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CS 414 - Weed Science

Section 2
Basic Weed Biology
I. Weed Categorization
A. According to habitat
1. Terrestrial: plants that live on land
2. Aquatic: plants that live in or around water
B. According to life cycle
1. Herbaceous plants: plants with non-woody aerial stems that usually die down each year
a. Annuals: complete life cycle in one growing season; live for only one season.
Reproduce by seed.
Summer annuals: complete life cycle during period from spring to fall. Seed
germinate in spring, plants flower and produce seed in mid- to late summer, and die in
the fall. Examples: large crabgrass, common cocklebur.
Winter annuals: complete life cycle during period from fall to spring. Seed germinate
in fall or throughout winter months, plants flower and produce seed in mid- to late
spring, and die in early summer. Examples: common chickweed, henbit.
b. Biennials: require two growing seasons to complete life cycle. Seed germinate in
spring, summer, or fall of the first year and grow vegetatively, forming a rosette
during the first season. The plants overwinter as a basal rosette of leaves with a thick
storage root. After vernalization (exposure to a period of cold), the plants flower and
produce seed in the summer of the second year and die that fall. Examples: wild
carrot, common mullein, common eveningprimrose. Reproduce by seed.
Tillage or other forms of disturbance interrupt the life cycle of biennials. Biennial
weeds are seldom a problem in annually tilled environments.
c. Perennials: plants that produce vegetative structures that allow them to live for more
than two years without having to reproduce from seed (although they can produce
seed).

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Simple perennials: overwinter by means of a vegetative structure, such as a perennial

root with a crown, but reproduce new plants almost entirely by seed. Do not spread by
means of vegetative structures. Examples: dandelion, curly dock, buckhorn plantain.
Creeping perennials: can overwinter and produce new plants from vegetative
reproductive structures. Most can also reproduce from seed. Examples: johnsongrass,
purple and yellow nutsedge, common bermudagrass.
2. Woody plants: plants with woody aerial stems that persist from year to year. All of
these are perennials. Includes trees and woody shrubs such as multiflora rose. Woody
perennials often reproduce by seed, but they may also regenerate from buds and
spread by means of root sprouts.
C. According to morphology
Seed-producing plants (phylum = Spermatophytes) comprised of two classes, the
Angiosperms and the Gymnosperms. Angiosperms are plants whose seed are borne
within a mature ovary (fruit). Most weeds are Angiosperms. Gymnosperms are plants
whose seed are not borne in an ovary. Conifers are examples of Gymnosperms.
The Angiosperms are further divided into two subclasses: Monocotyledoneae (monocots)
and Dicotyledoneae (dicots).
1. Monocots: plants whose seedlings bear only one cotyledon (seed leaf).
Typified by parallel leaf venation. Includes grasses (Gramineae)and sedges
(Cyperaceae). Other monocot families which contain problem weeds include
Juncaceae (rush family), Liliaceae (lily family), Commelinaceae (spiderwort family),
Dioscoreaceae (yam family), Typhaceae (cattail family), Najadaceae (pondweed
family), Lemnaceae (duckweed family), Alismaceae (water plantain family), and
Pontederiaceae (pickerel-weed family).
Grasses vs Sedges:
Grasses: Leaves usually have a ligule (barnyardgrass is a major exception) and
sometimes an auricle. Leaf sheath usually split around the stem. Stem is either
rounded or flattened in cross section with hollow internodes.
Sedges: Leaves lack ligules and auricles. Sheath is continuous around the stem. Stem
is triangular in cross section with solid internodes.

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2. Dicots: plants whose seedlings bear two cotyledons. Typified by net-like leaf
venation. Commonly called broadleaves. Examples: common cocklebur, sicklepod,
velvetleaf, chickweed, white clover.
D. According to human (anthropocentric) values
1. Societal value: Some weeds are allowed to persist in locations because of aesthetic or
other values. For example, in many developing nations, some weeds are not removed
because they have medicinal, ritual, or food value (i.e., good weeds)
2. Regulatory concern: Some weeds and seeds are prohibited by state or federal
regulations due to risk of substantial economic or human injury. For example, it is
illegal to transport some non-native weeds (such as tropical soda apple, witchweed,
and tropical spiderwort) in North Carolina even though they are known to exist, or
have existed, in the state.

E. Invasive weeds
An invasive species (plant, animal, microbe, etc.) is defined as an exotic (or alien) species
that is non-native to the ecosystem under consideration and whose introduction causes, or
is likely to cause, economic or environmental harm or harm to human health. Some
professional groups do not differentiate between non-native species that cause economic
or environmental harm in agricultural and non-agricultural ecosystems. Most professional
groups, however, take a more narrow focus and limit invasive species to those that invade
only wildland or natural areas.
An organism is considered exotic (alien, foreign, non-indigenous, non-native) when it has
been introduced by humans to a location(s) outside its native range. This designation
applies to a species introduced from another continent, another ecosystem, and even
another habitat within an ecosystem.
Invasive species may negatively impact native species in any number of ways, including
eating them, competing with them, interbreeding with them, or introducing pathogens and
parasites that sicken or kill them. Invasive species affect nearly all habitats on Earth,
ranging from wilderness areas, to croplands, rangelands, and forests, as well as freshwater
and marine ecosystems. Invasive species can be thought of as biological pollutants, with
potentially severe impacts on the ecosystems they inhabit. Like other pollutants, they may
change the species composition of the environments they inhabit or impact the normal
functioning of the ecosystem by altering fire regimes, hydrology, nutrient cycling and
productivity. Unlike most other pollutants, the effects of biological invaders are likely to
increase through time as existing populations expand, even if new introductions are halted.

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An invasive plant (defined by Presidential Executive Order 13112, signed in 1999) is any
alien species, including its seeds, spores, or other biological material capable of
propagating that species, that is not native to its environment, and whose introduction,
through intentional or unintentional escape, release, dissemination, or placement of a
species into an ecosystem as a result of human activity, does or is likely to cause economic
or environmental harm or harm to human health.
European settlers brought hundreds of plants to North America from their home lands for
use as food and medicine, and for ornamental, sentimental, and other purposes.
Introductions of exotic plants continue today and are increasing due to a large and everexpanding human population, increased international travel and trade, and other factors.
Some professional groups estimate there are 1,050 plant species in natural areas in the
United States. Some invasive species were planted intentionally for erosion control,
livestock grazing, wildlife habitat enhancement, and ornamental purposes. Others have
escaped from arboretums, botanical gardens, ornamental plantings, water gardens, etc..
Not all non-native plants are invasive; corn and soybean would be examples of introduced
plants that are considered beneficial and non-invasive.
The most important aspect of an alien plant is how it responds to a new environment. An
invasive species is one that spreads and establishes over large areas, and persists.
Invasiveness may be characterized and enhanced by robust vegetative growth, high
reproductive rate, abundant seed production, high seed germination rate, and longevity.
Invasive weeds can be problems because of the following:
- Destroy wildlife habitat
- Reduce opportunities for hunting, fishing, and other recreational activities
- Displace threatened or endangered species
- Reduce plant and animal diversity because of weed monocultures
- Disrupt waterfowl and neo-tropical migratory bird flight patterns and nesting
habitats
- Cost millions of dollars in treatment and loss of productivity
Examples of invasive plants:
English ivy
Sericea lespedeza
Johnsongrass
Hydrilla

Ailanthus (tree of heaven)

Japanses stiltgrass
Tropical soda apple
Giant salvinia

Beach vitex
Japanese knotweed
Benghal dayflower
Kudzu

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II. Methods of Weed Propagation (reproduction)

A. Sexual reproduction: requires pollination of a flower, leading to seed production. Weeds
are very prolific seed producers (common annual weeds may produce from 5,000 to over
500,000 seed per plant). This contributes to weediness of species and difficulty of
control. Annual and biennial weeds and simple perennials reproduce sexually. Creeping
perennials may reproduce sexually or asexually.
B. Asexual reproduction: production of new plants from vegetative reproductive structures.
Does not require flowers and pollination, seed are not produced. Process confined to
creeping perennials. Also called vegetative reproduction. Creeping perennial have
various vegetative organs for reproduction. See definitions below.
1. Rhizome: A horizontal, underground stem which can produce adventitious roots and
shoots (i.e., new plants) at the nodes. A rhizome can be distinguished from a root
because rhizomes have nodes, internodes, and scale leaves (rudimentary leaves).
Roots do not have nodes or leaves. Johnsongrass is example.
2. Stolon: An above-ground stem that grows flat on the ground and can produce
adventitious roots and shoots (i.e., new plants) at the nodes. Bermudagrass is
example.
3. Tuber: Enlarged terminal portions of rhizomes. Possess extensive storage tissue and
axillary buds. Yellow nutsedge is example.
4. Bulb: Specialized underground storage organ consisting of fleshy leaves with a short
stem at the base. Food storage in the leaves. Wild garlic is example.
5. Creeping roots: Horizontal roots modified for food storage and vegetative
reproduction (can give rise to shoots). Often deep in the soil. Carolina horsenettle is
example.

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III. Methods of Weed Dissemination (spread):

By knowing how weeds are disseminated, one may be able to take steps to reduce or avoid
further spread.
A. Seed dispersal: seed are generally more important in long-distance spread of weeds than
are vegetative reproductive structures.
1. Natural dispersal:
a. Wind
i. Light seed can become wind-borne. Example horseweed.
ii. Seed can be blown along over soil surface or on top of crusted snow. Example
is common ragweed.
iii. Mature plant may be moved by wind, with seed being dispersed as the plant is
moved. Examples are tumbling pigweed and Russian thistle.
iv. Some species have special adaptations on seed to aid in wind dispersal, such as
wings (example is milkweed) or parachutes (example is dandelion).
b. Water: Seeds can be moved in streams and drainage canals. Seed deposited
downstream by flooding or irrigation. Seed can also be moved by soil erosion.
c. Animals
i. Mucilaginous seed coats: some weed seed have sticky seed coverings, like
glue. Seed will stick to animals coat and fall off later. Example is
plantains.
ii. Hooks and barbs: some species have hooks or barbs on seed that stick to
animals coat. Example is cocklebur.
iii. Digestive tract: animals such as cows and birds eat seed, and some seed remain
viable as they pass through digestive tract. Seed then deposited in excrement.
d. Forceful dehiscence: In some species, seed pod bursts open suddenly and seed are
shot out 20 feet or more. Example is Oxalis. This method does not distribute
seed as far as other natural dispersal methods.
2. Artificial dispersal: basically a result of mans activities
a. Machinery: weed seed can be moved on equipment

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b. Crop seed: very common method of spread. Many of our common weeds were
brought to this country from Europe and elsewhere as seed contaminants with our
colonial and pioneer ancestors. Weed seeds that mature near the time of crop
harvest can be included in the harvested grain. Weed seeds that mimic the crop in
shape, color, or size are more difficult to separate from the crop seed and might be
planted along with the crop seed. Seed laws and seed certification standards cover
presence of weed seed in addition to things such as percent germination and
varietal purity. Seed laws discussed below.

c. Livestock feed, hay and straw, manure

d. Other methods related to mans activities, such as moving soil for construction and
landscaping, use of weedy plants in floral arrangements or water gardens,
movement of aquatic weeds on boat propellers, etc.
Seed Laws:
The Federal Seed Act of 1939 defines a noxious weed as "any weed or plant
that is so declared by an authoritative group, with the legal power to make
such a declaration, to be harmful or possess noxious characteristics." This
act regulates interstate and foreign commerce in seeds. Its purpose is to
protect purchasers from mislabeled or contaminated crop seed and is
administered by the USDA.
The Federal Seed Act requires, in part, that the following information be
provided on seed labels in interstate commerce:
1. Percentage of pure seed of the named crop.
2. Percentage of other crop seeds.
3. Percentage of weed seeds.
4. The names of noxious weed seeds present and the rate of their
occurrence

In 1974, the Federal Noxious Weed Act (Public Law 93-629) was enacted to
control the spread of noxious weeds. The Act gave the Secretary of
Agriculture the authority to designate plants as noxious weeds by regulation,
and the movement of all such weeds in interstate or foreign commerce was
prohibited except under permit.

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The Federal Noxious Weed Act defines a noxious weed as any living stage
(including, but not limited to, seeds and reproductive parts) of any parasitic
or other plant, of a kind or subdivision of a kind, which of foreign origin, is
new or not widely prevalent in the United States, and can directly or
indirectly injure crops, other useful plants, livestock, poultry, or other
interests of agriculture, including irrigation, or navigation, or the fish, or
wildlife resources of the United States, or the public health.
The Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974 was superceded by the Plant
Protection Act of 2000. This law prohibited importation, exportation, or
movement in interstate commerce of any plant pest except by permit;
included movement in mail. The Plant Protection Act of 2000 also gave the
Secretary of Agriculture the authority to list noxious weeds that are
prohibited or restricted from entering the United States or subject to
restrictions on interstate movement. And, it gave the Secretary of
Agriculture the authority to seize, quarantine, or destroy any plant, plant
pest, noxious weed, etc., being moved into or through the United States.
The North Carolina Seed Law of 1963: The purpose is to regulate labeling,
possessing for sale, sale and offering or exposing for sale or otherwise
providing for planting purposes of agricultural seeds, vegetable seeds and
screenings; to prevent misrepresentation thereof.
The North Carolina Seed Law requires, in part, that the following
information be provided on seed labels for seed offered for sale within the
state:
1. Commonly accepted name of the kind and variety of seed
2. Percentage by weight of inert matter
3. Percentage by weight of agricultural seeds other than those named on
label
4. Percentage by weight of all weed seeds, including noxious weed seeds
5. Percentage of germination, exclusive of hard seed, for the named
agricultural seed
6. Percentage of hard seed, if present
7. Name and number per pound of each kind of restricted noxious weed
seed present

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The North Carolina Seed Law further states that it is unlawful to transport or
offer for sale agricultural seeds containing:
1.
2.
3.

prohibited noxious weed seeds

restricted noxious weed seeds, except as allowed by the law
weed seeds in excess of 2% by weight unless otherwise prohibited by
other parts of the Law

The North Carolina Seed Law lists the following as prohibited noxious
weeds:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Balloonvine, Cardiospermum halicacabum L.

Showy crotalaria, Crotalaria spectobilis Roth
Smooth crotalaria, Crotalaria pallida Ait.
Itchgrass, Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W. Clayton
Jimsonweed_Datura stramonium L.
Johnsongrass, Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.
Serrated tussock, Nassella trichotoma (Nees) Hack.
Witchweed, Striga asiatica (L.) Ktze.

No seed of prohibited noxious weeds can be present in seed offered for sale
in NC.

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The North Carolina Seed Law lists the following as restricted noxious
weeds, along with the allowable limitations (27 species):
Common name

Latin binomial

Limit/lb of seed

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Anoda, spurred
Bermudagrass
Bindweed, field
Bindweed, hedge
Cockle, corn
Cornflower
Dock, broadleaf
Dock, curly
Dodder
Foxtail, giant
Garlic, wild

Horsenettle
Morningglory
Mustard, wild et al.
Nutsedge, purple
Nutsedge, yellow
Onion, wild

Panicum, Texas
Plantain, bracted
Plantain, buckhorn
Quackgrass
Radish, wild
Sandbur
Sicklepod
Thistle, blessed
Thistle, canada
Velvetleaf

Anoda cristata (L.)Schlecht.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Convolvulus arvensis L.
Calystegia sepium (L.) R.Br.
Agrostemma githago L.
Centaurea cyanus L.
Rumex obtusifolius L.
Rumex crispus L.
Cuscuta spp.
Setaria faberi Herrm.
Allium spp.
Small grains or larger seeds
Grasses and small seeded legumes
Solanum carolinense L.
Ipomoea spp.
Brassica spp.

4 seeds
27 seeds
27 seeds
27 seeds
10 seeds
27 seeds
54 seeds
54 seeds
54 seeds
54 seeds

Cyperus rotundus L.
Cyperus esculentus L.
Allium spp.
Small grains or larger seeds
Grasses and small seeded legumes
Panicum texanum Buckl.
Plantago aristata Michx.
Plantago lanceolata L.
Elytrigia repens (L.) Nevski
Raphanus raphanistrum L.
Cenchrus spp.
Cassia obtusifolia L.
Cnicus benedictus L.
Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.
Abutilon theophrasti Medicus

2 tubers or 27 seeds
2 tubers or 27 seeds

4 bulblets
27 bulblets
54 seeds
8 seeds
54 seeds

4 bulblets
27 bulblets
27 seeds
54 seeds
54 seeds
54 seeds
12 seeds
4 seeds
4 seeds
4 seeds
27 seeds
4 seeds

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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With restricted noxious weeds, some seed are allowed in certified crop seed,
but the amount depends upon the certification standards for the particular
crop. See below for NC certification standards for soybeans.
Certification Standards for Soybeans - NC
Certified 1

Certified 2

Pure seed (min)

98%

96%

Inert matter (max)

2%

4%

Weed seeds1 (max)

0.02%

0.05%

Restricted noxious weeds (max)

none

1 seed/lb

Other crop seed (max)

other kinds
other varieties

3 seed/lb2
0.4%

5 seed/lb3
0.4%

Germination (min)

80%

70%

Shall not exceed 10/lb.

Prohibits corn and cowpea.
3
Permit one corn and one cowpea per lb.
2

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B. Dispersal of Asexual Reproductive Structures

1. Natural dispersal: usually short distance as compared to seed dispersal. Results from
encroachment or creeping of weed as it grows and produces additional vegetative
reproductive structures.
a. a single yellow nutsedge plant can produce about 150 tubers and infest an area
about 6 feet in diameter in one year.
b. a single johnsongrass plant can produce over 200 feet of rhizomes per year,
infesting an area 10-12 feet in diameter
2. Artificial dispersal: related to mans activities. Can be short or long distance.
Examples include the following:
a. dragging bermudagrass stolons on tillage equipment
b. movement in soil for construction, landscaping, roadside maintenance
c. movement in nursery stock or sod
V. Seed Germination and Dormancy
A. Germination: defined as the emergence and development, from the seed embryo, of those
essential structures capable of producing a normal plant under favorable conditions.
Germination is dependent upon favorable conditions internal and external to the seed.
1. External factors governing germination
a. Water: First step in germination is imbibition of water. Until a critical content of
water is reached, germination will not proceed.
b. Oxygen: Oxygen is essential for respiratory reactions (which are part of
germination). There is less oxygen deeper in the soil.
c. Temperature: There is a minimum, a maximum, and an optimum temperature for
germination. Different species of weeds (and crops) have different temperature
requirements for germination. Temperature requirements explain the phenomenon
of periodicity of germination.

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d. Light: Some weed species require light for germination. Examples include
pigweed, lambsquarters, and Virginia pepperweed. Tiny seed often have a light
requirement for germination; seed must be on or near surface before germination
will occur. Tillage may allow enough light to contact the seed to stimulate
germination. Light response controlled by the phytochrome system.
e. Chemical germination stimulate from host plant: Parasitic weeds such as
witchweed and dodder have this requirement. It is a protective mechanism to keep
seed from germinating when no host plant is present.
f. Quiesence: an inactive state in which the seed is capable of germination but does
not germinate because environmental conditions are not favorable. It is a survival
mechanism to ensure seed germinate only when conditions are favorable for the
plant to grow. Also called enforced dormancy.
B. Dormancy: an inactive state in which seed will not germinate even though environmental
conditions are favorable. Due to factors internal to the seed. Dormancy is critical to
survival of the species; dormancy delays germination until conditions are favorable for
growth. Ensures a reservoir of ungerminated but viable seed for later seasons. Several
mechanisms can cause dormancy.
1. Impermeable seed coat: seed coat will not allow water or oxygen to enter the seed;
hence, germination can not proceed. Example: velvetleaf.
2. Hard seed coat: seed coast is permeable to water but too strong to be broken by the
force of the swelling seed. Seed coat thus restricts imbibition of enough water for
germination to proceed. Example: pigweed.
Dormancy due to impermeable or hard seed coats can be overcome by removing or
damaging the seed coat. Abrasion from tillage and attach by soil microorganisms can
break this type of dormancy. Alternate wetting and drying will also break dormancy
due to hard seed coats.
3. Immature embryo: seed is shed before the embryo is fully developed. Seed will
remain dormant while the embryo slowly completes its development. Example is
smartweed.
4. Hormonal imbalance: Before germination can proceed, a critical level of
germination-promoting hormones must be present; level of germination-inhibiting
hormones must decrease below some critical level.

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Seed of some species (such as many annual grasses) have an after-ripening requirement.
The seed are shed after the embryo is fully formed, but embryo needs additional time to
complete physiological development. Probably associated with formation of germinationpromoting hormones.
Germination inhibitors (hormones) may be present which inhibit germination. These
inhibitors must be leached out of the seed before germination can proceed.
C. Results of Dormancy
1. Beales study: Buried seed of 20 weed species, then dug up at intervals. After 40
years, some seed of redroot pigweed, prostrate pigweed, common ragweed, black
mustard, Virginia pepperweed, evening primrose, broadleaf plantain, purslane, and
curly dock were viable. After 80 years, seed of curly dock, evening primrose, and
common mullein were still viable.
2. Duvels study: Buried seed of 101 weed species, then dug up at intervals.
Years after burial

Number of species with viable seed

71

68

10

68

20

57

30

44

38

36

Species with viable seed after 38 years of burial:

Species

% germination

Jimsonweed

91

Common mullein

48

Velvetleaf

38

Lambsquarters

Green foxtail

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3. Implications of dormancy: Longevity in burial studies is enhanced due to deep burial

where oxygen supply is limited and lack of light or soil disturbance. If brought to
surface and environmental conditions are favorable, many of the seed would germinate
sooner. Repeated tillage for several years without reinfestation will reduce weed seed
population in soil. However, weeds produce many seed and it is extremely difficult to
completely avoid reinfestation. Conclusion: allowing weeds to go to seed increases
potential problems for many years to come.