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Hybrid Renewable Energy System With Pure Sine Wave Inverter
Hybrid Renewable Energy System With Pure Sine Wave Inverter
GROUP MEMBERS
Umar Ashraf
08-HITEC-EE-179
Saroosh Baig
08-HITEC-EE-155
S.M. Mudassar
08-HITEC-EE-168
PROJECT ADVISOR
(Mr. Masood Arain)
Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical
Engineering, HITEC University Taxila Cantt.
CO-ADVISOR
(Engr. Bilal Assad)
Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering,
HITEC University Taxila Cantt.
08-HITEC-EE-179
2. Saroosh Baig
08-HITEC-EE-155
3. S.M. Mudassar
08-HITEC-EE-168
Under the supervision of their project advisor and approved by the project
examination committee, has been accepted by the HITEC University Taxila Cantt,
Pakistan, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the four year degree of B.S
(Electrical Engineering).
____________________
(Mr.Masood Arain)
Asst. Professor
Advisor
____________________
(Engr. Bilal Assad)
Lecturer
Co-Advisor
____________________
(Dr. Jameel Ahmed)
Professor
Head, Dept. of Electrical
Engineering HITEC University
Sarosh Mirza
DEDICATION
We would like to dedicate our work to our parents. Whatever we are and whatever
we have achieved is all due to their constant support and affection.
We would also like to dedicate this project to our teachers who have guided us and
helped us in our educational endeavors.
Sarosh Mirza
Acknowledgements
Praise be to Allah Almighty, the creator of the heavens and the earth. We are
thankful for His countless blessings on us, for giving us the strength and courage
to complete our project in time and without His benevolence we would not had
been able to complete this task. All respects for the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH),
whose teachings are the true source of knowledge and guidance for whole of the
humanity.
We express our deep gratitude for our project advisor Mr. Masood Ahmed Arain,
Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering, HITEC
University Taxila, for his support, inspiring guidance, worthy discussions and
encouragement that had enable us to complete this project.
We are thankful to the HOD Dr.Jameel Ahmed for taking various steps in order to
facilitate the students with their projects. We are also thankful to our faculty
especially Dr. Fawad Ahmed, Sir Bilal Assad, Sir Kashif Imdad and Sir Adeel
for their technical guidance regarding the fundamental aspects of this project. We
appreciate their valuable help.
We would also like to thank the Lab attendants Mr. Sohail, Mr. Adnan, and Mr.
Alamgir and the others who had cooperated with us in the project lab.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Certificate
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Abstract
PAGE
I
II
III
VI
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
2.2.1 Sources
12
12
2.2.5 Inverters
12
13
13
13
14
15
2.3.3.1 Microcontroller
15
15
2.3.3.3 H-Bridge
17
2.3.3.4 Filters
20
2.3.3.5 Transformer
21
22
2.4.1 Advantages
23
23
2.4.3 Application
24
25
25
26
27
28
3.1 Overview
28
28
3.2.1 Working
28
3.2.2 Observations
29
30
31
34
4.1 Working
34
4.2 Calculations
35
37
5.1 Overview
37
37
38
38
38
39
39
43
44
5.2.3.2 Results
46
5.3.3.3 Observations
46
5.3.3.4 Problems
46
5.3.4 LC Filter
47
5.3.4.1 Working
47
5.3.4.2 Problems
48
48
49
5.4.1 Explanation
50
5.4.2 Working
51
5.4.3 Results
51
5.4.4 Problems
51
52
5.6.1 Calculations
52
53
5.7 Results
54
55
55
57
57
6.4 Working
57
6.5 Calculations
58
62
Future recommendations
63
CHAPTER 8: References
64
CHAPTER 9: Appendix
65
LIST OF FIGURES
CONTENTS
PAGE
10
10
11
11
15
16
18
18
21
23
24
26
29
30
31
31
35
35
38
44
45
46
47
49
49
50
51
54
54
57
57
61
PART 1
BASIC INTRODUCTION
Page | 1
CHAPTER 1:
Page | 2
Thus the concept of renewable energy is quickly making its place in the market,
and a time will come in the near future that the dependency of humans on the fossil
fuels will become exceptionally low.
energy can be attached on preference level that which system should start work
after the failure of first system.
Page | 4
a) Advantages
Hybrid renewable energy is versatile and has many useful features some of which
are described below.
1. The resources HRES use are renewable thus they are in abundance thus is
long lasting.
2. There is no pollution or waste material from the system.
3. Wind, tidal and solar sources produce energy which is freely available.
4. It requires a very low maintenance and can last 20-30 years depending on the
type of system, as the complex systems with moving parts require more repairs
and maintenance.
5. It is cheap source of energy as hybrid is built among sustainable and renewable
energies.
6. Hybrid Renewable Energy is a clean and safe source of energy.
Page | 6
b) Disadvantages
Hybrid systems have some drawbacks too for example,
1. The energy sources have their own separate set up so they need proper place
to arrange them without making them an obstacle at home or in the industry.
2. Hybrid renewable technology is dependent on the region, environment and
capacity. It is not possible to utilize same type of renewable technology
everywhere. Some areas are hot some are cold and are only suitable for
specific energy systems. So, it is preferred to attach fossil fuel energy system
with either solar, water or wind renewable energies.
Page | 7
CHAPTER 2
PROJECT THEORY
Page | 8
2.2.1 Sources
Solar energy
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity either directly using photovoltaic (PV), or indirectly using Concentrated Solar Power (CSP). A photovoltaic
cell is a device that converts light into electric current using the photo-electric
effect.
CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of
sunlight into a small beam.
Wind energy
Wind is a renewable energy source as it can be used again and again without the
fear of it becoming scarce. As the quality of wind to exist in abundance without
depletion along with its usage as a source implies no possible threat to nature,
makes it desirable to use wind as an source of energy.
In wind energy systems, the wind pressure forces the rotor to rotate. The rotor has
magnets attached to it which on rotating induces changing magnetic flux in the
stator,thus becoming an electricity generator.
Bio gas
Bio gas provides a clean and easily controlled source of renewable energy from
Organic waste materials. Small scale Bio gas units are simple to build and operate.
In bio gas systems, the organic waste materials are processed. This processing of
the material produces ethane which then can be used as fuel.
Boost Regulator
In boost converter/regulator, the output voltage is greater than the input voltage;
hence the name of Boost is given to it. Its operation is divided into two modes;
mode 1 begins when the switching device is turned ON and Mode two begins
when it is turned OFF. The basic configuration of a Boost converter is given
below.
Buck Regulator
In buck converter/regulator, the average output voltage is less than the input
voltage hence the name Buck is given to it. This is like a step down converter.
Its operation can be divided into two modes. Mode1 begins when the switching
device is switched ON and mode 2 begins when it is switched OFF. The basic
configuration of a Buck converter is given below.
Page | 10
Buck-Boost Regulator
A buck-boost converter/regulator provides an output voltage that may be less
than or greater than the input voltage hence the name buck-boost is given to
it. In this the output polarity is opposite to that of the input voltage. This
regulator is also known as an inverting regulator. Basic circuit configuration of a
buck-boost is given below.
CkRegulator
A Ck Regulator is quite similar to the Buck-Boost regulator. The only
difference between the two is that the Ck Regulator has much lower ripple
current in fact, by carefully adjusting the inductor values, the ripple in either
input or output can be nulled completely.
The basic circuit configuration of Ck Regulator is given below.
Page | 11
I.
Dry batteries
The most common application of this kind of battery is in low power equipment like
computer supplies etc. The most common type of battery is simply Nickel metal
hydride battery. A lot of work is being done on some other kind of batteries like
lithium-polymer, lithium-ion batteries, and nickel-cadmium batteries. Dry batteries
are a bit expensive but are maintenance free.
II.
Wet batteries
The most commonly used batteries are the wet batteries also known to us as leadacid batteries. These are widely used because of their availability in different
Voltages and Ampere-hours configurations.
2.2.5 Inverters
Inverters convert DC into AC. In an inverter, we can achieve output of desired
magnitude and frequency. A variable output voltage can be obtained by varying the
input DC voltage and maintaining the gain of inverter constant. On the other hand if
the DC input voltage is fixed and it is not controllable, a variable output voltage can
be obtained by varying the gain of the inverter, which is normally accomplished by
PWM or pulse width modulation control within the inverter. The inverter gain may
be defined as ratio of the AC output voltage to DC input voltage.
The details about inverters and inverter topologies are given in the article below
(refer article 2.3).
Page | 12
Page | 13
Sine-wave inverters
A pure sine wave inverter produces a nearly perfect sine wave output, which is
essentially the same as utility-supplied grid power. Thus it is compatible with all AC
electronic devices. This is the type used in grid-tied inverters. Its design is more
complex, and costs more per unit power.
2.3.2Inverter topologies.
There are many different power circuit topologies and control strategies used in
inverter designs. Different design topologies address various issues that may be
more or less important depending on the way that the inverter is intended to be
used.
Inverters normally use H-bridge configuration. However, the voltage level at which,
the H-bridge is operated can be varied.
The normal inverters convert the DC into AC at 12 Volts. After this inversion, this
12Volt AC is stepped up into 220 Volts AC by the means of a transformer.
The advantage of such an approach is that the bridge construction is easy, as it is
not exposed to high voltages. The disadvantages accompanying such an approach
are
Page | 14
Thats why we have chosen to work with the first topology as filtering the output
greatly reduces the harmonics.
2.3.3.1 Microcontroller
Microcontroller is an integral part of an inverter. It controls the switching of signals
according to set requirements. A single microcontroller can perform multiple
functions (e.g.) generating PWM for switching, controlling the protection systems
etc. there are various types and families of microcontrollers available in the market
(e.g.) PIC family, AVRs (ATMEGA series) etc. Depending on the design
specifications, any microcontroller can be used.
Circuit symbol
Circuit symbol of a BJT is given in figure 2.3.1
Types
There are two types of transistors, NPN and PNP transistors.
Page | 15
i.
NPN transistor
NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, in which the letters "N" and "P"
refer to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor.
Most BJTs used today are NPN transistors because electron mobility is higher than
the hole mobility allowing greater currents and faster operation.
NPN transistors consist of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between
two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base in common-emitter mode is
amplified in the collector output. In other terms, an NPN transistor is "on" when its
base is pulled high relative to the emitter.
The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the
direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active
mode.
ii.
PNP transistor
Page | 16
Working
The collectoremitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the base
emitter current (current control), or by the baseemitter voltage (voltage control).
These views are related by the currentvoltage relation of the baseemitter
junction, which is just the usual exponential currentvoltage curve of a p-n junction
(diode).
The physical explanation for collector current is the amount of minority-carrier
charge in the base region. The charge-control view easily handles phototransistors, where minority carriers in the base region are created by the absorption
of photons, and handles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which depends
on charge in the base region recombining. However, since base charge is not a
signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are
usually used in circuit design and analysis.
2.3.3.3 H-Bridge
H bridge is a topology in which four switching devices BJTs, MOSFETs or IGBTs
are integrated together in a single circuit. The name H-Bridge is given to it because
of the typical arrangement of this circuit.
Mainly used switching devices in the H-bridge circuits are BJTs, MOSFETs or
IGBTs.
Working
In an H-bridge, corresponding to the figure below when the switches S1 and S4 are
closed, the switches S2 and S3 are open. Thus a positive voltage issupplied
across the motor or any other load attached to it instead of motor (e-g) transformer.
When S1 and S4 switches are opened, and S2 and S3 switches are closed, the
voltage is reversed, supplying negative voltages to the load.
A problem with this is that the switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at the
same time, as this causes a short circuit on the input voltage source. The same
thing applies on the switches S3 and S4. This condition is generally known as the
shoot-through condition.
Following figure describes the above phenomena.
Page | 17
MOSFETs
The Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor-Field-Effect-Transistor (MOSFET) is a voltage
controlled device and requires a very small input current. It is mainly used for
switching of electronic signals as its switching speed is very high. It is the most
commonlyused FET in low-power high-frequency circuits.
The MOSFET is composed of a channel of n-type or p-type semiconductor
material, and is accordingly called an N-MOSFET or a P-MOSFET
Circuit symbol
Circuit symbols of MOSFET are shown in the figure below
Page | 18
Types
There are two main types of MOSFETs. The Depletion-type MOSFET (DMOSFET) and the Enhancement-type MOSFET (E-MOSFET)
i)
Depletion-MOSFET
D- MOSFETs are the devices that are doped in a way that a channel exists even
with zero voltage from gate to source. To control the channel, a negative voltage is
applied to the gate (for n-channel), depleting the channel, which reduces the
current flow through the device. So, the depletion mode device is equivalent to a
normally closed switch (on), while the enhancement mode device is equivalent to a
normally open switch (off).
Due to their low noise figure in the Radio Frequency (RF) region and better gain,
these devices are often preferred to bi-polar devices in RF front-ends such as in
TV sets.
ii)
Enhancement-MOSFETs
In these MOSFETs, a voltage drop across the oxide induces a conducting channel
between the source and drain contacts via the field effect. The term "enhancement
mode" refers to the increase of conductivity with increase in oxide field that adds
carriers to the channel, also referred to as the inversion layer. The channel can
contain electrons (N-MOSFET) or holes (P-MOSFET), opposite in type to the
substrate, so N-MOS is made with a p-type substrate and P-MOS with an n-type
substrate. In the less common depletion mode MOSFET, described further later
on, the channel consists of carriers in a surface impurity layer of opposite type to
the substrate, and conductivity is decreased by application of a field that depletes
carriers from this surface layer.
A BJT is current control device. It requires continuous base current, which causes
loading on the microcontroller(that is giving gating signals). Therefore, this option is
not feasible.
MOSFETs are suitable switching elements for an inverter. They are much faster
switches than IGBTs and in many low power cases they are less expensive than
the IGBTs.
Page | 19
2.3.3.4 Filters
At times it is desirable to have circuits capable of selectively filtering one frequency
or range of frequencies out of a mix of different frequencies in a circuit. A circuit
designed to perform this frequency selection is called a filter circuit.
A practical application of filter circuits is in the conditioning of non-sinusoidal
voltage waveforms in power circuits. Some electronic devices are sensitive to the
presence of harmonics in the power supply voltage, and so require power
conditioning for proper operation. A distorted sine-wave voltage behaves like a
series of harmonic waveforms added to the fundamental frequency; we can
construct a filter circuit that only allows the fundamental waveform frequency to
pass through, blocking all (higher-frequency) harmonics.
Low-Pass Filters
A low-pass filter is a circuit offering easy passage to low-frequency signals and
difficult passage to high-frequency signals. There are two basic kinds of circuits
capable of accomplishing this objective, and many variations of each one:
LC Filter
An LC filter is a low-pass filter which consists of an inductor attached in parallel
with the capacitor and the load.L and C connected together act asan electrical
resonator.
Page | 20
2.3.3.5 Transformer
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled electrical conductors.Transformers are some of the
most efficient electrical 'machines', with some large units able to transfer 99.75% of
their input power to their output. Transformers come in a range of sizes from a
thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge
units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of national power
grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs is
wide.
Working
Page | 21
Page | 22
2.4.1 Advantages
There are many advantages of using PWM as
tooth voltage falls below the reference, it is switched off. This gives a square wave
output, which may have a constant or a variable duty cycle, depending upon the
nature of reference voltage. E.g. If the reference voltage is DC then the square
wave will have a constant duty cycle, whereas in case of sinusoidal reference
voltage, the square wave will have a varied duty cycle.
If the potentiometer is adjusted to give a high reference voltage, and the saw tooth
never reaches it, the output shall be zero. On the other hand, a low reference
voltage implies that the comparator is always on, hence giving full power, all the
time.
2.4.3 Application
Voltage regulation
PWM is used in efficient voltage regulators. By switching voltage to the load with
the appropriate duty cycle, the output will approximate a voltage at the desired
level. The switching noise is usually filtered with a filter.
In another method the output voltage is measured, continuously. When it is lower
than the desired voltage, the switch is turned on & when the output voltage is
above the desired voltage, the switch is turned off.
Power delivery
PWM can be used to reduce the total amount of power delivered to a load without
losses normally incurred when a power source is limited by resistive means. This is
because the average power delivered is proportional to the modulation duty cycle.
With a sufficiently high modulation rate, passive electronic filters can be used to
smooth the pulse train and recover an average analog waveform.
Page | 24
High frequency PWM power control systems are easily realizable with
semiconductor switches. The discrete on/off states of the modulation are used to
control the state of the switch which correspondingly controls the voltage across or
current through the load. The major advantage of this system is that the switches
are either off and not conducting any current, or on and have no voltage drop
across them. The product of the current and the voltage at any given time defines
the power dissipated by the switch, thus no power is dissipated by the switch.
Realistically, semiconductor switches such as MOSFETs or BJTs are non-ideal
switches, but high efficiency controllers can still be built.
2.5PROTECTION SYSTEM
Temperature controller
A temperature controller basically senses the temperature value, and if the
temperature increases beyond a particular set point, it turns on the cooling system
(e.g.) cooling fan to maintain the temperature and when the temperature goes
below that set point, the cooling systems turn off.
Page | 26
PART 2
Page | 27
CHAPTER 3
3.1. Overview
One of the biggest problems of renewable energy systems is the voltage
regulation. As the atmospheric conditions keep on changing, so does the output
voltage of these atmospheric dependent sources. To maintain a particular DC
output, DC regulators are used to regulate these unregulated voltages. DC
regulators not only regulate the voltages but also step-up or step-down the voltage
levels according to requirements.
In the case of our project, we have an 80 Watt Solar panel which gives output
voltages of 21.2 Volts in no load condition and about 17 Volts in load condition. We
are using this panel to charge a battery of 12V, 65Ah. Thus we have stepped down
these 17 volts into 12 volts by implementing a buck converter module, which not
only steps down the voltages but also steps up the current.
The buck converter module is divided into the following two parts
1) Pulse Width Modulation circuit.
2) Buck circuit.
These circuits are described in detail in the subsequent articles.
3.2.1 Working
Signal comes from pin 3 of 555 (50% duty cycle)output of pin 6 which is common
with pin 2 generates a triangular waveform. The RC filter connected to the pin6 of
Page | 28
the IC controls the of the square wave signal coming from pin 3. The square
wave is compared with the triangle wave to generate PWM. The transistor Q1
connected in common-emitter biased configuration to amplify the signal. This
signal is given to the buck circuit.
Circuit diagram of the PWM circuit is given below
3.2.2 Observations
The thing we observed in this circuit is that we can change the PWM duty cycle by
varying the variable resistor RV1 and achieve a PWM of desired duty cycle. If the
duty cycle is increased the charging also increases as the system is on for more
time. Likewise if the PWM is decreased, the charging decreases.
The output waveform obtained by this circuit is shown in the figure below
Page | 29
Page | 30
RBATTERY =10 m
F=8 KHz
T1= K.T
So, K=
T2= (1-K).T
For output voltages
Va=
K=
= K.Vs
)=
K= 0.69.. (i)
T2= 1-0.69 = 0.31sec, T1= 0 sec
Pulse Width=K= T2-T1= 0.31-0= 0.31
K= 31%
I=
I= 2A. (ii)
Vc=
VC=
Page | 33
CHAPTER 4
The switching module is an important module of the Hybrid energy system. It works
automatically and controls charging, inverting, switching and the comparing of
different voltages with thepre-defined reference voltages by using LM357 and a
relay. The working of the module is detailed in the following topic.
4.1 Working
Solar and wind energy systems areonly available when they are producing 12V at
their respective outputs. When in any source, the generated voltages are 12V, they
start charging the battery. Voltages are compared by using LM358 as a comparator
on which 6V are given through battery as a reference using voltage divider circuit.
At the negative input of IC, solar or wind generated voltages are given and
compared with the reference voltages. If the voltages exceed from 6V on the
negative input, the charging turns on. This is the case for both sources. If voltages
drop down from 6V, than charging automatically stops.
We also used a comparator to compare the voltages of the battery with 12V
external supply, if the voltages in the battery drop from 9V, the charging starts and
it automatically stop when the battery is fully charged.
External supply has been used to activate the relay either to use the system as
backup (UPS). When the utility electric supply is available, the relay turns on the
charging system and when the mains are off (utility electricity is not available), the
relay automatically switches to normally closed position and connects to the
inverter.
Given below is the circuit diagram of the relay module
Page | 34
D1
RL1
B1 SW1
LED-BIGY
G2R-14-DC12
12V
SW-SPDT
Q1
R1
BC547
22K
4.2 Calculations
Relay Coil Resistance=Rc= 400
Current through relay= 30mA
=313
Page | 35
Ic=BIb
Ic=Ie
Ib=30x10-3/313
Ib=96x10-6A. (i)
Rb=12-30x10-3x400)- 0.7/96x10-6
Rb=22kohm (ii)
Page | 36
CHAPTER 5
INVERTER MODULE
5.1 Overview
To convert the DC voltage into AC, inverters are used. A converted signal of any
desired voltage or frequency can be achieved by using appropriate transformers
and switching devices. The Alternating DC power (coming from the Bridge circuit)
is connected to a transformer through the center tap of the primary winding. This
alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer
produces AC in the secondary.
There are many types of inverters as discussed in the chapter 2 of this report.
Three of which are mainly used in house hold UPS systems. The square wave,
Modified-sine wave, and the Pure-sine wave inverter.
Originally we planned to use a pure-sine wave inverter with our Hybrid system. We
worked on it but we werent quite successful in achieving the desired output of
220V, then we worked on modified sine wave inverter in which we successfully
achieved the desired output. Thus, we have worked on both the sine wave and the
modified sine wave inverter. In this project and the details of both of these types
are given in the subsequent topics.
Speed: Not only are most AVRs capable of 20MHz. the PIC chips are at a
higher price (for example, PIC16F88) only run at 5 MHz with a 20 MHz
oscillator frequency. In addition, with the better addressing modes and
registers of the AVRs, most operation can be done in only one instruction,
where it often takes more than one instruction to do the same thing on a
PIC.
Peripherals: Many Atmel AVR micro controllers, like many Microchip PIC
micro controllers, have a built-in 10 bit ADC. Some have LCD or USB
drivers.
Fast PWM: AVR has a fast PWM port unlike PIC microcontroller.
Page | 38
Then in the next chunk of the code, we used timer0 (8-bit) which starts from
0 and peaks to 255 (it gives a saw tooth output).
The next part of the code shows that we have used the clock select bits as
pre-scalar.
Page | 39
The last part of the code is the most important part of pure sine wave
generator.
OCR0 is output compare register for timer 0 and it continuously compares timer0
values i.e. 0, 1, 2.......255, and for each value of timer the value from sine wave
table is computed then sample++increases the pointer of sine wave table to the
next i.e. the value at the second index of sine table and that is computed for the
output until samples equals to 255. Then we used the command sample = 0the
cycle is repeated again and again.
CODE:
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <avr/io.h>
#include <util/delay.h>
#include <avr/interrupt.h>
#include <avr/sleep.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>
Page | 40
void InitSinTable()
{
Page | 41
NAME DESCRIPTION
[SET to 1]
[SET to 0]
[SET to 0]
[SET to 0]
[SET to 1]
waveform to any of these devices, they start operating in the linear region, and
power loss occurs in devices operating in linear region. When we give a square
waveform to them, they operate on either saturation or cut-off regions thus having
minimum power loss.
We used IRF5305 and IRFP150 MOSFETs. These are high power MOSFETs with
maximum current rating of 31 Amp and 42 Amp respectively. IFR5305 is a
Pchannel MOSFET whereas IRFP150 is an N-channel MOSFET. Their datasheets
are given at the end of this report.
The circuit configuration of H-bridge is given below
Page | 44
(A)
(B)
FIGURE 5.3 (H-Bridge Conduction Modes)
Page | 45
5.2.3.2 Results
Due to the conduction of half part of the bridge at +ve half cycle and the other half
part of the bridge at ve half cycle, we obtain a square waveform of 24 V peak-peak at
the output.
In figure below is the Proteus simulation showing the waveform output of bridge
circuit during each conduction cycle.
5.3.3.3 Observations
In the H-bridge circuit we have observed that input signals frequency does not
change at the output that means the frequency remains un-altered. Only the power
of the signal increase in terms of current.
5.3.3.4 Problems
Initially we used all the MOSFETs of same type (i-e. n-channel MOSFETs). This
caused the shorting of the MOSFETs during the conduction mode. This
phenomenon is known as shooting over of the MOSFET. Despite the duration of
this shooting over was quite small, it caused loading on the MOSFETs. The
MOSFETs started heating up due to this, and eventually they burned out.
Page | 46
Another problem occurred while using the MOSFETs of same channel was that the
upper MOSFETs (M1 and M3) did not turn on properly. After studying, we learned
that they required 18V to turn on thus; we needed a MOSFET driver that was
IR2110. We worked on it but it did not working properly too, because according to
the formula for bootstrap capacitor given in datasheet, the driver must have given
18V output but it was not working so we had to search for an alternate.Then after
extended study we came to know that replacing the upper two n channel
MOSFETs with p channel MOSFET is the solution. We applied this technique and
it worked.
Using this technique also solved the problem of MOSFET shooting over by
inducing a dead time/delay in the MOSFET switching.
5.3.4 LC Filter
We have determined inductance of the inductor using LC resonant band stop filter
as LC meters were not available in the lab.
5.3.4.1 Working
The method to determine L or C is simple. Suppose we are required to determine
the inductance, then by above circuit,
V1=1Vrms square wave from signal generator.
R1= 500ohm
C1=10uf
L1=unknown
Page | 47
Rload= 1Kohm
V1 signal from function generator is set to 1Vrms using multi-meter.
At resonance frequency the LC combination will have very low impedance so it will
short out the signal and will drop across resistor R1 and prevents the signal to
reach the load.
Using this principle we have varied signal frequency from function generator and
we are detecting output voltage at load using multi-meter. At resonance frequency
multi-meter will show ideally zero volts.
So by using formula we have,
Fc=1/2pi*sqrt(LC)
L=1/(2*pi*f.)2 *C
5.3.4.2 Problems
First we designed an RC circuit but we observed that the Resistance R in the
circuit acts as a load and dissipates power. After studying, we decided to use an
LC filter.
The main problem with the LC filter was the designing of the inductor as the
inductor of desired value was not available in the market, thus we had to make it by
hand. LC meter was not available also thus we had to repeatedly calculate the
inductance value mathematically.
The output of the H-bridge is then fed into a low pass LC filter which filters the high
frequency components of 15 KHz and gives the 50 Hz sine output. This output is
then fed into a transformer which steps up this 12 Volts AC waveform into 220Volts
AC.
Page | 49
5.4.1 Explanation.
For a modified sine wave inverter we need two inverted square waves signal to
switch the MOSFETs. Two generate these signals we use HEF4047 multi-vibrator
IC. We use it in a-stable mode. It gives a buffered output so there is no need for
impedance matching between TTL based ICs and CMOS based ICs. In a-stable
mode it generates square wave of exactly 50% duty cycle at its pin 10 and gives its
inverted signal on pin 11. It also generates frequency double to that of pin 10 at pin
13. It can be done by using 0.2F capacitor and a 7.6K resistor as mentioned in
its datasheet to generate frequency of 500Hz at pin 13.
From pin 13 we give a signal to HCF4017 IC as a clock. HCF 4017 is a decade
counter with 12 outputs. It is used to generate a 50Hz signal with controlled delay
at both positive and negative edge. Pins 1, 5, 6, 9 and pins 2, 4, 7 are used as
output. All other outputs are grounded as CMOS ICs are very sensitive and even a
small stray signal can burn them out.
The output of HCF4047 is about 1v, which cannot be used to drive MOSFETs so
the signal is amplified by using BC-547 as an amplifier (connected in common
emitter biased configuration. This signal is again amplified and inverted. The signal
obtained is a controlled PWM which we now give at the MOSFET gates.
The block diagram of the modified sine wave inverter module is given below.
Page | 50
5.4.2 Working
We gave a PWM signal to the pair of MOSFET connected in a push pull
configuration. When M1 MOSFET is turned on by a high input (Q), the M2 MOSFET
turns off at that time because on its input we had given an inverted signal (Q) with
some delay. This delay is used so that one of the MOSFETs gets time to turn off
before second one turns on. In this mode, the current flows from source to
MOSFET M1 as shown in figure. When Q1 goes low Q becomes high and M2 turns
on, resulting in a current flowing from source as shown in diagram by I 2. Thus, we
get a bipolar high voltage output at the transformers secondary.
The 22k resistor from Gate to the source as shown in the diagram is important
because when the input signal goes to zero, the MOSFETs may not completely
turn off because of the capacitance between gate and source so this resistance
makes sure that signal is fully grounded.
The threshold voltage to turn on a MOSFET is approximately 4V. We are driving
MOSFETs with 12v signal so that MOSFETs is completely turned on otherwise it
will result in power dissipation.
5.4.3 Results
5.4.4Problems
In power inverter, shoot through current is a major problem and needs to be
solved. It is a short circuit current, and as described in the previous topic, occurs
Page | 51
when both MOSFETs are on. This happens for a very short time i.e. for some
Nano-seconds. But eventually it results in a short circuit current, which causes
loading and thus it may damage the MOSFETs.
This situation can be avoided by introducing a dead time between the two signals
both at rise and fall edge. If the dead time is increased too much, the output
voltages drop because MOSFETs are turned ON for a very short time.
Finally impedance matching is an important factor. Transformers output impedance
(Secondary) should be low so that minimum voltage drop occurs when we connect
any load to with it.
5.6.1 Calculations
The parameters and calculations of the transformer design are given below.
Iron losses in silicon core = 0.1 watt/sq.Inch
Width = 1.75
Length = 1.25
Thickness = 0.35-0.4mm
Cross-section area= Length x Width
Transformer Wattage = (cross-section area x 5.6)2
= (1.75 x 1.25 x 5.6)2
= (12.25)2 =150VA . (i)
Turn Ratio/volt = 6/cross-section area (for radio metal core)
= 2.74 V / turns . (ii)
Input wire gauge = 0.22mm
Diameter of wire = 0.028
Page | 52
Resistance/1000yards=38.99
Length/pound (yards) = 140.6 yards
Turns/ inch = 33.0 turns
Current in Amp calculation = 2400Amp/sq. inch
Primary turns= 24V/2.74
= 8.75 or 9 turns approx. .. (iii)
Secondary turns = 230/2.74
=84 turns. (iv)
Secondary voltage = 230 V
Secondary current = 1.53 A
Maximum current that can flow,
Primary voltage=24 V
Current I1=I2 (V2/V1)
I1 = (230 x 1.53)/24= 14.66A. (v)
Page | 53
5.7 RESULTS
Page | 54
CHAPTER 6
AUTOMATIC TEMPERATURE
CONTROLLER
LM 35 temperature sensor.
LM 358, LM 741 Operational-Amplifiers.
12v DC fan.
BC547 transistor.
The temperature is controlled by the help of a 12v DC fan which starts operating
when the temperature rises above 31C. Working and the design of this module
are detailed in subsequent topics, whereas the technical specifications of the
sensor and the Op-Amps are given below.
6.1. MAIN COMPONENTS USED
i)
OPERATION AMPLIFIERS
Page | 56
The LM741C of the LM741seried is identical to the LM741 and LM741A except
that, the LM741C has its performance guaranteed over a 0C to+70C temperature
range, instead of 55C to +125C.
6.4. WORKING
The LM 35 is a linear temperature sensing device whose output is 10mV/C. This
means that at 1C, 10 milli Volts are given at the output. As this output is very low,
thus we have amplified it by a factor of 10 by using LM 358 as a non-inverting
amplifier.
Page | 57
Rf = 100K
AndRi = 10.2 K
So, V = (1+
)x0.334
V = 3.655 Volts
Ie = (+1) xIb
Page | 58
Ib= (
So,
Ib = 206 A
Now,
Rb=
)
)
Rb = 22.3 k
For Collector-Emitter voltage,
Vce = Vcc - IeRe
Vce = 12-(65.6mA
Page | 59
12V
B1
TR
CV
VCC
GND
TH
DC
555
U1
10K
R1
12pF
C1
500k
RV1
10BQ015
D1
470
10BQ015
D2
BC547
Q1
100uF
20V
IRFZ44n
Q2
Id
1N4743A
10u
4700u
D1
C2
C1
470
R1
2N3055
Q1
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
WIND TURBINE
C2
VIN
VG
270uH
Volts
+88.8
2200uF
C1
Volts
+88.8
IOUT
100k
5
RV2(3)
6
U1:B(-IP)
3
RV1(3)
2
RV3(3)
1N751A
D1
10k
R1
LM358
U1:A
LM358
U1:B
LM358
U1:A
22K
R2
22K
R1
BC547
Q2
BC547
Q1
22k
R2
G2R-14-DC12
wind charging relay
RL2
LED-BIBY
D2
LED-BIBY
D1
G2R-14-DC12
solar charging relay
RL1
BC547
Q1
9V
RL1
22K
1
R3
LED-BIBY
BC547
Q3
D3
G2R-14-DC12
total charging control
RL3
U2
3 LM35
VOUT
31.0
R2
100K
R1
10.2K
LM358
U1:A
RV1
10k
2
LM741
U3
22K
R3
LM358
U2:A
1N4007
D1
BUZZER
BUZ1
100k
wind varaying
RV4
RV2
100k
RV1
solar varaying
RV3
12V
Source Battry
B3
55%
10k
RV1
BUZZER CIRCUIT
8
4
L1
0%
IL
26%
24%
VS
9%
8
4
8
4
VD
8
4
BUCK CONVERTER
U3(+IP)
IRF5305
78%
Q1
U1:A(OP)
R2
7
1
4
5
8
4
1k
R3(1)
R3
BC547
Q1
U2:A(-IP)
U2:A(+IP)
12V
B2
+88.8
PWM CONTROLLER
kRPM
100k
RV6
SW-SPDT
SW1
G2R-14-DC12
Charging/Inverter
RL4
12V
B4
100k
RV5
12v
B1
0.1u
C1
TR
CV
8
VCC
GND
1
SOLAR PANEL
TH
DC
555
U2
87%
71%
82%
FIGURE 6.4
(Complete
Circuit Layout of
the Project)
33%
Page | 60
100K
RV1
2k2
R2
15
14
13
74HC4017
MR
CLK
E
U1
CO
Q0
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Q8
Q9
12
3
2
4
7
10
1
5
6
9
11
BC547
Q2
BC547
Q1
470
R5
R1
470Ohm
BC547
Q5
470Ohm
R4
470Ohm
R6
12V
B2
BC547
Q7
470
R7
470
R3
22k
R8
22k
R9
IRFP150N
Q10
IRFP150N
Q9
TRAN-2P3S
TR1
220V
L1
+88.8
AC Volts
CHAPTER 7
Page | 61
Future Recommendations
Due to lack of time and funds, this project is modeled as a basic concept of
the hybrid renewable energy system. Being a basic system, much work
needs to be done to improve this project.
Our recommendationsinclude that the power rating of the system should be
increased. Instead of a single battery, a battery bank should be used to
increase the energy storage capacity of the system.
Instead of buck regulator, buck-boost regulator should be used. Transformer
should be designed carefully as problems with the impedance mismatching
occur, resulting in low efficiency.
A solar tracking system should be attached with the solar panels so that the
efficiency of the source increases.
Sarosh Mirza
Page | 62
CHAPTER 8
REFERENCES
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
Page | 63
CHAPTER 9
APPENDIX
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