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Ethnic Group
Ethnic Group
Ethnic Group
Ethnicity and Peoples redirect here. For other uses, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possee Ethnicity (disambiguation) and Peoples (disambigua- sible for some individuals or groups to leave one ethtion).
nic group and become part of another (except for ethnic groups emphasizing racial purity as a key membership
criterion).
An ethnic group or ethnicity is a socially dened category of people who identify with each other based Ethnicity is often used synonymously with ambiguous
on common ancestral, social, cultural or national terms such as nation or people.
experience.[1][2] Membership of an ethnic group tends
to be dened by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry,
origin myth, history, homeland, language and/or dialect,
symbolic systems such as religion, mythology and ritual, 1 Terminology
cuisine, dressing style, physical appearance, etc.
The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word
ethnos (more precisely, from the adjective ethnikos,[3] which was loaned into Latin as ethnicus). The
inherited English-language term for this concept is folk,
used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle
English period.
The largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals (Han Chinese being the
largest), while the smallest are limited to a few dozen
individuals (numerous indigenous peoples worldwide).
Larger ethnic groups may be subdivided into smaller subgroups known variously as tribes or clans, which over
time may become separate ethnic groups themselves due
to endogamy and/or physical isolation from the parent
group. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can
merge to form a pan-ethnicity, and may eventually merge
into one single ethnicity. Whether through division or
amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis.
Depending on which source of group identity is emphasized to dene membership, the following types of ethnic
groups can be identied:
Ethno-racial, emphasizing shared physical appearance based on genetic origins;
Ethno-religious, emphasizing shared aliation with
a particular religion, denomination and/or sect;
Max Weber maintained that ethnic groups were knstlich (articial, i.e. a social construct) because they were
1. shared descent ( - homaimon, of the same
based on a subjective belief in shared Gemeinschaft (comblood),[8]
munity). Secondly, this belief in shared Gemeinschaft
2. shared language ( - homoglsson, did not create the group; the group created the belief.
Third, group formation resulted from the drive to mospeaking the same language)[9]
nopolise power and status. This was contrary to the
3. shared sanctuaries and sacrices (Greek: prevailing naturalist belief of the time, which held that
- then hidrumata socio-cultural and behavioral dierences between peote koina kai thusiai)[10]
ples stemmed from inherited traits and tendencies derived
[26]
4. shared customs (Greek: - thea ho- from common descent, then called race.
motropa, customs of like fashion).[11][12][13]
Another inuential theoretician of ethnicity was Fredrik
Barth, whose Ethnic Groups and Boundaries from 1969
Whether ethnicity qualies as a cultural universal is to has been described as instrumental in spreading the usage
some extent dependent on the exact denition used. Ac- of the term in social studies in the 1980s and 1990s.[27]
cording to Challenges of Measuring an Ethnic World: Barth went further than Weber in stressing the conScience, politics, and reality,[14] Ethnicity is a funda- structed nature of ethnicity. To Barth, ethnicity was
mental factor in human life: it is a phenomenon inherent perpetually negotiated and renegotiated by both external
in human experience.[15] Many social scientists, such as ascription and internal self-identication. Barths view
anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf, do not con- is that ethnic groups are not discontinuous cultural isosider ethnic identity to be universal. They regard ethnic- lates, or logical a prioris to which people naturally beity as a product of specic kinds of inter-group interac- long. He wanted to part with anthropological notions of
tions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human cultures as bounded entities, and ethnicity as primordialist bonds, replacing it with a focus on the interface begroups.[16]
tween groups. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, thereAccording to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethfore, is a focus on the interconnectedness of ethnic idennicity was dominated by two distinct debates until retities. Barth writes: "... categorical ethnic distinctions
cently.
do not depend on an absence of mobility, contact and
information, but do entail social processes of exclusion
One
is
between
"primordialism"
and
and incorporation whereby discrete categories are mainIn the primordialist view,
"instrumentalism".
tained despite changing participation and membership in
the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as
the course of individual life histories.
an externally given, even coercive, social bond.[17]
The instrumentalist approach, on the other hand, In 1978, anthropologist Ronald Cohen claimed that the
treats ethnicity primarily as an ad-hoc element identication of ethnic groups in the usage of social sciof a political strategy, used as a resource for entists often reected inaccurate labels more than indigeinterest groups for achieving secondary goals such nous realities:
as, for instance, an increase in wealth, power or
... the named ethnic identities we accept,
status.[18][19] This debate is still an important point
of reference in Political science, although most
often unthinkingly, as basic givens in the literscholars approaches fall between the two poles.[20]
ature are often arbitrarily, or even worse inac-
2.1
2.1
3
This theory sees ethnic groups as natural, not
just as historical. It also has problems dealing
with the consequences of intermarriage, migration and colonization for the composition
of modern day multi-ethnic societies.[30]
"Kinship primordialism" holds that ethnic
communities are extensions of kinship units,
basically being derived by kinship or clan
ties where the choices of cultural signs (language, religion, traditions) are made exactly to
show this biological anity. In this way, the
myths of common biological ancestry that are
a dening feature of ethnic communities are to
be understood as representing actual biological history. A problem with this view on ethnicity is that it is more often than not the case
that mythic origins of specic ethnic groups
directly contradict the known biological history of an ethnic community.[30]
"Geertzs primordialism", notably espoused by
anthropologist Cliord Geertz, argues that humans in general attribute an overwhelming
power to primordial human givens such as
blood ties, language, territory, and cultural differences. In Geertz' opinion, ethnicity is not
in itself primordial but humans perceive it as
such because it is embedded in their experience of the world.[30]
"Perennialism", an approach that is primarily concerned with nationhood but tends to see nations
and ethnic communities as basically the same phenomenon, holds that the nation, as a type of social and political organisation, is of an immemorial or perennial character.[31] Smith (1999) distinguishes two variants: continuous perennialism,
which claims that particular nations have existed for
very long spans of time, and recurrent perennialism, which focuses on the emergence, dissolution
and reappearance of nations as a recurring aspect of
human history.[32]
"Perpetual perennialism" holds that specic
ethnic groups have existed continuously
throughout history.
"Situational perennialism" holds that nations
and ethnic groups emerge, change and vanish through the course of history. This view
holds that the concept of ethnicity is basically
a tool used by political groups to manipulate
resources such as wealth, power, territory or
status in their particular groups interests. Accordingly, ethnicity emerges when it is relevant as means of furthering emergent collective interests and changes according to political changes in the society. Examples of a
perennialist interpretation of ethnicity are also
found in Barth, and Seidner who see ethnicity
3
as ever-changing boundaries between groups
of people established through ongoing social
negotiation and interaction.
"Instrumentalist perennialism", while seeing
ethnicity primarily as a versatile tool that
identied dierent ethnics groups and limits
through time, explains ethnicity as a mechanism of social stratication, meaning that
ethnicity is the basis for a hierarchical arrangement of individuals. According to Donald Noel, a sociologist who developed a theory on the origin of ethnic stratication, ethnic stratication is a system of stratication
wherein some relatively xed group membership (e.g., race, religion, or nationality) is utilized as a major criterion for assigning social positions.[33] Ethnic stratication is one
of many dierent types of social stratication, including stratication based on socioeconomic status, race, or gender. According to
Donald Noel, ethnic stratication will emerge
only when specic ethnic groups are brought
into contact with one another, and only when
those groups are characterized by a high degree of ethnocentrism, competition, and differential power. Ethnocentrism is the tendency
to look at the world primarily from the perspective of ones own culture, and to downgrade all other groups outside ones own culture. Some sociologists, such as Lawrence
Bobo and Vincent Hutchings, say the origin
of ethnic stratication lies in individual dispositions of ethnic prejudice, which relates
to the theory of ethnocentrism.[34] Continuing
with Noels theory, some degree of dierential power must be present for the emergence
of ethnic stratication. In other words, an inequality of power among ethnic groups means
they are of such unequal power that one is
able to impose its will upon another.[33] In addition to dierential power, a degree of competition structured along ethnic lines is a prerequisite to ethnic stratication as well. The
dierent ethnic groups must be competing for
some common goal, such as power or inuence, or a material interest, such as wealth or
territory. Lawrence Bobo and Vincent Hutchings propose that competition is driven by selfinterest and hostility, and results in inevitable
stratication and conict.[34]
"Constructivism" sees both primordialist and perennialist views as basically awed,[34] and rejects the
notion of ethnicity as a basic human condition. It
holds that ethnic groups are only products of human
social interaction, maintained only in so far as they
are maintained as valid social constructs in societies.
"Modernist constructivism" correlates the
5
their claim to represent nations. Nation-states, however,
invariably include populations that have been excluded
from national life for one reason or another. Members
of excluded groups, consequently, will either demand inclusion on the basis of equality, or seek autonomy, sometimes even to the extent of complete political separation
in their own nation-state.[44] Under these conditions
when people moved from one state to another,[45] or one
state conquered or colonized peoples beyond its national
boundariesethnic groups were formed by people who
identied with one nation, but lived in another state.
Multi-ethnic states can be the result of two opposite
events, either the recent creation of state borders at
variance with traditional tribal territories, or the recent
immigration of ethnic minorities into a former nation
state. Examples for the rst case are found throughout
Africa, where countries created during decolonisation inherited arbitrary colonial borders, but also in European
countries such as Belgium or United Kingdom. Examples for the second case are countries such as Germany
or the Netherlands, which were ethnically homogenous
when they attained statehood but have received significant immigration during the second half of the 20th
century. States such as the United Kingdom, France
and Switzerland comprised distinct ethnic groups from
their formation and have likewise experienced substantial immigration, resulting in what has been termed
"multicultural" societies especially in large cities.
In 1950, the UNESCO statement, "The Race Question", signed by some of the internationally renowned
scholars of the time (including Ashley Montagu, Claude
Lvi-Strauss, Gunnar Myrdal, Julian Huxley, etc.), suggested that: National, religious, geographic, linguistic
and cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racial
groups: and the cultural traits of such groups have no
demonstrated genetic connection with racial traits. Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed
The states of the New World were multi-ethnic from the when the term 'race' is used in popular parlance, it would
onset, as they were formed as colonies imposed on exist- be better when speaking of human races to drop the term
'race' altogether and speak of 'ethnic groups.[51]
ing indigenous populations.
In recent decades feminist scholars (most notably Nira
Yuval-Davis),[46] have drawn attention to the fundamental ways in which women participate in the creation and
reproduction of ethnic and national categories. Though
these categories are usually discussed as belonging to the
public, political sphere, they are upheld within the private, family sphere to a great extent.[47] It is here that
women act not just as biological reproducers but also
as 'cultural carriers, transmitting knowledge and enforcing behaviours that belong to a specic collectivity.[48]
Women also often play a signicant symbolic role in conceptions of nation or ethnicity, for example in the notion
that 'women and children' constitute the kernel of a nation
which must be defended in times of conict, or in iconic
gures such as Brittania or Marianne.
nary language of Great Britain and the United States, in dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Em1977 Wallman noted that
pires, as well as those arising out of the former USSR, is
marked by inter-ethnic conicts. Such conicts usually
occur within multi-ethnic states, as opposed to between
The term 'ethnic' popularly connotes '[race]' in
them, as in other regions of the world. Thus, the conicts
Britain, only less precisely, and with a lighter
are often misleadingly labelled and characterized as civil
value load. In North America, by contrast,
wars when they are inter-ethnic conicts in a multi-ethnic
'[race]' most commonly means color, and 'ethstate.
nics are the descendants of relatively recent
immigrants from non-English-speaking countries. '[Ethnic]' is not a noun in Britain. In effect there are no 'ethnics; there are only 'ethnic
6 Ethnic groups by continent
relations.[54]
6.1 Africa
In the U.S., the OMB denes the concept of race as outlined for the US Census as not scientic or anthropolog- Main article: Ethnic groups in Africa
ical and takes into account social and cultural characteristics as well as ancestry, using appropriate scientic
methodologies that are not primarily biological or ge- Ethnic groups in Africa number in the hundreds, each
generally having its own language (or dialect of a lannetic in reference.[55]
guage) and culture.
Ethno-national conict
Many ethnic groups and nations of Africa qualify, although some groups are of a size larger than a tribal society. These mostly originate with the Sahelian kingdoms
of the medieval period, such as that of the Akan, deriving from Bonoman (11th century) then the Kingdom of
Ashanti (17th century).[56]
6.2 Asia
Main article: Ethnic groups in Asia
7
Ethnic penalty
Ethnicity and health
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocultural empathy
Ethnogenesis
Genealogy
Genetic genealogy
Some European ethnic groups, such as Basque people, do not
constitute a majority in any one country.[57]
entity). The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14%
of 770 million Europeans.[58]
6.4
North America
Meta-ethnicity
Minority group
Multiculturalism
Nation
6.5
South America
National symbol
Passing (ethnic group)
Polyethnicity
See also
Ancestry
Clan
Diaspora
Ethnic autonomous regions
Population genetics
Race (classication of human beings)
Race and ethnicity in censuses
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census
Stateless nation
Ethnic cleansing
Transethnic
Ethnic ag
Tribe
Ethnic nationalism
References
REFERENCES
...
3 A member of an ethnic group or
minority. Equatorians
(Oxford English Dictionary Second edition, online version
as of 2008-01-12, s.v. ethnic, a. and n.)
[8] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon, on Perseus
[9] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A
Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
[10] I. Polinskaya, Shared sanctuaries and the gods of others:
On the meaning Of 'common' in Herodotus 8.144, in:
R. Rosen & I. Sluiter (eds.), Valuing others in Classical
Antiquity (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 43-70.
[11] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A
Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus)
[12] Herodotus, 8.144.2: The kinship of all Greeks in blood
and speech, and the shrines of gods and the sacrices that
we have in common, and the likeness of our way of life.
[13] Athena S. Leoussi, Steven Grosby, Nationalism and Ethnosymbolism: History, Culture and Ethnicity in the Formation of Nations, Edinburgh University Press, 2006, p. 115
[14] in Challenges of Measuring an Ethnic World: Science,
Politics and Reality : Proceedings of the Joint CanadaUnited States Conference on the Measurement of Ethnicity, April 13, 1992, Joint Canada-United States Conference on the Measurement of Ethnicity, Department of
Commerce, Statistics Canada, 1993
[15] ", a conference organised by Statistics Canada and the
United States Census Bureau (April 13, 1992) Statistics
Canada
[16] Fredrik Barth ed. 1969 Ethnic Groups and Boundaries:
The Social Organization of Cultural Dierence; Eric Wolf
1982 Europe and the People Without History p. 381
[17] Geertz, Cliord, ed. (1967) Old Societies and New States:
The Quest for Modernity in Africa and Asia. New York:
The Free Press.
[18] Cohen, Abner (1969) Custom and Politics in Urban Africa:
A Study of Hausa Migrants in a Yoruba Town. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
[19] Abner Cohen (1974) Two-Dimensional Man: An essay on
power and symbolism in complex society. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
[20] J. Hutchinson & A.D. Smith (eds.), Oxford readers: Ethnicity (Oxford 1996), Introduction, 8-9
[21] Gellner, Ernest (1983) Nations and Nationalism. Oxford:
Blackwell.
[22] Ernest Gellner (1997) Nationalism. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.
[23] Smith, Anthony D. (1986) The Ethnic Origins of Nations.
Oxford: Blackwell.
Har-
[25] T.H. Eriksen Ethnic identity, national identity and intergroup conict: The signicance of personal experiences
in Ashmore, Jussim, Wilder (eds.): Social identity, intergroup conict, and conict reduction, pp. 4270. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. 2001
[26] Banton, Michael. (2007) Weber on Ethnic Communities:
A critique, Nations and Nationalism 13 (1), 2007, 1935.
[27] Ronald Cohen 1978 Ethnicity: Problem and Focus in
Anthropology, Annual Review of Anthropology 7: 383
Palo Alto: Stanford University Press
[28] James, Paul (2015). Despite the Terrors of Typologies:
The Importance of Understanding Categories of Dierence and Identity. Interventions: International Journal
of Postcolonial Studies 17 (2): 174195.
[29] Joan Vincent 1974, The Structure of Ethnicity in Human Organization 33(4): 375-379
[30] (Smith 1999, p. 13)
[31] Smith (1998), 159.
[32] Smith (1999), 5.
[33] Noel, Donald L. (1968). A Theory of the Origin of
Ethnic Stratication. Social Problems 16 (2): 157172.
doi:10.1525/sp.1968.16.2.03a00030.
[34] Bobo, Lawrence; Hutchings, Vincent L. (1996). Perceptions of Racial Group Competition: Extending
Blumers Theory of Group Position to a Multiracial Social Context. American Sociological Review
(American Sociological Association) 61 (6): 951972.
doi:10.2307/2096302. JSTOR 2096302.
[35] (Smith 1999, pp. 47)
[36] Hobsbawm and Ranger (1983), The Invention of Tradition, Sider 1993 Lumbee Indian Histories.
[53] Eric Wolf, 1982, Europe and the People Without History,
Berkeley: University of California Press. 380-381
[54] Wallman, S. Ethnicity research in Britain, Current Anthropology, v. 18, n. 3, 1977, pp. 531532.
[55] A Brief History of the OMB Directive 15. American
Anthropological Association. 1997. Retrieved 2007-0518.
[56] Cohen, Robin (1995). The Cambridge Survey of World
Migration. Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN 0521-44405-5. Wickens, Gerald E; Lowe, Pat (2008). The
Baobabs: Pachycauls of Africa, Madagascar and Australia. Springer Science+Business Media. 2008. p. 360.
ISBN 978-1-4020-6431-9.
10
9 FURTHER READING
Further reading
Healey, Joseph F., and Eileen O'Brien. Race, ethnicity, gender, and class: The sociology of group conict
and change (Sage Publications, 2014)
Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terence Ranger, editors, The
Invention of Tradition. (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1983).
Thomas Hylland Eriksen (1993) Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological Perspectives, London:
Pluto Press
Kappeler, Andreas. The Russian empire: A multiethnic history (Routledge, 2014)
Levinson, David, Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A
Ready Reference Handbook, Greenwood Publishing
Group (1998), ISBN 978-1-57356-019-1.
Merriam, A.P. 1959. African Music, in R. Bascom and, M. J. Herskovits (eds), Continuity and
Change in African Cultures, Chicago, University of
Chicago Press.
Beard, David and Kenneth Gloag. 2005. Musicology, The Key Concepts. London and New York:
Routledge.
Omi, Michael and Howard Winant. Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s.
(New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Inc., 1986).
Billinger, Michael S. (2007), Another Look at Ethnicity as a Biological Concept: Moving Anthropology Beyond the Race Concept, Critique of Anthropology 27,1:535.
Seeger, A. 1987. Why Suy Sing: A Musical Anthropology of an Amazonian People, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.
11
10
External links
12
11
11
11.1
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MertyWiki, Fishstones, Koakhtzvigad, FoxBot, TobeBot, D climacus, Vietskoolboi1023, Lotje, AthinaiosPolitis, Danabodnar, Mummykins1961, Lkjhgfdsa 0, Balaram3, Reach Out to the Truth, Heygirlll3, Mindy Dirt, IANVS, Ripchip Bot, Supergiant111, Ionut Cojocaru, SeanJones8191, EmausBot, Narcosis17, John of Reading, Heracles31, SteenvanJ, Sxoa, NotAnonymous0, Lindsaywinn, Sheeana,
Cmiller7777, Dekker451, HiW-Bot, DiAyd, Jstriker, WeijiBaikeBianji, The Nut, Fernirm, SporkBot, Wayne Slam, Perozdero22, Amanton, Teksus, 55matahari, Isarra, Ubikwit, , L Kensington, Shrigley, Donner60, Adhan24, Usb10, Nightgown22, ChuispastonBot, Neil P.
Quinn, Mjbmrbot, Awewe, ClueBot NG, SpikeTorontoRCP, Ezekiel63745, Vishwas reddy, This lousy T-shirt, Chrisminter, Brennand9,
Frietjes, 123Hedgehog456, Castncoot, BigPrittyNipps, Widr, Antiqueight, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bluetime2003, Metroxed, Festermunk, Hopeandreason, Iamsparta1000, Wheatsing, CannotFindAName, Wiki13, Davidiad, Swi521, Gpyork, Wodrow, MisterCake, Assar, Meclee,
ShanePersaud, Glacialfox, Quigley, Iloverussia, Feifei90802, Eduardofeld, 223fxt, AMS351996, JYBot, Kitteagirl, FonsScientiae, Lugia2453, 93, Kevin12xd, Unicorndick, Jonney2000, Schrauwers, Kelvinkasherwithpie, Mohd Rfus, Lovingoni, FiredanceThroughTheNight,
Abrahamic Faiths, LGtan, DavidLeighEllis, Shellystander, Reiftyr, Netjeret, Mooch025, Dut5, Karakatana, Skr15081997, Oxon123,
Tttt, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Trucksmonk24, HMSLavender, Luveha, Ellen.pilsworth, Roxy Goddard, KcBessy, Tryinhero, Nykterinos, AsberryA95, KasparBot, Domnic joerger234567 and Anonymous: 742
11.2
Images
11.3
Content license
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11.3
Content license