..-. .--.

---,
--?a

* 4

Brunel Technical College

Department of Aeronautical Studies

CHAPTER 7

m o ' Frequency Amplifiers

INTRODUCTION
d t~ q l i f y s p e e ~ h
frequencies, the upper audible l i m i t being about 18 kHz.

I n airborne communication systems, bandwidths a r e generally

more r e s t r i c t e d than t h i s i n order t o reduce noise, Audio
frequency amplifiers a r e used i n both t r a n s m i t t e r s and
receivers. I n t h e first case the purpose i s t o supply audio
power s u f f i c i e n t t o modulate t h e radio frequency c a r p i e r wave,
I n t h e second case t h e purpose i s t o supply s u f f i c i e n t power
t o operate some form of transducer e.g. headphones o r loudspeakers.
I n most cases more than one stage of amplification i s required
s o t h a t one o r more small signal pre-amplifier o r d r i v e r stages
precede t h e f i n a l stage. This f i n a l s t a g e i s always a power
amplifier operating under l a r g e signal conditions which means
t h a t a c e r t a i n amount of d i s t o r t i o n i s i n e v i t a b l e , Distortion
can be minimised by good design and s p e c i a l c i r c u i t techniques,
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e use of negative feedback, described i n
Chapter 8.

Temperature S t a b i l i s a t i o n .

T-

I=,
+
+
72

(a) Unstabilised Circuit.

FIG.1.

(b)

S t a b i li s e d C i r c u i t

Temperature S t a b i l i s a t i o n

SrbNc)l

o Gt-rPut

=c

-0

,.
2fJ

-.s

.;3;"
- .

VOL: 1
SECT 2
CHAP 7

2.

L\-

VOL 1

SECT 2
CHAP 7

3.

'
1

~ i g . l ( a )shows a simple small signal audio frequency amplifier

- lvote t n a t two separate d. c.
s U L W L L S S ~ U111 m a p e r 3 .
b i a s supplies a r e required, VCc and V ~ B ,
1

4.

- -P

a.

-I

m*

The c i r c u i t of FYg.l(a) i s prone t o v a r i a t i o n s i n performance

due t o temperature change. Consider, f o r example, a r i s e i n
ambient temperature which causes an increase i n t h e t r a n s i s t o r
leakage current. A s the leakage current forms a p a r t (although
a very small p a r t ) of the t o t a l c o l l e c t o r current, t h i s a l s o
increases. The r i s e i n c o l l e c t o r current r e s u l t s i n an
I
S n
L,he power dissipated i n the t r a n s i s t o r and hence
there w i l l be a f u r t h e r r i s e i n temperature a t t h e collectorbase Junction. Thus t h i s i s an accumulating e f f e c t and a
small increase i n ambient temperature can r e s u l t i n a s i g n i f i c a n t
change i n c o l l e c t o r current. ~t b e s t t h i s means a change i n the
working point, possibly r e s u l t i n g i n reouced gain and/or increased
d i s t o r t i o n . A t worst, the increased power d i s s i p a t i o n i n t h e
t r a n s i s t o r can destroy the device.

The c i r c u i t of F i g . l ( b ) i s a f a r more p r a c t i c a l c i r c u i t . It
only requires one d o c . supply, Vcc , the base b i a s being
obtained by means of the p o t e n t i a l d i v i d e r rl and r
The
2.

design of the c i r c u i t a l s o reduces the e f f e c t s of temperature

fluctuations, p a r t i c u l a r l y by the inclusion of re.
Action of re and ce

The d o c . b i a s between t h e base and the

emitter i s equal t o the v o l t s drop across r minus the v o l t s
2
drop across r :e

Base

h i t t e r d o c . voltage

I r
2 2

'ere

i n practice I r w i l l need t o be s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r than Iere. If

2 2
'.t
now temperature increases, t o t a l t r a n s i s t o r current increases and
I increases. But the increase i n Ie r e s u l t s i n an increase i n
e

and a reduction i n the base-emitter forward b i a s

thus
e e
causing a reduction i n t r a n s i s t o r current. The c i r c u i t therefope
has a s t a b i l i s i n g action, with the d.c. currents being
reasonably independent of temperature. The capacitor ce performs
I r

a s i m i l a r function t o the decoupling capacitor i n a valve cathode

b i a s c i r c u i t . Its reactance i s such t h a t it i s e f f e c t i v e l y a
s h o r t c i r c u i t f o r a l l signal frequencies.

7.

Typical values f o r the components of F i g . l ( b ) a r e :r

5 kilohms

'e
r
r

e
1

1 kilohm

loo p F
80 kilohms
1 0 kilohms

*
1

.-- -.-

VOL 1
SECT 2

7
8.
-

I n p r a c t i c e a d d i t i o n a l measures may be taken t o achieve

a -gigher aegree o r iemperature s t a b i i i s a t i o n , using e x t r a
components such as diodes o r thermistors.

Coupling Between Stages.

R-C Coupling.

I f more than one stage of amplification i s

required, t h e output of one s t a g e must be applied t o t h e
i n p u t of t h e next stage. Two s t a g e s of t h e a m p l i f i e r of
~ i g . l ( b )may be coupled a s shown i n Fig.2,

If t h e c o l l e c t o r of T1 was d i r e c t l y coupled t o t h e base of T

t h e l a t t e r would be i n c o r r e c t l y biased. The d o c . blocking

capacitor C i s therefore i n s e r t e d t o i s o l a t e T base from T
2

c o l l e c t o r , The value of C i s chosen so t h a t i t s reactance i s

n e g l i g i b l e a t a l l s i g n i f i c a n t s i g n a l frequencies. For audio
frequency applications, C needs t o be a t l e a s * 1 0 p F .
10.

Transformer Coupling.
Transformers, although bulky and
r e l a t i v e l y expensive, automatically give d o c . i s o l a t i o n between
primary and secondary. They a r e used i n a . f , s t a g e s where i t
i s necessary t o match t h e output impedance of t h e first s t a g e
t o t h e input impedance of t h e second stage, o r where it i s
necessary t o obtain a p a r t i c u l a r shape of response curve.
Transformer coupling i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig.3.

- -----, p- "3.*&,
.".bn

"";& '
7.5
1'6

VOL 1

SECT 2
CHAP 7

FIG.3.

Transformer Coupling.

This method of coupling saves on t h e

Direct ( d o c ) Coupling.
number of components and can r e s u l t i n higher gains and b e t t e r
thermal s t a b i l i t y than other coupling methods. ~ i g . 4shows some
t y p i c a l methods of achieving d i r e c t coupling.
(a)

In Fig.4(a), t h e f i r s t s t a g e i s i n common c o l l e c t o r
( e m i t t e r follower) configuration, t h e output being taken
from the emitter. This enables t h e c o r r e c t d o c . b i a s t o
be applied t o the base of t h e second stage.

(b) F i g e 4 ( b ) i l l u s t r a t e s t h e use of a PNP-NPN p a i r , the

c o l l e c t o r current of the first t r a n s i s t o r becoming t h e
base current of t h e second t r a n s i s t o r .

(c)

~ i g . 4 ( c )i l l u s t r a t e s a very common form of configuration

c a l l e d a " ~ a r l i n g t o n pair".

,
' \

VOL 1

SECT 2
CHAP 7
Frequency Response
12.

The normal frequency response of an audio-frequency a m p l i f i e r i s

shown i n Fig.5. The useful l i m i t s of operation are generally
regarded as fl and f2, t h e frequencies a t which t h e gain has
dropped by 3 dBs compared with mid-band.

FIG. 5.

Gain

Freauencs Res~onse.

13. I n a high q u a l i t y audio amplifier, f 1 may be a s low a s a few Hz

and f i s the upper l i m i t of t h e audlble range i.e. about 18 kHz.
2

I n a communications receiver, where f i d e l i t y ( i . e . freedom from

d i s t o r t i o n ) i s n o t s o important, and where bandwidth requires t o
be s m a l l t o reduce t h e e f f e c t s of noise, f l may be about 300 Hz
and f 2 about 3 kHz.
14.

Causes of Fall-Off i n Gain.

Both t h e a c t i v e device and i t s
associated c i r c u i t components cause t h e reduction i n gain a t high
and low frequencies, and t h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig.6.

FIG.~.

E f f e c t s of Coupling and Input Capacitances.

I n t h i s diagram t h e s i g n a l source (which may be t h e output of a

preceding a m p l i f i e r ) is applied t o t h e a m p l i f i e r i n p u t v i a a
coupling capacitor Cc. The amplifier i n p u t impedance c o n s i s t s of
a resistance r
i n p a r a l l e l with a Capacitor Cin. Cin i s
in'
b a s i c a l l y the emitter-base
junction capacitance but possibly
increased due t o Miller Effect.

"'-4

-- -- -- -.
-*;-<>
*Z

+.- .
.
y?ff v

*-r,-,

I)

VOL 1

SECT 2
CHAP 7

15.

High Frequency Gain Reduction.

A s frequency i n c r e a s e s X,.
-&A*

decreases and a smaller proportion of v

a m p l i f i e r input terminals. I n t h e

limit

is developed across t h e
XCin is zero and the

input i s s h o r t c i r c u i t e d . It i s simple t o design t r a n s i s t o r s t o

operate up t o t h e a.f. l i m i t but t r a n s i s t o r s required t o operate
a t higher frequencies must have s u f f i c i e n t l y low values of C
in.

16.

Low Frequency Gain Reduction.

A t t h e lower audio frequencies,

in

1-

uec

in
relevant. However, as frequency decreases,
X
increases. A
g r e a t e r proportion of V s i s developed across Eg and a smaller
I n t h e l i m i t , a t zero frequency, a l l of
proportion across r
V s w i l l be develope?inacross Cc, none across t h e a m p l i f i e r input
terminals. Note t h a t i n the case of d i r e c t coupling, operation
i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y possible a t frequencies approaching zero.

Class A Operation.

I,

FIG. 7.

Class A Bias.

17. Class A Operation i s when t h e b i a s i s such t h a t t h e i n p u t signal

swing does not take t h e a c t i v e device e i t h e r i n t o s a t u r a t i o n or

beyond cut-off. Severe d i s t o r t i o n w i l l r e s u l t i f t h e s e l i m i t s a r e
exceeded i n t h e type of amplifier s o f a r discussed. If very l a r g e
s i g n a l swings a r e t o be accommodated, t h e b i a s p o i n t should be
approximately h a l f way along the load l i n e , a s shown i n Fig.7.

18. Power Dissipation.

I n the case of Fig.7, t h e c o l l e c t o r d.c.

current and voltage a r e 2mA and 5 v o l t s respectively. Thus t h e power
supplied t o t h e t r a n s i s t o r , i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e magnitude of the
signal is :

.. ~ *
"

VOL 1
SECT 2

CHAP 7
Note t h a t under no-signal conditions, t h i s l O m W must be dissipated,
i n t h e form of heat, i n t h e t r a n s i s t o r .

19.
9

20.
r
.....
....-

-.:-,
:.: ..;
-.

Maximum Power Dissipation.

Every t r a n s i s t o r has a maximum s a f e
l i m i t f o r power d i s s i p a t i o n . This l i m i t i s determined by t h e design
of t h e t r a n s i s t o r and t h e ease by which t h e excess h e a t can be
d i s s i p a t e d . Most power t r a n s i s t o r s a r e mounted on a "heat sink"
which conducts heat away from t h e collector-base Junction. Every
device has a "maximum c o l l e c t o r dissipation", which, i n t h e example
of Fig.7, i s 10mW. The PC curve shown i s t h e locus of p o i n t s
where t h e product IcVc = l h W . It i s therefore e s s e n t i a l t h a t the
t r a n s i s t o r i s not biased above t h e curve, i n t h e shaded area.
Conversion Efficiency.
In t h e case of Fig.7, i f t h e s i g n a l
amplitude is zero, t h e r e i s no s i g n a l power output and a l l t h e
power from t h e supply i s d i s s i p a t e d i n t h e device. The m a x i m u m
power output occurs when t h e s i g n a l swings over t h e whole length
of the load l i n e , then :-

Conversion e f f i c i e n c y

Power out
dc power i n

5mW

0.5 o r 50%

lOmW

and t h i s i s the maximum possible value i n a Class A stage.

Simple Class A Power Amplifier.

FIG.^.
21.

Single h d e d Class A Power Amplifier.

A simple power amplifier output stage, transformer coupled t o a

loudspeaker i s shown i n ~ i g . 8 . The transformer i s commonly used
t o convert a low loudspeaker impedance t o a higher value t o match
the transistor.

..

VOL 1
SECT 2
cwip

Example: Suppose t h e loudspeaker impedance Zs i s r e s i s t i v e and

e q u a l t o 25 ohms. O p t i m u m load impedance f o r t h e t r a n s i s t o r Z
2 . 5 kilohrns (As shown i n Fig.7). The t u r n s r a t i o required i8:-

22.

Although, i n t h i s case, the ac ( s i g n a l ) c o l l e c t o r load i s 2.5

kilohms, t h e dc c o l l e c t o r load i s zero (assuming t h e dc r e s i s t a n c e
voltage i s t h e r e f o r e equal t o Vcc (= 5 v o l t s i n t h i s c a s e ) and
when a s i g n a l i s applied, t h e instantaneous c o l l e c t o r voltage
swings above and below t h i s value (see Fig.7 and 8 ) .
Class A Push Pull (Double-Ihded)

FIG.

9.

Push Pull Amplifier.

23.

The c i r c u i t shown i n Fig.9 employs two t r a n s i s t o r s t h e r e f o r e giving

twice t h e power output of a s i n g l e ended s t a g e but with c e r t a i n
o t h e r advantages i n addition. The important f e a t u r e of t h e push-pull
c i r c u i t i s i t s symmetry, t h e two t r a n s i s t o r s , TI and T2, have
i d e n t i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and the transformers a r e a c c u r a t e l y centretapped.

24.

The inputs t o T1 and T2 a r e equal i n magnitude but i n antiphase

(achieved i n Fig.9 by the centre-tapped input transformer although
t h e r e a r e other methods). Their outputs w i l l a l s o be i n a n t i i s increasing, say, ic2w i l l be decreasing.
phase, s o i f i
C1

However a s i

and i
a r e flowing i n opposite d i r e c t i o n s i n the
C1
C2
transformer primary, they produce inphase voltages i n t h e output
transformer secondary.

/-?

VOL 1

SECT 2
CHAP 7

25.

Reduction i n Second Harmonic Distortion.

+-..+
cryur,

Because of t h e uneven

+LC.m - 4 - n n . 1 r r - I - 4
nrr
1 enmn
c,rlr;~&bub~~*>u~bu,

c+ -

ureAru

be

d'istoried (see Chap. 5 para.48). A s i n e wave output w i l l produce

outputs a t t h e fundamental frequency ( t h e u n d i s t o r t e d portion)
p l u s unwanted harmonics o r overtones, p a r t i c u l a r l y second and
t h i r d . Fig.10 shows outputs from T1 and T2, d i s t o r t e d due t o t h e
presence of the second harmonic. When "added" i n t h e output
transformer secondary, t h e second harmonics cancel.

FIG.10. Cancellation of Second Harmonics.

A Class A push-pull amplifier can t h e r e f o r e produce twice the power

output of a s i n g l e ended stage with a lower l e v e l of d i s t o r t i o n ;

o r more than twice t h e output power a t t h e same l e v e l of d i s t o r t i o n .

26.

Other Advantages of Push-Pull Operation.

(a)

A s icl i s equal and i n antiphase t o iC2,

no s i g n a l current

flows through t h e power supply c i r c u i t . This s i m p l i f i e s

power supply design and reduces t h e l e v e l of supply r i p p l e .
Also no decoupling capacitor i s required f o r R,.

y-%%
:. .
X

VOL 1
SECT 2
CHAP 7
(b)

27.

.-. -

The dc c o l l e c t o r current flows i n opposite d i r e c t i o n s

t-gh+hp-+.ransfr\rmpy
~ r i = r ~+,!xc
s
the
magnetisation i s zero. This enables a smaller output
transformer t o be used as t h e r e is, i n theory, no
p o s s i b i l i t y of magnetic s a t u r a t i o n .

Integrated C i r c u i t s f p r Push-Pull Operation.

Many "operational
amplifier" type i n t e g r a t e d c i r c u i t s a r e designed t o produce two
outputs, equal i n magnitude but i n antiphase. A s i n g l e i n t e g r a t e d
c i r c u i t i s t h e r e f o r e commonly used instead of t h e two separate
Class B Push-Pull.

FIG. 11.
28.

29.

Class B Push-Pull Operation

I n c l a s s B operation, t h e a c t i v e device i s biased approximately

a t cut-off, and s o conducts f o r only h a l f the input cycle. The
r e s u l t i n a s i n g l e ended audio frequency s t a g e would be unacceptable
d i s t o r t i o n . I n a push-pull configuration howevqr, each device
operates on a l t e r n a t e half-cycles, t h e one " f i l l i n g i n t h e gaps"
missed by t h e other. I n p r a c t i c e t h e devioes a r e o f t e n biased
s l i g h t l y forward of cut-off t o minimise cross-over d i s t o r t i o n .
Conversion Efficiency.
(~oJLR

&

L a s

cunoa
UV(tCL(3e

$uPf&Y

CUM

-- -- p
/

u w t

*c

FIG.12. Power Supply Current i n a Class B Push-Pull Amplifier.

-\

e
I

VOL 1
SECT 2
CHAP

From F'ig.12 it may be seen that the average current drain from
2.c- vaLue+iM.s fn
the power supply-i-sA=s
a Class A amplifier working at optimum efficiency, the current
drain is equal to the peak a.c. This means that the conversion
efficiency of a Class B amplifier is higher than that of a
Class A and it can be shown that its maximum theoretical value
is 78.5s. Furthermore, under no signal conditions the power
supply current is zero.
Push Pull Amplification with Complementary Pairs.
The requirement to provide a phase splitter input i.e. equal
magnitude but opposite phase is avoided by the use of a
complementary pair of transistors. This is a matched pair,
having identical characteristics, but one of the transistors is
PNP, the other NPN. A simple circuit employing this principle
is shown in Fig.13. Note that if the input signal is "going
negative" say, ic will be increasing and ic2 will be decreasing
that is the outpu%s are in push-pull.

FIG.13.

Push Pull Amplification using a Complementary Pair.

F - 3 e 4-44 s;OCLd 4 ,4i t3L & -y+*w-

BRUNEL TECHNICAL COLLEGE, BRISTOL

JUNE-'
1983

DATE:

. "I