Children at School

Education in the countryside, Bosnia, 1960s

he second half of the nineteenth

century brought mass literacy to the
population of the greater part of
Western Europe. That process also started at
that time in the southeast part of the continent. The first law on primary education
was passed in Austria in 1774. Although that
law covered all countries in the then
Habsburg Empire, it did not induce parents
to enroll their children in schools. In fact,
only one child in seven was attending school
in Slovenia at the beginning of the 19th century, while around 30% of children in
Croatia were attending school in the middle
of the 19th century. The school system
underwent major reform in the middle of
the 19th century, when possibilities were
created for education to encompass more
children (such reform started in Hungary in
1868; Slovenia in 1847; Croatia in 1845;

Serbia in 1844; Montengro in 1872; Bulgaria

in 1879; Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878;
Greece in 1833).
Education became legally compulsory in
the second half of the 19th century in most
of those countries, but putting the law into
practice was quite a different matter. Parents
had various reasons for not sending their
children to school. In some cases they did
not have enough money, and they needed
their children as workforce both in the villages and in towns. Sometimes the schools
were far from the places of habitation, and
children were forced to walk a few kilometers there and back, often through woods
and fields, roads being few and far between.
Furthermore, the actual school buildings
were humble structures with neither sufficient teachers nor classrooms for all pupils.
Many of the children of poorer parents did
45

Sunny School, Bosnia, 1960s

not even have suitable clothes or footwear to

set out to school. Given all these reasons,
children were often enrolled in schools but,
for the mentioned reasons, were compelled
to leave before they had completed their
education, as a result of which they gradually forgot how to read and write.
Parents were so poor that few children
actually attended school, despite the fact
that it was compulsory. That was why there
was a high percentage of illiteracy among
the population in virtually all countries of
Southeast Europe at the end of the 19th
century (Hungary 47%, Croatia and
Slavonia 66.9%, Bulgaria 76%, Romania
78%, Greece 80%, Dalmatia 82%, Serbia
86%, Albania 90%, Bosnia and Herzegovina
97%. The situation was similar in
Montenegro and Macedonia). Things started to get better at the beginning of the 20th
century, and matters improved considerably
with literacy campaigns in Southeast
Europe after the Second World War, when
people were educated en masse in most of
Southeast Europe, and eight-year primary

education became compulsory. The initial

results of this mass education were felt in
most countries in the middle of the 1950s,
when the number of illiterate persons
dropped to below 20%.
But fewer parents were prepared to allow
their children to continue on to secondary
and high schools. Saying this, however, we
must bear in mind that up until the Second
World War primary education in most countries had lasted for four years, while the high
schools had lasted for eight years. That
meant that those children that had attended
primary school actually ended their education at the age of 12 and could, in fact, only
read and write. And such a level was sufficient for jobs that did not require any con-

Questions
5.1. Find excerpts describing education in
the literature or memoirs of your country.
5.2 How is that education described? Is it
similar to what you have experienced?

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Up until the middle of the 19th century, church schools and monasteries were rare oases of literacy
in the Balkans.

siderable education, and poorer parents did

not consider it necessary to send their children on to further education. University
education was even more rare and largescale university education did not begin
until after the Second World War, when
industrial production created the need for
experts and highly skilled personnel.
Parents were even less willing to educate
girls than boys. In large families (see the
chapter entitled Children in the Family),
parents would decide to educate only the
most capable male children, being forced to
do so for material reasons. It was considered
sufficient for girls to learn to perform
household duties that would ensure them a
good marriage. Another reason for the

unwillingness to educate girls was that fact

that women did not have the same work
rights in most countries, and therefore it
was not worthwhile educating them.
Those were the reasons why illiteracy was far
more widespread amongst girls than boys.
Schools for girls were opened in almost all
Southeast European countries in the middle
of the 19th century, but those schools were
most frequently private and not compulsory. Boys and girls attended separate schools,
except in those cases where there were insufficient schools or teachers. Most countries
did not start paying major attention to the
education of girls until the end of the 19th
century. For example, a state school for girls
was established in Greece in 1889 on the
basis of a new law, although female education had been stipulated in the laws of 1834
and 1877. Boys and girls became entitled to
equal education in Slovenia after the reform
of 1870, but the first higher school for girls
in Croatia was opened in 1868. Similar institutions were later established in Karlovac,
Varadin, Poega, Osijek and Djakovo. The
first grammar school for girls was opened in
Zagreb in 1892, and it was the first school
for female secondary education in Austria-

Recommendation
Prepare facts and figures about the history of schooling in your country and show
how the rate of literacy has increased.
Look for information about how the state
has created an educated elite by providing
scholarships for students at home and in
other countries.

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A gymnazium, Croatia, beginning of 20th century

Regulation of Order
and Discipline for
High-schools and
Gymnasiums (1866)

Hungary. Secondary education for girls

(from the age of 12) was introduced in
Hungary in 1895, while equality of education for both sexes was stipulated in the
Bulgarian Trnovo Constitution of 1879. The
first Serbian private school for girls was
founded in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1858,
the first such Catholic school in 1878 and in
the first such Muslim school in 1897.
Equality of education has existed in
Romania since in the middle of the 19th
century, but, like in other countries, it was
usually private and not compulsory. The
first primary school for girls in Serbia was
established in Parain in 1845, and the curricula in schools for boys and girls had been
made identical in the law dating back to
1871. A higher school for girls was opened in
Belgrade in 1863. Institutes for girls education were formed in Montenegro in 1869
and in Albania in 1887. The doors of universities were opened to women in most countries at the end of the 19th century.

Art. 20 For every class the students will

bring the books, the notebooks, the papers,
and all the other necessary materials for the
learning process; they will keep them tidy,
unbroken, and in good condition. Other
unnecessary books will not only be tolerated, but also confiscated.
During the classes, students will keep
quiet and will listen very attentively the
teachers explanations. Any noise, whispering or other signs of disorder are severely
forbidden.
Art. 45 Above all, students have the duty
to respect and obey the teachers [] whom
they will salute when met, and whom they
will follow the advice.

D.S.
48

Art. 48 Modesty and restraint are the

qualities that ennoble the youngsters, everywhere and every time; therefore, both in
public and in private places, the students
will behave accordingly, without giving the
reason to start a scandal that can bring
about punishments.
Art. 50 It is strictly forbidden for students
to write or draw on the school walls, doors
or windows and furniture. The offenders
will be obliged to pay for the damage, and,
according to the gravity of the case, they will
become objects for other punishments. In
the case when nobody will be found responsible for the damage, all the class will be
punished.
Art. 51 It is forbidden for students to wear
extravagant clothes.
Art. 56 It is forbidden for students to visit
public balls, cafes, [...] not even accompanied
by their parents. They are allowed to visit
public gardens or promenades, only accompanied by their parents.
Art. 57 Playing cards, billiard, or any

other gambling activities, which kidnap

time and money, are strictly forbidden.
Art. 58 Going to the theatre is allowed to
students, but only if accompanied by their
parents. Diligent students may go to the
theatre on some holidays with the principals approval, but only escorted by a teacher
from the school.
Art. 59 Smoking is strictly forbidden
both in public places and at home, and without any exception inside school and its surroundings.
Art. 63 Without any exception, it is forbidden for students to write articles for
newspapers and journals, either political or
literary ones.
Art. 119 The holidays for high-schools
and gymnasiums are the following:
Summer holiday, beginning July, 1st,
until the end of August;
Christmas holiday, 8 days, until January,
2nd ;
Easter holidays, 15 days;
Every Sunday during the year;

A primer, The Peoples Republic of Macedonia, 1945.

49

On the way to school, Bosnia 1930

Regulation of Order
and Discipline for
Primary Schools
(1870)

Religious (Orthodox Christian) holidays:

The Birth of Maria, September, 8th;
Ascension of the Holly Cross, September,
14th; Saint Dimitrie, October, 26th; Saint
Mihail and Gavril, November, 8th; Marias
Entering the Church, November, 21st; Saint
Nicolae, December, 6th; The Jesus Baptize,
January, 6th; Saint Ioan, January, 7th; Saints
Three Earaches Vasile cel Mare, Gregorie
Tologul and Ioan Crisostom, January, 30th;
The Welcoming of Jesus, February, 2nd;
Good-Announcement, March, 25th; Saint
Gheorghe, April, 23rd; The Jesus Ascension,
40 days after the Easter, Saint Emperors
Constantin and Elena, May, 21st; The Birth
Of Ioan the Baptizer, June, 24th .
Except for these holidays, there will be
days off on national holidays.

Art.1 For urban primary schools the

school year begins at August, 15th, and ends
in June; for rural primary schools the school
year begins at September, 1st, and ends in
June.
Art.4 Boys and girls younger than 7 years
old will not be admitted. For the mixed rural
schools, where girls are studying together
with boys, girls older than 12 years old will
not be admitted.
Art.9 Except for the prescribed holidays,
schools for boys will have Thursday afternoon a day off, while for the schools for
girls, the day off will be on Saturday afternoon.
Art.13 Unjustified and late arriving at
school, after the beginning of the classes,

(Source: Ioan M. Bujoreanu, Colectiune de legiuirile

Romaniaei vechi si noi cate s-au promulgat pana la finele
anului 1870, Bucuresti, Noua Tipografie a Laboratorilor
Romani, Romania, 1873, pp.1858-1864)

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Village school, Galinik, now in FY Republic of Macedonia, 1920

will bring a punishment for the pupil to

stand up for a quarter of an hour, and in the
case of repeated occurrence, the punishment
will be doubled and hardened.
Art.14 At the fixed moment for the beginning of the classes, the bell will ring, and
pupils, entering their respective classrooms,
will sit down at their assigned places, and
they will not be able to change it without the
permission of the school teacher.
Art.16 At the moment when the school
teacher enters the classroom, all the pupils
have to stand up; the same applies when
another important person enters the room.
Art.18 After calling the roll, the school
teacher will inspect the class in order to
notice if the pupils are well dressed and
clean, and if the books and all the other
materials are in good condition. Those children who are not fulfilling the requirements
will be criticized or kept standing.
Art.19 During the class, pupils have to
keep quiet and to pay attention at the
teachers explanations. For every noise, whisper or disorder, pupils will be kept standing.

Art.28 In order to help the teachers work

and to maintain the discipline in the overcrowded classes, a monitor will be designated for a certain number of children. The
monitors will be chosen from the older and
diligent pupils.
Art.29 The monitors duties are the following:
to check pupils homework, and to mark
the knowledge or non-knowledge on a piece
of paper, which later will be handed to the
teacher;
to watch for the order and discipline in
the classroom, and to note the ones who are
responsible for the lack of discipline.
Art.36 Learning, behavior and practical
work for girls will be graded with marks
ranging from 1 to 10.
Art.40 Pupils who will forget their duties
and will ignore the rules for order and discipline will be punished.
However, it is forbidden to apply degrading punishments such as kneeling, pulling
the hair, slapping on the face, or beating with
the rod, and other punishments like these.
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Upon the gravity of the case, the punishments to be administered to pupils of both
genders are:
Particular admonishment or blame in
front of the class;
Standing up in an isolated place, in front
of the other pupils for quarter of an hour up
to one hour an a half;
Banning of going home for lunch;
Low grades for behavior in the school register;
Arresting the child up to three hours, not
during the classes, nor during the night. In
the arrest place the child will be obliged to
copy or memorize a passage from a book.
Informing the parents, in order for them
to take adequate measures for mending the
childs ways.
Temporary casting out from school, when
the child did not improve his/her behavior
after 3-4 periods of arrest and after informing the parents. This measure will apply for
minimum one and maximum three weeks,
according to the gravity of the case.
Permanent casting out from the school,
after all the measures mentioned above did
not lead to an improvement in the childs
behavior, and when his/her presence in the
class will constitute a scandal and a way of

corruption for the other pupils; or after

he/she repeated the same grade for three
years, without proving any little evidence of
diligence and progress.
Art.42 There are two types of rewardsdaily and monthly. The rewards for praiseworthy children are the following:
The place of honor in the classroom;
Praising them in front of the other children;
The appointment as monitors as long as
he/she deserves it.
Art. 86 For each grade, the prizes are the
following:
1st Prize with coronet granted to only
one pupil;
2nd Prize granted to three pupils who
have the best grades after the one who gets
the 1st prize;
3rd Prize granted to 5 pupils who have
the best grades after those who get the 2nd
prize.
( Source: Ioan M. Bujoreanu, Colectiune de legiuirile
Romaniaei vechi si noi cate s-au promulgat pana la finele
anului 1870, Bucuresti, Noua Tipografie a Laboratorilor
Romani, Romania, 1873, pp. 1875-1880)

Corporal punishment was common in schools.

52

Playground in school for girls in Zagreb, Croatiam beginning of 20th century

White Days-Black
Days

Recollections from
Childhood
(19th century)

At our school, one could not talk about

discipline. The pupils were standing up
straight in front of our teacher. However, for
the behavior outside the school, that is in
society, Constantin Spanesteanu set up
judging courts formed by diligent pupils
with good behavior. We were not allowed to
steal, to swear, to beat each other, or to use
bad words. For each offence there was a certain punishment and every case was judged
by childrens court. Only the severer punishments were to be known by the teacher. If
the teacher administered a punishment for
an offense related to learning, it was easier
to bear it by the guilty one, and his/her
friends could have pitied him/her. However,
a punishment given by the childrens court,
that is by the class representatives, was the
biggest shame ever.

...And the first schoolgirl was

Smarandita, the daughter of the village
priest, a frolicsome girl, very smart and very
diligent, that she outran almost all the boys
not only in learning, but also in naughtiness.[...] One day, we found ourselves in
school, watching the priest who was bringing a new, long chair. After asking our
teacher about our behavior, the priest
reflected for a while, and then he gave a
name to the new chair
Calul Balan
(White Horse), and left it in the classroom.
Some other day, the priest came again to
school [...], and brought a gift for the new
school, a nice little scourge, and the priest
gave it a name Sfantul Nicolae(Saint
Nicolas), the same as the name of our
church from Humulesti village. The teacher
smiled, but we, the pupils, remained with

Nichifor Crainic, Romania

53

Christmas in nursery school, Zagreb, Croatia, beginning of 20th century

our eyes wide open. And the priest said that

from now on the rule will be the following:
every Saturday the teacher should test the
girls and boys upon the learning material
covered the entire week, and for each mistake, a sign shall be made on the paper; and
in the very end for each mistake... one whipping with Saint Nicolas will be administered
to the pupils. That was the moment when
the priests daughter, in her naughty way,
bursts into laugh: Poor girl!
Come here and ride the White Horse,
you, young lady! said the priest [...]
And when we all saw this, we remained
astounded. And, today and tomorrow, coming from the Church with holy bread and
giving it to everybody, the priest succeeded
to discipline us, and everything worked very
well.
Ion Creanga , Romania

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