The subgrade is the in situ material upon which the pavement structure is placed.

Although there is a tendency to look at pavement performance in terms of pavement

structure and mix design alone, the subgrade can often be the overriding factor in
pavement performance.

Figure 1: Subgrade Preparation on Kaua'i

Figure 2: Subgrade Preparation on SR 528 in

Marysville, WA

Subgrade Performance
A subgrades performance generally depends on two interrelated characteristics:
1.

Load bearing capacity. The subgrade must be able to support loads

transmitted from the pavement structure. This load bearing capacity is often
affected by degree of compaction, moisture content, and soil type. A subgrade that
can support a high amount of loading without excessive deformation is considered
good.

2.

Volume changes. Most soils undergo some amount of volume change when
exposed to excessive moisture or freezing conditions. Some clay soils shrink and
swell depending upon their moisture content, while soils with excessive fines may
be susceptible to frost heave in freezing areas (not really a concern in Hawaii).
Ash, especially on the Big Island, can present volume change problems.

Poor subgrade should be avoided if possible, but when it is necessary to build over
weak soils there are several methods used to improved subgrade performance:

Removal and replacement (over-excavation). Poor subgrade soil can simply

be removed and replaced with higher quality fill. Although this is simple in concept, it
can be expensive.

Stabilization with a cementitious or asphaltic binder. The addition of an

appropriate binder (such as lime, portland cement or emulsified asphalt) can increase
subgrade stiffness and/or reduce swelling tendencies.

Additional base layers. Marginally poor subgrade soils may be made

acceptable by using additional base layers. These layers spread pavement loads
over a larger subgrade area. This option is rather perilous; when designing
pavements for poor subgrades the temptation may be to just design a thicker section
with more base material because the thicker section will satisfy most design
equations. However, these equations are at least in part empirical and were usually
not intended to be used in extreme cases. In short, a thick pavement structure over a
poor subgrade may not make a good pavement.

Subgrade Physical Properties

Subgrade materials are typically characterized by (1) their resistance to deformation
under load, in other words, their stiffness or (2) their bearing capacity, in other words,
their strength. In general, the more resistant to deformation a subgrade is, the more
load it can support before reaching a critical deformation value. Although there are
other factors involved when evaluating subgrade materials (such as shrink/swell in
the case of certain clays and ash), stiffness is the most common characterization.
There are three basic subgrade stiffness/strength characterizations commonly used
in the U.S.:

California bearing ratio (CBR). A simple test that compares the bearing
capacity of a material with that of a well-graded crushed stone (thus, a high quality
crushed stone material should have a CBR of about 100%). CBR is basically a
measure of strength. It is primarily intended for, but not limited to, evaluating the
strength of non-stabilized cohesive materials having maximum particle sizes less
than 0.75 inches (AASHTO, 2000[1]). It was developed by the California Division of
Highways around 1930 and was subsequently adopted by numerous states,
counties, U.S. federal agencies and internationally. Most agency and commercial
geotechnical laboratories in the U.S. are equipped to perform CBR tests.

Resistance value (R-Value). A test that expresses a materials resistance to

deformation as a function of the ratio of transmitted lateral pressure to applied
vertical pressure. It is essentially a modified triaxial compression test. Materials
tested are assigned an R-value. The testing apparatus used in the R-value test is
called a stabilometer and is identical to the one used in Hveem HMA mix design. The
R-Value is basically a measure of stiffness.

Resilient modulus (MR). A test used to estimate elastic modulus (a materials

stress-strain relationship). The resilient modulus test applies a repeated axial cyclic

stress of fixed magnitude, load duration and cycle duration to a cylindrical test
specimen. While the specimen is subjected to this dynamic cyclic stress, it is also
subjected to a static confining stress provided by a triaxial pressure chamber. It is
essentially a cyclic version of a triaxial compression test; the cyclic load application is
thought to more accurately simulate actual traffic loading. Resilient modulus is
basically a measure of stiffness.

Material (USC given where

appropriate)

CBR

RValue

Elastic or Resilient Modulus

(psi)

Diamond

170,000,000

Steel

30,000,000

Aluminum

10,000,000

Wood

1 2,000,000

Crushed Stone (GW, GP, GM)

20
100

30 50 20,000 40,000

Sandy Soils (SW, SP, SM, SC)

5 40

7 40

7,000 30,000

Silty Soils (ML, MH)

3 15

5 25

5,000 20,000

Clay Soils (CL, CH)

3 10

5 20

5,000 15,000

Organic Soils (OH, OL, PT)

15

<7

< 5,000

Table 1: Typical CBR and Modulus of Elasticity Values for Various Materials

There are many different correlation equations between CBR, R-value and resilient
modulus. Each one has its limitations, which should be headed. Table 2 presents
some of the more popular correlation equations.

Equation

Origin

Limitations

MR = (1500)(CBR)

Heukelom & Klomp Only for fine-grained non-expansive soils

(1962)
with a soaked CBR of 10 or less.

MR = 1,000 + (555)
(R-value)

1993 AASHTO
Guide

Only for fine-grained non-expansive soils

with R-values of 20 or less.

MR = 2555 x
CBR0.64

AASHTO 2002
Design Guide

A fair conversion over a wide range of

values.

Table 2: Selected Subgrade Strength/Stiffness Correlation Equations

Footnotes

( returns to text)

1.

Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
Twentieth Edition. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington,
D.C.