Sensors

Control Engineering Laboratory
Background
Pressure sensors
Acceleration sensors
Gyroscopes
Chemical sensors
Biosensors
AUTOMATION AND
CONTROL INSTITUTE
TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

Outline
Microsensors
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Online measurements instead of laboratory
measurements
...what is a sensor...?
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Some application areas

Automobile industry
safety and environmental measurements
Medical applications
continuous measurement of chemical/physical
parameters, home devices, remote

microsurgery, minimum invasion therapy
Consumer electronics, home automation

e.g. accelerometers in HDD, sensors in
camcorders, game controllers, air quality

sensors etc.
Environmental protection
different concentration measurements
Food processing
detection of contaminants and impurities
Process industry
Robotics
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Sensor arrays
Efficient use of IC technology
Prize, size, weight

Why miniaturizing
Market growth (forecast, 20002004) ~20%

Sold sensors (1996):
44 % pressure sensors,
MST markets (millions US$) for established product types

1996 and 2002 (forecast)
(115 million units, 600 million US$)
38 % chemical sensors
9% accelerometers
4%
5% magnetoresistive
HDD heads
Inkjet printheads
10%
0%
%
2%
2%
2%
5%
6%
Heart pacemakers
36%
9%
34%
8%
2% gyros
1%
0%
0%
1%
2%2%
In vitro diagnostics
Hearing aids
3%
Pressure sensors
8%
Chemical sensors
Infrared imagers
11%
Accelerometers
34%
29%
Gyroscopes
Magnetoresistive sensors
Microspectrometers
flow, force, temperature, bio

*NEXUS, 1998
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Sensor classification
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compare to the ~300 billion $US for world semiconductor markets
~14 billion $US (forecast for 2002: ~38 billion $US)
MST markets in 1996*:

Sensor markets

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Piezoresistive pressure sensors

pressure
membrane
piezoresistor
substrate
Principle of piezoresistive pressure sensor.
Measures material stresses

Properties:
small size
good linearity over wide
dynamic range
moderately high pressure
sensitivity
relative freedom from
hysteresis and creep
Resistors normally arranged
Different types of sensors:
gauge, differential and absolute
in a Wheatstone bridge => the

temperature coefficients
cancel
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Nonlinearity
Hysteresis
Creep
Angle random walk
Scale factor
Bias drift
ZRO
Sensitivity
Intelligent (smart) sensor
Integrated sensor
Sensor related terms
NovaSensor:
standard chip sizes start at
1 mm x 0.7 mm x 0.175 mm
nonlinearity of response to applied pressure depends
upon the location of resistors in the strain field and the

deflection of membrane
as the deflection increases towards 10 % of the
diaphragm thickness, the nonlinearity of the resulting
strain increases
properly designed devices are capable of achieving
nonlinearity less than 0.01 % of the full scale
Entran:
smallest diameter 1.27 mm
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Resistor placement:
Square silicon diaphragm =>
deflection results in symmetric stress

distribution with maximum values at
the center of each edge =>
piezoresistors diffused in those
regions (full bridge sensitivity)
Resistor placement in square

diaphragm type of sensor.
Rectangular diaphragm => stress
varies from tensile to compressive

along a path from the long edges
towards the center => resistors
placed perpendicular to the strain
field (resistor placement in this type of
sensor is less critical than in square
diaphragm device)
Calculated stress distributions for device with

diaphragm dimensions of 1 mm x 10 m and applied
pressure of 300 mmHg.
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increases
sensitivity of piezoresistors decreases as temperature
The performance of the sensor varies over both temperature and pressure

Sacrificial etching using KOH
solution etch holes (diameter 8

m) at the diaph. corners or
edges => polysilicon sacrificial
layer is removed and the silicon
substrate just under the
diaphragm is anisotropically
etched through holes =>
pyramidical cavity as reference
vacuum chamber
Conception for the microdiaphragm processing.
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4 polysilicon piezoresistors are formed
in the diaphragm
1 m thick SiN layer deposited on top
of the surface to seal the etch holes
using plasma CVD
7 masks required for the fabrication of
the sensor
Pressure inside the cavity less than 0.3
Piezoresistive pressure sensor - a) schematic

cross-sectional structure, b) scanning electron microscope
photomicrograph.
torr
Pressure sensitivity ~2V/V/kPa
Nonlinearity less than 1 % of full scale
Temperature coefficient of pressure
sensitivity 0.13 % /Celsius
(T: -50...+150 Celsius)
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plasma-SiN
200 nm thick Si3N4 + 1 m thick
Example:
Diaphragm 40 x 40 m

Properties (compared to
piezoresistive counterparts):
higher pressure sensitivity
lower temperature sensitivity
more nonlinear
require larger die area and more
pressure
Principle of a capacitive pressure sensor.
sophisticated sensing circuitry

no hysteresis
better long-term stability
higher production costs
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Capacitive pressure sensors

The change of capacitance is not linear with respect to deformation or
pressure (but the relationship is reproducible)

The structure of the sensor is relative simple and the fabrication can be
done using conventional micromachining techniques

Disadvantage: small capacitance (generally 1...3 pF) => measurement
circuit has to be integrated on the chip or specially designed to null the

stray capacitance
To achieve high sensitivity and wide operating range => use of ultra thin
diaphragm with center boss

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Measures average deflection
sensing
capacitors
reference
capacitors

Capacitive pressure sensors
Frequency or frequency
difference is measured
Resonant pressure sensor.
The resonant element can be
sealed in a vacuum to get better

accuracy
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Other types of pressure sensors
FISO Technologies:
fiber optic in-vivo pressure transducer,
diameter 0.5 mm
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thermally, electromagnetically or
electrostatically
The resonator is exited e.g.
Measures resonant frequencies

Resonant pressure sensor
Development of sensors that operate in higher
temperatures
Extended operating range of existing sensors
Improved accuracy and resolution
Improved packaging
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Acceleration sensors
Most (all) current accelerometers
consist of a proof or a seismic mass

supported by a suspension frame
Under the influence of acceleration,
Entran:
Smallest diameter 3.43 mm
Mass produced sensors usually
silicon based
the proof mass generates a force =>

displacement or strain in the
suspension element
The means by which the force is
measured are varied, depending on

issues of performance and cost
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Increased integration
Die size reduction
Cost reduction
Some future trends:
Pressure sensors
Capacitive measurement of acceleration.
One of the two electrodes is the
suspended proof mass, which

deflects with respect to the fixed
electrode when accelerated
High-precision silicon
accelerometers will almost certainly

be capacitive
Capacitive cantilever microsensor

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Capacitive accelerometers
Fabrication:
A silicon wafer is etched on the back side (or both sides) to
form the suspension and proof mass
Bulk micromachined accelerometers are typically a few
millimeters on each side anodic bonding can be used to
form the fixed electrodes and to provide overrange protection
In surface-micromachined sensors a low-pressure chemical
vapor deposition (LPCVD) or electroplating is used to deposit

and define the proof mass and its suspensions on the front
side of the silicon wafer
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No temperature dependence
bridge to transduce the

displacement to voltage
Capacitor is used in a capacitive

Since micromachined
Parameter
Range
Frequency range
Resolution
Nonlinearity
Price
Automotive
50 g (airbag)
2 g (vehicle stability)
0 400 Hz
< 100 mg (airbag)
< 10 mg (vehicle stability)
<2%
10 $ (airbag)
15 $ (vehicle stability)
Navigation
1 g
0 100 Hz
< 4 g
< 0.1 %
Table: Typical specifications of accelerometers

for automotive and inertial navigation applications.
accelerometers are used in wide

range of applications, their
required specifications are also
application dependent and
cover a rather broad spectrum,
e.g.
microgravity measurements:
range of operation greater than

+-0.1 g, resolution less than 1
g, frequency range 0...1 Hz
ballistic and impact sensing
applications: range of over
10000 g, resolution less than 1 g
in 50 kHz bandwidth is required
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Fabrication continues....
A sacrificial spacing layer, typically LPCVD oxide, is removed
after the structural film is deposited to release the structure
from the substrate no anodic bonding is required
The sensors are typically a few hundred microns on each
side, with the thickness of the mechanical and spacer layers
determined by the deposition times of those layers
Performance of the device depends critically on the uniformity
and mechanical properties of the deposited layers
Interface electronics are often integrated on the same chip

Piezoresistive acceleration sensor
sensitivity, small overall sensitivity

(compared to their capacitive
counterparts)
Oil damping...
First micromachined and one of
the first commercialized

accelerometers were
piezoresistive
Fabrication using bulk-
micromachining and wafer-bonding

can be very similar with capacitive
sensors
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Force-balanced accelerometers
The suspended proof mass
Fabrication of the sensing
deflects in response to the

acceleration
The signal is sensed and fed back
to counteract the displacement
Structure virtually stationary
Good dynamic range, ultra
sensitive
Commonly used in navigational
applications
Capacitive sensing
element same as for open-loop

accelerometers
Feedback-control requires
sophisticated electronics
Cost increase reduced by
integrating the electronics on
the same chip with the sensing
element
Analog Devices: 2.5 x 2.5 mm
(with readout electronics)

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Disadvantages: large temperature
structure and fabrication process as

well as their readout circuitry
Main advantages: the simplicity of the

Piezoresistive accelerometers
circuit responds to the change of current, adjusts the bottom

deflection voltage to move the proof mass back to its original
position, maintaining the tunneling current constant
Acceleration measured reading the bottom deflection voltage
First introduced by Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena
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Other types of accelerometers

Thermal devices
thermal transduction
temperature flux from heater to a heat sink is inversely proportional to their
separation
change in distance between heater and heat-sink plates is measured
free convection heat transfer
hot air bubble which heat distribution changes in the presence of acceleration
the heat profile is sensed
Resonant devices
Optical
Electromagnetic
Piezoelectric
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Proof mass is displaced due to acceleration, the read-out
Used e.g. as sensitive acoustic sensors
The high sensitivity of electron tunneling is utilized

Tunneling accelerometers
Better temperature sensitivity

Packaging
Interface circuit with low drift read-out/control circuit having
high sensitivity, low noise level and long dynamic range
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Gyroscopes
Vibrating mechanical elements to sense rotation
No rotating parts => easy to miniaturize and fabricate using
micromachining techniques
Silicon micromachining process for fabrication of vibratory
gyroscopes fall into four categories:
1) silicon bulk micromachining and wafer bonding
2) polysilicon surface micromachining
3) metal electroforming and LIGA
4) combined bulk-surface micromachining
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Long-term stability
Cost reduction
Some future trends:

Accelerometers
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Gyroscopes
Gyroscopes can be classified into
three different categories:

inertial-grade devices (optical
gyroscopes, ring laser
gyroscopes)
tactical-grade devices (fiber
optical gyroscopes)
rate-grade devices
Table: Performance requirements for different

classes of gyroscopes.
The research has mainly
concentrated on silicon
micromachined rate-grade
sensors (automobile industry)
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Principle of gyroscope.
based on the transfer energy

between two vibration modes of
structure caused by Coriolis
acceleration
All vibratory gyroscopes are
Gyroscopes
fixed amplitude
when rotated => Coriolis effect => differential sinusoidal force
develops on the individual tines
force is detected as differential bending of the tuning fork tines or
torsional vibration of the tuning fork stem
Vibrating beams
vibrating part is beam (or membrane)
Vibrating shells (vibrating ring)

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Gyroscopes
Mechanisms to drive the vibrating structure into resonance are
primarily:
electrostatic
electromagnetic
piezoelectric
Detection mechanisms used to sense the Coriolis-indused
vibration in the second mode are:

capacitive
x-y gyro,
8mmx8mm,
capacitive sensing
piezoresistive
piezoelectric
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2 tines connected to a junction bar are differentially resonated to a
Tuning forks
Vibrating gyros:

Gyroscopes
Temperature range 40+85

Structure of vibrating ring gyroscope.
SEM image
Celsius
Zero bias drift < 10 degrees/s
Resolution ~0.5 degrees/s
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Gyroscopes
Example II:
Tuning fork gyroscope
Combs are exited so that
electrostatic forces are

generated which do not depend
on the lateral position of the
mass
Simple(r) fabrication
Easy integration with on-chip
electronics
Gyro dimension 0.7 x 0.7 mm
Low cost sensor
Schematic drawing of the comb-drive tuning

fork gyro.
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having equal natural

frequencies
Ring is electrostatically vibrated
Rotation => Coriolis => energy
transferred from primary mode
to secondary flexural mode
Rotation monitored capacitively
Less temperature sensitive
Example I:
Vibrating ring gyroscope
Two identical flexural modes

Gyroscopes
Chemical sensors
Detect the concentration
Structure:
chemical reaction in
Qualitative or quantitative
sensitive layer and

transformation into
electric signal
measurements
~60 % of sensors are gas
sensors
Electronics
Transducer
Sensitive layer
Chemical reaction
Transformation
into electrical
Change of
signal
physical state
Evaluation
Sensor
signal
Structure of chemical sensor.

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Some sensor manufacturers:

NovaSensor
VTI Technologies
Analog Devices
Triton Technologies
EG&G
Delco
CSEM
TEMIC (Daimler-Benz)
Bosch
Motorola
Honeywell
Sensonor
Samsung
General Motors
Chemical
substance

Mechanical sensors
Medicine
Nutrition
Process control
Laboratory
measurements
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Chemical sensors
Conventional methods:
achieve good results, but
complicated and expensive measuring methods
amount of reagents needed
measurements done in laboratory
slow
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Automobiles
Environment
Application areas:

Chemical sensors
have short response times

have intelligent signal processing
sensor arrays/matrices
real time measurement
biocompatible and no cross-sensitivity
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Interdigital transducers
Electric resistance or
Chemical sensor based on interdigital

transducer.
dielectric constant variation

of sensitive layer changes
when interacting with certain
substance
Capacitive measurement
Response (selectivity,
sensitivity, response time)

optimized by choosing the
operating temperature
IDC and integrated heater (TU Berlin).
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use only small amounts of reagents
are accurate and robust
are easy to manufacture
The goal is to develop sensors (systems) which:
Chemical sensors
Operating temperature: 380
Celsius
Maximum temperature
deviation: less than 2.8 %
Heating power: 3.5 W
Sensitive layer: NiCr/Au
Sensor with on-chip heating.
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TU Berlin
Pellistors
Porous alumina bead
Pellistor principle.
Sensor array thin film membranes, membrane size

1.25x1.25 mm2, 250 Celsius achieved with 100 mW
heating power.
TU Berlin, Uni Magdeburg
containing suitable catalyst

surrounds a thin platinum
wire which acts both as
heater and resistor
thermometer membranes
(thin film technology)
Increase of temperature is
measured (resistance change,
in suitable bridge circuit)
When gas is burnt, specific
activation energies are
released
Not very selective
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Substrate material: quartz glass
Sensitive area: 4x7 mm2
Chip dimensions: 14x10 mm2

Interdigital transducers
refractive index material

embedded in/between lower
index materials
Optical grating couples the
incoming light (He-Ne, laser)
into the waveguide
Substance to be analyzed
changes the refraction index of
the waveguide
The amount of light striking the
detector (e.g. photodiode) is
proportional to concentration
of the substance
Optical fibers (interferometers)
Optical waveguide.
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Optical sensors
OWLS instrument by Microvacuum
The light intensity is measured
with the photo detectors as the

angle of incidence of the laser
light is varied from -6 ...+6
degrees. From the measured
mode spectra, the covering
medium's physical parameters
(thickness, optical refractive
index, density etc.) are
calculated
Waveguide material (SOL-GEL)

Si xTi(1-x)O2 , (x~0.250.05)
Waveguide film
refractive index (nF)=1.770.03
thickness (dF)=170-220 nm
Substrate glass slide
L=48 mm, w=16 mm, H=0.5 mm
refractive index (nS)~1.53
Grating
area 2x16 mm, depth ~20 nm, grating
periodicity 2400 lines/mm (0.4166
m)
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Film or fiber made of high
Coupling grid structure
Optical sensors

refract = taittaa
Ta2O5, SiO2
Manufacturing process
compatible with industrial
CMOS production lines
Normal MOSFET vs. ISFET.
ISFET = Ion Sensitive Field
Effect Transistor
MOSFET = Metal Oxide
Silicon Field Effect Transistor
IMEC (Siemens), IFT, MESA
(Sentron), TIMA
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Chemical sensors
Resonance quartz sensor
Bimetal sensor
Chemical reaction => heat =>
bending of bimetal cantilevers
The motion is measured
Resonating quartz sensor.
Chemical reaction in the
sensitive layer changes the

resonator mass => resonator
frequency changes
Frequency measured
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measured changes Vgs =>

change in Ids => Ids kept
constant (voltage to
reference electrode adjusted)
=> Vgs proportional to pH
Free area of sensitive layer
few m2
Sensitive layer: Al2O3, Si3N4,
The substance to be
Sentron

ISFET sensors
SAW = Surface Acoustic Wave

Detection mechanism of the sensor is a mechanical (acoustic) wave
alternating voltage applied to interdigital transducer is electromagnetically
transformed into acoustic wave

in receiving transducer acoustic signal is transformed back to electric signal
analyzed substance reacts on the sensitive layer => wave transmission
changes (velocity and/or amplitude of the wave)
operation from 25 to 500 MHz
High sensitivity, good linearity, stability, versatility
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SAW sensors
Fabricated on substrates such as SiO2, LiTaO3, LiNbO3, (ZnO, GaAs,
SiC, LGS, AlN, PZT, PVdF)

Fabricated using photolithographic process
cleaning and polishing the piezoelectric substrate
metal (aluminum) deposited uniformly onto the substrate
device spin-coated with photoresist
device exposed to UV light through mask (and exposed areas
removed with a developing solution)
remaining photoresist is removed => IDT
Performance of the sensor optimized by selecting the length, width,
position, and thickness of the IDT
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piezoelectric substrate
SAW sensors
output transducer

input transducer
Healthcare Industry
In vitro diagnostics
In vivo diagnostics
Blood glucose monitoring at home

Renal Failure monitoring
Environmental diagnostics
Environmental
Monitoring
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Food industries
Food and Drink Industry
Fish freshness & Sucrose
Bioprocess Monitoring
Fermentation monitoring and

control
Agriculture & Related

Industries
Pesticides
Research & Development
Bimolecular interactions
Military
Biological and chemical warfare
Processin industries
Military
Biological research
renal = munuaissucrose = sokeri, sakkaroosi

pesticide = tuolaistorjuta-aine
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antibody = vasta-aine
receptor = reseptori
enzyme = entsyymi
metabolism = aineenvaihdunta
immuno- = combining form (indicating immunity)
Biosensors
Same measuring principles as for chemical sensors

Structure:
biologically sensitive elements (enzymes, receptors and antibodies)
integrated with the sensor (also nucleic acids, bacteria, cell

organisms, or even whole tissues of higher organisms)
interaction between sensitive layer and molecules of the substance
=> modulation of physical or chemical parameters
modulation is converted into an electrical signal (electrochemical,
optical, mass or thermal changes are most common)
Biosensors divided into two groups:
1) metabolism sensors
2) immuno-sensors
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Examples
Medicine
General Area
Major application areas in:

Biosensors
receptor and transducer are integrated into one single sensor

measurement of target analytes without using reagents (compare to
conventional methods where many steps are used and each step may
require a reagent to treat the sample)
Continuous monitoring capability
sensors can regenerate and reuse the immobilized biological
recognition element
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Metabolism sensors
Used to detect chemically
active molecules
Biosensitive enzymes as
biocatalysts to detect
molecules in a substance and
catalyze a chemical reaction
analyzed substance
chemically transformed
cource of reaction detected
and evaluated (chemical
sensor)
Phosphate measurement with metabolism sensor.
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Simplicity, speed
Very selective and sensitive measurements possible

Biosensors
Lock and key principle as
Immuno-sensing using an optical transducer.
Detect chemically inactive
molecules
Antibodies as biosensitive
elements
detection method
antigen molecule interacts with
the analysed substance =>
immobilized antibody
molecules (lock) on the sensor
surface bond with the antigen
molecule (key) in the
substance
only one type of antigen can
bond with certain type of
antibody
Bonding process can be registered
directly (transducer) or indirectly
(antigen markers)
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Immuno-sensors

antigen = antigeeni
(a substance that stimulates the production of antibodies)

Sensors

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Control Engineering Laboratory

HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Control Engineering Laboratory

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

Online measurements instead of laboratory

HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Control Engineering Laboratory

Some application areas

parameters, home devices, remote

Consumer electronics, home automation

camcorders, game controllers, air quality

HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Control Engineering Laboratory

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

Efficient use of IC technology

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

Prize, size, weight

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

Market growth (forecast, 20002004) ~20%

MST markets (millions US$) for established product types

(115 million units, 600 million US$)

(6 million units, 150 million US$)

(24 million units, 240 million US$)

flow, force, temperature, bio

HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Control Engineering Laboratory

HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Control Engineering Laboratory

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

compare to the ~300 billion $US for world semiconductor markets

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

~14 billion $US (forecast for 2002: ~38 billion $US)

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MST markets in 1996*:

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Control Engineering Laboratory

Piezoresistive pressure sensors

Principle of piezoresistive pressure sensor.

Measures material stresses

Different types of sensors:

gauge, differential and absolute

in a Wheatstone bridge => the

HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Control Engineering Laboratory

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

Intelligent (smart) sensor

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

MICRO SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY GROUP

Sensor related terms