, expressed in units of force per unit volume [FL-3]. The relationship between Esi and kh is Esi = kh D
being D the pile diameter. Nevertheless Esi is a more fundamental soil property because it is not
dependent on the pile size
The hyperbolic p-y relationship (6) is defined by the two parameters plim and Esi. By this approach a
situation of layered soil can be easily analyzed assuming for these parameters different values along
the pile length. The numerical model is based on an iterative procedure taking into account the
decrease of the model stiffness with the increasing of the applied horizontal load (Castelli et al., 1995;
Castelli & Maugeri, 1999; Castelli 2002; 2006).
The response of a laterally loaded pile group with relatively closely spaced piles is different from that
of a single pile, because of the interaction between piles through the surrounding soil. Experiments
have been carried out in the last decade with the aim of deriving general rules to adapt p-y curves to
take into account the group effects. Brown et al., (1988), as example, introduced the term shadowing
to mean the phenomenon for which the soil resistance of a pile in a trailing row is reduced because of
the presence of the leading pile ahead of it.
Brown et al., (1988) defined the concept of p-multiplier fm, a multiplier of the limiting values plim
capable of stretching the p-y curve for the single pile to account for the interaction among the piles in a
group. It has been shown that the shadowing effect becomes less significant as the spacing between
piles increases and is relatively unimportant for centre-to-centre spacing greater than about six pile
diameters (Cox et al., 1984; Brown & Shie, 1991; Ng et al., 2001).
Similar to the design of axially loaded piles using a efficiency method, in a pile group subjected to
horizontal load, the p-y relationships for the individual piles are modified to take into account the
group effects by stretching the curve in the direction of deflection.
To extend the method of the p-y curves to the case of a pile group, the p-multiplier concept proposed
by Brown et al., (1988) has been applied. The multiplier has obviously values in the range 0 to 1. As
suggested by Brown et al., (1988), a given row, within the group, could be represented by a single pile
p-y curve multiplied by a load factor to account for row position. With this aim, in the proposed
approach the p-y curve of the piles belonging to each row of the group is obtained by scaling down the
p-y curve of the single pile, multiplying the values of plim by a group reduction factor named fm.
It should be expected that the resulting initial modulus of horizontal sub-grade reaction of a pile group
532
is softer than the value of an isolated pile (Ashour et al., 2004). Thus, to adapt the hyperbolic p-y
relationships defined for a single pile to the case of a pile group, a multiplier should be considered also
for the initial modulus of horizontal sub-grade reaction Esi. Consequently, Esi of an individual pile in a
group will be reduced and we can assume for a pile group:
p( z )
yp( z )
y p( z )
1
m Esi( z )
(7)
f m p lim ( z )
where m is the empirical factor introduced in the proposed method to extend the single pile analysis to
the case of a pile group (Castelli, 2006). The multiplier m has obviously values in the range 0 to 1 and
it can be defined as the ratio between the initial modulus of horizontal sub-grade reaction of the pile in
a group (Esi)group and that of the single pile (Esi) single.
A rather large amount of experiments have been carried out in the last decade for the determination of
the p-multipliers (McVay et al., 1998; Rollins et al., 1998; Zhang et al., 1999; Rollins et al., 2006).
The advantage of the proposed approach is that the load-deflection response of the pile group can be
calculated using solutions for the response of a single pile. Naturally, this approach is based on an
estimation of only the average head lateral deflection of the pile group.
Validation of the proposed approach has been carried out comparing the numerical results with those
measured in loading tests, both on single pile and piles group. Model parameters have been assessed to
obtain numerical results close to those measured. The numerical analysis was carried out for the single
piles and then for the pile groups, considering in this last case the experimental curve in terms of
average lateral load per pile versus average pile head lateral deflection.
Taking into account the profile of the values of the undrained shear strength derived from in situ and
laboratory tests, the numerical analysis has been carried out with values of p lim ranging between 0,024
MN/m2 from the ground surface up to 1,33 MN/m2 at the pile tip (Broms, 1964). The initial modulus
was (Welch & Reese, 1972): Esi = (Esoi + ki z), being z the depth, ki equal to 19,75 N/cm3 the gradient
of the initial modulus of horizontal sub-grade reaction and Esoi the initial modulus at the ground
surface, that in the analysis was assumed equal to 37 MN/m2.
The single piles were in free-head condition while the pile group was in fixed-head condition. As the
horizontal load during the loading test was applied at a distance from the ground surface of 43 cm, the
numerical analysis has been carried out considering the pile loaded with a horizontal force and a
moment at the head. In Figure 27.a is reported the comparison between measured (Test no.1) and
computed single pile head lateral deflection and a good agreement can be observed between
experimental and numerical results.
To reduce the computed load-carrying capacity of the single pile to the pile group rows, according to
the design curve showing p-multiplier values reported by Rollins et al., (1998), a p-multiplier f m equal
to 0,4 was assumed. The values of the initial modulus of horizontal sub-grade reaction of the piles
group were reduced assuming for the empirical factor m the same value of fm. Also in this case a good
agreement between numerical results and experimental evidences can be observed (Figure 27.b).
Kinematic soil-pile group interaction
Generally in the pile design only the effects of inertial loading are considered, even if kinematic
loading is also very important (Gazetas, 1984; Tazoh et al., 1988; Masayuki & Shoichi, 1991;
Kavvadas & Gazetas, 1993). Part 5 of the Eurocode 8, as example, states that piles shall be designed
for the following two loading conditions:
533
10
12
14
0.0
16
10
20
30
40
Single Pile
60
70
Pile Group
2
0.3
0.6
Computed
Measured
0.9
1.2
50
Computed
Measured
Lenght: L = 20 m
Diameter: D = 0.50 m
Young Modulus:
E = 20 x 103 MPa
1.5
Lenght: L = 20 m
Diameter: D = 0.50 m
Reduction Factors:
fm and m = 0.40
10
(a)
(b)
Figure 27. Comparison between experimental and computed load-deflection curve for:
a) single pile and b) pile group
a) inertia forces on the superstructure transmitted on the heads of the piles in the form of axial and
horizontal forces and moment;
b) soil deformations arising from the passage of seismic waves which impose curvatures and thereby
lateral strain on the piles along their whole length.
While there is ample experience of carrying out the equivalent static analysis for the inertial loading
(type (a)), no specific method or procedures are available to predict deformations and bending moment
from the kinematic loading (type (b)).
To take into account these two sources of loading, Abghari & Chai (1995) proposed an analysis in
which the pile was subjected to the free-field soil displacements at each node along its length. These
displacements were obtained from a separate free-field site response analysis. The inertial forces
acting on the pile were obtained from the product of mass and spectral acceleration. These forces were
applied to the pile as static forces. Similarly Tabesh & Poulos (2001) and Poulos (2006) proposed a
simple approximate methodology for estimating the maximum internal forces of piles subjected to
lateral seismic excitation.
The response of the complete system constituted by soil, foundation and superstructure is obtained by
the overlapping of the inertial and kinematics effects, even if, the validity of the principle of the
overlapping of the effects is correct only in the hypothesis of linear behaviour of all components
(Kausel & Roesset, 1974; Gazetas & Milonakis, 1998). Nevertheless, the overlapping of the effects
can be considered acceptable for systems moderately non linear (Milonakis et al., 1997).
The passage of seismic waves through the soil surrounding a pile imposes lateral movements and
curvatures on the pile, generating kinematic bending moments even in absence of a super-structure.
The simplified numerical approach adopted in the paper is based on the idea to couple and to evaluate
the effects due to the applied load at the pile head and lateral movements along the pile length by a
series of independent p-y curves, relating soil reaction and relative soil - pile movements. The
implementation of the method involves imposing a known free-field soil movement profile. When the
expected free-field movement is large enough to cause the ultimate pressure of laterally spreading
soils to be fully mobilized, the ultimate pressure, instead of free-field soil movement, may be used.
534
To take into account that the lateral pile response to static or dynamic loading is non linear, the
following p-y relationship could be adopted (Figure 28):
p( z )
[ y p ( z ) y s ( z )]
| y p ( z ) ys ( z ) |
1
Esi( z )
(7)
p lim ( z )
pile group
single pile
p lim(z)
plim (z)
single pile
E si (z)
p(z)
p(z) = f m p(z)single
E si (z) =
Lateral resistance p
Lateral resistance p
in which Esi, yp, p and p lim have the same meaning of equation (6) while y p is pile movement and ys is
the soil movement.
pile group
E si (z) single
Figure 28. p-y curves to model soil-pile interaction due to lateral movements
According to the proposed approach, when an individual pile of a group is taken into consideration, in
equation (7) the empirical reduction factors fm and m should be used:
p( z )
[ y p ( z ) y s ( z )]
| y p ( z ) ys ( z ) |
1
m E si(
z)
(8)
f m plim ( z )
The approach proposed was employed and implemented in an original computer code. Comparison
with field measurements, shows that this procedure can give lateral deflection, bending moment and
shear force distributions on piles which agree with experimental ones (Castelli & Maugeri, 2007).
To evaluate the influence of the inertial and kinematic effects, the numerical analysis has been carried
out via the pseudo-static approach following the proposed procedure (Castelli & Maugeri, 2007). To
simulate the kinematic effects, the displacement profile of the free-field soil movements (Figure 19)
evaluated by the seismic soil response analysis (Maugeri & Frenna, 1995) has been considered. So that
numerical simulation provides bending moment distribution along the pile length. Two cases have
been considered:
- lateral inertial load but kinematic ground movements not included in the analysis (inertial effects
only);
- lateral inertial load ranging from 12,2 kN to 15 kN and kinematic effects (combined).
The results obtained for the single pile are summarized in Figure 29. Analyzing these results it is
possible to observe that, as expected, if kinematic effects (lateral movements) are ignored and only
535
inertial (lateral load applied at the pile head) effects are considered, the maximum moments along the
pile length can be underestimated. When combined effects are taken into consideration, an increasing
of the maximum bending moment can be observed.
By the way considering a seismic action of Figure 20, more severe than that adopted by the Italian
Seismic Regulation, and also that concentration of load beneath the shear walls and the kinematic soilpile interaction a number of piles were added (Figure 26).
10
15
20
25 30
35
40 45
50
0
2
Combined Effects (H = 15 kN)
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
-5
10
15
20
25 30
35
40
45
50
Figure 29. Numerical results for combined effects on single pile (kinematic and inertial)
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The contribution of geotechnical Engineering is a key-point for safer design of earthquake resistant
buildings from many points of view. Preliminarily, local site response has to be checked to evaluate
the site response spectra, on which is based the design spectra, to define the seismic loading to which
the structure must resist. Two case histories of old structures, damaged by the moderate Sicilian
earthquake (Italy) of 13th December 1990 are discussed: the Noto Cathedral, founded on shallow
foundation, and some concrete buildings in Augusta, founded on pile foundations. For both case
histories a site response and a design earthquake were evaluated by determinist approach starting from
the source modelling and the evaluation of synthetic accelerograms.
The contribution of geotechnical engineering was very important to solve the question to demolish or
the retrofit the two structures. After the foundation retrofitting was cheeked successfully for both cases
the design of the superstructure retrofitting was possible.
The geotechnical design for improvement of the foundation conditioned also the improvement of the
overstructure for the Noto Cathedral. It was decided not only to rebuilt all that had collapsed, i.e. the
piers on the right side of the main nave, the roof of the naves and the dome, but also to pull down and
536
rebuilt the piers on the left of the nave, to realize a deeper foundation embedment and, above all,
because the standing piers had significant damage and however they had been made with a poor
workmanship, which was the principal reason of the big collapse of the cathedral.
Furthermore soil-structure interaction, considering the elasto-hypoplastic behavior of the soil, shows
that to reduce the stress level on the lateral arches, tie rods on the arch were utilized. At the same time,
the soil-structure interaction analysis, shows that for the central arches, which can be greatly stressed
due to foundation movements, a reinforcement was also needed. In order to guarantee a nice view
inside the cathedral, carbon fibers were utilized instead of tie rods.
Also in the case of the seismic retrofitting of a r-c building in Augusta, the geotechnical design for
improvement of the foundation, by additional piles, allows the improvement of the superstructure by
shear walls. In fact, the concentration of loads beneath the shear walls sustained by additional
foundation piles.
The inertial and kinematic soil-pile interaction shows that kinematic interaction, usually ignored in
engineering practice, must be performed, even if with simplified procedure to avoid unsafe design of
piles subjected to earthquake loads.
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540
4 th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering
June 25-28, 2007
Paper No. W4-1002
INTRODUCTION
The design actions on an investigated building of high importance comprehended, apart from normal
static loads, also earthquake loads as well as dynamic actions arising from an airplane crash. Due to
operational and geometrical restraints, the structure to be designed was very slender, resulting in high
overturning moments under these extraordinary actions. For this reason, a tension pile foundation (or
even a wall composed of adjacent piles) was foreseen for the design of the building. For preliminary
calculations, admissible dynamic skin friction values were estimated. Subsequently, several full-scale
pull-out tests (of 8m and 12m long piles) have been performed to verify these values in-situ. Gysi
Leoni Mader AG bore the main responsibility for this project, whereas Studer Engineering was in
charge of the influence of dynamic effects on the material properties.
GENERAL SOIL CONDITIONS
The subsoil at the investigated building site consists of lower terrace sandy gravel with pebbles and
boulders, under a man-made filling of clean sandy gravel. Occasionally, sand lenses of alluvial sands
are present, as well as cemented zones. The ground water level lies at a depth of about 7m. Lower
terrace layers generally represent good stable subsoils.
Following the borings performed during the tests, uniform subsoil conditions can be assumed,
predominantly a coarse gravel with USCS-classification "GP". The sand content (coarse to medium
sand) varies between 20 and 35%.
1
2
Dr. sc. techn., dipl. Bauing. ETH, Studer Engineering, Zrich, Email: studer@studer-engineering.ch
dipl. Bauing. ETH, Gysi Leoni Mader AG, Zrich, Email: geotech.gylemad@bluewin.ch
541
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Compactness
From several performed investigations on this site, such as SPT tests, sheet pile wall construction tests,
drive tests and other values from local subsoil experience, the subsoil can be classified as dense or
very dense. For instance, the SPT values (N30) in the relevant layers show an average of 60 (for 30cm
penetration), which indicates a very compact soil.
Resistance and stiffness parameters
Following the results of triaxial tests on similar lower terrace layers, the friction angle for calculations
was assumed as 'o = 44 2. Concerning the stiffness, an oedometer modulus value (called "ME
modulus" henceforth) of 120 20 MPa (at a depth of 3m) is obtained from different plate tests. The
re-loading oedometer modulus is taken as M'E = 3 ME. Assuming a hyperbolic stress-strain
relationship of the subsoil, the ME modulus can be further calculated for all depths.
Other deformation modules are calculated with the aid of the well-known formulas
G
E
ME
G
where
= 0.33
(1 2v)
2(1 v)
(1 2v )(1 v)
(1 v)
E
(1)
2(1 v )
ME
(1)
(2)
(3)
Depth
[m]
2
5
8
11
14
17
20
23
> 25
vs
[m/s]
200
275
305
400
425
440
470
500
-
542
75 kN/m2
0.9
0.35
150 kN/m2
0.8
75 kN/m2
150 kN/m2
250 kN/m2
0.3
250 kN/m2
0.7
0.25
0.6
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.15
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.05
0.1
0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
The above definition of the dynamical soil properties was judged to be a conservative approach, since
the energy radiation due to geometric damping (soil structure interaction) was not taken into account.
It has to be mentioned that the geometric damping can be very high for vertical and horizontal loading,
but is generally very small for rotational (tilting) movement.
Dynamical bedding factor
The dynamical bedding factor has been evaluated as about 60 - 80 MN/m3 based on literature values
(Grundbau Taschenbuch (1982)) for the relevant strain interval to be expected.
Admissible foundation soil pressure
Another issue was the assessment of an "admissible dynamical foundation soil pressure". This is a
delicate matter since the "admissible soil pressure", as for the static case, is not a material property
itself, but depends, among other things, on the dynamic resistance and stiffness properties, the loading
velocity and the foundation geometry. For the dynamic case it can be assumed that for well
compacted, dilative granular soils the resistance against a base failure is considerably higher than for
the static case, in the range of about two to three times higher. The following remarks can be given in
this respect for the case of an earthquake action:
The loading velocities for earthquake actions do not strongly influence the resistance and
stiffness properties of granular soils, so that these are only marginally higher than the
corresponding static values.
The dynamic loads do not act permanently, but only for limited periods of time. So even if the
resistance is exceeded during short periods of time, this does not lead to a global failure, but
only to additional deformations of the considered sliding mass.
During the earthquake action, both gravel and clay materials can be considered as undrained.
For moderate earthquake levels with a PGA in the range of 0.15 to 0.25 g and the type of
gravelly materials as in the present case, potential earthquake-induced excessive pore-water
pressures can be neglected for the estimation of an admissible foundation soil pressure.
543
PILE TESTS
Geometry and construction
Both test piles (8 m and 12 m reinforced concrete piles) are situated within the area of the planned
building. A general test situation for one pile is shown in Figure 2. The diameter of both piles is
90 cm. The top edge of the reinforced concrete piles is actually 8 m below ground, while the upper
8 m are filled after the pile completion. The tensile force is applied by means of tension cables at
2.5 m below the top edge of the piles.
The construction of the piles was carried out with the "contractor method", in order to avoid potential
air inclusions. The filling of the upper 8 m consisted of concrete gravel with grain sizes of 0 to 32 mm
enriched with opalite (to minimize the influence of the filling on the test results).
Due to the massive reinforcement, the installations for the application of the tensile forces and the
measuring installations, it was decided to use a fine-grained concrete, with a compression strength of
B45/35. The used concrete is a self compacting concrete (SCC) with a grain size distribution of 0 to
8 mm and a cement content of 450 kg/m3 (CEM I 42.5). The reinforcement cage consists of a spiral
reinforcement with diameter 12 mm and a longitudinal reinforcement of 26 rods with diameter 34 mm.
Performing of the tests
The test execution for each pile comprehended the following steps:
set a new tension load level
metering of dial gauges immediately after the new tension was applied
metering of vibrating wire strain gauges, after about six minutes
conducting the leveling, after about ten minutes
after creep decay (usually after 10 and 30 minutes) apply the next load level
Results
The main results are represented by the leveling measurements and the maximum tension level. For
the interpretation, the influence of the pile head as well as of the filling had to be taken into account
(the influence on the results is in the order of 3-4%). In addition, the influence of the loading
equipment (i.e. the load propagation from the abutment fundaments of the loading equipment) had to
be taken into account, which in average lies in the order of 4-7%.
544
Z
m
2r
(4)
where Z = tensile force [kN], r = pile radius [m], L = pile length [m], considering the influence of the
self-weight, the pile head, the filling and the loading equipment. A value of 230kN/m2 has been
obtained, representing the mean value for the 8m and the 12m test, with a corresponding mean depth
of 13m below surface.
Assessment of oedometer modules M E
The oedometer modules ME were assessed with the aid of diagrams by Poulos / Davis (1980), for axial
loading. Actually, no diagrams for tension loading are present, so the corresponding diagrams for pure
friction piles on compression are used. By doing so, the part representing the pile base (included in the
diagrams) had to be taken into account, because this part is not present for tension loading (Figure 3).
Since the mobilized skin friction is determined by the effective horizontal stresses, the resulting ME
modulus is primarily the horizontal value MEh.
545
Figure 3. Percentage of load taken by pile base (Poulos and Davis, 1980)
In the present case, for the load taken by the pile base, a percentage of 11.5% (for the 8m pile)
respectively 8% (for the 12m pile) is calculated.
The calculation of the MEh modulus is then based on the diagram of Figure 4, with which a
displacement influence factor I P is first obtained for L/H = 0. Subsequently the ES modulus is
calculated. The conversion from ES to ME was then done with a Poisson's ratio of 0.33.
546
1
M Ev
3B
v
' ( z ) dz
' (3 B)
(5)
v ' (0)
p o ) till a depth of 3B
0) , s can be written as
s
1
M Ev
po
3 B
2
3 po B
2 M Ev
(6)
For the present case, with the measured settlements of about 8.7mm (8m pile) and 7.7mm (12m pile),
MEv modules of about 140 MN/m2 and 170MN/m 2 are obtained, respectively.
Transfer from single piles to multiple piles
Single piles will influence each other within a certain distance. The minimum distance for which two
piles cease to influence each other can be obtained from the distribution of the effective stresses at
failure. It is assumed that two piles do not influence each other as long as the principal stresses are
more or less not rotated in respect to the vertical direction. For both piles, the corresponding distance
is calculated as 3.5 times the corresponding diameter, measured from the pile axis. So starting from a
clear distance of 6 times the diameter, the piles do no more influence each other.
The horizontal coefficient of active earth pressure can be calculated for a single pile from the effective
vertical stress, the mean pile skin friction and the friction angle along the pile. To get the
corresponding coefficient for a pile group, it is assumed that the horizontal coefficient of active earth
pressure can be linearly interpolated as a function of the pile distance, with the aid of the diagram in
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Influence of the clear pile distance on the horizontal coefficient of active earth pressure
k h; for d = 0: k h according to soil parameters; for d = 6: kh from pile tests
547
548
CONCLUSIONS
The planned full-scale pile tests were successfully conducted. The obtained in-situ test values
confirmed and even surpassed the predicted values, even without injections.
As thoroughly discussed, in the present case the dynamic actions do not negatively influence the static
resistance properties; the corresponding admissible values are even higher. So the choice to use the
known static values is acceptable and conservative. The potential risk of earthquake-induced excess
pore-water pressures is not pronounced in the present case, based on the given soil compactness and
the moderate earthquake action.
For the present case, given the advantageous subsoil conditions, it could be shown that using static
instead of dynamic material properties is a conservative approach. However, based on this project
experience, it is found that further research is needed in the field of dynamic loading on piles or pile
groups, particularly for the case of cyclic tensile forces.
549
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