76527, Introduction to Microsystem Technology

Microfabrication
(ADDITIONAL MATERIALS)

1.Introduction
Microfabrication technologies currently employed to micro electromechanical systems
(MEMS) have originated from microelectronics technology. The microelectronics technology
is well developed and suitable for mass production. However, the technology has its
limitations. For example, the structure produced has low aspect ratio and often limited to the
use of silicon, and equipment required is generally expansive. In the mean while, it has become
clear that other technologies from different fields could also contribute significantly to the
development of MEMS system. Many technologies are capable of fabricating 3-D mechanisms
required for applications such as microrobotics. These technologies include:
LIGA (named from the German words LIthographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung) and
other photolithography-related methods.
Material removal methods such as excimer laser machining [1], electrical discharge
machining [2], ion beam milling [3] and ultrasonic machining [4].
Material deposition techniques such as laser-assisted chemical vapour deposition (LCVD)
[5], ultraviolet stereo lithography [6] and localized electrochemical deposition [7].
In the following text, we will address some of these material removal methods and material
deposition techniques.

2.Material Removal Technologies

Material removal technologies include excimer laser machining, electrical discharge
machining, ion beam milling, ultrasonic machining, etc. In this section, excimer laser
machining and electrical discharge machining are briefly introduced.

2.1 Excimer Laser Micromachining

The excimer (excited dimer) laser was invented in 1975, in which a diatomic molecule such as
N 2 or H 2 was used as the lasing material. Since then rare gas halide lasers have become more
common but are still referred to as excimer lasers. Excimer lasers produce relatively wide

beams of ultraviolet laser light. One interesting application of these lasers is their use in
micromachining organic materials (plastics, polymers, etc.). This is because the wave lengths
of excimer laser are more compatible with the chemical bond energies in organic compounds
and tend to produce less thermal damage, so the material adjacent to the area machined is not
melted or distorted by heating effects.
The organic materials on the work piece are removed at each pulse when the laser is pulsed on
and off. The amount of material removed depends on the material properties, the pulse length
and the intensity of the laser light. When the intensity of the laser is bellow a certain threshold
that depends on the material, the laser light has no effect. By counting the number of pulses, it
is possible to control the depth of the cut. Cuts of hundreds of microns can be made using the
excimer laser.
The shape of the structures produced is controlled by using a chrome on quartz mask, like the
masks produced for photolithography. In the simplest system the mask is placed in contact
with the material being machined, and the laser light is shone through it. A more sophisticated
and versatile method involves projecting the image of the mask onto the material. Material is
selectively removed where the laser light strikes it. Structures with vertical sides can be
created. By adjusting the optics it is possible to produce structures with tapered side walls, as
shown in Fig. 1.

FIGURE 1. Microstructure created by excimer laser micromachining [9].

Excimer lasers have a number of applications beyond those mentioned here. One area of
application is in machining the cornea of the eye to change its optical properties; correcting for
short sight.

2.2 Micro Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)

Micro electro discharge machining (EDM) is a non-conventional machining technique
which make possible to achieve precision machining of micro holes, micro shafts and a variety
of complex shapes. EDM is a process whereby material is removed through the erosive action
by control the electrical discharges (sparks) between a tool electrode and the workpiece
electrode. These electrodes are separated by the dielectric fluid. Every discharges melts a small
amount of material on both electrodes. Some of the melted material is removed by the
dielectric fluid while the remaining part resolidifies on the surface of the electrodes. By proper
choosing the machining parameter, the material removal on the tool electrode can be kept at
least an order of magnitude smaller than the material removal on the workpiece [2]. One of the
first micro EDM experiment reported was performed at the end of 60s [8]. However, the
technique was not investigated further until later 80s.
Microfabrication

There are two kinds of EDM: die-sinking EDM and wire EDM. The wire EDM uses a wire that
cuts through the workpiece. The wire is typically made of tungsten or copper of diameter 25300 m . The die-sinking EDM uses a tool electrode having the complementary form of the
desired workpiece, and sinks into the workpiece. The material of the electrode is normally
copper or graphite while the dielectric fluid is mostly oil. Comparing these two EDM methods,
the wire EMD is cheaper and easier to renew the tool than the die-sinking EMD using a
complex electrodes. However, wire EDM can only make ruled surfaces and the wire may bend
during machining which results in a loss of accuracy. The machinable materials are usually
electrically conductive, but semiconductor materials, such as silicon, can also be machined by
micro EDM. Hard materials such as cemented carbide can also be micromachined without
difficulty.

FIGURE 2. Schematic representation of different type of EDM [13].

In order to implement a practical micro EDM it is very important to minimize the single
discharge energy and to set out a very high discharge frequency. By reducing the discharge
7
energy to about 10 J , the capacitance of the relaxation generator for discharging the pulses to
about 10 pF , and limiting the stray capacitance using ceramic components for the EDM
mechanical structure.
Micro EDM micromachining can drill precision micro holes (diameter of 15 to 300 m , radial
deviation of 0.5 m or less, surface roughness smaller than 0.1m ), such as those required for
gas and liquid orifices in aerospace and medical applications, pin holes for X-ray and nuclear
fusion measurements, ink-jet printer nozzles and electron bean gun apertures. Holes can
usually be machined to a depth of 3 to 10 times that of the hole diameter. The speed of EDM
can be quite high, e.g., a hole with a diameter of 160m and 380m deep can be eroded in 1
to 2 min in silicon material with 0.47 to 0.51m Ra .
In order to drill microholes, microelectrodes must be fabricated first. This can be done by using
a wire EDM and reserving the polarity of the electro-discharge (known as Wire Electrode
Discharge Grinding). The wire EDM method can also be used for fabrication of micronozzles
with irregular inner section, as shown in Fig. 3. Micro EDM is capable of machining shapes

Microfabrication

more complex that microholes and microshafts merely by implementing multi-axis motion
mechanisms for the electrodes.

FIGURE 3. Basic process from micronozzle fabrication using EDM [13].

3.Material Deposition Techniques

Material deposition techniques includes laser-assisted chemical vapour deposition, ultraviolet
stereo lithography, localized electrochemical deposition, etc. In this section, laser-assisted
chemical vapour deposition, ultraviolet stereo lithography and localized electrochemical
deposition are briefly discussed.

3.1 Laser-assisted Chemical Vapour Deposition (LCVD)

Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) is a process where two gases enter a chamber and react
under a suitable energy source, e.g., heat. If the reaction proceeds by a vapour-liquid-solid

Microfabrication

phase transformation, the gas is deposited as a liquid and solidifies. A solid film could be
formed directly if the reaction proceed by a vapour-solid transformation.With focused energy
source, e.g. laser, a film can be deposited locally. Thus, it is possible to control the deposition
process.

FIGURE 4. Linear and potentially continuous growth of an advanced inorganic fibre by high-pressure
LCVD with a single laser [10].

The LCVD method is able to fabricate continuous thin rods and fibres by pulling the substrate
away from the stationary laser focus at the linear growth speed of the material while keeping
the laser focus on the rod tip, as shown in Fig. 4. LCVD was first demonstrated for carbon and
silicon rods. However, fibres were able to grown from hundreds of substrates including silicon,
carbon, boron, oxides, nitrides, carbides, borides, and metals such as aluminium. The LCVD
process can operate at low and high chamber pressures. The growth rate is normally less than
100m s at low chamber pressure (<<1 bar). At high chamber pressure (>1 bar), high
growth rate (>1.1 mm/s) has been achieved for small-diameter (< 20m ) amorphous boron
fibres.
The LCVD process can directly fabricate simple free-standing microstructure from the vapour
phase. Fig. 5 shows microsprings made by LCVD process with a fibre diameter of < 10m and
a coil diameter of < 350m . By using a two beam setup, it is possible to create threedimensional fibre growth process that permits the direct one-step fabrication of complex free
standing microstructure, shown in Fig. 6.

3.2 Micro Stereo Lithography

It is very difficult to fabricate high aspect ratio 3-D complex microstructure with curve surface.
LIGA process, which can create micro structure with excellent aspect ratio, cannot fabricate
general 3-D structures having curved surfaces. The micro EDM process, which principally can
be implemented similar to a multi-axis numerical controlled micromachining tool, cannot
machine some materials (e.g., dielectric materials).

Microfabrication

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5. LCVD springs: (a) A 3D system and a rotation goniometer; (b) Photograph of boron
microsprings made with goniometer [11].

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 6. (a) Three-dimensional direct-write principle; (b) Three-dimensional free-standing alumina

microstructure fabricated directly from the vapour phase by LCVD. The fibre segments, each having a
diameter of 20 m , were continuously formed and joined in this two-laser LCVD process[10].

The micro stereo lithography (IH process [12]) introduced in 1992, based on the principle of
macro stereo lithography, is an approach to solve those problems. The basic principle of the IH
stereo lithography process is generating a 3-D structure by constructing 2-D sliced thin planes
hardened from ultraviolet (UV) radiation curing polymer liquid by UV radiation. Either a HeCd laser or a Xenon lamp can be used as light source, whereas the light beam is controlled by a
XYZ stage in order to draw a 2-D shape directly from a CAD system, as shown in Fig. 7. The
resolution of the IH process is 5m . 3D structures, such as a bending pipe
( 100 100 1000m ) and a micro coil spring (diameter of 50m ) has been made by this
technology. Moreover, Mass-IH process has been developed. The above mentioned processes
are very quick and flexible 3D micro fabrication proxies compared with silicon process,
because no mask process required. However, the yield is not sufficiently high.
Recently, the super IH process [6] was introduced. The super IH process can solidify UV
polymer from a pinpoint in 3D space by focusing a laser beam inside the polymer. The method
Microfabrication

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 7. Schematic diagram of (a) IH process and (b) super IH process [6].

breaks the limitation of layer by layer process of conventional stereo lithography and is able to
make freely moveable mechanism without any support parts nor sacrificial layers, e.g., freely
moveable wheel and gear. The resolution of the method has attained to less than 1m by using
the simple desktop apparatus. In the mean while, the yield rate is much higher than
conventional stereo lithography because of the 3D fabrication inside the UV polymer. The
production speed could be several minutes to tens of minutes depends on the structure
complexity.

FIGURE 8. Comparison of solidification process (a) conventional micro stereo lithography needs base
layer; (b) super IH process needs no base [6].

FIGURE 9. Process to make moveable gear and shaft (a) conventional micro stereo lithography needs
support structure (b) super IH process can make gear without support [6].
Microfabrication

FIGURE 10. Micro quoits made by super IH process: (a) SEM image of a micro quoits made of
solidified polymer; (b) fabrication process of the quoits [6].

3.3 Localized Electrochemical Deposition

The localized electrochemical deposition uses a tip of sharp pointed electrode placed in a
plating solution and brought near the surface where deposition is to occur. Potential is applied
between the tip and the substrate. The electric filed are confined to the region beneath the tip
and thus the deposition is localized. The tip can move on the forming surface to create the
desired structure. If the substrate is electrically continuous, it is principally able to form any
structure geometry, with the resolution determined by the size of the electrode. In the mean
while, the electrochemical nature can also be used to perform etching and polishing tasks.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 11. (a) The concept of localized electrochemical deposition; (b) The apparatus including the
current feedback loop used for position control [7].

The electrode tip has disk or cone like shape, the diameter of which determine the resolution of
the microstructure to be built as well as the deposition rate. The deposition rate is affected by
Microfabrication

various phenomena such as mass transport, electron transfer, electrical potential, chemical
potential and crystal growth. Microstructure of diameter of 10m has been made. The
deposition rate can be several micrometers per seconds achieved using polycrystalline nickel.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 12. Microstructure made by Local electrochemical deposition: (a) Nickel column ( 10m
diameter); (b) Nickel spring [7].

4.Comparison of Micromachining Technologies

The are many microfabrication methods available. Each of them has its strengths and special
feature. Among them, LIGA process is one of the most important techniques in spite of its
expensive device and manufacturing cost. An incomplete comparison of different
microfabrication and micromachining technologies is shown bellow (based on [14]).
TABLE 1. Micromachining technologies comparison
Technology
LIGA
Etching
Excimer-laser
Micro-milling
Diamond cutting
Micro stereo
lithography
Micro EDM
LCVD

Microfabrication

Minimal
dimension

Accuracy

Aspect
ratio

Geometrical
freedom

Roughness

Feasible materials

++

++

++

+-

metals, polymers, ceramic

materials

+-

metals, semiconductors

+-

metals, polymers, ceramic

materials

+-

metals, polymers

--

++

non-ferro metals,
polymers

-(+)

-(+-)

++

++

polymers

++

++

metals, semiconductors,
ceramics

+-

++

metals, semiconductos

5.References:
1. Van Dyke, L.S., Brumlik, C.J. and Martin, C.R., UV laser ablation of electronically
conductive polymers, Synthetic Metals, 52 (1992), pp. 299-204.
2. Reynaerts, D., Heeren, P-H. and Brussel, H.V., Microstructuring of silicon by electrodischarge machining (EDM) - part I: theory, Sensors and Actuators, A60 (1997), pp. 212218.
3. Dizon, R., Han, H., Russell, A.G. and Reed, M.L., An ion milling pattern transfer technique
for fabrication of three-dimensional micromechanical structures, Journal of
Microelectromechnical Systems, VOL. 2, NO. 4, December 1993, pp. 151-158.
4. Sun, X.-Q., Masuzawa, T. and Fujino, M., Micro ultrasonic machining and its applications
in MEMS, Sensors and Actuators A 57 (1996), pp. 159-164.
5. Wallenberger, F.T., Nordine, P.C. and Boman, M., Inorganic fibers and microstructures
directly from the vapor phase, Composites Science and Technology 51 (1994), pp. 193-212.
6. Ikuta, K., Maruo, S. and Kojima, S., New micro stereo lithography for freely movable 3D
micro structure, Proc. of IEEE International Workshop on Micro Electro Mechanical
System (MEMS98), 1998, pp. 290-295.
7. Madden, J.D. and Hunter I.W., Three-dimensional microfabrication by localized
electrochemical deposition, Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, VOL. 5, NO. 1,
March 1996, pp. 24-32.
8. van Osenbruggen, C., Micro spark erosion, Philips Technisch Tijdschrift, 20 (1969), pp.
200-214.
9. Bank, D., Introduction to microengineering, http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/D.Banks/
umintro.html.
10.Wallenberger, F.T., Rapid prototyping directly from the vapor phase, Science, VOL. 267,
March 1995, pp. 1274-1275.
11.Westberg, H., Thermal laser-assisted chemical vapor deposition, Summary of Dissertations
375, Faculty of Science, University of Uppsala, Sweden, 1992.
12.Ikuta, K. and Hirowatari, K., Real three dimensional micro fabrication using stereo
lithography and metal molding, Proc. of Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, Ft.
Lauderdale, FL, 1993, pp. 42-47.
13.Masuzawa, T., Kuo C.-L. and Fujino, M., A combined electrical machining process for
micronozzle fabrication, Ann. CIRP, 43, 1994, pp. 189-192.
14.Heeren, P.-H., Reynaerts, D., Brussel, H.V., Beuret, C., Larsson, O. and Bertholds, A.,
Microstructuring of silicon by electro-discharge machining (EDM) - part II: application,
Sensors and Actuators, A 61 (1997), pp. 379-386.

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