Textile

A textile is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres often referred
to as thread or yarn. Yarn is produced by spinning raw wool fibres, linen, cotton, or other
material on a spinning wheel to produce long strands. Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting,
crocheting, knotting, or pressing fibres together (felt).
The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and
dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in
specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres. Fabric refers to any
material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding. Cloth refers to a
finished piece of fabric that can be used for a purpose such as covering a bed.
All synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing.
Polyester fibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.
Aramid fibre (e.g. Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armor.
Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of pantyhose. Thicker nylon
fibres are used in rope and outdoor cloth
Production methods
Weaving is a textile production method which involves interlacing a set of longer threads (called
the warp) with a set of crossing threads (called the weft). This is done on a frame or machine
known as a loom, of which there are a number of types. Some weaving is still done by hand, but
the vast majority is mechanised.
Knitting and crocheting involve interlacing loops of yarn, which are formed either on a knitting
needle or on a crochet hook, together in a line. The two processes are different in that knitting
has several active loops at one time, on the knitting needle waiting to interlock with another loop,
while crocheting never has more than one active loop on the needle.
Textile manufacturing is a major industry. It is based in the conversion of three types of fibre
into yarn, then fabric, then textiles. These are then fabricated into clothes or other artifacts.
Cotton remains the most important natural fibre, so is treated in depth. There are many variable
processes available at the spinning and fabric-forming stages coupled with the complexities of
the finishing and colouration processes to the production of a wide ranges of products. There
remains a large industry that uses hand techniques to achieve the same results.

Finishing- processing of textiles

The grey cloth,woven cotton fabric in its loom-state, not only contains impurities, including
warp size, but requires further treatment in order to develop its full textile potential. Furthermore,
it may receive considerable added value by applying one or more finishing processes.

Desizing
Depending on the size that has been used, the cloth may be steeped in a dilute acid and
then rinsed, or enzymes may be used to break down the size.

Scouring
Scouring, is a chemical washing process carried out on cotton fabric to remove
natural wax and non-fibrous impurities (eg the remains of seed fragments) from
the fibres and any added soiling or dirt. Scouring is usually carried in iron vessels
called kiers. The fabric is boiled in an alkali, which forms a soap with free fatty
acids (saponification). A kier is usually enclosed, so the solution of sodium
hydroxide can be boiled under pressure, excluding oxygen which would degrade
the cellulose in the fibre. If the appropriate reagents are used, scouring will also
remove size from the fabric although desizing often precedes scouring and is
considered to be a separate process known as fabric preparation. Preparation and
scouring are prerequisites to most of the other finishing processes. At this stage
even the most naturally white cotton fibres are yellowish, and bleaching, the next
process, is required.
Bleaching

Bleaching improves whiteness by removing natural coloration and remaining trace

impurities from the cotton; the degree of bleaching necessary is determined by the
required whiteness and absorbency. Cotton being a vegetable fibre will be bleached using
an oxidizing agent, such as dilute sodium hydrochlorite or dilute hydrogen peroxide. If
the fabric is to be dyed a deep shade, then lower levels of bleaching are acceptable, for
example. However, for white bed sheetings and medical applications, the highest levels
of whiteness and absorbency are essential.[
Mercerising
A further possibility is mercerizing during which the fabric is treated with caustic soda
solution to cause swelling of the fibres. This results in improved lustre, strength and dye
affinity. Cotton is mercerized under tension, and all alkali must be washed out before the
tension is released or shrinkage will take place. Mercerizing can take place directly on
grey cloth, or after bleaching.
Many other chemical treatments may be applied to cotton fabrics to produce low
flammability, crease resist and other special effects but four important non-chemical
finishing treatments are:

Singeing

Singeing is designed to burn off the surface fibres from the fabric to produce smoothness.
The fabric passes over brushes to raise the fibres, then passes over a plate heated by gas
flames.
Calendering

Calendering is the third important mechanical process, in which the fabric is passed
between heated rollers to generate smooth, polished or embossed effects depending on
roller surface properties and relative speeds.
Shrinking (Sanforizing)

Finally, mechanical shrinking (sometimes referred to as sanforizing), whereby the fabric

is forced to shrink width and/or lengthwise, creates a fabric in which any residual
tendency to shrink after subsequent laundering is minimal.
Dyeing

Finally, cotton is an absorbent fibre which responds readily to colouration processes.

Dyeing, for instance, is commonly carried out with an anionic direct dye by completely
immersing the fabric (or yarn) in an aqueous dyebath according to a prescribed
procedure. For improved fastness to washing, rubbing and light, other dyes such as vats
and reactives are commonly used. These require more complex chemistry during
processing and are thus more expensive to apply.
Printing
Printing, on the other hand, is the application of colour in the form of a paste or ink to the
surface of a fabric, in a predetermined pattern. It may be considered as localised dyeing.
Printing designs on to already dyed fabric is also possible.

Textile Nanotechnology
It can be classified in two main areas of interest: (a) applications of nanotechnology in fibers
and yarn production and, (b) applications in fabric finishing ( Fig. ). It is well known that the
fabrics made of natural cotton fibers and those made of man-made synthetic fibers have their
own advantages and limitations. For example, the cotton fabrics provide desirable comfort
properties such as absorbency, breathability and softness. However, their applications often are
limited due to their inferior strength, durability, crease resistance, dirt resistance, and flame
resistance. Contrary to that, the fabrics made with synthetic fibers generally are very
strong, crease resistant and dirt resistant, but they lack the comfort properties of cotton fabrics

Functional Properties
Water proof, wind-tight, breathable, humidity transport etc, optimized material properties,
.colour fastness, tensile and abrasion resistance, heat-proof, cold- resistant.
Water repellence
Nano-Tex improves the water-repellent property of fabric by creating nano-whiskers, which are
hydrocarbons and 1/1000 of the size of a typical cotton fibre, that are added to the fabric to
create a peach fuzz effect without lowering the strength of cotton. The spaces between the
whiskers on the fabric are smaller than the typical drop of water, but still larger than water
molecules; water thus remains on the top of the whiskers and above the surface of the fabric .
However, liquid can still pass through the fabric, if pressure is applied. The performance is
permanent while maintaining breathability. Apart from Nano-Tex, the Swiss-based textile
company Schoeller developed the NanoSphere to make water-repellent fabrics. NanoSphere
impregnation involves a three-dimensional surface structure with gel-forming additives which
repel water and prevent dirt particles from attaching themselves. The mechanism is similar to the
lotus effect occurring in nature, as demonstrated in Figure. Lotus plants have superhydrophobic
surfaces which are rough and textured. Once water droplets fall onto them, water droplets bead
up and, if the surface slopes slightly, will roll off. As a result, the surfaces stay dry even during a
heavy shower. Furthermore, the droplets pick up small particles of dirt as they roll, and so
the leaves of the lotus plant keep clean even during light rain. On the other hand, a hydrophobic
property can be imparted to a cotton fabric by coating it with a thin nano particulate plasma film.

The audio frequency plasma of some kinds of fluorocarbon chemical was applied to deposit a
nanoparticulate hydrophobic film onto a cotton fabric surface to improve its water
repellent property. Super hydrophobicity was obtained due the roughness of the fabric surface,
without affecting the softness and abrasion resistance of cotton fabric.

UV-protection
Inorganic UV blockers are more preferable to organic UV blockers as they are non-toxic and
chemically stable under exposure to both high temperatures and UV. Inorganic UV blockers are
usually certain semiconductor oxides such as TiO2, ZnO, SiO2 and Al2O3. Among these
semiconductor oxides, titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO) ] are commonly used. It
was determined that nano-sized titanium dioxide and zinc oxide were more efficient at absorbing
and scattering UV radiation than the conventional size-[[?]], and were thus better able to block
UV . This is due to the fact that nano-particles have a larger surface area per unit mass and
volume than the conventional materials, leading to the increase of the effectiveness of blocking
UV radiation. For small particles, light scattering predominates at approximately one-tenth of the
wavelength of the scattered light. Rayleighs scattering theory stated that the scattering was
strongly dependent upon the wavelength, where the scattering was inversely proportional to the
wavelength to the fourth power. This theory predicts that in order to scatter UV radiation
between 200 and 400 nm, the optimum particle size will be between 20 and 40 nm. Various
research works on the application of UV-blocking treatment to fabric using nanotechnology
were conducted. UV-blocking treatment for cotton fabrics was developed using the sol-gel
method. A thin layer of titanium dioxide is formed on the surface of the treated cotton fabric

which provides excellent UV-protection; the effect can be maintained after 50 home launderings.
Apart from titanium dioxide, zinc oxide nanorods of 10 to 50 nm in length were applied to
cotton fabric to provide UV protection. According to the study of the UV-blocking effect, the
fabric treated with zinc oxide nanorods demonstrated an excellent UV protective factor (UPF)
rating.
Titanium dioxide is a photocatalyst; once it is illuminated by light with energy higher than its
band gaps, the electrons in TiO2 will jump from the valence band to the conduction band, and the
electron (e-) and electric hole (h+) pairs will form on the surface of the photocatalyst. The
negative electrons and oxygen will combine into O2 -; the positive electric holes and water will
generate hydroxyl radicals. Since both are unstable chemical substances, when the organic
compound falls on the surface of the photocatalyst it will combine with O2 - and OHrespectively, and turn into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). This cascade reaction is called
oxidation-reduction, and the mechanism is shown in Figure. Through the reaction, the
photocatalyst is able to decompose common organic matters in the air such as odour molecules,
bacteria and viruses. It was determined that a fabric treated with nano-TiO2 could provide
effective protection against bacteria and the discoloration of stains, due to the photocatalytic
activity of nano-TiO2. On the other hand, zinc oxide is also a photocatalyst, and the
photocatalysis mechanism is similar to that of titanium dioxide; only the band gap (ZnO: 3.37eV,
TiO2: 3.2eV) is different from titanium dioxide. Nano-ZnO provides effective photocatalytic
properties once it is illuminated by light, and so it is employed to impart anti-bacterial properties
to textiles.
Anti-bacterial activity of Ag NP
The mechanism of inhibitory action of Ag nano particles on michroorganism is partially known
It is believed that DNA losses its replication activity and cellular proteins became
inactivated on Ag+ treatment.
Ag +binds to functional group of proteins, resulting in protein denaturation.
Action as a biocide. A ve ly charged bacterial cell wall to + ve ly charged is
crucial for the activities of bactericidal properties of nano particle. It is assumed
that there is some interaction between cell wall and Ag NP bulding elements of
causing structural changes, degradation and finally cell death.
It is clear that treated bacteria also show significant changes in and damage to
membranes, which are recognized by the formation of pits on their surfaces
from tightly packed lipopolysaccharide (LPS) molecules, which provide an
effective permeability barrier. Recently, it is shown that metal depletion may
cause the formation of irregular-shaped pits in the outer membrane and changed
membrane permeability, which is caused by progressive release of LPS molecules
and membrane proteins. We may speculate that a similar mechanism causes the
degradation of the membrane structure of E. coli during treatment with silver
nanoparticles.

For imparting anti-bacterial properties, nano-sized silver , titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are
used. Metallic ions and metallic compounds display a certain degree of sterilizing effect. It is
considered that part of the oxygen in the air or water is turned into active oxygen by means
of catalysis with the metallic ion, thereby dissolving the organiic substance to create a sterilising
effect . With the use of nano-sized particles, the number of particles per unit area is increased,
and thus anti-bacterial effects can be maximized. Nano-silver particles have an extremely large
relative surface area, thus increasing their contact with bacteria or fungi, and vastly improving
their bactericidal and fungicidal effectiveness. Nano-silver is very reactive with proteins. When
contacting bacteria and fungus, it will adversely affect cellular metabolism and inhibit cell
growth. It also suppresses respiration, the basal metabolism of the electron transfer system, and
the transport of the substrate into the microbial cell membrane. Furthermore, it inhibits the
multiplication and growth of those bacteria and fungi which cause infection, odour, itchiness
and sores. Hence, nano-silver particles are widely applied to socks in order to prohibit the growth
of bacteria. In addition, nano-silver can be applied to a range of other healthcare products such as
dressings for burns, scald, skin donor and recipient sites.

Anti-microbial properties
Anti-microbial agents are used to prevent three undesirable effects in textiles. The first includes
the degradation phenomena like coloring, staining and deterioration of fibers [46]. Because of
their dye degradation potential, even some fungus can be used for removing dye from textile
effluent [7]. The second one produces unpleasant odor [810] and the third effect is the increase
of potential health risks [1113]. The conventional fibers and polymers not only show no
resistance against micro-organisms and materials generated from their metabolism but also are
most commonly prone to accumulation, multiplication and proliferation of micro-organisms
into their surrounding environment. In fact, several factors such as suitable temperature and
humidity, presence of dust, soil, spilled food and drink stains, skin dead cells, sweat and oil

secretions of skin gland, also finishing materials on the textile surfaces can make textile optimal
enrichment cultures for a rapid multiplication of micro-organisms.

Textiles coloration
The SDCB
nanoparticles can be
applied in
coloration of some
natural and
synthetic fibers
through an
exhaustion process
without
addition of dispersing
agents and
binders. The
exhaustion
rate of the
nanoparticles by the
fabrics is
very low due to the
fact that
only a small portion of the nanoparticles is dispersed in singular particle form. The SDCB
nanoparticle-dyed cotton fabrics were relatively vulnerable to washing due to soluble features of
the treated nanoparticles. The color crocking fastness of the dyed fabrics was much better than
wash fastness, indicating the penetration of the nanoparticles into fibers.
Shrinkage Proof
The shrinkage of the untreated fabrics in both the warp and the weft direction is larger than that
of the treated fabrics.. This result is because the yarn of the untreated fabrics is stretched taut
during weaving, whereas the treated fabrics have reactive polymers completely covering the
fiber scales or an even layer of protective thin membrane formed over the surface. In turn, the
latter would make the tightness of the yarn, the structure of the fabric, and weaving density more
restrictive to the movement of individual fibers. Under such circumstances, the fibers in the
treated fabric would, of course, become much more resistant to outside forces and not glide
against each other; that is, the fabric would become more shrink-proof . Therefore, when the
osmosis of chitosan in fabric is better, the area covered by chitosan NP on the surface of the fiber
becomes larger. Nanochitosan-treated fabric has better shrink-proofing properties. It was noticed
also that shrinkage in the warp direction was always greater than that in the weft direction. This
difference is because the warp yarn is stretched more tightly than the weft yarn during weaving,
which is also the main reason why woollen fabrics are prone to shrink when heated.
Antistatic
When temperature increases, humidity will decrease resulting in increase in surface resistivity.
This is due to the fact that when temperature increases moisture content in textile materials will

decrease resulting in decrease in conductivity. When textile materials are coated with organic dye
such as methyl red they dont make much change in the surface resistivity of the materials it
may be due to the fact that there may not be much change in conductivity. But metal oxide
coating in textile materials increases the conductivity of the material. So due to increase in
conductivity, resistivity will decrease. We know that, for semiconducting materials energy gap is
high, compare to conducting materials. For nano phase semiconducting materials the energy gap
is slightly high, compare to ordinary phase due to Bohr exciton radius. So for nano TiO2
conductivity is less, compare to bulk TiO2. When TiO2 is coated with methyl red in the presence
of UV light, TiO2 may oxidize the methyl red with almost complete mineralization of carbon and
nitrogen heteroatoms into CO2, NH4+ , , and NO3- . For nano TiO2 more number of particles
may be involved in the oxidizing of methyl red. So, the mobility of ions may cause oxidize the
methyl red with almost complete mineralization of carbon and nitrogen decrease the surface
resistivity compared to ordinary TiO2 with methyl red.
Static charge usually builds up in synthetic fibres such as nylon and polyester because they
absorb little water. Cellulosic fibres have higher moisture content to carry away static charges, so
that no static charge will accumulate. As synthetic fibres provide poor anti-static properties,
research work concerning the improvement of the anti-static properties of textiles by using
nanotechnology were conducted. It was determined that nano-sized titanium dioxide , zinc oxide
whiskers , nano antimony-doped tin oxide (ATO) and silane nanosol could impart anti-static
properties to synthetic fibres. TiO2, ZnO and ATO provide anti-static effects because they are
electrically conductive materials. Such material helps to effectively dissipate the static charge
which is accumulated on the fabric. On the other hand, silane nanosol improves anti-static
properties, as the silane gel particles on fibre absorb water and moisture in the air by amino and
hydroxyl groups and bound water. Nanotechnology has been applied in manufacturing an antistatic garment. W.L. Gore and Associates GmbH used nanotechnology and
polytetrafluroethylene (PTEE-Duponts Teflon) to develop an anti-static membrane for
protective clothing. GoreTex I Workwear protects the wearer from electrostatic discharges.
Electrically conductive nano-particles are durably anchored in the fibrils of the Gore-Tex I
membrane of Teflon, creating an electrically conductive network that prevents the formation of
isolated chargeable areas and voltage peaks commonly found in conventional anti-static
materials. This method can overcome the limitation of conventional methods, which is that the
anti-static agent is easily washed off after a few laundry cycles.
Wrinkle resistance
To impart wrinkle resistance to fabric, resin is commonly used in conventional methods.
However, there are limitations to applying resin, including a decrease in the tensile strength of
fibre, abrasion resistance, water absorbency and dyeability, as well as breathability. To overcome
the limitations of using resin, some researchers employed nano-titanium dioxide and nano-silica
to improve the wrinkle resistance of cotton and silk respectively. Nano-titanium dioxide was
employed with carboxylic acid as a catalyst under UV irradiation to catalyse the cross-linking
reaction between the cellulose molecule and the acid. On the other hand, nano-silica was applied
with maleic anhydride as a catalyst; the results showed that the application of nano-silica with
maleic anhydride could successfully improve the wrinkle resistance of silk.

Thermal Resistance
Thermal analysis was done for aramid sample. From simple burn test we observe that uncoated
sample (100mm*20mm) burns in 19sec and when sample incorporated with dye and nano TiO2
burn in 27 sec. Surface resistivity of these materials explains that resistivity is low for aramid
and it reduces further when incorporated with methyl red dye and nano TiO2. So aramid sample
incorporated with methyl red dye and nano TiO2 prove to have better antistatic property. So
aramid samples exhibits high resistance to thermal and electrical shocks.
Smart Textile
The combination of nano-fibrils and strengthening fibers can be used for producing nonwoven
fabrics for tissue engineering. By enforcing small amount of nano-fibers/particles in polymer
matrix several nano-composites are being developed. By using melt spinning process
polypropylene/nano-carbon fiber composites are spun that are capable of enhancing the modulus,
compressive strength, and dispersion properties of the polymers significantly. Optimal
crystallization and orientation of nanofibers yield excellent properties for micro-filtration
applications in the medical field. By suspending nano-antimony doped tin oxide particles during
the fiber spinning process antistatic polyacrylonitrile fiber has been developed.
Smell release or odour control,advanced wearing comfort and heat insulation, reflection
materials, EM fieldprotection, UV protection.
The examples of e-textiles or smart textiles are:
1. Shirts used to monitor soldier location and status in the battlefield. One of the biggest
problems for medics evidently is locating a soldier's wound and determining his vital
signs in battlefield chaos. A uniform that monitors the soldier's vital signs can wirelessly
relay the exact location of the soldier and the wound, saving a lot of valuable time - and
lives.
2. A shirt designed for premature babies that can monitor vital signs and heat or cool the
infant by up to .03oC.
3. A SmartShirt that monitors heart rate, EKG, and torso damage.
4. Garments to span the widest range of conditions possible - from tropical rain forest to
high alpine situations and includes Power Dry. These garments can be used for midlayer pants and a jacket due to superior thermal properties and packability.
5. Conductive polyaniline/poly(methyl methacrylate) (PANI/PMMA) coaxial nanofibres are
prepared by depositing a thin layer (about 40 nm) of PANI on the surface of a pre-formed
PMMA nanofibre which is evaluated as a high surface area gas sensor. Due to its high
surface area and porous structure, it showed a faster detection response than previously
reported thin film and polymer blend gas sensors.
Intelligent textile
New raw materials, additional electronic functions .

Coating is a common technique used to apply nano-particles onto textiles. The coating
compositions that can modify the surface of textiles are usually composed of nano-particles, a
surfactant, ingredients and a carrier medium. Several methods can apply coating onto fabrics,
including spraying, transfer printing, washing, rinsing and padding. Of these methods, padding is
the most commonly used . The nano-particles are attached to the fabrics with the use of a padder
adjusted to suitable pressure and speed, followed by drying and curing. The properties imparted
to textiles using nanotechnology include water repellence, soil resistance, wrinkle resistance,
anti-bacteria, anti-static and UV-protection, flame retardation, improvement of dyeability and so
on.
CNT coated
a new generation of bullet proof vests and anti-ballistic materials that are much more effective
than those in use today;
clothing that could store electrical energy, much like a battery, and be used to power various
electrical devices;
synthetic muscles capable of generating 100 times the force of the same diameter natural
muscle;
distributed fibre sensors to monitor the movement and health of first responders to
emergencies;
a power source for spacecraft on long voyages through conversion of thermal energy to
electrical energy using CNT-containing fibres.
multifunctional fibres for micro air vehicles the size of an insect that could replace current,
much larger military drones used to gather intelligence remotely.
Conductive electrospun fibres reinforced with CNTs could provide new materials
for use in high surface area electrodes and membranes. Applications include use
as high area electrodes for organic photovoltaic devices and sensor systems for
the detection and filtration of chemical and biological agents.

Nanofibers
Nanofibers can be defined as fibers with a diameter of less than 1mm or 1000nm. The majority
of nanofibers are produced by the electrospinning processa process that has been used to spin
fibers since the early 1930s. In this process a charged polymer melt is extruded through a small
nozzle. The charged solution is drawn toward a grounded collecting plate. As the jet of charged
melt travels, the solvent evaporates, leaving a non-woven nanofiber mat on a substratum. The
process can be altered to produce fibers with different diameters. Nanofibers are characterized as
having a high surface area to volume ratio and a small pore size in fabric form.
There are numerous applications in which nanofibers could be suited. The high surface area to
volume ratio and small pore size allows viruses and spore-forming bacterium such as Anthrax to
be trapped. Filtration devices and wound dressings are just some of the applications in which
nanofibers could be utilized.
In the electrospinning process, nanofibers with diameters as small as 4nm can be produced.
Researchers are investigating the possibility of using nanofibers with diameters in the 4nm range

as a replacement for a diseased or damaged artery, capable of emulating some of the natural
biological processes of the arterial wall.
Nanocomposite Fibers
A composite is a material that combines one or more separate components. Composites are
designed to exhibit the best properties of each component. One of the most challenging aspects
of current research is to obtain an even and thorough dispersion of the nanomaterial within the
composite. Nanocomposite fibers are produced by dispersing nanosize fillers into a fiber matrix.
Nanofillers can be distributed in a polymer matrix through either a mechanical or chemical
process. Common fillers include nanoparticles, graphite nanofibers (GNF) or carbon nanotubes
(CNT) into a fiber matrix. Depending on the kind of nanomaterial used and the amount and
distribution of the nanomaterialthe mechanical, electrical, optical or biological properties of
the textile can be altered.
Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles include clay, metal oxides and carbon black. Although some of these materials
have been utilized in the textile industry for decades, reducing them to the nanosize is recent and
has resulted in fibers with better performance properties than in the past.
Clay nanoparticles are resistant to heat, chemicals and electricity, and have the ability to block
UV light. Incorporating clay nanoparticles into a textile can result in a fabric with improved
tensile strength, tensile modulus, flexural strength and flexural modulus. Nanocomposite fibers
which utilize clay nanoparticles can be engineered to be flame, UV light resistant and anticorrosive.
Producing flame resistant fabric has been an ongoing challenge in the textile industry. If
untreated, synthetic fibers melt and drip when exposed to high heat. Although there have been a
number of flame retardant finishes available since the 1970s, the emission of toxic gasses when
set ablaze make them somewhat hazardous. Clay nanoparticles have been incorporated into
nylon to impart flame retardant characteristics to the textile without the emission of toxic gas.
Clay nanoparticles have been used to improve the dyeabilty of polypropylene. Polypropylene is
notoriously difficult to dye. The lack of dye attracting sites within the fiber makes it difficult to
dye using traditional dyeing procedures and dyes; however, the addition of clay nanoparticles has
made polypropylene dyeable. Before extrusion, clay nanoparticles treated with ammonium salt
are mixed with polypropylene. The resulting composite fiber has dye attracting sites with dye
holding space, allowing the fiber to be dyed.
Other nanoparticles include metal oxides such as TiO2, Al2O3, ZnO, ATO and MgO. Once in the
nanosize range, metal oxides are inherently photocatalytic, electrically conductive, UV
absorptive, and photo-oxidizing against chemical and biological species. Swimwear fabric has
been developed by incorporating ZnO into nylon to produce composite fibers that shield UV

light and have anti-static properties. Composite fibers incorporating nanoparticles of both TiO2
and MgO have produced fabrics that are self-sterilizing.
Carbon Black Nanoparticles and Graphite Nanofibers (GNF)
Carbon black nanoparticles and GNFs are some of the most commonly used nanofillers in the
textile industry. Carbon black nanoparticles improve the resulting composite fibers abrasion
resistance and toughness. Composite fibers which incorporate GNFs have improved tensile
strength. Polyester, nylon and polyethylene have been used as the matrices for both of these
nanofillers.
Carbon Nanotubes (CNT)
CNTs consist of tiny shells of graphite rolled into cylinders. There are both single-walled carbon
nanotubes (SWNT) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNT).
Because of the excellent electrical conductivity, nanotubes could also be used in the burgeoning
field of electronic textiles. Having the feel and drape of traditional textiles, nanotubes could be
used in the construction of clothing which incorporates electronic devices or wearable
computers. Unlike the current products that incorporate electronic devices into apparel, apparel
which utilizes nanotubes could withstand multiple home launderings.
Specially engineered CNTs have been incorporated into polyvinylalcohol to produce a composite
fiber with diameters in the micrometer range. The composite fiber is two times the stiffness and
strength and twenty times the toughness of steel wire.
Under solvothermal conditions simultaneous formation of silver particles and anatase from
simple precursors:
RT and solvothermal route of preparing Ag@TiO2

hydrolysis
Ti(OPr)4 + AgNO3

TiO2 Sol (amorphous) AgNO3

RT
Coating drying > 350C

solvothermal
reaction >140C
TiO2 Sol (anatase)
Ag@TiO2 coating preparation
Enzymes for Textile

photoactive/antimicrobial TiO2 (anatase)/Ag

Particles coating on textile

Enzymes are generally globular proteins and like other proteins consist of long linear chains of
amino acids that fold to produce a three-dimensional product. Each unique amino acid sequence
produces a specific structure, which has unique properties. Individual protein chains may
sometimes group together to form a protein complex.
Biocatalyst
Enzymes are biocatalysts, and by their mere presence, and without being consumed in the
process, enzymes can speed up chemical processes that would otherwise run very slowly. After
the reaction is complete, the enzyme is released again, ready to start another reaction. Most of
the biocatalyst have limited stability and over a period of time they lose their activity and are not
stable again. Usually most enzymes are used only once and discarded after their catalytic action.
Desizing
For fabrics made from cotton or blends, the warp threads are coated with an adhesive substance
know as 'size; to prevent the threads breaking during weaving. Although many different
compounds have been used to size fabrics, starch and its derivatives have been the most common
sizing agent. After weaving, the size must be removed again in order to prepare the fabric for
dyeing and finishing.
This process (desizing) must be carried out by treating the fabric with chemicals such as acids,
alkali or oxidising agents. However starch breaking enzymes (amylases) are preferred for
desizing due to their high efficiency and specific action. The amylose is bioconverted to 100%
by the alpha- amylase into glucose whereas the amylopectin is converted to 50% into glucose
and maltose. Amylases bring about complete removal of the size without any harmful effects on
the fabric besides ecofriendly behavior. Another benefit of enzymes compared to strong
chemicals mentioned above is that enzymes are environment friendly.
Maps offers a range of amylases for desizing which work at different temperatures and for
different equipments.
Bio-Scouring
Cotton yarn or fabric, prior to dyeing or printing, goes through a number of processes in a textile
processing unit. A very important process is scouring. In this process, non-cellulosic components
from native cotton are completely or partially removed.
Scouring gives a fabric with a high and even wet ability so that it can be bleached and dyed
successfully. Today, highly alkaline chemicals caustic soda are used for scouring. These
chemicals not only remove the non-cellulosic impurities from the cotton, but also attack the
cellulose leading to heavy strength loss and weight loss in the fabric. Furthermore, using these
hazardous chemicals result in high COD (chemical oxygen demand), BOD (biological oxygen
demand) and TDS, in the waste water

Recently a new enzymatic scouring process know as 'Bio-Scouring' is used in textile wetprocessing with which all non-cellulosic components from native cotton are completely or
partially removed. After this Bio-Scouring process, the cotton has an intact cellulose structure,
with lower weight loss and strength loss. The fabric gives better wetting and penetration
properties, making subsequent bleach process easy and resultantly giving much better dye
uptake. R
Pectinase (EC 3.2.1.15) is a general term for enzymes such as pectolyase, pectozyme and
polygalacturona. Commercially available pectinases contain only very little cellulases and fiber
damage should be limited as cellulose itself is not targeted. A commercial pectinase might
typically be activated at 45 to 55 C and work well at pH of 4.5 to 5.5. If pectinase is boiled it is
denatured making it harder to connect with the pectin at the active site. . After this Bio-Scouring
process, the cotton has an intact cellulose structure, with lower weight loss and strength loss. The
fabric gives better wetting and penetration properties, making subsequent bleach process easy
and resultantly giving much better dye uptake. It also reduces environmental burden by reducing
waste water treatment. Enzymatic scouring process can be applied to cellulosic fibres and their
blends (for both woven and knitted goods) in continuous and discontinuous processes. When
enzymatic desizing is applied, it can be combined with enzymatic scouring. The process can be
applied using jet, overflow, winch, pad-batch, pad-steam and padroll equipment.
Bleaching
Glucose oxidase
The glucose oxidase enzyme (GOx) (EC 1.1.3.4) is a dimeric protein. It is naturally found in
honey. glucose oxidase was used for bleaching. The result showed whiteness index 15-20 degree
improvement with low strength loss. Conventional preparation of cotton requires high amounts
of alkaline chemicals and consequently, huge quantities of rinse water are generated.
Bleach Clean-up
Natural fabrics such as cotton are normally bleached with hydrogen peroxide before dyeing.
Bleaches are highly reactive chemicals and any peroxide left on the fabric can interfere with the
dyeing process. A thorough 'Bleach Cleanup' is necessary. The traditional method is to neutralize
the bleach with a reducing agent, but the dose has to be controlled precisely. Enzymes present a
more convenient alternative because they are easier and quicker to use. A small dose of catalase
is capable of breaking down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. Compared with the
traditional cleanup methods, the enzymatic process results in cleaner waste water or reduced
water consumption. Compared with the traditional cleanup methods, the enzymatic process
results in cleaner waste water or reduced water consumption, a reduction of energy and time.
Reuse of the bleaching liquor after hydrogen peroxide bleaching is already possible today by
using the enzyme catalase after bleaching. This enzyme destroys excess hydrogen peroxide,
making use of the bleaching liquor for other finishing stages possible. Maps offer catalase for
removing residual hydrogen peroxide after the bleaching of cotton. It reduces the rinsing
necessary to remove bleach or it can be used to replace chemical treatments.

Bio-Polishing
Cotton and other natural fibres based on cellulose can be improved by an enzymatic treatment
known as BioPolishing. This treatment gives the fabric a smoother and glossier appearance. The
treatment is used to remove 'fuzz' - the tiny strands of fibre that protrude from the surface of
yarn. A ball of fuzz is called a 'pill' in the textile trade. After BioPolishing, the fuzz and pilling
are reduced. The other benefits of removing fuzz are a softer and smoother handle, and superior
colour brightness.
Maps offers a range of cellulases for bio-polishing which work on depending on fibre, fabric
type and equipments.
Denim Finishing
Many garments are subjected to a wash treatment to give them a slightly worn look; example is
the stonewashing of denim jeans. In the traditional stonewashing process, the blue denim was
faded by the abrasive action of pumice stones on the garment surface. Nowadays, denim
finishers are using a special cellulase.
Cellulase works by loosening the indigo dye on the denim in a process know as 'BioStonewashing'. A small dose of enzyme can replace several kilograms of pumice stones. The use
of less pumice stones results in less damage to garment, machine and less pumice dust in the
laundry environment. Bio Stone washing has opened up new possibilities in denim finishing by
increasing the variety of finishes available. For example, it is now possible to fade denim to a
greater degree without running the risk of damaging the garment. Productivity can also be
increased because laundry machines contain fewer stones or no stones and more garments.
Maps offers a range of cellulases for denim finishing, each with its own special properties. These
can be used either alone or in combination with pumice stones in order to obtain a specific look.
Cellulase
Cellulase refers to a class of enzymes although cellulases are distributed throughout the
biosphere; they are most manifest in fungi and microbial sources. Cellulases are produced chiefly
by fungi, bacteria, and protozoans that catalyze the cellulolysis of cellulose. However, there are
also cellulases produced by other types of organisms such as plants and animals. There are
several different kinds of cellulases which differ structurally and mechanistically.
Trichoderma reesei secrets cellulase in high amount, therefore this fungus is used for commercial
production of cellulase.
There are three types of reaction catalyzed by cellulases:
1. Breakage of the non-covalent interactions present in the crystalline structure of cellulose
(endo-cellulase).
2. Hydrolysis of the individual cellulose fibers to break it into smaller sugars (exocellulase).
3. Hydrolysis of disaccharides and tetra saccharides into glucose (beta-glucosidase).
Cleaning Protease

Proteases are the most widely used enzymes in the detergent industry. They remove protein
stains such as grass, blood, egg and human sweat. These organic stains have a tendency to adhere
strongly to textile fibres. Proteases hydrolyse proteins and break them down into more soluble
polypeptides or free amino acids. A result of the combined effect of surfactants and enzymes,
stubborn stains can be removed from fibres.
Laccase
Laccases (EC 1.10.3.2) are copper-containing oxidase enzymes. The major enzymes associated
with the lignin degradation are laccase, lignin peroxidase, and manganese peroxidase. These
enzymes can be used for textile dyeing/finishing, and many other industrial, environmental
uses.In textile dyeing large amounts of dyestuffs are used. The discharge effluent has high COD,
BOD, suspended solids and intense colour due to the extensive use of dyes. This type of water
must be treated before discharging it into the environment. The rate of the laccase catalyzed
decolourization of the dyes increases with the increase in temperature up to certain degree above
which the dye decolourization decreases or does not take place at all. The optimum pH for
laccase catalyzed decolourization depends on the type of the dye used. Textile dyestuffs with
different structures are decolourized at different rates.
An alternative to this process is to use a combination of suitable enzyme systems.
Amyloglucosidases, Pectinases, and glucose oxidases are selected that are compatible concerning
their active pH and temperature range. A combination of two or all three preparation steps with
minimal amounts of treatment baths and rinse water showed compatible results in Whiteness,
absorbency, dyeability and tensile properties of the treated fabrics.
Electrospinning and their applications in nanocomposites
When the diameters of polymer fiber materials are shrunk from micrometers to
submicrons or nanometers , there appear several amazing characteristics such as very large
surface area to volume ratio (this ratio for a nanofiber can be as large as 103 times of that of a
microfiber), flexibility in surface functionalities, and superior mechanical performance (e.g.
stiffness and tensile strength) compared with any other known form of the material. These
outstanding properties make the polymer nanofibers to be optimal candidates for many important
applications. A number of processing techniques such as drawing , template synthesis, phase
separation, self-assembly, electrospinning , etc. have been used to prepare polymer nanofibers in
recent years.
Electrospinning has been recognized as an efficient technique for the fabrication of
polymer nanofibers. Various polymers have been successfully electrospun into ultrafine fibers in
recent years mostly in solvent solution and some in melt form. The electrospinning process
seems to be the only method which can be further developed for mass production of one-by-one
continuous nanofibers from various polymers. Although the term electrospinning, derived
from electrostatic spinning. A polymer solution, such as cellulose acetate, was introduced into
the electric field. The polymer filaments were formed, from the solution, between two electrodes
bearing electrical charges of opposite polarity. One of the electrodes was placed into the solution
and the other onto a collector. Once ejected out of a metal spinnerette with a small hole, the

charged solution jets evaporated to become fibers which were collected on the collector. The
potential difference depends on the properties of the spinning solution, such as polymer
molecular weight and viscosity. When the distance between the spinnerette and the collecting
device was short, spun fibers tended to stick to the collecting device as well as to each other, due
to incomplete solvent evaporation.
Fundamental Aspect
A schematic diagram to interpret electrospinning of polymer nanofibers is shown in Fig.
There are basically three components to fulfill the process: a high voltage supplier, a capillary
tube with a pipette or needle of small diameter, and a metal collecting screen. In the
electrospinning process a high voltage is used to create an electrically charged jet of polymer
solution or melt out of the pipette. Before reaching the collecting screen, the solution jet
evaporates or solidifies, and is collected as an interconnected web of small fibers. One electrode
is placed into the spinning solution/melt and the other attached to the collector. In most cases, the
collector is simply grounded, as indicated in Fig.. The electric field is subjected to the end of the
capillary tube that contains the solution fluid held by its surface tension.
This induces a charge on the surface of the liquid. Mutual charge repulsion and the contraction of
the surface charges to the counter electrode cause a force directly opposite to the surface
tension . As the intensity of the electric field is increased, the hemispherical surface of the fluid
at the tip of the capillary tube elongates to form a conical shape known as the Taylor cone .
Further increasing the electric field, a critical value is attained with which the repulsive
electrostatic force overcomes the surface tension and the charged jet of the fluid is ejected from
the tip of the Taylor cone. The discharged polymer solution jet undergoes an instability and
elongation process, which allows the jet to become very long and thin. Meanwhile, the solvent
evaporates, leaving behind a charged polymer fiber. In the case of the melt the discharged jet
solidifies when it travels in the air. So far, we have found in the open literature that more than
fifty different polymers have been successfully electrospun into ultra fine fibers with diameters
ranging from <3 nm to over 1 mm. Most of the polymers were dissolved in some solvents before
electrospinning, as the processing conditions involved are simple and straightforward. When the
solid polymer or polymer pellet is completely dissolved in a proper amount of solvent which is
held, for example, in a glass container, it becomes a fluid form called polymer solution. The
polymer fluid is then introduced into the capillary tube for electrospinning. Both the dissolution
and the electrospinning are essentially conducted at room temperature with atmosphere
condition. However, some polymers may emit unpleasant or even harmful smells so the
processes should be conducted within chambers having a ventilation system. Furthermore, a DC
voltage in the range of several to several tens of kVs is necessary to generate the electrospinning.
One must be careful to avoid touching any of the charged jet while manipulation. It is noted that
the same polymer dissolved in different solvents may all be electrospun into nanofibers.

Polymers, molten in high temperature, can also be made into nanofibers through electrospinning.
Instead of a solution, the polymer melt is introduced into the capillary tube. However, different
from the case of polymer solution, the electrospinning process for a polymer melt has to be
performed in a vacuum condition . Namely, the capillary tube, the traveling of the charged melt
fluid jet, and the metal collecting screen must be encapsulated within a vacuum.
Many parameters can influence the transformation of polymer solutions into nanofibers through
electrospinning. These parameters include (a) the solution properties such as viscosity, elasticity,
conductivity, and surface tension, (b) governing variables such as hydrostatic pressure in the
capillary tube, electric potential at the capillary tip, and the gap (distance between the tip and the
collecting screen), and (c) ambient parameters such as solution temperature, humidity, and air
velocity in the electrospinning chamber.
As long as a polymer can be electrospun into nanofibers, ideal targets would be in that:
(1) the diameters of the fibers be consistent and controllable, (2) the fiber surface be defect-free
or defect-controllable, and (3) continuous single nanofibers be collectable. However, researches
so far have shown that there three targets are by no means easily achievable.
One of the most important quantities related with electrospinning is the fiber diameter.
Since nanofibers are resulted from evaporation or solidification of polymer fluid jets, the fiber
diameters will depend primarily on the jet sizes as well as on the polymer contents in the jets. It
has been recognized that during the traveling of a solution jet from the pipette onto the metal
collector, the primary jet may or may not be split into multiple jets, resulting in different fiber
diameters. As long as no splitting is involved, one of the most significant parameters influencing
the fiber diameter is the solution viscosity. A higher viscosity results in a larger fiber diameter.
However, when a solid polymer is dissolved in a solvent, the solution viscosity is proportional to
the polymer concentration. Thus, the higher the polymer concentration the larger the resulting
nanofiber diameters will be. In fact, the fiber diameter increased with increasing polymer
concentration according to a power law relationship . The fiber diameter was proportional to the
cube of the polymer concentration. Another parameter which affects the fiber diameter to a

remarkable extent is the applied electrical voltage. In general, a higher applied voltage ejects
more fluid in a jet, resulting in a larger fiber diameter. Further challenge with current
electrospinning lies in the fact that the fiber diameters obtained are seldom uniform. While
electrospinning of polyurethane nanofibers,it is observed that the fiber diameters obtained from
the polymer solution at a high (70 0C) temperature were much more uniform than those at room
temperature. It should be noted that the viscosity of the polyurethane solution with the same
concentration at some higher temperature was significantly lower than that at room temperature.
The highest polymer concentration which could be electrospun into fibers was 12.8 wt.% at room
temperature, whereas the concentration done at the high temperature was 21.2 wt.%. Another
problem encountered in electrospinning is that defects such as beads Fig. and

Fig. PLLA nanofibers with different diameters and pores

AFM image of electrospun PEO nanofibers with beads

pores may occur in polymer nanofibers. It has been found that the polymer concentration also
affects the formation of the beads. The higher polymer concentration resulted in fewer beads. In
the experiments with PEO polymer, the polymer concentrations of 14.5 wt.% were used. The
resulting fiber membranes were visualized under SEM, and different fiber morphologies were
captured, as shown in Fig. in which the lowest viscosity, 13 centipoise, corresponded to 1 wt.%
PEO concentration, whereas the highest viscosity, 1250 centipoise, corresponded to 4 wt.%
concentration. It should be realized that with the 4 wt.% PEO concentration the beads were not
reported to completely disappear. Instead, the bead diameters, if any, at higher concentrations
were even larger. The shape of the beads changed from

Fig. SEM photographs of electrospun nanofibers from different polymer concentration solutions

spherical to spindle like when the polymer concentration varied from low to high levels. By
reducing the surface tension of a polymer solution, fibers could be obtained without beads. This
might be correct in some sense, but should be applied with caution. It has been recognized by
that the surface tension seems more likely to be a function of solvent compositions, but is
negligibly dependent on the polymer concentration. Different solvents may contribute different
surface tensions. However, not necessarily a lower surface tension of a solvent will always be
more suitable for electrospinning. In the case of CA (cellulose acetate) for the solvents such as
acetone, dimethylacetamide (DMAc), and mixture of both as solvents have been used. The
acetone used had a surface tension value of 23.7 dyne/ cm lower than that of the DMAc, which is
32.4 dyne/cm. While no fibers but only beads are obtained from using the DMAc solvent alone,
the electrospinning of 5 and 8 wt.%CA in acetone also showed to generate short fibers with
diameters around 1 mm and a beads on the string morphology. However, by using the mixture
solvent with a ratio of 2 (acetone) to 1 (DMAc), CA nanofibers are produced which are free of
beads in a range of concentrations 1525 wt.%. In a solvent of 10:1 acetone: DMAc, a 15 wt.
%CA solution generated fibers with very smooth surfaces and uniform diameters around 700 nm.
Furthermore, adding some filler material into a polymer solution can also result in fibers free of
beads. While electrospinning biodegradable PLDA polymers with 1 wt.% salt addition, the
resulting nanofibers were bead-free. It is argued that the addition of salts resulted in a higher
charge density on the surface of the solution jet during the electrospinning, bringing more
electric charges to the jet. As the charges carried by the jet increased, higher elongation forces
were imposed to the jet under the electrical field, resulting in smaller bead and thinner fiber
diameters. This, however, does not imply that a higher applied electrical field could result in
fewer beads and smoother nanofibers. In fact, the influence of electrical charge is investigated
which is applied for electrospinning, on the morphology of PEO nanofibers. It is observed that
with the increase of the electrical potential the resulting nanofibers became rougher. Their results
are shown in Fig.

Fig. SEM photographs of PEO nanofibers electrospun under different electrical potentials

Composite nanofibers
Carbon nanotubes (CNT) possess several unique mechanical, electronic, and other kinds of
characteristics. For instance, single carbon nanotube has a modulus as high as several thousands
of GPa and a tensile strength of several tens of GPa. Unfortunately, carbon nanotubes are
difficult to be aligned when they are used as reinforcement in composite fabrication. The
resulting nanocomposite cannot exhibit the mechanical properties as much as one would expect.
Thus, several research groups have tried to incorporate CNTs into polymer nanofibers produced
through electrospinning . The spinning process is expected to align CNTs or their bundles along
the fiber direction due to combination of dielectrophoretic forces caused by dielectric or
conductivity mismatch between CNTs and the polymer solution and high shear forces induced by
the spinning. In recent years, in making Poly caprolactone/gold or ZnO ], Polyacrylnitrile (PAN)/
TiO2, PVA/Silica , and Nylon6/montmorillonite (Mt) ultrafine fibers, respectively.
Most nanofibers obtained so far are in non-woven form, which can be useful for relatively small
number of applications such as filtration, tissue scaffolds, implant coating film, and wound
dressing . However, as we understand from traditional fiber and textile industry, only when
continuous single nanofibers or uniaxial fiber bundles are obtained can their applications be
expanded into unlimited.
Up to date, however, there is no continuous long nanofiber yarn obtained and the publications
related to aligned nanofibers are very limited. Following four techniques are some possible
means which have been attempted to align electrospun nanofibers.
1. A cylinder collector with high rotating speed
By rotating a cylinder collector Fig. at a very high speed up to thousands of rpm (round
per minute), electrospun nanofibers could be oriented circumferentially. When a linear speed of
the rotating cylinder surface, which serves as a fiber take-up device, matches that of evaporated
jet depositions, the fibers are taken up on the surface of the cylinder tightly in a circumferential
manner, resulting in a fair alignment. Such a speed can be called as an alignment speed.

A schematic rotating collector for electrospun ultrafine fibers

2.An auxiliary electrode/electrical field

The unique feature is that deposited fibers can be circumferentially oriented substantially by
employing an auxiliary electrical field. The fiber collection device was a Teflon tube of 4 mm in
diameter, rotating at a speed of 1165 rpm above the charged grid. The PLAPCL copolymer is
given a positive charge of +12 kV. The auxiliary electrode (grid) made of a plurality of connected
aluminum foil strips in 5 mm width, 30 mm long, and 5 mm apart, is placed 8 cm away from the
collection mandrel and charged to -8 kV. The figure clearly demonstrates that the auxiliary
electrical field device substantially improved the fiber alignment. By asymmetrically placing
rotating and charged mandrel between two charged plates [Fig. ], electrospun ultrafine fibers
with larger diameter could be oriented circumferentially to the longitudinal axis of the tubular
structure.

Aligning electrospun fibers with an auxiliary electrical field.

3.A thin wheel with sharp edge
A significant advancement in collecting aligned electrospun nanofibers has been recently
made ,here it is described a novel approach to position and align individual nanofibers on a
tapered and grounded wheel like bobbin as shown in Fig. The tip-like edge substantially
concentrates the electrical field so that the as-spun nanofibers are almost all attracted to and can
be continuously wound on the bobbin edge of the rotating wheel. It has been demonstrated that
with this approach polyethylene oxide nanofibers with diameters ranging from 100 to 400 nm
were in alignment with a pitch (the distance between two fibers) varies from 1 to 2 mm [Fig. ]. It
is explained that before reaching

(a) A set up used to collect uniaxial nanofibers, (b) PEO fibers thus obtained
the electrically grounded target the nanofibers retain sufficient residual charges to repel each
other. This influences the morphology of fiber depositions. As a result, once a nanofiber is
attached to the wheel tip, it
will exert a repulsive force on the next fiber attracted to the tip. This repulsion from one another
results in a separation between the deposited nanofibers as observed [Fig. ].
4.A frame collector
In order to obtain an individual nanofiber for the purpose of experimental characterizations,
another approach is to fiber alignment by simply placing a rectangular frame structure under the
spinning jet [Fig. ]. Fig. shows typical alignments of electrospun PEO fibers collected with an
aluminum frame and observed under an optical microscope. It have been noticed that different
frame materials result in different fiber alignments. For example, the aluminum frame favors
better fiber alignments than a wooden frame.

Aligned as-spun PEO nanofibers by a frame method.

Electric energy consumption in the cotton textile processing stages

Textile manufacturing stages are known as energy intensive processes. Electric energy is
one of the most commonly used energy types in the textile and clothing plants, used to
supply energy for textile machinery, heating and cooling control systems, lighting, and
office equipments. It is estimated from the report that electricity consumption rate in the
total consumpted energy for individual textile production stages are 93% for spinning,
85%for weaving, 43% for wet processing, and 65% for clothing manufacturing. Rest of the
energy that is used in the textile processing plants is supplied by other energy sources of
fuel, natural gas, and coal .

It is necessary to analyse:
(1) Characterize electric energy usage in existing textile production plants,
(2) Quantify the magnitudes of actual and estimated specific electric energy
consumption(SEC) in the defined textile processing stages,
(3) To discuss the reason of the gaps between actual and estimated SEC for electric energy
consumption in the cotton textile processing stages.
Energy management
Energy management and saving policies has become subject of interest for textile
manufacturers as it is for other industrial sectors, right after the 1970s.The world has started
to revise it energy budget by utilizing higher efficiencies, and to pay attention the urgency of
environmental protection.
Textile manufacturing processes and energy profile
Textile manufacturing process is divided into fve main sub stages of fber
processing, spinning, weaving, knitting, wet processing and garment
manufacturing. Fig. 1 shows general production path line of a typical
woven textile product. The dotted boxes 1 and 2 in Fig. 1 represent
primary and secondary energy consuming applications in an ordinary
textile production plant. The boxes labeled A, B, and C represent the
primary energy consuming production lines of spinning, sizing, weaving;
wet processing; and garment manufacturing. Heating, cooling, sanitation,
transportation, exterior and other energy consuming applications are
classifed as secondary energy consuming applications.
Each manufacturing process has its own energy consumption
characteristics. Some processes are more energy intensive than others.
Different types of energy sources are consumed in each different
processing stage, some processes require more electricity while others
requires more heat energy. Spinning process in its various stages (mixing,
opening, preparation, the spinning operation itself, winding and doubling)
consumes electric energy. Amount of energy consumption in this process
is variable depending on type of spinning system, type of winding and
doubling machines, desired yarn properties and raw material
characteristics. Sizing process is an important process between spinning
and weaving processes. Sizing of yarns before warping mostly requires in
direct steam that is heated using electricity, gas or oil. Weaving
processes requires electrical energy. Amount of energy consumption
changes depending on fabric structure and technical parameters of
weaving machine.
Controlled climatic room condition (25 0C temperature,65% relative
humidity) in spinning and weaving rooms is another important electric

energy consuming station in textile processing stages. Seasonal climatic

variation is also important parameter for energy consumption quantity of
air conditioning systems.
Wet processing stages of pretreatment, bleaching, dyeing, post
treatments and drying-fxation processes consume considerable
amounts of heat in the form of hot water, steam and hot air. Mechanical
parts of the wet processing machinery are driven using electric energy.
Total electric energy consumption in wet processing is quite low
comparing the other textile processing stages.

Each manufacturing process has its own energy consumption characteristics. Some
processes are more energy intensive than others. Different types of energy sources are
consumed in each different processing stage, some processes require more electricity while
others requires more heat energy. Spinning process in its various stages(mixing, opening,
preparation, the spinning operation itself, winding and doubling)consumes electric energy.
Amount of energy consumption in this process is variable depending on type of spinning
system, type of winding and doubling machines, desired yarn properties and raw material
characteristics. In case of middle count, carded, ring yarn processing, the spinning and
winding processes represent about 80% energy consumption per kg of single yarn. Sizing
process is an important process between spinning and weaving processes. Sizing of yarns
before warping mostly requires indirect steam that is heated using electricity, gas or oil.
Weaving processe srequires electrical energy. Amount of energy consumption changes
depending on fabric structure and technical parameters of weaving machine. Controlled
climatic room condition(250C temperature, 65% relative humidity) in important electric

energy consuming station in textile processing stages. Seasonal climatic variation is also
important parameter for energy consumption quantity of air conditioning systems.
Wet processing stages of pretreatment, bleaching, dyeing ,post treatment sand dryingfixation processes consume considerable amounts of heat in the form of hot water, steam
and hot air. Mechanical parts of the wet processing machinery are driven using electric
energy. Total electric energy consumption in wet processing is quite low comparing the
other textile processing stages. Clothing manufacturing stages of laying up, cutting, sewing,
cleaning with air suction, ironing, and transporting processes mostly consumes electric
energy. Only heating ironing processes may require steam or hot air.
Energy saving areas in the industrial manufacturing plants is basically categorized as
boilers, steam systems, heat isolation, leakage prevention of pneumatic systems, electric
motors and motion transmission systems. Implementation of accurate maintenance plans
and procedures is advised promptly for industrial manufacturing plants to prevent potential
energy losses
Methodology
Actual electric energy consumption data of the plants were gathered from monthly
electricity consumption records of plant management. Production purposed electric energy
consumption data, lighting and Heater-Vent-Air Conditioning (HVAC) purposed electric
energy consumption data were noted separately.

Production quantity, estimated and actual electricity consumption data of corresponding

month s are used to calculate estimated and actual SEC value of electric energy for relevant
textile processing stages. SEC is therefore defined as electric energy consumption per unit
mass of textile product and its unit is kWh electric energy/kg textile product. Differences
between estimated and actual specific electric energy consumption quantities are shown
graphically for each processing plants. SEC can be expressed by the following equation:

SEC = (J.Et/Pt) .(1)

where J is the number of energy consuming unit associated with electric energy
consumption, Et is the average amount of electric energy used during period t, and Pt is the
quantity of production during period t. Quantity of monthly textile production in terms of
weight(kg) and monthly electric energy consumption in terms of kW/h are used to draw
graphics exhibiting the relation between electric energy use and production quantity.
Scattered intersection points of energy use and production quantity data are used to attain
the best fit line and its equation. Bets fit line equation explains the relationship between
electric energy use and production quantity. Equation is;
y = mx + c; .(2)
where y is electric energy axis, x is production axis, m is slope of the line, and c is its
intercept with y axis. Slope of the line(m) explains the amount of energy required to
processe each additional unit of production, leading to the process efficiency.
c indicates the minimum energy requirement to start up production. Scatter, distribution of
the data points away from the best fit line, indicates variation in energy per unit production
from one period to another. Equation (2) is also used to calculate the proportion of energy
that does not contribute to production by dividing the energy that is unrelated to production.
Results and discussion
It is found that actual SEC values and estimated SEC values are varying. Reason of the
variation in monthly based SEC values can be explained with the difference on the
processed raw material properties, differences on the spun yarn properties, and climatic
conditions of spinning room which affects machine electricity consumption.
Electric energy consumption amount of warping and sizing machinery are quite low
comparing high amount of steam and heat requirement of the process. Actual and estimated
SEC values in electric energy for warping and sizing processes are relatively lower then the
SEC values of other cotton textile processing stages.
Weaving process is another high electric energy consuming processing stage. Actual SEC
values are found generally higher then estimated SEC values in monthly basis comparison.
Reason of the varying SEC values year round can be explained with potential differences on
technical properties of produced fabric, climatic conditions of weaving room, and machine
working conditions.
Wet processing processes are heat and steam intensive processes where electric energy is
only consumed for mechanical driving purposes. Actual SEC values are found higher then
estimated SEC values in monthly basis comparison. Reason of variable actual SECvalue
year round can be explained with possible difference on processed fabric properties,
production quantity, used machinery types, machine efficiency, and amount of reprocessed
repair works.

There have been clear differences between actual and estimated SEC values for each textile
production stages. Deviation ratio between actual and estimated SEC values is estimate
using eq. (3)
.% Deviation = (actual SEC - estimated SEC) /actual SEC *100 . (3)
calculated deviation ratios between actual and estimated SEC values are shown for spinning,
weaving, wet processing and clothing manufacturing stages in monthly basis.
In general, reasons of the variable deviations on actual and estimated SEC values of
production plants can be explained with the is similarity on the machine adjustments and
efficiencies, technical characteristics of products,(structural yarn characteristics, structural
fabric properties, different color and treatment procedures, different patterned cutting plans,
different fabric weighted clothing products),labor efficiency of related shift/day/
week/month, renewal, repair works of product that does not make contribution to total
production quantity, climatic conditions of plant and seasonal weather condition changes.
Conclusions and recommendations
Fig. 6. Average deviation of difference for spinning plant is found the lowest(6.5%) among
average deviation of other involved production processes. It can be explained with
processing parameters of cotton yarn. Average deviation of difference for warping and
sizing and clothing production plants have found quite high(around30%). There as on of
high deviations are mainly result of wide variety range of processed product types and
properties ,number of process steps involved during the production, electric energy use
efficiency of equipments and machinery, and amount of repair work which increases energy
consumption while not increasing production quantity. Electricity consumption increases
with increasing production quantity. Share of machinery load is the biggest segment in total
electric consumption of textile production plants. Lighting and HVAC electric energy
consumption shares found lower in cotton textile processing plants, except clothing
production plant.. It has experienced during the study that awareness and knowledge about
energy management and saving is not yet at desired level in plant managements, operators
and other workers in the involved plants. Energy management principles should be
introduced and implemented comprehensively in textile production plants - Close tracking
of the SEC value for production processes and efficient use of electric energy is substantial
concerning the circumstance of severe global market competition in textile business. Beside
the competition in the global textile business, restrictions in the global energy markets and
climbing environmental awareness in high markets push textile business to take immediate
actions about energy saving and management in their production processes.
Energy conservation
1. Tightening co-generation policy
One of the potential sources of environmental friendly power generation is
industrial co-generation. Co-generation is the combined generation of
process heat and electric power by the sequential use of energy from a

common fuel source. It is an energy-efficient and environmental friendly

technology that utilises the exhaust heat from the steam turbine for process
heating.
2. Updating renewable energy policy
The depletion of the reserves of fossil fuels and the present rate of excessive
fossil fuel consumption together with the global warming gave a new thrust
and importance to renewable energy sources.
3. Setting standards for specifc energy conception
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is responsible for setting standards for
manufacturing, operational
practices and related areas in the country. Apart from standards, BIS has also
laid down guidelines for
selection of energy efficient equipments, guidelines for system design and
proper matching of components, and codes of practice for proper equipment
installation and maintenance. But as on today no policy has been laid on
specifc energy consumption for key products by different industries.
4. Electrical power demand approval policy
The policy for sanctioned (or contracted) demand for industries is generally
based on the connected load details submitted by the industries. Industries
always demand for higher sanctioned demand anticipating the future growth
in electrical demand. The policy for approving the sanctioned demand shall
be on the basis of the quantity of daily commodity production, the industry
working hours per day and the specifc energy consumption standard set by
BIS. An additional 10% shall be added to that to get the fgure for the
sanctioned.
5. Introducing ration for fossil-fuels
Power cuts and load shedding by electric utilities are very common in India.
Mostly Indian industries make use of diesel-generator sets for back up power
supply. Most of the diesel-generator sets are old and their fuel consumption
is found to be very high and they are mostly operating under part load
conditions. Hence their efficiency is low and the pollution level is found to be
higher.
6. Load management
Industries shall be asked to have different shift timings so that the peak load
on the utility grid will be reduced, which results in benefts like less burden
on the utility generators, reduced transmission losses, improved load factors,
etc. Also load levelling within the industries itself helps in energy saving.

State utilities could implement these policies and monitor the outcome
during the time of monthly energy consumption recording.
The role of the governments
The State as well as the Central governments shall formulate policies for
implementing the suggestions as discussed earlier. Apart from that it can
have few additional norms to promote ECin terms of technology and
incentives.
(i) Purchasing the products for government and public sector needs only from
industries successfully
adopting EC policies.
(ii) Introducing energy efficiency standards for key industrial energyconsuming equipment such as
industrial boiler, transformers, air-conditioners, electric motors, fans, pumps,
and lighting, etc.
(iii) Providing technological basis for replacing industrial commodities with
high-energy consumption
and implementing energy-saving product certifcation and energy efficiency
identifcation system.
(iv) Readjusting the industrial structure and the product mix, and
transforming traditional industries
with high and new technologies, and increase the added value of products.
(v) Introducing product labels information like expected lifetime, average
energy consumption,
operating efficiency, and pollution level shall be specifed on product labels.
(vi) Interest free loan facilities to procure energy efficient machineries or soft
loans.
(vii) Introducing mandatory renewable energy sources as a part of their
sources of energy and providing
100% depreciation on the investment for the frst year.
(viii) Making industrial energy audit compulsory.
(ix) Policy for introducing Time of the Day metering for industrial consumers
for better load management