Food Chemistry

Lecture topic - Colour of foods

There are a variety of issues regarding the colours of foods including:
1.

Consumer perceptions that colour of foods is due to additives which are artificial and
dangerous;

2.

The wide range and sources of molecules which contribute to the colour of foods;

3.

Some coloured molecules can also have other functions in foods;

4.

The different regulatory approaches to colour additives around the world;

5.

The varying stabilities of food colours during food processing; and

6.

Recent developments regarding the adverse effects of artificial colorants.

MOTW (available in the folder on the Food Chem website)

Lycopene describes the red pigment found naturally in tomatoes.
Further reading
Coultate 5th edition pp 214-264 (or 3rd edition pp 139-177).
Fennemas Food Chemistry 4th edition pp 571-638 (or 3rd edition pp 651-722).
McCann D, Barrett A, Cooper A, Crumpler D, Dalen L, Grimshaw K, Kitchin E, Lok K,
Porteous L, Prince E, Sonuga-Barke E, Warner JO, Stevenson J. 2007. Food additives
and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a
randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 370:1560-7.
Some other useful sources on colorants
Ash M, Ash I. 2002. Handbook of Food Additives. 2nd ed. Endicott, NY: Synapse Information
Resources. 1079p.
Budavari S, (editor). 2006. The Merck index: an encyclopedia of chemicals, drugs, and
biologicals. 14th ed. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck &Co. 1818 p.
Emerton V. 2008. Ingredients handbook food colours. Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Leatherhead
Publishing and Blackwell Publishing.
Smith J, Hong-Shum L. 2011. Food additives data book. 2nd ed. Oxford, UK: WileyBlackwell. 1099p.

Colour molecules in a food product may be:

1.

Naturally occurring molecules present in the ingredients used in manufacture;

2.

The result of changes to coloured molecules occurring naturally;

3.

Added during manufacture as approved food additives;

4.

Molecules formed during manufacture.

Natural pigments in food ingredients

These are often thought of as the plant pigments, but the coloured molecules in animal tissues
are also important in many foods.

Haeme pigments
Many animal tissues contain pigments having haeme structures (also spelt heme). Examples
are haemoglobin which gives the characteristic red colour of blood as well as the myoglobin
molecules which are the basis of the visual appearance of meat and flesh foods at least prior to
processing or cooking. With these molecules:
1.

The haeme ring containing an iron ion is embedded into a protein structure;

2.

The colour of the molecule depends upon the oxidation state of the iron and can be
manipulated by varying the groups co-ordinating with the iron;

3.

The presence of the protein renders the molecule subject to denaturation as a result of
conditions including heating;

4.

The iron is involved in various oxidation-reduction reactions which may involve

oxygen and can therefore be controlled during processing and by appropriate packaging
approaches; and

5.

Interactions with nitrite added during manufacture can result in stabilisation of colour
in some foods.

The structure of the haeme group (source; Fennema 4th edn p576)

The structure of the myoglobin molecule (source; Fennema 4th edn p576)

Chlorophyll
The structure of the green pigments of plants resembles that of the haeme pigments and with
these molecules:
1.

The metal ion is embedded into the structure is magnesium;

2.

Various forms of the molecule occur in plants, but all function in photosynthesis;

3.

Chlorophyll is associated with other plant pigment within the plant cells and these
others assist in stabilising the chlorophyll;

4.

Chlorophyll is relatively unstable once the plant tissues are disrupted;

5.

Mildly acidic conditions result in release of the magnesium;

6.

Various breakdown products are formed during food processing and these typically are
brown and result in foods having a less attractive colour.

Structure of the chlorophyll molecule

(source; Fennema 4th edn p580)
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Pathways by which chlorophyll breakdown occurs

(source; Fennema 4th edn p581)

Carotenoids
The carotenoids occur in all plants and these molecules:
1.

May be yellow or orange colours;

2.

Are an integral part of the photosynthetic system;

3.

May be classed as either carotenoids or xanthophylls;

4.

Carotenoids do not contain oxygen atoms and are hydrocarbons typically containing
many double bonds in arrangements which allow for extended conjugated structures;

5.

There are more than 450 different carotenoids, with the best known including
lycopene and -carotene;

6.

Some carotenoids are able to act as provitamin A in the human diet;

7.

Xanthophylls also contribute to the appearance of many plant based foods;

8.

The carotenoids are currently the subject of intensive research as they appear to
contribute to health through their antioxidant properties. They are able to react readily
with some of the significant free radicals formed during routine metabolism in the
human body.

Structure of lycopene

Anthocyanins
1.

Occur in most plant foods and particularly in fruits and vegetables where they bestow
dark red and purple colour;

2.

Diverse molecular structures give rise to a wide range of colours which are further
influenced by metal ions and pH of the food;

3.

Many of these colours are relatively unstable.

R
R

O
R

R
R

Riboflavin

OH
HO

OH

OH
N

NH
N
O

Structure of the riboflavin molecule

Australian legal requirements

Under the current Australian New Zealand Food Standards Code (accessible at
www.foodstandards.gov.au) colours are only permitted to be added to particular foods. In
some cases the amount which can be added is limited. The specific standard is 1.3.1 which
covers food additives. The following schedules are taken from this standard:

SCHEDULE 3
Colours permitted in accordance with GMP in processed foods specified in Schedule 1
Numeric Listing
INS Number

Additive Name

100
101
103
120
140
141
150a
150b
150c
150d
153
160a
160c
160d
160e
160f
161a
161b
161c
161d
161e
161f
162
163
164
171
172

Curcumins
Riboflavins
Alkanet (& Alkannin)
Cochineal and carmines
Chlorophylls
Chlorophylls, copper complexes
Caramel I - plain
Caramel II - caustic sulphite process
Caramel III - ammonia process
Caramel IV - ammonia sulphite process
Vegetable carbon
Carotenes
Paprika oleoresins
Lycopene
Carotenal, b-apo-8Carotenoic acid, b-apo-8-, methyl or ethyl esters
Flavoxanthin
Lutein
Kryptoxanthin
Rubixanthan
Violoxanthin
Rhodoxanthin
Beet Red
Anthocyanins
Saffron, crocetin and crocin
Titanium dioxide
Iron oxides

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SCHEDULE 4
Colours permitted to a maximum of 70 mg/L in beverages and 290 mg/kg in foods other
than beverages specified in Schedule 1
Numeric listing
INS Number

Additive name

102
104

Tartrazine
Quinoline yellow

110

Sunset yellow FCF

122

Azorubine / Carmoisine

124

Ponceau 4R

129

Allura red AC

132

Indigotine

133

Brilliant blue FCF

142

Green S

143

Fast green FCF

151
155

Brilliant black BN
Brown HT

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Structures of some colorants

SO3Na
HO
NaO3S

N
N

NaOOC
Tartrazine

O3S

SO3

SO3

H2C

+N

NH2

CH2

CH2CH3

CH2CH3
Brilliant Blue FCF

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Issues in the use of artificial colorants

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Naming systems for additives

In addition to a wide range of chemical names, number codes are also applied to food colours:
Carmoisine
Alternative name: azorubine
INS or E number: 122
US code: Ext D&C Red No 10
CI number (Colour index): 14720
HO
NaO3S

N
N

SO3Na
Structure of carmoisine

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Forms of colorants available

For many of the artificial colorants approved for use in Australia distinct forms can be used.
These are the free form and the lakes of the colorant.

Characteristics of lakes
Solubility, coloration, stability and bleeding

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