Freedom of religion

Freedom of worship and Freedom to Worship

redirect here. For the 1943 painting/poster, see Freedom
to Worship (painting).
Freedom of religion or freedom of belief is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief
in teaching, practice, worship, and observance; the concept is generally recognized also to include the freedom to
change religion or not to follow any religion.[1] The freedom to leave or discontinue membership in a religion or
religious groupin religious terms called "apostasy"is
also a fundamental part of religious freedom, covered by
Article 18 of United Nations' 1948 Universal Declaration
of Human Rights.[2]
Freedom of religion is considered by many people and
nations to be a fundamental human right.[3][4] In a country with a state religion, freedom of religion is generally
considered to mean that the government permits religious
practices of other sects besides the state religion, and does
not persecute believers in other faiths.

History
Minerva as a symbol of enlightened wisdom protects the believers
of all religions (Daniel Chodowiecki, 1791)

Historically, freedom of religion has been used to refer to

the tolerance of dierent theological systems of belief,
while freedom of worship has been dened as freedom of
individual action. Each of these have existed to varying
degrees. While many countries have accepted some form
of religious freedom, this has also often been limited in
practice through punitive taxation, repressive social legislation, and political disenfranchisement. Compare examples of individual freedom in Italy or the Muslim tradition
of dhimmis, literally protected individuals professing
an ocially tolerated non-Muslim religion.

lam. Others have been where the established order has

felt threatened, as shown in the trial of Socrates in 399
BC or where the ruler has been deied, as in Rome, and
refusal to oer token sacrice was similar to refusing to
take an oath of allegiance. This was the core for resentment and the persecution of early Christian communities.

Freedom of religious worship was established in the Buddhist Maurya Empire of ancient India by Ashoka the
In Antiquity, a syncretic point of view often allowed Great in the 3rd century BC, which was encapsulated in
communities of traders to operate under their own cus- the Edicts of Ashoka.
toms. When street mobs of separate quarters clashed in
a Hellenistic or Roman city, the issue was generally per- Greek-Jewish clashes at Cyrene in 73 AD and 117 AD
and in Alexandria in 115 AD provide examples of cosceived to be an infringement of community rights.
mopolitan cities as scenes of tumult.
Cyrus the Great established the Achaemenid Empire ca.
550 BC, and initiated a general policy of permitting religious freedom throughout the empire, documenting this 1.1 Muslim world
on the Cyrus Cylinder.[5][6]
Some of the historical exceptions have been in regions Following a period of ghting lasting around a hundred
where one of the revealed religions has been in a position years before 620 AD which mainly involved Arab and
of power: Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Is- Jewish inhabitants of Medina (then known as Yathrib),
1

HISTORY

ter or daughter. According to the famous Islamic legal

scholar Ibn Qayyim (12921350), non-Muslims had the
right to engage in such religious practices even if it offended Muslims, under the conditions that such cases not
be presented to Islamic Sharia courts and that these religious minorities believed that the practice in question is
permissible according to their religion.[13]

1.2 India
Main article: Freedom of religion in India
Religious freedom and the right to worship freely were
practices that had been appreciated and promoted by
most ancient Indian dynasties. As a result, people eeing religious persecution in other parts of the world including Christians, Jews, Bah' Faith and Zoroastrians
ed to India as a place of refuge to enjoy religious
freedom.[14][15][16]
Ancient Jews eeing from persecution in their homeland
2,500 years ago settled in India and never faced antiSemitism.[17] Freedom of religion edicts have been found
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)
written during Ashoka the Great's reign in the 3rd century
guarantees freedom of religion, as long as religious activities do
BC. Freedom to practise, preach and propagate any relinot infringe on public order in ways detrimental to society.
gion is a constitutional right in Modern India. Most major
religious festivals of the main communities are included
religious freedom for Muslims, Jews and pagans were de- in the list of national holidays.
clared by Muhammad in the Constitution of Medina. The Although India is an 80% Hindu country, three out of the
Islamic Caliphate later guaranteed religious freedom un- twelve presidents of India have been Muslims.
der the conditions that non-Muslim communities accept
dhimmi (second class) status and their adult males pay Many scholars and intellectuals believe that India's preHinduism, has long been a most tolerthe jizya tax as a substitute for the zakat paid by Muslim dominant religion,
[18]
ant
religion.
Rajni
Kothari, founder of the Centre for
citizens.[7][8]
the Study of Developing Societies has written, "[India] is
Religious pluralism existed in classical Islamic ethics a country built on the foundations of a civilisation that is
and Sharia law, as the religious laws and courts of fundamentally non-religious.[19]
other religions, including Christianity, Judaism and
The Dalai Lama, the Tibetan leader in exile said that reHinduism, were usually accommodated within the Islamic legal framework, as seen in the early Caliphate, ligious tolerance of 'Aryabhoomi,' a reference to India
found in Mahabharata, has been in existence in this counAl-Andalus, Indian subcontinent, and the Ottoman Mil[9][10]
let system.
In medieval Islamic societies, the qadi try from thousands of years. Not only Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism which are the native religions
(Islamic judges) usually could not interfere in the matters of non-Muslims unless the parties voluntarily choose but also Christianity and Islam have ourished here. Reis inherent in Indian tradition, the Dalai
to be judged according to Islamic law, thus the dhimmi ligious tolerance
[20]
Lama
said.
communities living in Islamic states usually had their own
laws independent from the Sharia law, such as the Jews Freedom of religion in the Indian subcontinent is exemplied by the reign of King Piyadasi (304 BC to 232 BC)
who would have their own Halakha courts.[11]
Dhimmis were allowed to operate their own courts fol- (Ashoka). One of King Ashokas main concerns was to
lowing their own legal systems in cases that did not in- reform governmental institutes and exercise moral prinvolve other religious groups, or capital oences or threats ciples in his attempt to create a just and humane society.
to public order.[12] Non-Muslims were allowed to engage Later he promoted the principles of Buddhism, and the
in religious practices that was usually forbidden by Is- creation of a just, understanding and fair society was held
lamic law, such as the consumption of alcohol and pork, as an important principle for many ancient rulers of this
as well as religious practices which Muslims found re- time in the East.
pugnant, such as the Zoroastrian practice of incestuous The importance of freedom of worship in India was enself-marriage where a man could marry his mother, sis- capsulated in an inscription of Ashoka:

1.3

Europe
King Piyadasi (Ashok) dear to the Gods,
honours all sects, the ascetics (hermits) or those
who dwell at home, he honours them with charity and in other ways. But the King, dear to the
Gods, attributes less importance to this charity
and these honours than to the vow of seeing the
reign of virtues, which constitutes the essential
part of them. For all these virtues there is a
common source, modesty of speech. That is to
say, one must not exalt ones creed discrediting
all others, nor must one degrade these others
without legitimate reasons. One must, on the
contrary, render to other creeds the honour betting them.

The initial entry of Islam into South Asia came in

the rst century after the death of the Islamic Prophet
Muhammad. When around 1210 AD the Islamic Sultanates invaded India from the north-west, gradually the
principle of freedom of religion deteriorated in this part
of the world. They were subsequently replaced by another Islamic invader in the form of Babur. The Mughal
empire was founded by the Mongol leader Babur in 1526,
when he defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Delhi Sultans at the First Battle of Panipat. The word Mughal is
the Indo-Iranian version of Mongol.

3
Even today, most Indians celebrate all religious festivals
with equal enthusiasm and respect. Hindu festivals like
Deepavali and Holi, Muslim festivals like Eid al-Fitr, EidUl-Adha, Muharram, Christian festivals like Christmas
and other festivals like Buddha Purnima, Mahavir Jayanti,
Gur Purab etc. are celebrated and enjoyed by all Indians.

1.3 Europe
1.3.1 Religious intolerance
Most Roman Catholic kingdoms kept a tight rein on religious expression throughout the Middle Ages. Jews were
alternately tolerated and persecuted, the most notable examples of the latter being the expulsion of all Jews from
Spain in 1492. Some of those who remained and converted were tried as heretics in the Inquisition for allegedly practicing Judaism in secret. Despite the persecution of Jews, they were the most tolerated non-Catholic
faith in Europe.

However, the latter was in part a reaction to the growing movement that became the Reformation. As early as
1380, John Wyclie in England denied transubstantiation
and began his translation of the Bible into English. He
was condemned in a Papal Bull in 1410, and all his books
On the main Asian continent, the Mongols were tolerant
were burned.
of religions. People could worship as they wished freely
and openly, though the formation of 2 nations i.e. Pak- In 1414, Jan Hus, a Bohemian preacher of reformation,
istan and Bangladesh has been on basis of religious intol- was given a safe conduct by the Holy Roman Emperor to
attend the Council of Constance. Not entirely trusting in
erance.
his safety, he made his will before he left. His forebodings
After arrival of Europeans, Christians in zeal to convert
proved accurate, and he was burned at the stake on 6 July
local as per belief in conversion as service of God, have
1415. The Council also decreed that Wyclies remains
also been seen to fall into frivolous methods since their
be disinterred and cast out. This decree was not carried
arrival. Though by and large there are hardly any reout until 1429.
ports of law and order disturbance from mobs with Christian beliefs except perhaps in the north eastern region of After the fall of the city of Granada, Spain, in 1492, the
Muslim population was promised religious freedom by
India.[21]
the Treaty of Granada, but that promise was short-lived.
Freedom of religion in contemporary India is a fundaIn 1501, Granadas Muslims were given an ultimatum to
mental right guaranteed under Article 25 of the nations
either convert to Christianity or to emigrate. The majorconstitution. Accordingly, every citizen of India has a
ity converted, but only supercially, continuing to dress
right to profess, practice and propagate their religions
and speak as they had before and to secretly practice Ispeacefully.[22] Vishwa Hindu Parishad counters this arlam. The Moriscos (converts to Christianity) were ultigument by saying that evangelical Christians are forcemately expelled from Spain between 1609 (Castile) and
fully (or through money) converting rural, illiterate pop1614 (rest of Spain), by Philip III.
ulations and they are only trying to stop this.
Martin Luther published his famous 95 Theses in
In September 2010, Indian state Keralas State Election
Wittenberg on 31 October 1517. His major aim was theCommissioner announced that Religious heads cannot
ological, summed up in the three basic dogmas of Protesissue calls to vote for members of a particular community
tantism:
or to defeat the nonbelievers.[23] The Catholic Church
comprising Latin, Syro-Malabar and Syro-Malankara
The Bible only is infallible
rites used to give clear directions to the faithful on exercising their franchise during elections through pastoral
Every Christian can interpret it
letters issued by bishops or council of bishops. The pastoral letter issued by Kerala Catholic Bishops Council
Human sins are so wrongful that no deed or merit,
(KCBC) on the eve of the poll urged the faithful to shun
only Gods grace, can lead to salvation.
atheists.[23]

HISTORY

In consequence, Luther hoped to stop the sale of

indulgences and to reform the Church from within. In
1521, he was given the chance to recant at the Diet of
Worms before Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, then
only 19. After he refused to recant, he was declared
heretic. Partly for his own protection, he was sequestered
on the Wartburg in the possessions of Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, where he translated the New Testament
into German. He was excommunicated by Papal Bull in
1521.
However, the movement continued to gain ground in his
absence and spread to Switzerland. Huldrych Zwingli
preached reform in Zrich from 1520 to 1523. He opposed the sale of indulgences, celibacy, pilgrimages, pictures, statues, relics, altars, and organs. This culminated
in outright war between the Swiss cantons that accepted
Protestantism and the Catholics. The Catholics were victorious, and Zwingli was killed in battle in 1531. The
Catholic cantons were magnanimous in victory.
The deance of Papal authority proved contagious, and
in 1533, when Henry VIII of England was excommunicated for his divorce and remarriage to Anne Boleyn,
he promptly established a state church with bishops appointed by the crown. This was not without internal opposition, and Thomas More, who had been his Lord Chancellor, was executed in 1535 for opposition to Henry.
In 1535, the Swiss canton of Geneva became Protestant.
In 1536, the Bernese imposed the reformation on the
canton of Vaud by conquest. They sacked the cathedral
in Lausanne and destroyed all its art and statuary. John
Calvin, who had been active in Geneva was expelled in
1538 in a power struggle, but he was invited back in 1540.
The same kind of seesaw back and forth between Protestantism and Catholicism was evident in England when
Mary I of England returned that country briey to the
Catholic fold in 1553 and persecuted Protestants. However, her half-sister, Elizabeth I of England was to restore
the Church of England in 1558, this time permanently,
and began to persecute Catholics again. The King James
Bible commissioned by King James I of England and published in 1611 proved a landmark for Protestant worship,
with ocial Catholic forms of worship being banned.
In France, although peace was made between Protestants
and Catholics at the Treaty of Saint Germain in 1570,
persecution continued, most notably in the Massacre of
Saint Bartholomews Day on 24 August 1572, in which
thousands of Protestants throughout France were killed.
A few years before, at the Michelade of Nmes in 1567,
Protestants had massacred the local Catholic clergy.

The cross of the war memorial and a menorah coexist in Oxford,

Oxfordshire, England.

ance. Normans, Jews, Muslim Arabs, Byzantine Greeks,

Lombards, and native Sicilians lived in harmony.[24][25]
Rather than exterminate the Muslims of Sicily, Roger IIs
grandson Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1215
1250) allowed them to settle on the mainland and build
mosques. Not least, he enlisted them in his Christian
army and even into his personal bodyguards[26][27]
Bohemia (present-day Czech Republic) enjoyed religious
freedom between 1436 and 1520, and became one of
the most liberal countries of the Christian world during
that period of time. The so-called Basel Compacts of
1436 declared the freedom of religion and peace between
Catholics and Utraquists. In 1609 Emperor Rudolf II
granted Bohemia greater religious liberty with his Letter of Majesty. The privileged position of the Catholic
Church in the Czech kingdom was rmly established after the Battle of White Mountain in 1620. Gradually freedom of religion in Bohemian lands came to an end and
Protestants ed or were expelled from the country. A devout Catholic, Emperor Ferdinand II forcibly converted
Austrian and Bohemian Protestants.

Early steps and attempts in the way of toler- In the meantime, in Germany Philip Melanchthon drafted
the Augsburg Confession as a common confession for the
ance
Lutherans and the free territories. It was presented to
The Norman Kingdom of Sicily under Roger II was char- Charles V in 1530.
1.3.2

acterized by its multi-ethnic nature and religious toler- In the Holy Roman Empire, Charles V agreed to toler-

1.3

Europe

ate Lutheranism in 1555 at the Peace of Augsburg. Each

state was to take the religion of its prince, but within those
states, there was not necessarily religious tolerance. Citizens of other faiths could relocate to a more hospitable
environment.

5
this comes from hearing, which hearings is by
the word of God.
Diet at Torda, 1568 : King John
Sigismund[28]

In the Union of Utrecht (20 January 1579), personal freedom of religion was declared in the struggle between the
Northern Netherlands and Spain. The Union of Utrecht
was an important step in the establishment of the Dutch
Republic (from 1581 to 1795). Under Calvinist leadership, the Netherlands became the most tolerant country
in Europe. It granted asylum to persecuted religious minorities, e.g. French Huguenots, English Dissenters, and
Jews who had been expelled from Spain and Portugal.[29]
The establishment of a Jewish community in the Netherlands and New Amsterdam (present-day New York) during the Dutch Republic is an example of religious freedom. When New Amsterdam surrendered to the English
in 1664, freedom of religion was guaranteed in the Articles of Capitulation. It benetted also the Jews who
had landed on Manhattan Island in 1654, eeing Por1.3.3 Early laws and legal guarantees for religious tuguese persecution in Brazil. During the 18th century,
freedom
other Jewish communities were established at Newport,
Rhode Island, Philadelphia, Charleston, Savannah, and
In 1558, the Transylvanian Diet of Torda declared free Richmond.[30]
practice of both the Catholic and Lutheran religions, but
Intolerance of dissident forms of Protestantism also conprohibited Calvinism. Ten years later, in 1568, the Diet
tinued, as evidenced by the exodus of the Pilgrims, who
extended the freedom to all religions, declaring that It is
sought refuge, rst in the Netherlands, and ultimately in
not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with capAmerica, founding Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in
tivity or expelling for his religion. However, it was more
1620. William Penn, the founder of Philadelphia, was inthan a religious tolerance, it declared the equality of the
volved in a case which had a profound eect upon future
religions. The emergence in social hierarchy wasn't deAmerican laws and those of England. In a classic case
pend on the religion of the person thus Transylvania had
of jury nullication the jury refused to convict William
also Catholic and Protestant monarchs (Princes). The
Penn of preaching a Quaker sermon, which was illegal.
lack of state religion was unique for centuries in Europe.
Even though the jury was imprisoned for their acquittal,
Therefore, the Edict of Torda is considered by mostly
they stood by their decision and helped establish the freeHungarian historians as the rst legal guarantee of relidom of religion.
gious freedom in Christian Europe.
In France, from the 1550s, many attempts to reconcile
Catholics and Protestants and to establish tolerance failed
because the State was too weak to enforce them. It took
the victory of prince Henry IV of France, who had converted into Protestantism, and his accession to the throne,
to impose religious tolerance formalized in the Edict of
Nantes in 1598. It would remain in force for over 80 years
until its revocation in 1685 by Louis XIV of France. Intolerance remained the norm until Louis XVI, who signed
the Edict of Versailles (1787), then the constitutional text
of 24 December 1789, granting civilian rights to Protestants. The French Revolution then abolished state religion and conscated all Church property, turning intolerance against Catholics.

ACT OF RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE

AND FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE:
His majesty, our Lord, in what manner he
together with his realm legislated in the matter of religion at the previous Diets, in the same
matter now, in this Diet, rearms that in every
place the preachers shall preach and explain the
Gospel each according to his understanding of
it, and if the congregation like it, well. If not,
no one shall compel them for their souls would
not be satised, but they shall be permitted to
keep a preacher whose teaching they approve.
Therefore none of the superintendents or others shall abuse the preachers, no one shall be
reviled for his religion by anyone, according
to the previous statutes, and it is not permitted that anyone should threaten anyone else by
imprisonment or by removal from his post for
his teaching. For faith is the gift of God and

Poland Main article: Warsaw Confederation

Poland has a long tradition of religious freedom. The

Original act of the Warsaw Confederation 1573. The beginning

of religious freedom in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

right to worship freely was a basic right given to all inhabitants of the Commonwealth throughout the 15th and

early 16th century, however, complete freedom of religion was ocially recognized in Poland in 1573 during
the Warsaw Confederation. Poland kept religious freedom laws during an era when religious persecution was
an everyday occurrence in the rest of Europe.[31]
The General Charter of Jewish Liberties known as the
Statute of Kalisz was issued by the Duke of Greater
Poland Boleslaus the Pious on 8 September 1264 in
Kalisz. The statute served as the basis for the legal
position of Jews in Poland and led to creation of the
Yiddish-speaking autonomous Jewish nation until 1795.
The statute granted exclusive jurisdiction of Jewish courts
over Jewish matters and established a separate tribunal
for matters involving Christians and Jews. Additionally,
it guaranteed personal liberties and safety for Jews including freedom of religion, travel, and trade. The statute was
ratied by subsequent Polish Kings: Casimir III of Poland
in 1334, Casimir IV of Poland in 1453 and Sigismund I
of Poland in 1539. The Commonwealth set a precedent
by allowing Jews to become ennobled.

1.4

United States

See also: Freedom of religion in the United States

Most of the early colonies were generally not tolerant of
dissident forms of worship, with Maryland being one of
the exceptions. For example, Roger Williams found it
necessary to found a new colony in Rhode Island to escape persecution in the theocratically dominated colony
of Massachusetts. The Puritans of the Massachusetts
Bay Colony were the most active of the New England
persecutors of Quakers, and the persecuting spirit was
shared by Plymouth Colony and the colonies along the
Connecticut river.[32] In 1660, one of the most notable
victims of the religious intolerance was English Quaker
Mary Dyer, who was hanged in Boston, Massachusetts
for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers
from the colony.[32] As one of the four executed Quakers
known as the Boston martyrs, the hanging of Dyer on the
Boston gallows marked the beginning of the end of the
Puritan theocracy and New England independence from
English rule, and in 1661 King Charles II explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing
Quakerism.[33]
Freedom of religion was rst applied as a principle of
government in the founding of the colony of Maryland,
founded by the Catholic Lord Baltimore, in 1634.[34] Fifteen years later (1649), the Maryland Toleration Act,
drafted by Lord Baltimore, provided: No person or persons...shall from henceforth be any waies troubled, molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her
religion nor in the free exercise thereof. The Maryland
Toleration Act was repealed during the Cromwellian Era
with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen and a new
law barring Catholics from openly practicing their reli-

HISTORY

gion was passed.[35] In 1657, the Catholic Lord Baltimore

regained control after making a deal with the colonys
Protestants, and in 1658 the Act was again passed by
the colonial assembly. This time, it would last more
than thirty years, until 1692[36] when, after Marylands
Protestant Revolution of 1689, freedom of religion was
again rescinded.[34][37] In addition, in 1704, an Act was
passed to prevent the growth of Popery in this Province,
preventing Catholics from holding political oce.[37] Full
religious toleration would not be restored in Maryland until the American Revolution, when Marylands Charles
Carroll of Carrollton signed the American Declaration of
Independence.
Rhode Island (1636), Connecticut (1636), New Jersey, and Pennsylvania (1682)founded by Protestants
Roger Williams, Thomas Hooker, and William Penn,
respectivelycombined the democratic form of government which had been developed by the Puritans and the
Separatist Congregationalists in Massachusetts with religious freedom.[38][39][40][41] These colonies became sanctuaries for persecuted religious minorities. Catholics and
later on Jews also had full citizenship and free exercise
of their religions.[42][43][44] Williams, Hooker, Penn, and
their friends were rmly convinced that freedom of conscience was the will of God. Williams gave the most profound argument: As faith is the free work of the Holy
Spirit, it cannot be forced on a person. Therefore, strict
separation of church and state has to be kept.[45] Pennsylvania was the only colony that retained unlimited religious freedom until the foundation of the United States in
1776. It was the inseparable connection between democracy, religious freedom, and the other forms of freedom which became the political and legal basis of the
new nation. In particular, Baptists and Presbyterians demanded the disestablishment of state churches - Anglican
and Congregationalist - and the protection of religious
freedom.[46]
Reiterating Marylands and the other colonies earlier
colonial legislation, the Virginia Statute for Religious
Freedom, written in 1779 by Thomas Jeerson, proclaimed:
[N]o man shall be compelled to frequent or
support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever, nor shall be enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened in his body or
goods, nor shall otherwise suer, on account
of his religious opinions or belief; but that all
men shall be free to profess, and by argument to
maintain, their opinions in matters of religion,
and that the same shall in no wise diminish, enlarge, or aect their civil capacities.
Those sentiments also found expression in the First
Amendment of the national constitution, part of the
United States Bill of Rights: Congress shall make no
law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof...

7
The United States formally considers religious freedom
in its foreign relations. The International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 established the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom which investigates the records of over 200 other nations with respect to
religious freedom, and makes recommendations to submit nations with egregious records to ongoing scrutiny
and possible economic sanctions. Many human rights organizations have urged the United States to be still more
vigorous in imposing sanctions on countries that do not
permit or tolerate religious freedom.

1.5

Canada

Further information: Freedom of religion in Canada

Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing believers the freedom to assemble
and worship without limitation or interference. Canadian
law goes further, requiring that private citizens and companies provide reasonable accommodation to those, for
example, with strong religious beliefs. The Canadian Human Rights Act allows an exception to reasonable accommodation with respect to religious dress, such as a Sikh
turban, when there is a bona de occupational requirement, such as a workplace requiring a hard hat.[47]

2 Contemporary debates
2.1 Theistic, non-theistic and atheistic beliefs
In 1993, the UNs human rights committee declared that
article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights protects theistic, non-theistic and atheistic
beliefs, as well as the right not to profess any religion or
belief.[50] The committee further stated that the freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief necessarily
entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, including the right to replace ones current religion or belief with
another or to adopt atheistic views. Signatories to the
convention are barred from the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or nonbelievers to recant their beliefs or convert. Despite this,
minority religions still are still persecuted in many parts
of the world.[51][52]
Within the United States, the Freedom From Religion
Foundation argues that the United States Constitution not
only prohibits the intrusion of religion into the processes
of government, but also guarantees equal rights to citizens
who choose not to follow any religion.[53] Conservative
sociopolitical commentator Bryan Fischer has responded:
The Constitution guarantees freedom of religion, not
freedom from religion.[54]

2.2 Liberal secular

1.6

Philippines

The Constitution of the Philippines states in Article III,

Section 5, No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.
The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession
and worship, without discrimination or preference, shall
forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for
the exercise of civil or political rights.[48]

Adam Smith, in his book The Wealth of Nations (using

an argument rst put forward by his friend and contemporary David Hume), states that in the long run it is in
the best interests of society as a whole and the civil magistrate (government) in particular to allow people to freely
choose their own religion, as it helps prevent civil unrest
and reduces intolerance. So long as there are enough different religions and/or religious sects operating freely in
a society then they are all compelled to moderate their
more controversial and violent teachings, so as to be more
appealing to more people and so have an easier time attracting new converts. It is this free competition amongst
religious sects for converts that ensures stability and tranquillity in the long run.

Smith also points out that laws that prevent religious freedom and seek to preserve the power and belief in a particular religion will, in the long run, only serve to weaken
On 25 November 1981, the United Nations General As- and corrupt that religion, as its leaders and preachers besembly passed the Declaration on the Elimination of All come complacent, disconnected and unpractised in their
[55]
Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Re- ability to seek and win over new converts:
ligion or Belief. This declaration recognizes freedom
The interested and active zeal of religious
of religion as a fundamental human right in accordance
teachers can be dangerous and troublesome
with several other instruments of international law, but
only where there is either but one sect tolerated
the international community has not passed any binding
in the society, or where the whole of a large solegal instruments that guarantee the right to freedom of
ciety is divided into two or three great sects; the
religion.[49]

1.7

International

CONTEMPORARY DEBATES

Reconstructionist Judaism, Jewish Renewal and

Humanistic Judaism. Israel, viewed as the Jewish
homeland, has been evaluated in research by the Pew
organization as having high government restrictions on
religion. The government recognizes only Orthodox Judaism in certain matters of personal status, and marriages
can only be performed by religious authorities. The
government provides the greatest funding to Orthodox
Judaism, even though adherents represent a minority
of citizens.[58] Jewish women have been arrested at the
Western Wall for praying and singing while wearing
religious garments the Orthodox feel should be reserved
for men. Women of the Wall have organized to promote
religious freedom at the Wall.[59] In November 2014,
a group of 60 non-Orthodox rabbinical students were
told they would not be allowed to pray in the Knesset
synagogue because it is reserved for Orthodox. Rabbi
Joel Levy, director of the Conservative Yeshiva in
Jerusalem, said that he had submitted the request on
behalf of the students and saw their shock when the
request was denied. He noted: paradoxically, this
decision served as an appropriate end to our conversation
about religion and state in Israel. MK Dov Lipman
expressed the concern that many Knesset workers are
unfamiliar with non-Orthodox and American practices
and would view an egalitarian service in the synagogue
as an aront.[60]
Adam Smith argued in favour of freedom of religion.

teachers of each acting by concert, and under a

regular discipline and subordination. But that
zeal must be altogether innocent, where the society is divided into two or three hundred, or,
perhaps, into as many thousand small sects, of
which no one could be considerable enough to
disturb the public tranquillity. The teachers of
each sect, seeing themselves surrounded on all
sides with more adversaries than friends, would
be obliged to learn that candour and moderation which are so seldom to be found among
the teachers of those great sects.[56]

2.3

2.5 Christianity

Hinduism

Hinduism is one of the more open-minded religions when

it comes to religious freedom.[57] It respects the right of
everyone to reach God in their own way. Hindus believe
in dierent ways to preach attainment of God and religion
as a philosophy and hence respect all religions as equal.
One of the famous Hindu sayings about religion is: Truth
is one; sages call it by dierent names.[57]

Part of the Oscar Straus Memorial in Washington, D.C. honoring

the right to worship.

According to the Catholic Church in the Vatican II document on religious freedom, Dignitatis Humanae, the human person has a right to religious freedom, which is described as immunity from coercion in civil society.[61]
This principle of religious freedom leaves untouched
traditional Catholic doctrine on the moral duty of men
and societies toward the true religion.[61] In addition,
2.4 Judaism
this right is to be recognized in the constitutional law
Judaism includes multiple streams, such as Or- whereby society is governed and thus it is to become a
thodox, Reform Judaism, Conservative Judaism, civil right.[61]

2.6

Islam

Prior to this, Pope Pius IX had written a document called

the Syllabus of Errors. The Syllabus was made up of
phrases and paraphrases from earlier papal documents,
along with index references to them, and presented as a
list of condemned propositions. It does not explain why
each particular proposition is wrong, but it cites earlier
documents to which the reader can refer for the Popes
reasons for saying each proposition is false. Among the
statements included in the Syllabus are: "[It is an error to
say that] Every man is free to embrace and profess that
religion which, guided by the light of reason, he shall consider true (15); "[It is an error to say that] In the present
day it is no longer expedient that the Catholic religion
should be held as the only religion of the State, to the exclusion of all other forms of worship (77); "[It is an error
to say that] Hence it has been wisely decided by law, in
some Catholic countries, that persons coming to reside
therein shall enjoy the public exercise of their own peculiar worship (78).[62]

9
pansion of empire. Increasing the arrogance
of the imperial project, Christians insisted that
the Gospels and the Church were the only valid
sources of religious beliefs. Imperialists could
claim that they were both civilizing the world
and spreading the true religion. By the 5th
century, Christianity was thought of as coextensive with the Imperium romanum. This
meant that to be human, as opposed to being a natural slave, was to be civilized and
Christian. Historian Anthony Pagden argues,
just as the civitas; had now become coterminous with Christianity, so to be humanto be,
that is, one who was 'civil', and who was able
to interpret correctly the law of natureone
had now also to be Christian. After the fteenth century, most Western colonialists rationalized the spread of empire with the belief that they were saving a barbaric and pagan
world by spreading Christian civilization.[67]

Some Orthodox Christians, especially those living in

democratic countries, support religious freedom for all,
as evidenced by the position of the Ecumenical Patri2.6 Islam
archate. Many Protestant Christian churches, including
some Baptists, Churches of Christ, Seventh-day AdvenMain articles: Political aspects of Islam, Sharia,
tist Church and main line churches have a commitment to
Caliphate, Islamic religious police and Islamism
religious freedoms. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latterday Saints also arms religious freedom.[63]
Conversion to Islam is simple (cf. shahada), but Muslims
However others, such as African scholar Makau Mutua,
are forbidden to convert from Islam to another religion
have argued that Christian insistence on the propagation
(cf. Apostasy in Islam). Certain Muslim-majority counof their faith to native cultures as an element of religious
tries are known for their restrictions on religious freefreedom has resulted in a corresponding denial of relidom, highly favoring Muslim citizens over non-Muslim
gious freedom to native traditions and led to their decitizens. Other countries having the same restrictive laws
struction. As he states in the book produced by the Oslo
tend to be more liberal when imposing them. Even other
Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief, Imperial
Muslim-majority countries are secular and thus do not
religions have necessarily violated individual conscience
regulate religious belief.[68]
and the communal expressions of Africans and their comSome Islamic theologians quote the Qur'an (There is no
munities by subverting African religions.[64][65]
compulsion in religion[2:256] and Say: O you who reject
In their book Breaking India, Rajiv Malhotra and
faith, I do not worship what you worship, nor do you worAravindan Neelakandan discussed the US Church
ship what I worship...To you be your religion, and to me
funding activities in India, such as the popularly adverbe mine[109:16] , i.e., Sura Al-Karun) to show scriptural
tised campaigns to save poor children by feeding, clothsupport for religious freedom.
ing, and educating them, with the book arguing that the
funds collected were being used not so much for the pur- Quran 2:190194, referring to the war against Pagans
poses indicated to sponsors, but for indoctrination and during the Battle of Badr in Medina, indicates that Musconversion activities. They suggest that India is the prime lims are only allowed to ght against those who intend
target of a huge enterprisea network of organiza- to harm them (right of self-defense) and that if their entions, individuals, and churchesthat, they argue, seem emies surrender, they must also stop because God does
intensely devoted to the task of creating a separatist iden- not like those who transgress limits.
tity, history, and even religion for the vulnerable sec- In Bukhari:V9 N316, Jabir ibn 'Abdullah narrated that
tions of India. They suggest that this nexus of players a Bedouin accepted Islam and then when he got a fever
includes not only church groups, government bodies, and he demanded that Muhammad to cancel his pledge (alrelated organizations, but also private think tanks and low him to renounce Islam). Muhammad refused to do
academics.[66]
so. The Bedouin man repeated his demand once, but
Joel Spring has written about the Christianization of the Muhammad once again refused. Then, he (the Bedouin)
left Medina. Muhammad said, Madinah is like a pair
Roman Empire:
of bellows (furnace): it expels its impurities and brightChristianity added new impetus to the exens and clear its good. In this narration, there was no

10

CONTEMPORARY DEBATES

evidence demonstrating that Muhammad ordered the ex- A dierent kind of critique of the freedom to propagate
ecution of the Bedouin for wanting to renounce Islam.
religion has come from non-Abrahamic traditions such as
In addition, Quran 5:3, which is believed to be Gods nal the African and Indian. African scholar Makau Mutua
revelation to Muhammad, states that Muslims are to fear criticizes religious evangelism on the ground of cultural
God and not those who reject Islam, and Quran 53:3839 annihilation by what he calls proselytizing universalist
states that one is accountable only for ones own actions. faiths (Chapter 28: Proselytism and Cultural Integrity,
Therefore, it postulates that in Islam, in the matters of page 652):
practising a religion, it does not relate to a worldly punishment, but rather these actions are accountable to God
in the afterlife. Thus, this supports the argument against
the execution of apostates in Islam.[69]
However, on the other hand, some Muslims support the
practice of executing apostates who leave Islam, as in
Bukhari:V4 B52 N260; The Prophet said, 'If a Muslim
discards his religion, kill him.'"

...the (human) rights regime incorrectly assumes a level playing eld by requiring that
African religions compete in the marketplace
of ideas. The rights corpus not only forcibly
imposes on African religions the obligation to
competea task for which as nonproselytizing, noncompetitive creeds they are not historically fashionedbut also protects the evangelizing religions in their march towards universalization ... it seems inconceivable that the
human rights regime would have intended to
protect the right of certain religions to destroy
others.[75]

In Iran, the constitution recognizes four religions whose

status is formally protected: Zoroastrianism, Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam.[51] The constitution, however, also set the groundwork for the institutionalized
persecution of Bah's,[70] who have been subjected to arrests, beatings, executions, conscation and destruction
of property, and the denial of civil rights and liberties, Some Indian scholars[76] have similarly argued that the
and the denial of access to higher education.[51] There is right to propagate religion is not culturally or religiously
no freedom of conscience in Iran, as converting from Is- neutral.
lam to any other religion is forbidden.
In Sri Lanka, there have been debates regarding a bill on
In Egypt, a 16 December 2006 judgment of the Supreme religious freedom that seeks to protect indigenous reliAdministrative Council created a clear demarcation be- gious traditions from certain kinds of missionary activitween recognized religions Islam, Christianity and Ju- ties. Debates have also occurred in various states of India
daism and all other religious beliefs;[71][72] no other re- regarding similar laws, particularly those that restrict conligious aliation is ocially admissible.[73] The ruling versions using force, fraud or allurement.
leaves members of other religious communities, including Bah's, without the ability to obtain the necessary In 2008, Christian Solidarity Worldwide, a Christian hugovernment documents to have rights in their country, man rights non-governmental organisation which specialessentially denying them of all rights of citizenship.[73] izes in religious freedom, launched an in-depth report
They cannot obtain ID cards, birth certicates, death cer- on the human rights abuses faced by individuals who
ticates, marriage or divorce certicates, and passports; leave Islam for another religion. The report is the prodthey also cannot be employed, educated, treated in pub- uct of a year long research project in six dierent counlic hospitals or vote, among other things.[73] See Egyptian tries. It calls on Muslim nations, the international community, the UN and the international media to resolutely
identication card controversy.
address the serious violations of human rights suered by
apostates.[77]

2.7

Changing religion

Main article: Religious conversion

2.7.1 Apostasy in Islam

Main articles: Apostasy in Islam, Takr and Mutaween

Among the most contentious areas of religious freedom is In Islam, apostasy is called "ridda" (turning back) and
the right of an individual to change or abandon his or her is considered to be a profound insult to God. A perown religion (apostasy), and the right to evangelize indi- son born of Muslim parents that rejects Islam is called
viduals seeking to convince others to make such a change. a "murtad tri" (natural apostate), and a person that conOther debates have centered around restricting certain verted to Islam and later rejects the religion is[78]called a
kinds of missionary activity by religions. Many Islamic "murtad milli" (apostate from the community).
states, and others such as China, severely restrict missionary activities of other religions. Greece, among European
countries, has generally looked unfavorably on missionary activities of denominations others than the majority
church and proselytizing is constitutionally prohibited.[74]

In Islamic law (Sharia), the consensus view is that a male

apostate must be put to death unless he suers from a
mental disorder or converted under duress, for example,
due to an imminent danger of being killed. A female
apostate must be either executed, according to Sha'i,

11
In 1955, Chief Justice of California Roger J. Traynor
neatly summarized the American position on how freedom of religion cannot imply freedom from law: Although freedom of conscience and the freedom to believe
are absolute, the freedom to act is not.[82] But with respect to the religious use of animals within secular law
and those acts, the US Supreme Court decision in the case
of the Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah
in 1993 upheld the right of Santeria adherents to practice ritual animal sacrice, with Justice Anthony Kennedy
stating in the decision: religious beliefs need not be acceptable, logical, consistent or comprehensible to others
in order to merit First Amendment protection (quoted
by Justice Kennedy from the opinion by Justice Burger
Legal opinion on apostasy by the Fatwa committee at Al-Azhar in Thomas v. Review Board of the Indiana Employment
[83]
University in Cairo, the highest Islamic institution in the world, Security Division 450 U.S. 707 (1981)).
concerning the case of a man who converted to Christianity:
Since he left Islam, he will be invited to express his regret. If
he does not regret, he will be killed pertaining to rights and obligations of the Islamic law.

3 Childrens rights

The law in Germany provides the term of religious maMaliki, and Hanbali schools of Sunni Islamic jurisprujority (Religise Mndigkeit) with a minimum age for
dence (qh), or imprisoned until she reverts to Islam
minors to follow their own religious beliefs even if their
as advocated by the Sunni Hana school and by Shi'a
parents don't share those or don't approve. Children 14
[79]
scholars.
and older have the unrestricted right to enter or exit any
Ideally, the one performing the execution of an apostate religious community. Children 12 and older cannot be
must be an imam.[79] At the same time, all schools of compelled to change to a dierent belief. Children 10
Islamic jurisprudence agree that any Muslim can kill an and older have to be heard before their parents change
apostate without punishment.[80]
their religious upbringing to a dierent belief.[84] There
[85]
[86]
However, while almost all scholars agree about the pun- are similar laws in Austria and in Switzerland.
ishment, many disagree on the allowable time to retract
the apostasy. Many scholars push this as far as allowing
the apostate till he/she dies. Thus, practically making the 4 International Religious Freedom
death penalty just a theoretical statement/exercise. S. A.
Day
Rahman, a former Chief Justice of Pakistan, argues that
there is no indication of the death penalty for apostasy in
the Qur'an.[81]
27 October is International Religious Freedom Day, in
commemoration of the execution of the Boston martyrs
for their religious convictions 16591661.[87] The US
2.8 Secular law
proclaimed 16 January Religious Freedom Day.[88]
Religious practice may also conict with secular law, creating debates on religious freedom. For instance, even
though polygamy is permitted in Islam, it is prohibited in
secular law in many countries. This raises the question
of whether prohibiting the practice infringes on the beliefs of certain Muslims. The US and India, both constitutionally secular nations, have taken two dierent views
of this. In India, polygamy is permitted, but only for Muslims, under Muslim Personal Law. In the US, polygamy
is prohibited for all. This was a major source of conict
between the early LDS Church and the United States until
the Church amended its position on practicing polygamy.

5 Modern concerns

In its 2011 annual report, the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom designated fourteen nations as countries of particular concern. The
commission chairman commented that these are nations
whose conduct marks them as the worlds worst religious freedom violators and human rights abusers. The
fourteen nations designated were Burma, China, Egypt,
Eritrea, Iran, Iraq, Nigeria, North Korea, Pakistan,
Similar issues have also arisen in the context of the reli- Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and
gious use of psychedelic substances by Native American Vietnam. Other nations on the commissions watchlist intribes in the United States as well as other Native prac- clude Afghanistan, Belarus, Cuba, India, Indonesia, Laos,
Russia, Somalia, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Venezuela.[89]
tices.

12

6 SEE ALSO

There are concerns about the restrictions on public religious dress in some European countries (including the
Hijab, Kippah, and Christian cross).[90][91] Article 18
of the UN International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights limits restrictions on freedom to manifest ones
religion or beliefs to those necessary to protect public
safety, order, health, or morals or the fundamental rights
and freedoms of others.[92] Freedom of religion as a legal concept is related to, but not identical with, religious
toleration, separation of church and state, or secular state
(lacit).

5.1

Pakistan and Iran were the countries that top the list of
countries with the overall highest levels of restriction on
religion. Topping the Pew government restrictions index were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Uzbekistan, China, Egypt,
Burma, Maldives, Eritrea, Malaysia and Brunei.
Of the worlds 25 most populous countries, Iran, Egypt,
Indonesia and Pakistan had the most restrictions, while
Brazil, Japan, Italy, South Africa, the UK, and the US
had some of the lowest levels, as measured by Pew.

Vietnam and China were classied as having high government restrictions on religion but were in the moderate
or low range when it came to social hostilities. Nigeria,
Social hostilities and government re- Bangladesh and India were high in social hostilities but
moderate in terms of government actions.
strictions

Freedom of religion by country (Pew Research Center study,

2009). Light yellow: low restriction; red: very high restriction
on freedom of religion.

The Pew Research Center has performed studies on international religious freedom between 2009 and 2015,
compiling global data from 16 governmental and nongovernmental organizationsincluding the United Nations, the United States State Department, and Human
Rights Watchand representing over 99.5 percent of the
worlds population.[93][94] In 2009, nearly 70 percent of
the worlds population lived in countries classied as having heavy restrictions on freedom of religion.[93][94] This
concerns restrictions on religion originating from government prohibitions on free speech and religious expression
as well as social hostilities undertaken by private individuals, organisations and social groups. Social hostilities
were classied by the level of communal violence and
religion-related terrorism.
While most countries provided for the protection of religious freedom in their constitutions or laws, only a quarter
of those countries were found to fully respect these legal
rights in practice. In 75 countries governments limit the
eorts of religious groups to proselytise and in 178 countries religious groups must register with the government.
In 2013, Pew classied 30% of countries as having restrictions that tend to target religious minorities, and 61%
of countries have social hostilities that tend to target religious minorities.[95]
The countries in North and South America reportedly had
some of the lowest levels of government and social restrictions on religion, while The Middle East and North
Africa were the regions with the highest. Saudi Arabia,

Restrictions on religion across the world increased between mid-2009 and mid-2010, according to a 2012
study by the Pew Research Center. Restrictions in each of
the ve major regions of the world increasedincluding
in the Americas and sub-Saharan Africa, the two regions where overall restrictions previously had been declining. In 2010, Egypt, Nigeria, the Palestinian territories, Russia, and Yemen were added to the very
high category of social hostilities.[96] The ve highest social hostility scores were for Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka,
Iraq, and Bangladesh.[97] In 2015, Pew published that social hostilities declined in 2013, but Harassment of Jews
increased.[95]

6 See also
Adiaphora
Forum 18
Freedom of thought
International Association for Religious Freedom
International Center for Law and Religion Studies
International Coalition for Religious Freedom
International Religious Liberty Association
Missouri Executive Order 44
General Order No. 11 (1862)
North American Religious Liberty Association
Persecution of Jehovahs Witnesses in the United
States
Religious discrimination
Status of religious freedom by country
Religious education in primary and secondary education
Witch-hunt
Witch trials in the early modern period

13

6.1

Lawsuits

Inquisition at Goa, and at their hands Indian Jews experienced the only instance of anti-Semitism ever to occur in
Indian soil.

C. H. v. Oliva et al.

[18] David E. Ludden (1996). Contesting the Nation: Religion,

Community, and the Politics of Democracy in India. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 257258. ISBN 08122-1585-0.

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[92] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Retrieved 4 July 2009.

[75] Mutua, Makau (2004). Facilitating Freedom of Religion

or Belief, A Deskbook. Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief. p. 652. ISBN 978-90-04-13783-7.

[93] Global Restrictions on Religion (Executive summary)".

The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. December
2009. Retrieved 29 December 2009.

[76] Sanu, Sankrant (2006). Re-examining Religious Freedom (PDF). Manushi. Retrieved 26 July 2008.

[94] Global Restrictions on Religion (Full report)" (PDF).

The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. December
2009. Retrieved 12 September 2013.

[77] No place to call home (PDF). Christian Solidarity

Worldwide. 29 April 2008.
[78] from Leaving Islam: Apostates speak out by Ibn Warraq
[79] Heening, W. Murtadd. In P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs.
Encyclopaedia of Islam Online Edition. Brill Academic
Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
[80] Adbul Qadir Oudah (1999). Kitab Bhavan. New Delhi:
Kitab Bhavan. ISBN 81-7151-273-9., Volume II. pp.
258262; Volume IV. pp. 1921

[95] Latest Trends in Religious Restrictions and Hostilities.

Pew Forum. 26 Feb 2015.
[96] Rising Tide of Restrictions on Religion (Report). Pew Research Center. September 20, 2012.
[97] Table: Social Hostilities Index by country (PDF). Pew
Research Center. 2012.

8 Further reading

[82] Pencovic v. Pencovic, 45 Cal. 2d 67 (1955).

Daniel L. Dreisbach and Mark David Hall. The

Sacred Rights of Conscience: Selected Readings on
Religious Liberty and Church-State Relations in the
American Founding (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund
Press, 2009).

[83] Criminal Law and Procedure, Daniel E. Hall. Cengage

Learning, July 2008. p. 266.

Barzilai, Gad (2007). Law and Religion. Ashgate.

ISBN 978-0-7546-2494-3.

[84] Gesetz ber die religise Kindererziehung.

desrecht.juris.de. Retrieved 3 September 2011.

Beneke, Chris (20 September 2006). Beyond Toleration: The Religious Origins of American Pluralism.
Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0-19-5305558.

[81] S. A. Rahman (2007). Summary and Conclusions.

Punishment of Apostasy in Islam. The Other Press. pp.
132142. ISBN 978-983-9541-49-6.

Bun-

[85] Bundesgesetz 1985 ber die religise Kindererziehung

(pdf)
[86] Schweizerisches Zivilgesetzbuch Art 303: Religise
Erziehung. Gesetze.ch. Retrieved 3 September 2011.
[87] Margery Post Abbott (2011). Historical Dictionary of the
Friends (Quakers). Scarecrow Press. pp. 102. ISBN 9780-8108-7088-8.
[88] Religious Freedom Day, 2006 A Proclamation by the
President of the United States of America, Religious Freedom Day, 2001 Proclamation by the President of the
United States of America 15 January 2001
[89] US commission names 14 worst violators of religious
freedom. Christianity Today. 29 April 2011. Retrieved
11 July 2011.
^ USCIRF Identies Worlds Worst Religious Freedom Violators: Egypt Cited for First Time (Press release). United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. 28 April 2011. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
^ Annual Report 2011 (PDF) (Report). United States
Commission on International Religious Freedom. May
2011. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
[90] France Passes Religious Symbol Ban. Christianity Today. 9 February 2004. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
[91] The Islamic veil across Europe. BBC News. 17 November 2006. Retrieved 2 December 2006.

Curry, Thomas J. (19 December 1989). Church and

State in America to the Passage of the First Amendment. Oxford University Press; Reprint edition (19
December 1989). ISBN 0-19-505181-5.
Frost, J. William (1990) A Perfect Freedom: Religious Liberty in Pennsylvania (Cambridge, England:
Cambridge University Press).
Gaustad, Edwin S. (2004, 2nd ed.) Faith of the
Founders: Religion and the New Nation, 17761826
(Waco: Baylor University Press).
Hamilton, Marci A. (17 June 2005). God vs. the
Gavel: Religion and the Rule of Law. Edward R.
Becker (Foreword). Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-85304-4.
Hanson, Charles P. (1998). Necessary Virtue: The
Pragmatic Origins of Religious Liberty in New England. University Press of Virginia. ISBN 0-81391794-8.
Hasson, Kevin 'Seamus, The Right to be Wrong:
Ending the Culture War Over Religion in America,
Encounter Books, 2005, ISBN 1-59403-083-9

16
McLoughlin, William G. (1971). New England Dissent: The Baptists and the Separation of Church and
State (2 vols.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Murphy, Andrew R. (July 2001). Conscience and
Community: Revisiting Toleration and Religious Dissent in Early Modern England and America. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-021055.
Mutua, Makau (2004). Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief, A Deskbook. Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief.
Stokes, Anson Phelps (1950) Church and State in the
United States, Historic Development and Contemporary Problems of Religious Freedom under the Constitution, 3 Volumes (New York: Harper & Brothers
Publishers).
Stokes, DaShanne (In Press). Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom at the
Wayback Machine (archived October 27, 2009)
Stssi Marcel, MODELS OF RELIGIOUS FREEDOM: Switzerland, the United States, and Syria by
Analytical, Methodological, and Eclectic Representation, 375 . (Lit 2012)., by Marcel Stssi, research
fellow at the University of Lucerne.
Associated Press (2002). Appeals court upholds
mans use of eagle feathers for religious practices
American Indian Religious Freedom Act (1978)
Policy Concerning Distribution of Eagle Feathers
for Native American Religious
Ban on Minarets: On the Validity of a Controversial
Swiss Popular Initiative (2008), , by Marcel Stuessi,
research fellow at the University of Lucerne.
Religious Liberty: The legal framework in selected
OSCE countries. (PDF). Law Library, U.S. Library of Congress. May 2000. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 6 April
2007.
Utt, Walter C. (1964). Brickbats and Dead Cats
(PDF). Liberty (Washington, D.C.: Review and
Herald Publishing Association) 59 (4, JulyAugust):
1821. Retrieved 23 June 2011.
Utt, Walter C. (1960). A Plea for the Somewhat Disorganized Man (PDF). Liberty (Washington, D.C.: Review and Herald Publishing Association) 55 (4, JulyAugust): 15, 16, 29. Retrieved 24
June 2011.
Utt, Walter C. (1974). Toleration is a Nasty
Word (PDF). Liberty (Washington, D.C.: Review
and Herald Publishing Association) 69 (2, March
April): 1013. Retrieved 24 June 2011.

EXTERNAL LINKS

Zippelius, Reinhold (2009). Staat und Kirche,

ch.13. Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16150016-9.

9 External links
Religion and Foreign Policy Initiative, Council on
Foreign Relations.
The Complexity of Religion and the Denition of
Religion in International Law Harvard Human
Rights Journal article from the President and Fellows of Harvard College (2003)
Human Rights Brief No. 3, Freedom Of Religion
and Belief Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC)
U.S. State Department country reports
Institute for Global Engagement
Institute for Religious Freedom

17

10
10.1

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Freedom of religion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_religion?oldid=676714134 Contributors: Uriyan, Szopen, LA2,

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10.2

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File:AdamSmith.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/collections/kress/kress_img/adam_smith2.htm Original artist: Etching created by Cadell and Davies
(1811), John Horsburgh (1828) or R.C. Bell (1872). The original depiction of Smith was created in 1787 by James Tassie in the form of
an enamel paste medallion. Smith did not usually sit for his portrait, so a considerable number of engravings and busts of Smith were made
not from observation but from the same enamel medallion produced by Tassie, an artist who could convince Smith to sit.
File:Akt_Konfederacji_Warszawskiej.jpg Source:
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18

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Cross_menorah_Oxford_20051225.jpg Source:
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