NPTEL C OURSE ON

M ATHEMATICS IN I NDIA :
F ROM V EDIC PERIOD TO M ODERN TIMES
Lecture 31
Development of Calculus in India 2

M. D. Srinivas
Centre for Policy Studies, Chennai

Outline

Madhava Series for

End-correction terms and M

adhava continued fraction

Rapidly convergent transformed series for

History of Approximations to

Nlakan.t.has refinement of the Aryabhat

. a relation for
second-order Rsine differences

Madhava series for Rsine and Rcosine

Nlakan.t.ha and Acyuta formulae for instantaneous velocity

M
adhava Series for
The following verses of M
adhava are cited in Yuktibh
a.s
a and
Kriy
akramar:
v.ya.a:sea va.a:a=; a.Da:
a.na:h:tea .+pa:&+tea v.ya.a:sa:sa.a:ga.=:a:a.Ba:h:tea

+;a.a:Ba:+.m
xa:NMa .~vMa :pxa:Ta:k
;aa:Za.=:a:a.d:a.va:Sa:ma:sa:*
, k
+.ma.a:t,a k
u +.ya.Ra:t,a 1

x +.tea ;
a.na:vxa.a.a &+ a.ta:~tua .ja.a:a.ma:ta:ya.a
+;a.a:ya.aY.a
ya:tsa:*
h.=;Nea k

+;a.a
ta:~ya.a +.DvRa:ga:ta.a ya.a .sa:ma:sa:*
ta:;lM gua:Na.eaY:ntea .~ya.a:t,a 2

ta:d
/
:ga.eRa .+pa:yua:ta.ea h.a.=:ea v.ya.a:sa.a:a.b.Da:Ga.a:ta:taH

:pra.a:gva:t,a

x +.tea ;Da:nea [ea:pa O;:va k+=;Na.a:yaH 3

ta.a:Bya.a:ma.a:Ma .~va:mxa:Nea k
l+b.DaH

x +.tva.ea h.=;Na:ta.eaY: a.ta:sUa:[maH

:pa:a=; a.DaH .sUa:[ma.ea ba:hu:k

.~ya.a:t,a 4

The first verse gives the M

adhava series (rediscovered by Leibniz in
1674)


Paridhi = 4 Vy
asa 1 13 + 15 17 + . . . . . .

M
adhava Series for
Madhava also gave the c
apkaran.a series giving the arc (c
apa)
associated with any Rsine (jy
a)
I+.$ya.a:aa.$ya:ya.ea:Ga.Ra:ta.a:t,a k+ea:fa.a:Ma :pra:Ta:mMa :P+l+m,a
x +.tva.a k+ea: a.f:va:ga ..ca h.a.=;k+.m,a
.$ya.a:va:ga gua:Na:k
M k

:pra:Ta:ma.a:a.d:P+le+Bya.eaY:Ta nea:ya.a :P+l+ta: a.ta:mRua:huH

+;a.
e +.Svea:tea:Sva:nua:k
+.ma.a:t,a
O;:k+ya.a:d;a. ea.ja:sa:*

a:a.Ba:BRa:

A.ea.ja.a:na.Ma .sMa:yua:tea:~tya:+a yua:gma:ya.ea:gMa ;Da:nua:BRa:vea:t,a

d.eaHk+ea:fa.ea.=;pa:mea:vea:M k+.pa:na.a:ya:a.ma:h .smxa:ta:m,a
l+b.Da.a:na.a:ma:va:sa.a:nMa .~ya.a:t,a na.a:nya:Ta.a:a.pa mua:hu:mRua:huH

M
adhava Series for

  



r
jy
a(s) 3  r  jy
a(s) 5
jy
a(s)

+
....
s = r
kot.i(s)
3
kot.i(s)
5
kot.i(s)

  



r sin
r
r sin 3  r  r sin 5
s = r = r
+
....

r cos
3
r cos
5
r cos


Note: It has been clearly noted that we must ensure that

numerator < denominator in each term. This series for tan1 x
was rediscovered by Gregory in 1671.

M
adhava Series for

By using the c
apkaran.a series for an arc equal to one-twelfth of
the circumference (30 ), M
adhava gets a more rapidly
convergent series for the ratio of the circumference to the
diameter:
v.ya.a:sa:va:ga.Ra:d
, .=;a.va:h:ta.a:t,a :pa:dM .~ya.a:t,a :pra:Ta:mMa :P+l+m,a

+;a.
ta:d.a:a.d:ta:a.~
/:a:sa:*
u .a.=:ea.a.=;m,a

a:Ma :P+lM .~ya.a:d

.+pa.a:d;a:yu
a:gma:sMa:K.ya.a:a.Ba:&R+tea:Svea:Sua ya:Ta.a:k
+.ma:m,a
;a.va:Sa:ma.a:na.Ma yua:tea:~tya:+a .sa:ma.a ;a.h :pa:a=; a.Da:BRa:vea:t,a

M
adhava Series for
For an arc s which is one-twelfth of the diameter, corresponding
to 30 , we have


jy
a(s)
kot.i(s)

2
=

1
3

Therefore
#
"
 
 
12r
1 1
1 1 2
...
C=
1
+
3 3
5 3
3


p
1
1
1
2
= 12d 1
+

+ ...
3.3 32 .5 33 .7


This was rediscovered by Abraham Sharp in 1699.

End Correction Terms

The M
adhava series (or the so called Leibniz series) for the
circumference of a circle (in terms of odd numbers p = 1, 3, 5, . . .)


(p1) 1
1
2
C = 4d 1 + . . . + (1)
+ ... ,
3
p
is an extremely slowly convergent series.
In fact, adding fifty terms of the series will give the value of correct
only to the first decimal place.
In order to facilitate computation, M
adhava has given a procedure of
using end-correction terms (antya-sam
ara), of the form
. sk


(p1) 1
(p+1) 1
1
C = 4d 1 + . . . + (1) 2
+ (1) 2
3
p
ap

End Correction Terms

The verses of Madhava, which give the relation between the
circumference and diameter, also include the end-correction
term
o
n

(p+1)
(p1) 1
(p+1)
2
1

+ (1) 2
C = 4d 1 + . . . + (1) 2
3
p
{(p + 1)2 + 1}
Madhava has also given a finer end-correction term

+;a.
A:ntea .sa:ma:sa:*

a:d:l+va:gRaH

yua:ga:gua:a.Na:ta.ea .+pa:yua:taH

.sEa:k+ea gua:NaH

.sa O;:va :pua:naH

+;a.
, h.a.=H
.sa:ma:sa:*

a:d:l+h:ta.ea Ba:vea:d


(p1) 1
1
C = 4d 1 + . . . + . . . + (1) 2
3
p
n


o2
(p+1)
+1
2

(p+1)
2
h
n
oi
+(1)

{(p + 1)2 + 5} p+1

2

End Correction Terms

To Madhava is attributed a value of accurate to eleven

decimal places which is obtained by just computing fifty terms
with the above correction.
;a.va:bua:Da:nea.a:ga.ja.a:a.h:hu:ta.a:Za:na:aa:gua:Na:vea:d:Ba:va.a.=;Na:ba.a:h:vaH
na:va:
a.na:Ka:vRa:a.ma:tea vxa: a.ta:a.va:~ta:=e :pa:a=; a.Da:ma.a:na:a.ma:dM .ja:ga:d
u :bRua:Da.aH

The value given above is:

2827433388233
= 3.141592653592 . . .
9 1011

End Correction Terms

Both Yuktibh
a.s
a and Kriy
akramakar give a derivation of the
successive end correction terms given by M
adhava, which
involve a careful estimate of the error at each stage in terms of
inverse powers of the odd number p.
By carrying this process further, we find that the end-correction
term a1p can be expressed as a continued fraction:
1
=
ap

1
22

(2p + 2) +

42

(2p + 2) +
(2p + 2) +

62
(2p + 2) + . . .

End Correction Terms

We tabulate the accuracy achieved by end-correction terms

when we sum fifty terms of the series (p = 99) together with
successive correction terms.
Order of the correction term
Accuracy of in number of
decimal places

None
1

1
5

2
8

3
11

4
14

5
17

nkaravarman
In fact, Sadratnam
ala (c. 1819) of Sa

gives the
following value of which is accurate to 17 decimal places:
3.14159265358979324

Madhava Continued Fraction for

Using the above continued fraction for a1p we will get a
continued fraction for minus the sum of the first p-terms in the
Madhava series for each odd number p.
In particular, for p = 1, we get what may be called the Madhava
continued fraction for :
2
12 22 32
=2+
...
(4 )
2+ 2+ 2+
This may be compared with the Brouncker continued fraction
(1656)
4
12 32 52
=1+
...

2+2+2+

Rapidly Convergent Transformed Series for

Adding and subtracting the end-correction terms, we can
rewrite the Madhava series for in the form:
 
 



1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+

+ ...
C = 4d
1
a1
a1 a3 3
a3 a5 5
By choosing different correction terms, we get different
transformed series many of which also converge faster than the
Madhava series.
If we choose the first order correction divisor, ap = 2p + 2, we
get the series involving cubes of the odd numbers:
v.ya.a:sa.a:d
, va.a:a=; a.Da:
a.na:h:ta.a:t,a :pxa:Ta:ga.a:Ma ya.a:d;a:yu
a:a.gva:mU
 a:l+Ga:nEaH

ya.a:sea .~va:mxa:NMa k
x +.tva.a :pa:a=; a.Da.=:a:nea:yaH
;aa*+:v.
+.ma:ZaH k

3
1
1
1
C = 4d
+ 3
3
+ 3
...
4 (3 3) 5 5 7 7

Rapidly Convergent Transformed Series for

By using the identity
4
4
6

=
(4n 1)3 (4n 1) (4n + 1)3 (4n + 1)
[2.(2n)2 1]2 (2n)2
we can transform the above series into the form mentioned in
Karan.apaddhati
x +.tEa:vRa:ajRa:ta:yua:gma:va:gERaH
va:gERa:yRua.ja.Ma va.a ;a.d
E +.vRa:ga.Ra:k
:gua:NEa:
a.nRa+.=e;k

e :pa:a=; a.Da:~ta:Ta.a .~ya.a:t,a

a ;a.va:Ba.jea:tP+lM .~vMa v.ya.a:sea ;aa:
a.na*+
v.ya.a:sMa . ca :Sa.
*+nM
,


C = 3D+6D


1
1
1
+
+
+
.
.
.
(2.22 1)2 22
(2.42 1)2 42
(2.62 1)2 62

We thus have a series involving fourth powers of even numbers

3
1
1
1
=
+
+
+. . .
6
(2.22 1)2 22 (2.42 1)2 42 (2.62 1)2 62

Rapidly Convergent Transformed Series for

If we choose the second-order correction divisor, which is the first
correction divisor given by M
adhava,
ap = (2p + 2) +

(2p + 2)2 + 4
(p + 1)2 + 1
4
o
=
= n
(p+1)
(2p + 2)
(2p + 2)
2

then we get the series involving fifth powers of the odd numbers.

R :mUa:l+yua:ta.aH
*.a.a:h:ta:ya.e
a ya.a .+pa.a:d;a:yu
a.ja.Ma ..ca:tua*+
.sa:ma:pa.

ta.a:a.BaH

:Sa.ea:q+Za:gua:a.Na:ta.a:d
, v.ya.a:sa.a:t,a :pxa:Ta:ga.a:&+tea:Sua ;a.va:Sa:ma:yua:tea

.sa:ma:P+l+yua: a.ta:ma:pa:h.a:ya .~ya.a:a.d::v.ya.a:sa:sa:}Ba:vaH

:pa:a=; a.DaH




1
1
1
1
= 4d 1
16d

+
...
5
(35 + 4.3) (55 + 4.5) (75 + 4.7)


1
1
1
= 16d

+
... .
(15 + 4.1) (35 + 4.3) (55 + 4.5)

Rapidly Convergent Transformed Series for

Yuktibh
a.s
a and Kriy
akramakar do not discuss the transformed
series when we use the accurate correction divisor of Madhava
16
4
(2p + 2)+ (2p + 2)
h
n (p+1) oi
(p + 1)2 + 5
2
n

o2
(p+1)
+1
2

ap = (2p + 2) +

We can easily see that it leads to the following transformed

series involving terms of the order of the seventh powers of
successive odd numbers.

Rapidly Convergent Transformed Series for

28D
C=
9


+ 144D

{33

3)(22

1
+ 5)(42 + 5)}


1

+ ....
{(53 5)(42 + 5)(62 + 5)}
Or, equivalently


7

1
1
4 9
= 3
3
+. . .
2
2
2
36
(3 3)(2 + 5)(4 + 5) (5 5)(4 + 5)(62 + 5)
We can get transformed series also by considering other
divisors ap different from the optimal divisors given by Madhava.
The resultant series of course may not show as rapid a
convergence as seen in the case of transformed series
obtained from the optimal divisors of M
adhava.

Rapidly Convergent Transformed Series for

If we take the correction divisor as the non-optimum divisor
ap = 2p
then we get the transformed series which involves the squares of
successive even numbers.


1
1
1
1
c = 4d
+

+
+ ... .
2 (22 1) (42 1) (62 1)
This series is presented in the following verse given in Yuktibh
a.s
a and
Yuktidpik
a.

x +.ta:ya.ea v.yea:k+a h.a.=:a:d

a.va:Sk+.}Bea
a.d:yua.ja.Ma va.a k
, ;a.d
d
:
a.na*+:
;a.a:
x +. a.ta:a.d
;Da:na:m,a +Na:ma:nta:~ya.ea:DvRa:ga:ta.Ea.ja:k
R :sa:a.h:ta.a h.=;~ya.a:DRa:m,a

Incidentally the verse also gives an end correction term of the form
(1)

p+2
2

1
2 [(p + 1)2 + 2]

where, p is the last even denominator whose square appears in the

series.

A History of Approximations to
Approximation to

Accuracy
(Decimal
places)
1

Method Adopted

25
8

= 3.125
3.0883

1
1

Geometrical
Geometrical

p
(10) = 3.1623
<<3 71
3 10
71

1
2

Ptolemy (150 CE)

17
= 3.141666
3 120

Lui Hui (263)

3.14159

Tsu Chhung-Chih
(480?)

Aryabhat
. a (499)

355
113

6
7
4

Geometrical
Polygon doubling
(6.24 = 96 sides)
Polygon doubling
(6.26 = 384 sides)
Polygon doubling
(6.29 = 3072 sides)
Polygon doubling
(6.29 = 12288 sides)
Polygon doubling
(4.28 = 1024 sides)

Rhind Papyrus - Egypt

(Prior to 2000 BCE)
Babylon (2000 BCE)

Sulvas
utras (Prior to
800 BCE)
Jaina Texts (500 BCE)
Archimedes (250 BCE)

256
81

= 3.1604

= 3.1415929
3.1415927
62832
= 3.1416
20000

Geometrical

A History of Approximations to
Approximation to

Accuracy

Method Adopted

(Decimal
places)
M
adhava (1375)

2827433388233
9.1011

11

= 3.141592653592 . . .
Al Kasi (1430)

3.1415926535897932

Infinite series with

end corrections

16

Polygon doubling
(6.227 sides)

Francois Viete (1579)

3.1415926536

Polygon doubling
(6.216 sides)

Romanus (1593)

3.1415926535 . . .

15

Polygon doubling

Ludolph Van Ceulen

3.1415926535 . . .

32

Polygon doubling
(262 sides)

(1615)
Wildebrod Snell

3.1415926535 . . .

34

Modified Polygon doubling

(230 sides)

(1621)
Grienberger (1630)

3.1415926535 . . .

39

Modified Polygon doubling

Isaac Newton (1665)

3.1415926535 . . .

15

Infinite series

A History of Approximations to

Abraham Sharp (1699)

3.1415926535 . . .

71

Infinite series
 
for tan1 1

John Machin (1706)

3.1415926535 . . .

100

Infinite series relation

 

= 4tan1 15
4


1
tan1 239

Ramanujan (1914),

17

Modular Equation

Gosper (1985)

Million

Kondo, Yee (2010)

Trillion

Modular Equation

A History of Exact Results for

M
adhava (1375)

/4 = 1 1/3 + 1/5 1/7 + . . .

/ 12 = 1 1/3.3 + 1/32 .5 1/33 .7 + . . .

/4 = 3/4 + 1/(33 3) 1/(53 5) + 1/(73 7) . . .

John Wallis (1655)

/16 = 1/(15 + 4.1) 1/(35 + 4.3) + 1/(55 + 4.5) . . .

q
p
p
2
= [1/2] [1/2 + 1/2 (1/2)]

r
q
p
[1/2 + 1/2 (1/2 + 1/2 (1/2))] . . . (infinite product)
      
4
3
5
5
7
7
= 32
. . . (infinite product)

4
4
6
6
8

William Brouncker

Francois Viete (1593)

=1+

12 32 52
2+ 2+ 2+

. . . (continued fraction)

(1658)
Isaac Newton (1665)

3 3
4

+ 24

1
12

1
5.32

1
28.128

1
72.512

...

A History of Exact Results for

James Gregory (1671)

tan1 (x) = x

Gottfried Leibniz

=1

1
3

1
5

x3
3

+
1
7

x5
5

...

+ ...

(1674)
Abraham Sharp

12

=1

1
3.3

1
32 .5

1
33 .7

+ ...

(1699)
John Machin (1706)

= 4tan1

 
1
5

tan1

1
239

Ramanujan (1914)

1
2 2 X (4K )!(1103 + 26390k)
=

9801
(k !)4 3964k
k=0

Ramanujans Series for

One of Ramanujans early papers is on the Modular equations
and approximations to . Though published later from London
in 1914 (QJM 1914, 350-372), it is said to embody much of
Ramanujans early Indian work. Here is a sample of his results:

Ramanujan also notes that the last series is extremely rapidly

convergent. Indeed in late 1980s, it blazed a new trail in the
saga of computation of .

Rsine, Rcosine and Rversine

The jy
a or bhuj
a-jy
a of an arc of a circle is actually the half the
chord (ardha-jy
a or jy
ardha) of double the arc.
In the figure below, if r is the radius of the circle, jy
a (Rsine),
kot.i or kot.i-jy
a (Rcosine) and sara (Rversine) of the c
apa (arc)
EC = s = r , are given by:
jy
a (arc EC) = R sin(s) = CD = r sin
kot.i (arc EC) = R cos(s) = OD = r cos
sara(arc EC) = Rvers (s)= ED = r r cos


Nlakan.t.has Refinement of Aryabhat
. a Relation for
Second Order Sine Differences
We consider a given arc of arc-length s, which is divided into n equal arc-bits.
If s = r , then the j-th pin.d.a-jy
a Bj and the corresponding kot.i-jy
a Kj , and
the sara Sj , are
 
 
 
j
js
js
= r sin
= r sin
[Cj Pj in the Figure]
Bj = R sin
n
n
rn
 
 
 
js
j
js
Kj = R cos
= r cos
= r cos
[Cj Tj in the Figure]
n
n
rn
 

 

 
js
j
js
Sj = Rvers
= r 1 cos
= r 1 cos
[Pj E in the Figure]
n
n
rn

Second-Order Sine-Differences
Let Mj+1 be the mid-point of the arc-bit Cj Cj+1 and similarly Mj
the mid-point of the previous (j-th) arc-bit.
We shall denote the pin.d.a-jy
a of the arc EMj+1 as Bj+ 1 and
2
clearly Bj+ 1 = Mj+1 Qj+1 . The corresponding Kj+ 1 = Mj+1 Uj+1
2
2
and Sj+ 1 = EQj+1 . Similarly, Bj 1 = Mj Qj , Kj 1 = Mj Uj and
2

Sj 1 = EQj . The full-chord of the arc-bit

2

s
n

may be denoted .

Second-Order Sine-Differences
Then a simple argument based on similar triangles (trair
asika)
leads to the relations for Rsine and Rcosine differences

Kj+ 1
4j = Bj+1 Bj =
2
R
 

Kj 1 Kj+ 1 = Sj+ 1 Sj 1 =
Bj
2
2
2
2
R
Thus, we obtain the relation for second-order sine differences
4j+1 4j =

 2
R

Bj =

(41 42 )
Bj
B1

With n = 24, Aryabhat

. a used the approximation
(41 42 ) 10 , B1 2250

Second-Order Sine-Differences
Nlakan.t.ha in Tantrasangraha

has given a better approximation

B1 2240 5000 ,

(41 42 )
1

B1
2330 3000

nkara
Sa

Variyar in his commentary Laghuvivr.ti on

Tantrasangraha

has given a still better approximation

B1 2240 5000 22000 ,

(41 42 )
1

B1
2330 3200

Note: We can re-express the Aryabhat

. a second-order sine
difference relation in the form
R sin jh

2 (1 cos h)

[R sin((j+1)h)R sin jh][R sin jhR sin((j1)h)] =  1

M
adhava Series for Rsine
;
a.na:h:tya . ca.a:pa:va:geRa:Na . ca.a:pMa ta.a:tP+l;a:
a.na . ca
h:=e;t,a .sa:mUa:l+yua:gva:gERa:a.~
/:a.$ya.a:va:gRa:h:tEaH k
+.ma.a:t,a
. ca.a:pMa :P+l;a:
a.na . ca.a:Da.eaY:Da.ea nya:~ya.ea:pa:yRua:pa:a= tya.jea:t,a
x +.taH
.ja.a:va.a:yEa .sMa:g{a:h.eaY:~yEa:va ;a.va:d
.a:n,a I+tya.a:a.d:na.a k

R sin(s) s s

s 2
r
(22 + 2)

+s

s 4
r
(22 + 2)(42 + 4)

...

This can be rewritten in the form



1
R sin(s) = s
R

2

 4
 6
s3
1
s5
1
s7
+

+. . .
(1.2.3)
R
(1.2.3.4.5)
R
(1.2.3.4.5.6.7)

sin =

3
5
7
+

+ ...
(3!) (5!) (7!)

M
adhav
a Series for Rversine

;
a.na:h:tya . ca.a:pa:va:geRa:Na .+pMa ta.a:tP+l;a:
a.na . ca
h:=e;d
, ;a.va:mUa:l+yua:tva:gERa:a.~
/:a.$ya.a:va:gRa:h:tEaH

k
+.ma.a:t,a

e :na.a:d;aM ;a.va:Ba.$ya:ta.a:m,a
;a.k+.ntua v.ya.a:sa:d:le+nEa:va ;a.d
*+
:P+l;a:nya:Da.eaY:DaH

k
+.ma:Za.ea nya:~ya.ea:pa:yRua:pa:a= tya.jea:t,a

Za.=:a:yEa .sMa:g{a:h.eaY:~yEa:va .~tea:naH

x +.taH
.~:a.a:tya.a:a.d:na.a k

2

4
R Rs
R Rs
Rver (s) = 2

+ ...
(2 + 2) (22 + 2)(42 + 4)

M
adhav
a Series for Rversine
This can be rewritten in the form

S = Rvers(s) =

1
R

 3
 5
s2
1
s4
1
s6

+
. . .
2
R
(1.2.3.4)
R
(1.2.3.4.5.6)

vers =

2
4
6

+
...
(2!) (4!) (6!)

The verses giving the Rsine and Rversine series also note that the
method of obtaining accurate approximations to Rsine and Rversine
values, as encoded in the mnemonics (also due to Madhava) Vidv
an
etc and Stenah. etc, indeed follow from these series.
M
adhava has also listed accurate values of the 24 tabular Rsines in a
series of verses beginnig sres.tham
ama varis..th
an
am
. n
. . They coincide
with the modern values up to thirds (corresponding to an accuracy
of sines up to seventh or eighth decimal place).

M
adhavas Sine Table

Nlakan.t.has Formula for Instantaneous Velocity

(c.1500)

Instead of basing the calculation of instantaneous velocity on

the approximate form of manda-phala or equation of centre that
Bhaskaracarya and others had considered, Nlakan.t.ha Somayaj
uses the exact form of the manda-phala :
   

1
r0
1
= M + Rsin
R sin(M )
R
R
where M is the mean longitude of the planet (which varies
uniformly with time) and is the longitude of the apogee, which
in the case of Moon also varies uniformly with time.

Nlakan.t.has Formula for Instantaneous Velocity

Nlakan.t.ha also gives the correct formula for the correction to

the mean velocity of Moon in his treatise Tantrasangraha.

x +. a.ta:pa:de:na .sMa:h:=e;t,a
. ca:nd;ba.a:hu:P+l+va:gRa:Za.ea: a.Da:ta:aa.$ya:k+a:k
ta.a k+ea: a.f:P+l+
a.l+ a.a:k+a:h:ta.Ma :k
e +.nd;Bua: a.+.a=;h ya:a l+Bya:tea
ta:a.d
e
ga:teaH ;a.[a:pya:ta.a:a.ma:h tua k+.k
R +.f.a:a.d:k
e
:Za.ea:Dya mxa:ga.a:a.d:k

ta:;
;vea:t~.P
u +f:ta.=:a ga: a.ta:a.vRa:Da.eaH

A:~ya ta:tsa:ma:ya.ja.a .=;vea.=;a.pa

Nlakan.t.has Formula for Instantaneous Velocity

Let the product of the kot.iphala [r0 cos(M
 )] in minutes and
be divided by
the daily motion of the manda-kendra d(M)
dt
the square root of the
square of the b
ahuphala
q
 subtracted from
the square of trijy
a
R 2 r02 sin2 (M ) .
The result thus obtained has to be subtracted from the daily
motion of the Moon if the manda-kendra lies within six signs
beginning from Mr.ga and added if it lies within six signs
beginning from Karkat.aka. The result gives a more accurate
value of the Moons angular velocity. In fact, the procedure for
finding the instantaneous velocity of the Sun is also the same.

Nlakan.t.has Formula for Instantaneous Velocity

Nlakan.t.ha thus gives the derivative of the second term in the

equation of centre noted above in the form
"
n r 
0

R cos(M )

o

R2

 r 2
0

 1 #  

2
d
R sin2 (M )
(M )
dt

This formula for the velocity, which involves the derivative of the
arcsine function has been attributed by Nlakan.t.ha to his
teacher Damodara in Jyotirmm
am
a.
. s

Acyutas Formula for Instantaneous Velocity (c.1600)

Acyuta Pis.arat.i in his Sphut.anirn.aya-tantra gives the
Nlakan.t.ha formula for the instantaneous velocity. He also
discusses an alternative prescription for manda-correction due
to Mu
njala (c.932) given by

 r

R sin(M )
R



=M+
R Rr R cos(M )
Acyuta notes that in this model the manda-correction also
depends on the hypotenuse and hence the correction to the
mean velocity is given by:
x +.ta:k+ea: a.f:P+lM ;aa.ja.a:va:ya.a ;a.va:&+tMa d.eaH P+l+va:gRa:ta:~tua ya:t,a
k
mxa:ga:k+.k
R +.f:k+a:a.d:k
e Y:mua:na.a yua:ta:h.a:nMa :P+l+ma.a:k+ea: a.f.ja:m,a

a.;
x +.ta:k+ea:f.a:P+l+ya.a ;aa.ja.a:va:ya.a
;a.d:na:k
e +.nd;ga: a.ta*+:mu
d :=e;t,a k
x +. a.ta:BRa:vea:t,a
:P+l+pUa:vRa:P+lE+k+.ta.ea d:lM ;a.d:na:Bua:
e +=;a.pa .sMa:~k

Acyutas Formula for Instantaneous Velocity

Here, Acyuta gives the derivative of the second term above

(which involves the derivative of ratio of two functions) in the
form
"
 r

2 #
n r 
o
R sin(M )
R



R cos(M ) + 
R
R Rr R cos(M )
#  
"

d
1



x 
(M )
dt
R Rr R cos(M )

References
1. Gan.itayuktibh
a.s
a of Jyes.t.hadeva (in Malayalam),
Gan.it
adhy
aya, Ed., with Notes in Malayalam, by
Ramavarma Thampuran and A. R. Akhileswara
Aiyer,Trichur 1948.
2. Works of C. T. Rajagopal and Collaborators:
2.1 K. Mukunda Marar, Proof of Gregorys series, Teachers
Magazine 15, 28-34, 1940.
2.2 K. Mukunda Marar and C. T. Rajagopal, On the Hindu
quadrature of the circle, J.B.B.R.A.S. 20, 65-82, 1944.
2.3 K. Mukunda Marar and C. T. Rajagopal, Gregorys series in
the mathematical literature of Kerala, Math. Student 13,
92-98, 1945.
2.4 A. Venkataraman, Some interesting proofs from Yuktibh
a.s
a,
Math Student 16, 1-7, 1948.
2.5 C. T. Rajagopal, A neglected chapter of Hindu
mathematics, Scr. Math. 15, 201-209, 1949.

References
2.6 C. T. Rajagopal and A. Venkataraman, The sine and
cosine power series in Hindu mathematics, J.R.A.S.B. 15,
1-13, 1949.
2.7 C. T. Rajagopal and T. V. V. Aiyar, On the Hindu proof of
Gregorys series, Scr. Math. 17, 65-74, 1951.
2.8 C. T. Rajagopal and T. V. V. Aiyar, A Hindu approximation
to Pi, Scr. Math. 18, 25-30, 1952.
2.9 C. T. Rajagopal and M. S. Rangachari, On an untapped
source of medieval Keralese mathematics, Arch. for Hist.
of Ex. Sc. 18, 89-101, 1978.
2.10 C. T. Rajagopal and M. S. Rangachari, On medieval Kerala
mathematics, Arch. for Hist. of Ex. Sc. 35(2), 91-99, 1986.

References
3. Gan.itayuktibh
a.s
a of Jyes.t.hadeva (in Malayalam), Ed. with
Tr. by K. V. Sarma with Explanatory Notes by
K. Ramasubramanian, M. D. Srinivas and M. S. Sriram,
2 Volumes, Hindustan Book Agency, Delhi 2008.
nkara
4. Kriy
akramakar of Sa

V
ariyar on Ll
avat of
Bhaskaracarya II: Ed. by K. V. Sarma, Hoshiarpur 1975.
nkara
5. Tantrasangraha

of Nlakan.t.ha with Yuktidpik

a of Sa

Variyar, Ed. by K. V. Sarma, Hoshiarpur 1977.

6. Tantrasangraha

of Nlakan.t.ha, Tr. with Explanatory Notes

by K. Ramasubramanian and M. S. Sriram, Springer, New
York 2011; Rep. Hindustan Book Agency, Delhi 2011.
7. K. V. Sarma, A History of the Kerala School of Hindu
Astronomy, Hoshiarpur 1972.
8. C. H. Edwards, The Historical Development of the
Calculus, Springer, New York 1979.

References
9. S. Parameswaran, The Golden Age of Indian Mathematics,
Swadeshi Science Movement, Kochi 1998.
10. J. L. Berggren, J. M. Borwein and P. Borwein, Pi A Source
Book, 3rd ed., Springer New York 2004.
11. C. K. Raju, Cultural Foundations of Mathematics: The
Nature of Mathematical Proof and the Transmission of the
Calculus from India to Europe in the 16th c.CE, Pearson
Education, Delhi 2007.
12. G. G. Joseph, A Passage to Infinity, Sage, Delhi 2009.
13. K. Ramasubramanian and M. D. Srinivas, Development of
Calculus in India, in C. S. Seshadri (ed) , Studies in History
of Indian Mathematics, Hindustan Book Agency, Delhi
2010, pp.201-286.

Thanks!

Thank You