GPS, Manets 2

GPS and Inter Vehicular communications
Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

Department of Information & Communication Technology ,MIT Manipal
Application
1.User wants to get a taxi from a Taxi service provider It is better

and cost effective if free taxi closest to theuser is sent . How can
this software solution be developed ?
2. Geocasting?
3.How can the aerial distance covered by a vehicle is

computed?
4. How do you compute the speed of a Vehicle ?

Global Navigation Satellite System
A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a

global navigation satellite system or GNSS.
As of April 2013, only the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning

System (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS are global operational
GNSSs.
Other planned GNSS are Galileo(EU), Beidou(China) and

GAGAN(India)
Applications of GNSS
Location-Based Services , Aviation, Maritime, Rail,

Assignment: Location Based Services
FourSquare - Users ”Check in” at a certain location, enabling

social networking, Finding points of Interest and
recommending places
Wikitude - Augmented reality application, adding information

to Camera view on points of interest, tourist information
Find Me Maybe – Sends geo-localised SMS to Facebook and

Twitter informing contacts of the user’s situation

Location –based Services
Applications: Point of Interest search, person

Augmented Reality and object tracking, Emergency caller location,
Indoor positioning Location based gaming, sport and Entertainment,
Weather information and news
775000 in App Application stores:

store
700,000 in Android Apple App store, Amazon App store
40% use the Windows phone store, Google Play,
location information
Integration of Devices: smartphones,

position ing into
devices such as Tablets, Digital Cameras,
Cameras, Watches, fitness and tracking
and Binoculars Devices, Binoculars
Technology::
Cell ID, WI-FI,GNSS, INS

GNSS Market Report
Aim at a glance

Introduction
GPS ( Global Positioning System )
First satellite - 22nd February 1978, and there are currently 28 operational
satellites
Two values can be determined any where on Earth
One’s exact location (longitude, latitude and height co-ordinates)
The precise time (Universal Time Coordinated, UTC)
Development of the GPS system

provide users with the capability of determining position,
speed and time
continuous, global, 3-dimensional positioning capability.
Offer potential service to develop applications for civilian use.
Full description is : NAVigation System with Timing And Ranging

Global Positioning System, NAVSTAR-GPS
Building block / Basic principle

Basic structure
28 satellites inclined at 55° to the equator on 6
different orbits.
Takes 11 hours and 58 minutes to orbits the

earth.
Launched at a height of 20,180 km .
Each satellite has up to four atomic clocks on

board.
Losing a maximum of one second every 30,000

to1 million years.
They send exact position & clock signals to

earth at 1575.42MHz. with the speed of light
(300,000 km/s) Therefore require approx.67.3ms
to reach a position on the Earth’s surface under
it.
compare the arrival time of the satellite

signal with the on board clock time the moment
the signal was emitted. Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV
Determining transit time

Determining position on a plane
If the position above the satellites is excluded, the location of the receiver is at
the exact point where the two circles intersect beneath the satellites.
Two satellites are sufficient to determine a position on the X/Y plane.
Position in real environment
space consists of an extra dimension

(height Z), an additional third satellite
must be available to determine the true
position.
The position sought is at the point
where all three surfaces of the spheres
intersect as shown in the figure.
Assumed that the terrestrial clock and
the atomic clocks on board the
satellites are synchronised.

First step in analyzing
Need for synchronised clock.
The transit time is out by just 1μs this produces a positional error of
300m.
Mathematics need 4 equations for 4 unknowns :

longitude (X)
latitude (Y)
height (Z)
time error (Δt)
Therefore follows that in three-dimensional space four satellites are

needed to determine a position.

GPS, THE TECHNOLOGY
Divided into three

segments to reduce
the complexity
space segment.
control segment.
user segment.

Space segment

Orientation of satellites

Satellite signals
The following information (navigation message) is transmitted by the
satellite at a rate of 50 bits per second:
Satellite time and synchronisation signals.

Precise orbital data (ephemeris).
Time correction information to determine the exact satellite time
Approximate orbital data for all satellites (almanac).
Correction signals to calculate signal transit time.
Data on the ionosphere.
Information about satellite health.
The time required to transmit all this information is 12.5 minutes.
The minimum amount of power received must not fall below -160dBW
(max value is 14.9dB)
L1 carrier transmission power must be 21.9W

Generating the satellite signal
The following time pulses and frequencies required for day-to day operation
are derived from the resonant frequency of one of the four atomic clocks
The 50Hz data pulse.

The C/A code pulse (Coarse/Acquisition code, PRN-Code, coarse reception
code at a frequency of 1023 MHz), which modulates the data using an
exclusive-or . (this spreads the data over a 1MHz (bandwidth)
The frequency of the civil L1 carrier (1575.42MHz)
PRN code serves as unique identifier is continually repeated and serves two
purposes with regard to the receiver:
Identification.
Signal transit time measurement.

Detailed block system

Control segment
Five monitor stations equipped with atomic clocks that are spread around
the globe in the vicinity of the equator.
Three ground control stations that transmit information to the satellites.
The most important tasks of the control segment are:
Observing the movement of the satellites and computing orbital data

(ephemeris)
Monitoring the satellite clocks and predicting their behaviour
Synchronising on board satellite time
Relaying precise orbital data received from satellites in communication
Relaying the approximate orbital data of all satellites (almanac)
Relaying further information, including satellite health, clock errors etc.

User segment
The signals transmitted by the satellites take approx. 67 milliseconds to

reach a receiver.
Synchronising the signals generated in the receiver with those from the
satellites, the four satellite signal time shifts Δt are measured as a timing
mark.

The GPS Navigation Message
The navigation message is a continuous stream of

data transmitted at 50 bits per second.
The navigation message is needed to calculate the

current position of the satellite and to determine signal
transit time.

Navigation Message
The navigation message is a bit stream of ones and

zeros with a data rate of 50Hz.
Message is divided into frames.
Entire message is 25 frames.

Each frame has 1500 bits = 30 seconds.

Navigation Frame
Each frame has a 5 sub frames.

First 3 sub frames contain local data.
Last 2 subframes contain system data.

Subframe Data

Navigation Subframe
First 3 subframes repeat every 30 seconds.
>Ephemeris and clock corrections.
Last 2 subframes repeat every 12.5 minutes.

>Almanac and Ionospheric data.
Each subframe contains 10 words.

>Starts with preamble (1000 1011),ends with a 0.
Each word contains 30bits=600ms

>24 data bits and 6 parity bits.
>Parity bits are the Hamming code for the word.

Subframe Data
All subframes start with the TLM and HOW .

First word is the TeLeMetry word (TLM).
>TLM contains an 8 bit preamble (1000 1011).
Second word is Hand Over Word (HOW).
>HOW contains 17 bit Time of Week (TOW).
>TOW is synchronized to beginning of next
subframe.
>Contains ID of the subframe.

Z-count / GPS Time
GPS time begins midnight between January 5 and 6,

1980.
The number of X1 epochs (1.5s) is a 29 bit number
called Z-count.
19 LSBs are the TOW-counts
10 MSBs are the GPS week number (modulo 1024)
Transmitted Z-count is truncated to 17 LSB

(Cont…)
First subframe contains Satellite clock correction terms

and GPS Week number.
Frames two and three contain precise ephemeris data.
Frame four contains Ionospheric and UTC data as well
as almanac for SVs 25-32.
Frame five contains almanac for SVs 1-24 and
almanac reference time.

Structure of the navigation message

Ephemeris and Almanac
Almanac data is course orbital parameters for all

SVs. Each SV broadcasts Almanac data for ALL SVs.
This Almanac data is not very precise and is
considered valid for up to several months.
Ephemeris data by comparison is very precise orbital
and clock correction for each SV and is necessary for
precise positioning. EACH SV broadcasts ONLY its
own Ephemeris data. This data is only considered valid
for about 30 minutes. The Ephemeris data is broadcast
by each SV every 30 seconds.

Ephemeris and Almanac
Comparison between Ephemeris and Almanac Data

PRN Codes
PRN = Pseudo Random Noise

Codes have random noise characteristics but are precisely defined.
A sequence of zeros and ones, each zero or one referred to as a

“chip”.
Called a chip because they carry no data.
Selected from a set of Gold Codes.

Gold codes use 2 generator polynomials.
Three types are used by GPS

C/A, P and Y

PRN CODE GENERATION

First 100 Bits of PRN1 and PRN22

Code Correlation
Correlation value
The number of bits between two codes that have the same value.
Autocorrelation
Correspondence between a code and a phase shifted replica of
itself.
Cross Correlation
Correspondence between a code and a phase shifted version of
another code (of the same length).

PRN Code Correlation

PRN Code Properties
High Autocorrelation value only at a phase shift of

zero.
Minimal Cross Correlation to other PRN codes, noise

and interferers.
Allows all satellites to transmit at the same frequency.
PRN Codes carry the navigation message and are

used for acquisition, tracking and ranging.

C/A Code
C/A Code (Coarse Acquisition).

Uses 2 10-bit generator polynomials.
1023 bits long.
1 ms duration.
Clock rate of 1.023MHz.
Repeats indefinitely.
Also referred to as Civil Access code.
Only code needed for commercial receivers.

P-Code
PRN codes used by the military.
Uses different generator polynomials.
15,345,037 bits long.
Has a duration of 7 days.
Clock rate of 10.23MHz
Y-Code
Replaces P-Code when anti-spoofing is enabled (encrypted).
Not necessary for positioning

Signal Structure
L1 carrier
1575.42 MHz, ~19 cm wavelength
Modulated by both the C/A and P(Y) codes.
P(Y) code is 90 degrees out of phase from the C/A code.
L2 carrier
1227.60 MHz, ~24 cm wavelength
Modulated by the P(Y) code only
Both carriers are centered in 20.46 MHz wide

protected band

Signal Composition
Navigation message
Bit stream with data rate of 50bps.
C/A code
Bit stream with a data rate of 1.023 mega chips per second.
L1 Carrier
Sine wave with a frequency of 1.57542 GHz.
L2 carrier and P(Y) codes will be primarily ignored

for the remainder of this tutorial.
Combining Navigation Message with the C/A Message
Navigation message is modulo 2 added to C/A code.

20 C/A codes per Navigation Bit.

Data Collection Times
Cold start
No prior information – requires blind search
Up to 36 seconds starting after acquisition of the 4th satellite.
Warm start
Have almanac or old ephemeris and approximate position –
speeds up search
Up to 36 seconds after the 4th satellite.
Hot start
Have valid ephemeris and approximate position
Up to 6.6 seconds to collect valid data (1 subframe).

Elevation & Azimuth Angle
Azimuth and elevation are angles used to define the apparent

position of an object in the sky, relative to a specific observation
point. The observer is usually (but not necessarily) located on the
earth's surface.

Error Sources

Error consideration
In GPS system, several causes may contribute to the overall error:

1. Satellite clocks
2. Satellite orbits
3. Speed of light
4. Measuring signal transit time
5. Satellite geometry

System Errors
Satellite clock
Errors in modeling of the satellite clock offset and drift using a
second order polynomial
Selective Availability
Satellite orbit
Errors that exist within the Keplerian representation of the
satellite ephemeris
Selective Availability

Ionospheric Errors
70 – 1000 km above the earth
Dispersive medium affects the GPS signals

Carrier experiences a phase advance
Codes experience a group delay
Delay is dependent on the total electron count (TEC)

Peaks during day due to solar radiation
Varies with geomagnetic latitude
Varies with satellite elevation

Ionospheric Errors
Frequency dependent
Can be eliminated with dual frequency receivers (L1/L2)
Reduce errors using Klobuchar model

Eight parameters are transmitted in the navigation message
Combined with an obliquity factor dependant on the satellite
elevation
Provides an estimate within 50% of the true delay

Trophospheric Errors
0-70 km above the earth
Delays both code and carrier measurements
Not frequency dependent within L band
Can be modeled
Dry component, 90% of the total refraction
Wet component, 10% of the total refraction
Temperature, pressure and humidity
Satellite elevation angle

Ideal Satellite Geometry
N
W E
S
Dilution Of Precision (DOP)
Good DOP

Good Satellite Geometry

Good DOP

Poor Satellite Geometry
N
W E

S

Poor DOP


Poor DOP

Dilution Of Precision
GDOP = Geometric Dilution Of Precision (based on 4 co-
ordinates)
PDOP = Position Dilution Of Precision (based on 3 co-ordinates)
VDOP = Vertical Dilution Of Precision (altitude)
GDOP = Geometric Dilution Of Precision
HDOP = Horizontal Dilution Of Precision (latitude, longitude)
TDOP = Time Dilution Of Precision (time)
QUALITY DOP
Ideal 1
Excellent 2-3
Good 4-6
Moderate 7-8
Fair 9-20
Poor 21-50
DATA FORMATS AND HARDWARE
INTERFACES

Introduction
GPS receiver requires different signals in order to function. These

variables are broadcast after position and time have been successfully
calculated and determined.
International Standard formats data exchange
NMEA (National Marine Electronics Association)
RTCM (Radio Technical Commission for Marine Services)

Block Diagram of GPS Receiver

Data Interfaces
NMEA – 0183 data interface

In order to relay computed GPS variables such as
position, velocity, course etc to a peripheral, GPS
modules have serial interface( TTL or RS-232). The
data is passed in a format standardised by the NMEA.
NMEA – 0183 specification is the recently used.

Data Interfaces
Data Sets
The following are the data sets used in GPS
modules.
GGA (GPS Fix Data, fixed data for Global Positioning System)
GGL (Geographical Positioning – Latitude/Longitude)
GSA (GNSS DOP and Active Satellite)
GSV (GNSS satellite in view)
RMC (Recommended Minimum Specific GNSS data)
VTG (Course over Ground and Ground Speed)
ZDA (Time and Data)

Data Interfaces
Structure of NMEA protocol
The rate at which the data is transmitted is 4800 baud
using printable 8 bit ASCII character. Transmission begins with
a start bit (logical zero), followed by eight bit data and a stop bit
(logical one) added at the end. No parity is used.

Data Formats
Description of Individual NMEA DATA SET blocks

Data Formats
1. GGA DATA SET: The GGA dataset (GPS Fix Data) contains
information on time, longitude and latitude, the quality of the
system, the number of satellites used and the height.
Example :
$GPGGA,130304.0,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,1,08,0.94,00499,M
,047,M,,*59<CR><LF>

GGA Data Set Blocks Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV
2. GLL Data Set:
The GLL data set (geographic position latitude / longitude)
contains information on latitude and longitude, time And health.
Example:$GPGLL,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,130305.0,A*32<CR><LF>
GGL Data Set Blocks Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV
3. GSA Data Set:
The GSA dataset (GNSSDOP and Active Satellites) contains
information on the measuring mode (2D or 3D), the number of
satellites used to determine the position and the accuracy of the
measurements (DOP:Dilution of Precision).
Example :
$GPGSA,A,3,13,20,11,29,01,25,07,04,,,,,1.63,0.94,1.33*04<CR><LF>

GSA Data Set Blocks Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV
4. GSV Data Set :
The GSV Data set (GNSS Satellite in View) contains
information on the number of satellite in view, their
identification, their elevation and azimuth, and the signal
to-noise ratio.
Example :
$GPGSV,2,2,8,01,52,187,43,25,25,074,39,07,37,286,40,
04,09,36,33*44<CR><LF>

GSV Data Set Blocks Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV
5. RMC Data set :
The RMC (Recommended minimum Specific GNSS) contains
information on time, latitude, longitude and height, system status,
speed, course and date. This data set is relayed by all GPS
receiver.
Example :
$GPRMC,130304.0,A,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,000.04,205.5,2
0601,01.3,W*7C<CR><LF>

RMC Data Set Blocks Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV
6. VTG Data set :
The VTG data set (Course over ground Speed) contains
information on course and speed.
Example :
$GPVTG,014.2,T,015.4,M,000.03,N,000.05,K*4F<CR><L>

VTG Data Set Blocks

7. ZDA Data Set :
The ZDA data set (time and date) contains information
on UTC time, the date and local time.
Example :
$GPZDA,130305.2,20,06,2001,,*57<CR><LF>

ZDA Data Set Blocks

Calculating Checksum :
The checksum is determined by an exclusive-or
operation involving all 8 data bits (excluding start and
stop bits) from all transmitted characters, including
separators. It starts at ($ sign) and ends before
checksum separator (asterisk *).
The 8-bit result is divided into 2 sets of 4 bits (nibble) and

each nibble is converted into hexadecimal value.

Example : $GPRTE,1,1,c,0*07

DGPS correction data (RTCM SC – 104)
DGPS Correction Data (RTCM SC - 104) :

The Radio Technical Commission Marine services Special Committee –
104 standard is used to transmit correction values.
The two versions of RTCM is

Version 2.0 (Jan 1990)
Version 2.1 (Jan 1994)
Both the message types are divided into 63 message types, numbers 1, 2,
3 and 9 being used primarily for correction based on code measurements.

Differential GPS

Real Time DGPS
x+5, y-3
x+30, y+60
x-5, y+3
Receiver DGPS Receiver

DGPS Site
DGPS correction = x+(30-5) and True coordinates =
y+(60+3) x+0, y+0
True coordinates = x+25, y+63 Correction = x-5,uNAVy+3

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox
and
NDGPS Ground Stations
National Differential Global Positioning System
Yellow areas show overlap between NDGPS stations. Green areas are little to no coverage.
Topography may also limit some areas of coverage depicted here.
RTCM Message Header
RTCM Message Header :
Each message type is divided into words of 30 bits and, in
each instance, begins with a uniform header comprising two
words (WORD 1 and WORD 2)

Hardware Interfaces
The hardware interfaces are

Antenna
Power Supply
Time pulse
Antenna :
GPS modules can either be operated with a
passive or active antenna. Active is one with
built in amplifier (LNA: Low Noise Amplifier)
are powered from the GPS module.

Hardware Interfaces
There are two types of antenna

1. Patch Antenna: Patch antenna are flat, generally
have a ceramic and metallised body are mounted on
the metal plate. Often cast in housing.

2. Helix Antenna: Helix antenna are cylindrical in
shape and have higher gain than patch antenna.

Supply : GPS module must be powered from an external voltage source of 3.3v
to 6 Volts.
Time Pulse: 1PPS and Time Systems

Most GPS modules generate a time pulse every second, referred to as 1 PPS
(Pulse per second), which is synchronized to UTC.
The time pulse can be used to synchronize communication networks (precision Timing).
The Five Important Time Systems are
1. Atomic time (TAI) : The international time scale was introduced in order to provide a
universal ‘absolute’ time scale that would meet various practical demands and at the same
time also be of significance for GPS positioning.

2. Universal time co-ordinated (UTC) :
UTC was introduced, in order to have a practical time scale that was oriented
towards universal atomic time and, at the same time, adjusted to universal co-
ordinated time.
3. GPS time :
General GPS system time is specified by week number and the number of
seconds within that week. Each GPS week starts in the midnight from Saturday to
Sunday. The continuous clock being set by the main clock at the Master Control
Station.
4. Satellite time :
Because of constant, irregular frequency errors in the atomic clocks in board
the GPS satellites time is at variance with GPS system time. The satellite clocks are
mounted by control station and apparent time difference relayed to earth.
5. Local time:
Local time is referred within a certain area.
The relationship of the time systems

TAI – UTC = +32sec
GPS – UTC = +13sec
TAI – GPS =+19sec
What Time is It?
Universal Coordinated Time
Greenwich Mean Time GPS Time - 14* Zulu Time
Local Time: AM and PM (adjusted for local

time zone)
Military Time
(local time on a 24 hour clock)
* GPS Time is ahead of UTC by approximately 14 seconds(2007)

The GPS navigation message includes the difference
between GPS time and UTC, which is 14 seconds.
Receivers subtract this offset from GPS time to
calculate UTC and specific timezone values. New GPS
units may not show the correct UTC time until after
receiving the UTC offset message. The GPS-UTC
offset field can accommodate 255 leap seconds (eight
bits) which, at the current rate of change of the Earth's
rotation, is sufficient to last until the year 2330.
Applications
Many civilian applications benefit from GPS signals,

using one or more of three basic components of the
GPS: absolute location, relative movement, and
time transfer.
The ability to determine the receiver's absolute location
allows GPS receivers to perform as a surveying tool
or as an aid to navigation.

Applications
The capacity to determine relative movement enables

a receiver to calculate local velocity and orientation,
useful in ships
Being able to synchronize clocks to exacting standards
enables time transfer, which is critical in large
communication and observation systems. An example
is CDMA digital cellular. Each base station has a GPS
timing receiver to synchronize its spreading codes with
other base stations to facilitate inter-cell hand off and
support hybrid GPS/CDMA positioning of mobiles for
emergency calls and other applications

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an air navigation aid
by the Federal Aviation Administration to augment the Global Positioning
System (GPS) to provide additional accuracy, integrity, and availability.
WAAS enables users to rely on GPS for all phases of flight, including
during precision approaches to any airport within its coverage area.
WAAS uses a network of ground-based reference stations to monitor and

measure the GPS satellite signals. Measurements from the reference
stations are routed to master stations, which generate and send the
correction messages to geostationary satellites. Those satellites
broadcast the correction messages back to Earth, where WAAS-enabled
GPS receivers apply the corrections while computing their position.
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) calls this type of
system a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS). Europe and Asia
are developing their own SBASs

Wide Area Augmentation System
Geostationary GPS Constellation
WAAS satellites
WAAS Control
Station (East
WAAS Control Local Area System (LAAS) Courtesy: Jean Marie ZoggCoast)
– u-blox and uNAV
Station (West Coast)
How Good is WAAS ?
With Selective Availability set

to zero, and under ideal
conditions, a GPS receiver
without WAAS can achieve +-15 meters
fifteen meter accuracy most
of the time.*
+-
3 meters
Under ideal conditions a

WAAS equipped GPS
receiver can achieve three
meter accuracy 95% of the
time.*
* Precision depends on good satellite geometry, open sky view, and no user
induced errors. Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV
Galileo Satellite based positioning system
Global Navigation Satellite System, to be built by the

European Union (EU) and European Space Agency (ESA).
The €20 billion project is an alternative and complementary

to the U.S. Global Positioning System NAVSTAR (GPS)
and the Russian GLONASS.

Why Galileo?
GLONASS is not fully operational
NAVSTAR is fully under US military control
US Defense maintains a Selective Deniability (SD) which
may be used to effectively jam civilian GPS units
Poor coverage of higher latitudes.
Objectives of Galileo
More precise measurements to all users than available
through GPS or GLONASS,
Better positioning services at high altitudes.
Independent positioning system upon which European
nations can rely even in times of war or political
disagreement.
Galileo satellites
• 30 spacecrafts
• orbital altitude: 23 222 km
• 3 orbital planes, 56° inclination (9 operational satellites and
one active spare per orbital plane)
• satellite lifetime: >12 years
• satellite mass: 675 kg
• satellite body dimensions: 2.7 m x 1.2 m x 1.1 m
• span of solar arrays: 18.7 m
• power of solar arrays: 1500 W
Galileo Satellites in orbit
A GALILEO SATELLITE
International Partners
• INDIA
• CHINA
• ISRAEL
• UKRAINE
• MOROCCO
• SAUDI ARABIA
• SOUTH KOREA
• And still counting
SERVICES
Open Service (OS)
Commercial Service (CS)
Public Regulated Service (PRS)
Safety of Life Service (SoL)
Open Service
Free for anyone to access
Broadcast in two bands, at 1164–1214 MHz and at 1563–
1591 MHz.
Receivers will achieve an accuracy of <4 m horizontally and
<8 m vertically if they use both OS bands.
Receivers that use only a single band will still achieve <15 m
horizontally and <35 m vertically, comparable to what the
civilian GPS C/A service provides today.
It is expected that most future mass market receivers, such as
automotive navigation systems, will process both the GPS C/A
and the Galileo OS signals, for maximum coverage.
Commercial Service (CS)
It will be available for a fee and will offer an accuracy
of better than 1 m.
The CS can also be complemented by ground stations
to bring the accuracy down to less than 10 cm.
This signal will be broadcast in three frequency
bands, the two used for the OS signals, as well as at
1260–1300 MHz.
Public Regulated Service (PRS)
Provide an accuracy comparable to the Open Service.
Main aim is robustness against jamming
Reliable detection of problems within 10 seconds.
Targeted at security authorities (police, military, etc.)
Safety of Life Service (SoL)
provide an accuracy comparable to the Open
Service.
robustness against jamming and the reliable
detection of problems within 10 seconds.
safety-critical transport applications (air-traffic
control, automated aircraft landing, etc.),
respectively.
APPLICATIONS
GALILEO will offer satellite
positioning services to
everyone everywhere with
guaranteed reliability.
Individuals, companies,
tourists administrations will
all be able to find their way
on the roads, railways, in the
skies or at sea.
It will enhance the search
and rescue operations.
Sectors that will benefit
• Transport
• Energy
• Telecom
• Civil Protection
• Rail
• Insurance
• Aviation
• Civil Engineering
• Agriculture
• Maritime
• Safety
• Environment
Benefits to the Energy Sector
• By integrating GALILEO with other technologies, the
energy community can benefit from:
- Improved control of energy infrastructures
- Improved power flow
- Improved time-synchronization of power- related
instruments
- Increased safety and efficiency in oil exploration
- Improved control of drilling facilities
- Timely decision-making thanks to faster positioning
information, even in remote areas
Conclusion
Coupled with the already existing U.S. NAVSTAR system,
GALILEO would result in GPS users having access to almost
75 satellites for highly accurate navigation and positioning.
These developments have many potential advantages for the
data collection aspects for GPS users
for the development of new applications using GPS worldwide.
Potential areas of growth using these coupled systems will be
associated with new applications, hardware and software,
analysis techniques and will require additional training for GIS
professionals.
Inter-Vehicular Communication
.A GPS fitted, aerial vehicle moves from Le Harve to Lyon. When the vehicle started at L
Harve, the readings on the GPS receiver were(* indicates degrees)
49*28’33.91’’ N
0* 4’06.70” E
Altitude = 30 Meters
The vehicle when landed in the Lyon, the GPS readings were
45*44’57.23”N
4*49’28.17” E
Altitude – 120 Meters
Compute the Distance covered by the Vehicle.
Given x = alt * cos(long) * sin(90 deg – lat)
y = alt * sin(long) * sin(90 deg – lat)
z = alt * cos(90 deg – lat)
Inter vehicular Communication:
•Component of Intelligent Transportation System (ITS)
•One of the concrete applications of MANETS-VANETs
Motivation
•Improves road safety and efficiency by increasing the horizon of drivers
and on-board devices
•Transmission of road-side information about emergencies, congestion,
etc.
•Ability for inter-driver communication
•Existing ad hoc networks protocols and experiences can actually be put
to practice
Groups & Applications
Groups & Applications
•Association of Electronic Technology for Automobile Traffic and
Driving (JSK), Japan - early 1980’s
•CarTALK, EU - 2000
•FleetNet, Germany - 2000
•PATH, California
•Chauffeur, EU
•DEMO 2000, Japan
IVC – Main Applications
Information and Warning Functions
Dissemination of road information to distant vehicles
Communication-based Longitudinal Control
Exploiting “look-through” capacity to avoid accidents, platooning
vehicles, etc.
Co-operative Assistance Systems
Coordinating vehicles at critical points
Added-value Applications
Internet access, Location-based services, Multiplayer games
Radio Frequency Spectrum
•Both infrared and radio waves have been studied and employed
•Radio waves: VHF, micro, and millimeter waves
•VHF and microwaves are of broadcast type
•Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) spans 75MHz of
spectrum in the 5.9 GHz band
•DEMO 2000, Chauffeur used 5.8 GHz DSRC
•CarTALK, FleetNet use ULTRA TDD
•JSK, PATH, CarTALK have used infrared, typically for cooperative
driving
Definition: Wireless Networks
Refers to the use of infrared or radio frequency
signals to share information and resources
between devices
Definition: Wireless Ad hoc Networks
is a Computer Network in which the communication links
are wireless. The network is Ad hoc because each node is
willing to forward data for other nodes, and so the
determination of which nodes forward data is made
dynamically based on the network connectivity
Routing In Adhoc networks(MANET)
Routing in Wire Net
Link State
Will it Work for
MANET??
Distance Vector
Structural differences b/w Wired & Wireless
Sl.No WIRELESS WIRED
Rate of topology High, due to mobility of Very less, since nodes are
1
change nodes etc. stationary. Normally event
driven.
Less predictable, fluctuates Stable when compared
2 Quality of Link considerably depending on to wireless Networks
network and environmental
conditions.
Wireless Links can be
3 Link Type Symmetric and bidirectional
asymmetric and
unidirectional.
Structural differences b/w Wired & Wireless
Sl.No WIRELESS WIRED
4 Broadcast Unreliable Does not exist
transmissions
Usage of resources - Presents technological Does not present more
5 battery power, technological limitations
limitations on usage of
transmission resources when compared to
bandwidth, CPU wireless networks.
time
Weak. Due to the nature of radio
6 Security transmissions, in the absence of any Much better than
authentication mechanism, a wireless Networks.
malicious node can easily corrupt
route tables etc. Advertise false route
information.
How MANET different?
Bandwidth constraint
Power constraint
Short radio range (150-200 meter)
High mobility -> no fixed route
Why Wired-solution not Work?
Link State:
Each node must know whole topology
Flooding of information for high mobility
Require consistency in the RIB
Distance Vector:
Maintain complete list of routes
Broadcast create high overhead for high mobility
Count to infinity, routing loop, convergence time
Constraints in Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks
Information about network flows is typically not available in
datagram networks.
Network topology can vary rapidly.
Incremental delay and residual capacity, change more
quickly than the physical topology.
Even if a radio generates timely routing information that reflects
changes in delay and capacity, the delay in propagating that
information throughout the network may be such that the information
is stale by the time it reaches a distant node.
Incremental delay and residual capacity of a radio link are affected
by the traffic being carried on other radio links.
Routing and Mobility Management in Infrastructure Wireless N/W’s
Mobility Management
- consists of set of mechanisms by which location
information is updated in response to terminal mobility.
Location tracking consists of 2 operations
- Updating (Registration)
-- The process by which a mobile endpoint initiates a
change in the location database according to its new
location.
- Finding (Paging)
-- The process by which the network initiates a query
for an endpoint’s location to update the location
databases.
Routing and Mobility Management Contd….
For Wired Environments
- Routing paths are fixed since terminals are static.
- Location tracking is not required
For Infrastructure Wireless Networks
- Endpoint mobility within designated area is
transparent to the network.
- Location tracking is required when an endpoint
moves from one domain to another.
Updating the location database
Two strategies are used for updates.
- Static update strategy
- Dynamic update strategy
Static update strategy
- Consists of predetermined set of areas in which
location updates may be generated.
- Location update is generated only when endpoint
enters one of these cells.
Static updating strategy in detail
Two approaches are used in updating.
- Location areas
- Reporting cells
Location areas
- Also referred as paging or registration areas
- Service area is partitioned into group of cells.
- Each group is a location area.
- Endpoint’s position is updated if and only if it changes location
areas.
- When an endpoint needs to be located, paging is done over the
most recent location area visited by endpoint
Static update strategy Contd….
Reporting Cells
- Subset of cells is designated as the only one from
which the endpoint location may be updated.
- When an endpoint needs to be located , search is
conducted in the vicinity of the reporting cell, from
which the most recent update was generated.
Drawbacks of static update strategy
- Do not accurately account for user mobility and
frequency of incoming calls.
Updating location database Contd…
Dynamic update strategy
- Update is generated by the endpoint based on its
movement.
- Update may be generated in any cell.
Three dynamic strategies are described in which an
endpoint generates a location update.
- Every T seconds (time based)
- After every M cell crossings (movement based)
- Whenever the distance covered (in terms of number
of cells) exceeds D (distance based).
Location tracking in Internet
Mobile IP
- Protocol standardized by IETF
- Provides support for mobile hosts in internet
- Mobile nodes are allocated permanent IP addresses
in home network.
- Mobile nodes are allocated new temporary forwarding
addresses as it moves to a foreign network.
Two ways of obtaining forwarding address
- Through the foreign agent in the visited network.
- Address discovery protocol such as DHCP.
Location tracking in internet Contd….
Data transfer
- A node wishing to send a message to a mobile
node sends the message to the permanent
address of the node.
- If the mobile node is in the foreign network
(roaming away from home network), the message
is encapsulated and tunneled to its new location.
Routing and Mobility Management in Mobile Wireless N/Ws
In mobile networks with mobile infrastructure, such as mobile radio
networks, communication terminals are free to move, causing frequent
change in routing paths.
Mobiles must keep track of each others locations and interconnectivity
as they move.
Mobility management in MANET involve 3 mechanisms.
Route discovery
- Initially mobile node consults its route cache for
the presence of route.
- If the unexpired route to the destination does not
exist, initiates route discovery procedure.
- Discovery procedure is completed when one or more routes
are found or all possible route permutations are examined.
Routing and Mobility Management in Mobile Wireless N/Ws
Route selection
- Considers local or global information about the network
state in selecting the next hop to the destination.
Route Maintenance
- Responsible for reacting to topological changes in the
network so that in the event of a link failure the affected
data sources are informed.
- Error in the link may be repaired locally at the point of
failure with no further notification to affected source
node.
Route Discovery
Three components are considered
- Source Node
- Intermediate Nodes
- Destination Node
Source Node
- Broadcasts (flooding) a query (Route Request) packet in
order to discover the route to the destination.
- The packet is flooded through the network.
Route discovery Contd….
Intermediate Nodes
- Helps in propagating the requests if
-- The request has not been forwarded previously.
-- The node is not the destination of the searching procedure.
- Extracts reachability information for the source node on
receiving the route request.
-- This is accomplished by using the mobile node from which
the query was obtained, as the next hop to reach the
source node.
Route Discovery Contd….
Destination Node
- On reception of query packet, a route reply message is sent
back to the source indicating the route to destination.
Route reply travels in the reverse direction of the
discovered route.
- Each intermediate node maintains route request table.
- When a node receives a route reply, the matched route
request is retrieved from the route request table.
- The route reply is then forwarded to the node (Source
node) from which the initial route request message was
received.
Route reply contains route-cost information
Route Discovery ….
Recipients can select routes based on specific costs.
Each recipient of the route reply may update its route to the
destination using as next hop to the node from which
the reply is obtained.
A node may also maintain multiple routes to other nodes, but route
acceptance shall be done in a way as to guarantee freedom from
loops.
Optimizations to flooding-based route searching
Two mechanisms are used for an efficient route discovery mechanism
that reduces the excessive overhead induced by flooding.
- Query quenching
- Expanding ring search
Query quenching
- Intermediate nodes on receiving the route query, may
themselves reply to the query by sending a route reply message
back to the source on behalf of destination, given that they
maintain valid routing information for the destination in search.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Query quenching.
Advantages of Query quenching
- Early quenching of the route search stops the spreading of the
query flooding at some intermediate node.
- To a large extent query quenching may reduce the route
discovery overhead and inherent route acquisition latency.
Disadvantages of Query quenching
- Since the route requests are not broadcasted end-to-end, the route
constructed by the mechanism may not always be the optimum routes.
- The source node may be prevented from discovering the better route
even if one exists.
- When up to date end-to-end information is required in proper route
selection (such as end-to-end bandwidth availability, individual node
energy reserve) , query quenching is not a desired option.
Optimizations to flood based route searching
Expanded Ring Search
- Several route discovery attempts of limited scope are made before a
flooding is triggered.
- At each attempt the searching scope is increased by some factor.
- Process continues until
-- searching scope reaches maximum threshold after which query is
flooded.
Or
-- The node in search is successfully located
Drawbacks
- Increase in route discovery latency when the initial attempt to
discover a route fails and a new route discovery cycle is initiated.
Route Selection and forwarding
In wired networks shortest path routing is preferred for
packet forwarding.
In wireless mobile networks shortest path routing is not
preferred since it does not differentiate between good
links and bad links.
In wireless mobile networks a path with many forwarding
hops may have better links and thus be of higher quality
than a path with fewer, but worse-in-quality, links.
Route Maintenance
Route Maintenance
- It’s the mechanism that detects whether the network topology has
changed such that a data path is no longer viable and route
reconstruction is required.
Detection of Broken Link
- Mechanism similar to beaconing protocols is used.
- During the propagation of data traffic each forwarding node sends a
link layer acknowledgement to the previous hop node, confirming the
packet reception.
- If the node does not receive the link layer acknowledgement from the
next hop node after transmitting packets in maximum number of
times, it indicates the link is broken.
Route Maintenance Contd….
Informing the source node about the broken route.
- Route error message is sent by a node that detects the
broken route, to the source node.
At the source Node
- The source Node after receiving the route error message,
removes the broken link from the cache.
- If the source node has another route to the destination in its
route cache, it switches the flow over the new route
immediately, else it may invoke a route discovery to find the
new route.
MANET Routing Decisions
Proactive
Reactive/On-demand
Location aided
Single / Multi-path
Best effort / Guarantee delivery
MANET routing protocols
AD-HOC MOBILE
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
TABLE DRIVEN/ ON-DEMAND-DRIVEN
PROACTIVE REACTIVE
DSDV HYBRID DSR
OLSR AODV
ZRP
Proactive Routing
Table Driven
Each node periodically floods status of its links
Each node re-broadcasts link state information
received from its neighbor
Each node keeps track of link state information
received from other nodes
Each node uses above information to determine next
hop to each destination
Reactive Routing
Build route only when node needs to send data
packet
The source flood the network by sending out a
request to discover the destination and route
Each node keep a complete route to each active
destination
Reactive Protocols
DSR
AODV
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
On-demandProtocol (S,6,4,3) 3 (S,6,4)
RREQ:
route request D 4
RREP: (S,5)
route reply
(S,2,1)
RERR:
1 5 (S,6)
route error
RREQ (S)
(S,2) 6
S
2 RREQ (S) RREQ (S)
DSR
Route selection
Destination receive multiple RREQ
Shortest vs Fastest
Route cache
Promiscuous mode:A mode of operation in which nodes can
receive the packets that are neither broadcast nor addressed to
itself
Reduce flooding
Routing data packet:
Use the route discovered during RREQ
Include the complete route inside data packet
DSR: Route Maintenance
Perform only when route in use
Detect out of range neighbor (failure)
Link layer feedback 802.11
Missing ACK
Send RERR back to original sender
How?
Route repair?
ROUTE MAINTENANCE
Destination ID
15
13
14
11 9
12
8
10
SELECTED PATH
4 7
6
5
ROUTE ERROR
3
2
BROKEN LINK
1
Source ID
Dynamic Source Routing: Advantages
Routes maintained only between nodes who need to
communicate
reduces overhead of route maintenance
Route caching can further reduce route discovery
overhead
A single route discovery may yield many routes to the
destination, due to intermediate nodes replying from
local caches
Disadvantages
Packet header size grows with route length
Flood of route requests may potentially reach all
nodes in the network
Care must be taken to avoid collisions between
route requests propagated by neighboring nodes
insertion of random delays before forwarding
RREQ
Increased contention
Route Reply Storm problem
Reply storm may be eased by preventing a node from
sending RREP if it hears another RREP with a shorter route
Disadvantages
An intermediate node may send Route Reply using a
stale cached route, thus polluting other caches
This problem can be eased if some mechanism to
purge (potentially) invalid cached routes is
incorporated.
For some proposals for cache invalidation, see
[Hu00Mobicom]
Static timeouts
Adaptive timeouts based on link stability
Disadvantages of DSR
Excessive flooding to find route
Hop-by-hop route
Security:
RREQ
Traceable route
Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing
DSR includes source routes in packet headers
Resulting large headers can sometimes degrade
performance
particularly when data contents of a packet are small
AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining
routing tables at the nodes, so that data packets do not
have to contain routes
AODV retains the desirable feature of DSR that routes
are maintained only between nodes which need to
communicate
AODV
Route Requests (RREQ) are forwarded in a manner
similar to DSR
When a node re-broadcasts a Route Request, it sets
up a reverse path pointing towards the source
AODV assumes symmetric (bi-directional) links
When the intended destination receives a Route
Request, it replies by sending a Route Reply
Route Reply travels along the reverse path set-up
when Route Request is forwarded
Route Requests in AODV
Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S
Y
Broadcast transmission
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Represents transmission of RREQ
Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Represents links on Reverse Path
Reverse Path Setup in AODV
Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward
it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once
Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D
is the intended target of the RREQ
Route Reply in AODV
Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Represents links on path taken by RREP
Route Reply in AODV
An intermediate node (not the destination) may also send a Route Reply
(RREP) provided that it knows a more recent path than the one previously
known to sender S
To determine whether the path known to an intermediate node is more recent,
destination sequence numbers are used
The likelihood that an intermediate node will send a Route Reply when using
AODV is not as high as DSR
A new Route Request by node S for a destination is assigned a higher
destination sequence number. An intermediate node which knows a route,
but with a smaller sequence number, cannot send Route Reply
Forward Path Setup in AODV
Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Forward links are setup when RREP travels along
the reverse path
Represents a link on the forward path
Data Delivery in AODV
Y
DATA
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Routing table entries used to forward data packet.
Route is not included in packet header. Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV
Timeouts
A routing table entry maintaining a reverse path is purged
after a timeout interval
timeout should be long enough to allow RREP to come back
A routing table entry maintaining a forward path is purged if
not used for a active_route_timeout interval
if no data is being sent using a particular routing table entry, that entry
will be deleted from the routing table (even if the route may actually
still be valid)
Link Failure Reporting
A neighbor of node X is considered active for a routing
table entry if the neighbor sent a packet within
active_route_timeout interval, which was forwarded using
that entry
When the next hop link in a routing table entry breaks, all
active neighbors are informed
Link failures are propagated by means of Route Error
messages, which also update destination sequence numbers
Route Error
When node X is unable to forward packet P (from node S to node D) on link
(X,Y), it generates a RERR message
Node X increments the destination sequence number for D cached at node X
The incremented sequence number N is included in the RERR
When node S receives the RERR, it initiates a new route discovery for D
using destination sequence number at least as large as N
Destination Sequence Number
Continuing from the previous slide …
When node D receives the route request with
destination sequence number N, node D will set its
sequence number to N, unless it is already larger than
N
Link Failure Detection
Hello messages: Neighboring nodes periodically
exchange hello message
Absence of hello message is used as an indication of
link failure
Alternatively, failure to receive several MAC-level
acknowledgement may be used as an indication of link
failure
Why Sequence Numbers in AODV
To avoid using old/broken routes
To determine which route is newer
To prevent formation of loops
A B C D
E
Assume that A does not know about failure of link C-D because RERR sent by
C is lost
Now C performs a route discovery for D. Node A receives the RREQ (say, via
path C-E-A)
Node A will reply since A knows a route to D via node B
Results in a loop (for instance, C-E-A-B-C )
Why Sequence Numbers in AODV
A B C D
E
Loop C-E-A-B-C
Optimization: Expanding Ring Search
Route Requests are initially sent with small Time-to-
Live (TTL) field, to limit their propagation
DSR also includes a similar optimization
If no Route Reply is received, then larger TTL tried
Summary: AODV
Routes need not be included in packet headers
Nodes maintain routing tables containing entries only
for routes that are in active use
At most one next-hop per destination maintained at
each node
DSR may maintain several routes for a single destination
Unused routes expire even if topology does not change
Proactive Protocols
OLSR
DSDV
Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)
The overhead of flooding link state information is
reduced by requiring fewer nodes to forward the
information
A broadcast from node X is only forwarded by its
multipoint relays
Multipoint relays of node X are its neighbors such that
each two-hop neighbor of X is a one-hop neighbor of at
least one multipoint relay of X
Each node transmits its neighbor list in periodic beacons, so that
all nodes can know their 2-hop neighbors, in order to choose the
multipoint relays
Nodes C and E are multipoint relays of node A
B F J
A E H
C K
G
D
Node that has broadcast state information from
Courtesy: Jean A
Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV
Nodes C and E forward information received from A
B F J
A E H
C K
G
D
Courtesy: Jean A
Nodes E and K are multipoint relays for node H
Node K forwards information received from H
E has already forwarded the same information once
B F J
A E H
C K
G
D
Courtesy: Jean A
15
13
14
11 9
12
8
10
Node 4 selects MPRset
4 7 {2,3,10,12}
6
5 Node belonging to MPRset of
3 node 4
2
1
Broadcast packets forwarded by
members of MPRset
OLSR
OLSR floods information through the multipoint relays
The flooded information itself is for links connecting
nodes to respective multipoint relays
Routes used by OLSR only include multipoint relays as
intermediate nodes
Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector
Each node maintains a routing table which stores
next hop towards each destination
a cost metric for the path to each destination
a destination sequence number that is created by the destination itself
Sequence numbers used to avoid formation of loops and distinguish stale
route from fresh ones
Each node periodically forwards the routing table to its neighbors
Each node increments and appends its sequence number when sending its
local routing table
This sequence number will be attached to route entries created for this node
A B C D
E
Route Establishment
Destination ID
15 DESTINAT NEXT DISTANCE SEQUENCE
ION NODE
13 NUMBER
14
2 2 1 22
11 9 3 2 2 26
12
4 5 2 32
5 5 1 134
8
10 6 6 1 144
7 2 3 162
4 7
8 5 3 170
6 9 2 4 186
5
10 6 2 142
3
11 6 3 176
2 12 5 3 190
13 5 4 198
1
14 6 3 214
SourceID 15 5 4 256
DSDV
Assume that node X receives routing information from Y about a route to
node Z
X Y Z
Let S(X) and S(Y) denote the destination sequence number for node Z
as stored at node X, and as sent by node Y with its routing table to node
X, respectively
DSDV
Node X takes the following steps:
X Y Z
If S(X) > S(Y), then X ignores the routing information received from Y
If S(X) = S(Y), and cost of going through Y is smaller than the route known to
X, then X sets Y as the next hop to Z
If S(X) < S(Y), then X sets Y as the next hop to Z, and S(X) is updated to
equal S(Y)
Hybrid Protocols
ZRP
Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)
Zone routing protocol combines
Proactive protocol: which pro-actively updates network
state and maintains route regardless of whether any
data traffic exists or not
Reactive protocol: which only determines route to a
destination if there is some data to be sent to the
destination
ZRP
All nodes within hop distance at most d from a node X
are said to be in the routing zone of node X
All nodes at hop distance exactly d are said to be
peripheral nodes of node X’s routing zone
ZRP
Intra-zone routing: Pro-actively maintain state
information for links within a short distance from any
given node
Routes to nodes within short distance are thus maintained
proactively (using, say, link state or distance vector protocol)
Inter-zone routing: Use a route discovery protocol for
determining routes to far away nodes. Route discovery
is similar to DSR with the exception that route requests
are propagated via peripheral nodes.
Routing Zone for NODE 8 in ZRP
Destination ID
15
13
14
11 9
12
8
10
4 7
6
5
3
2
1
SourceID
ZRP: Example
Zone Radius = d = 2
S performs route
discovery for D
B
S
A C
D
E
F
Denotes route request
ZRP: Example with d = 2
S performs route
discovery for D
B
S
A C
D
E
F
E knows route from E to D,
Denotes route reply so route request need not be
forwarded to D from
Courtesy: Jean MarieEZogg – u-blox and uNAV
ZRP: Example with d = 2
S performs route
discovery for D
B
S
A C
D
E
F
Denotes route taken by Data
Challenges
Reactive v/s Proactive
Address Assignment
Reactive versus Proactive
Choice of protocol depends on
Mobility characteristics of the nodes
Traffic characteristics
How to design adaptive protocols ?
Existing proposals use a straightforward combination
of reactive and proactive
Proactive within “radius” K
Reactive outside K
Choose K somehow
Reactive versus Proactive
Need a more flexible way to manage protocol behavior
Assign proactive/reactive tag to each route (A,B) ?
How to determine when proactive behavior is better
than reactive ?
Address Assignment
How to assign addresses to nodes in an ad hoc
network ?
Static assignment
Easier to guarantee unique address
Dynamic assignment
How to guarantee unique addresses when partitions merge?
Do we need to guarantee unique addresses ?
Summary
Plenty of interesting research problems
Research community disproportionately obsessed with
routing protocols
VEHICULAR ADHOC NETWORKS
VANETS???
Ad hoc network composed of vehicles.
Provide communications among nearby vehicles.
Communication between vehicles and nearby fixed equipment .
V2I (V2R) – Internet Access in vehicles.
V2VOR IVC – Communication among vehicles.
NEED FOR VANETS….
SAFETY ON ROADS
- REDUCING ACCIDENTS
- ALLEVIATING
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
- IMPROVING TRANSPORT EFFICIENCY
- MONITORING TRAFFIC
ENVIRONMENT
- REDUCE TRAFFIC CONGESTION
- REDUCE POLLUTION
DRIVING COMFORT
- DRIVING ASSISTANCE
- INFOTAINMENT APPLICATIONS
ITS – IN BRIEF
WHAT IS ITS?
Stands for INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
ITS improves transportation safety and mobility
Enhances productivity through the use of advanced communications
technologies.
Encompass a broad range of wireless and wire line communications-
based information and electronics technologies.
The 5.9 GHz band has been designated by the FCC for vehicular
communications using ITS.
CONTINUED….
ITS is made up of 16 types of technology based systems.
Systems are divided into two parts
Intelligent infrastructure systems
intelligent vehicle systems.
Intelligent Infrastructure
Arterial Management Freeway Management Transit Management Incident Management Emergency Management
Electronic Payment Traveler Information Information Mgmt Crash Prevention Roadway Operations
and safety and maintenance
Road Weather
Commercial Vehicle
Management Intermodal Freight Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV
Operations
Intelligent Vehicles
Collision Collision Driver
Avoidance Notification Assistance
Systems Systems Systems
DSRC- An Overview
A wireless technology for vehicular traffic
Road-to-vehicle communications by means of wireless is called
“Dedicated Short-Range Communications (DSRC) developed by Japan
for ITS applications such as ETC, etc.
Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) is a system for processing automatic toll
collection, using wireless communications between communication
equipment installed in toll gates and other units on passing vehicles.
5.8 GHz waveband planned for Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) IN use in
Japan.
Existing DSRC in JAPAN of 5.8 GHz is meant for dedicated ITS applications and does not
support future applications such as inter vehicular communications and general purpose
applications, and hence it has to be modified.
Spectrum of DSRC
DSRC- type Inter Vehicular Communications (IVC)
DSRC type V2V enables
Creation of ADHOC networks among vehicles.
A person’s vehicle can communicate vehicle
control information bi-directionally with other
vehicles running nearby.
A group of vehicles are configured which shares a
communication service on a temporary basis.
DSRC- type Road to Vehicle Communication (V2R)
Communication is done between wireless base stations located at the
road-side and mobile stations.
Service area environment will be on roads themselves or near roads.
Service area is a pico-cell with a radius of approximately a few tens of
meters or, at most a micro-cell with a radius of a few hundred meters.
DSRC-type V2R systems, system design can be done on the basis
of the following assumptions.
- Existence of “line of sight” communication paths
- Multi-path propagation paths
Capability of simultaneously providing multiple general purpose
services, in addition to ITS dedicated services such as VICS, ETC, AHS.
V2R General Purpose Services
Mobile Communication Services.
Satellite Broadcast Services.
Large scale Data downloading Services.
DSRC and Other Communications
IEEE 802.11P
IEEE 802.11p is a standard in the IEEE 802.11 family.
IEEE 802.11p also referred to as Wireless Access for the
Vehicular Environment (WAVE) defines enhancements
to 802.11 required to support Intelligent Transportation
Systems (ITS) applications.
Includes data exchange between high-speed vehicles
and between the vehicles and the roadside infrastructure
in the licensed ITS band of 5.9 GHz (5.85-5.925 GHz) for
US.
IEEE802.11p is being standardized in the US and
Europe.
IEEE 802.11P
802.11p will be used as the groundwork for DSRC for
US and Europe to support existing DSRC applications
such as VICS,ETC etc as well as future applications.
The IEEE802.11p standard is being developed from
IEEE802.11a.
CHARACTERISTICS
• VANETs are characterized by:
• Wide spectrum of applications (safety/non-safety)
• Self-organization and self-management (fully
decentralized)
• Network protocol requirements (efficient geo-
casting/flooding)
• Adverse medium conditions (congestion and radio
channel) Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV
Benefits and Drawbacks
Benefits
Ad-hoc vehicular networks provide ubiquitous
environments
Abundant information by C2C and C2I
Interactiveness can provide location-based services,
driving safety, and on-demand services
No practical limit on power and computation
Drawbacks
– High mobility may restrict bandwidth
– Security problems : identity, location privacy
Need for Data Validation
• Out-of-date information
Vehicles move and change speed
Packets may get lost in transit
Solution: Data aging
• Malicious nodes can corrupt data
Inject incorrect data
Refuse to forward data
Modify data
• Solution: Probabilistic validation
Push v/s Pull
Most cars are interested in information about immediate
neighboring road segment
“Push” mechanism is sufficient
How to get information about other roads?
Broadcast is not scalable
Road segments are extensive in size
Traffic information is dynamic in nature
There is a need for “pull” i.e. On-Demand traffic
query
On-demand Traffic Query Protocol
VITP – Vehicular Information Transfer Protocol
Location-sensitive queries and replies between nodes
of a VANET
VITP Peers – nodes that operate as
• Clients
• Intermediates
• Servers
Location-sensitive queries
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Traffic
Server
GSM Link
Virtual Ad-Hoc Servers
The server that computes the reply is a dynamic collection
of VITP peers that:
Run on vehicles moving inside the target-location area
of Q.
Are willing and able to participate in Q’s resolution.
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VAHS (continued)
Established on the fly in an ad-hoc manner
Identified with a query and its target-location area.
Maintains no explicit knowledge (state) about its
constituent VITP peers
Follows a best-effort approach in serving queries
VAHS members maintain no information about other
members of the VAHS
VITP transactions
Dispatch-query
VAHS-computation
Dispatch-Reply
Reply-delivery phase
phase
phase
phase
Q
VAHS
Q
Q2
R Q1 Q3
R
Q4
R
Intermediary nodes
Q5
Q7
Q6
VITP Peer
VANET node
CONCLUSION
• Car manufacturers have massively invested in this area
• Security leads to a substantial overhead and must be taken into
account from the beginning of the design process
• Plent of problems to address in ITS
Inter Vehicular Communication Applications
Why do we need IVC Applications??
Informing about traffic situations.
Informing about the things happening in that region
when a vehicle passes through that region.
Getting all the information needed from the gateway
node ( Information like latest news updates, latest
score updates….etc). The gateways are connected to
the internet.
IVC Applications
InfoShare ( Information Sharing Application for IVNs)
- Application which is used to share data between the
vehicles moving along the road.
- Does not use any routing algorithm.
- Query message is broadcasted in a multihop fashion.
InfoGeo
- Built upon infoshare.
- Uses Georoute routing algorithm.
A simple Scenario
• Gateway nodes are present at the road
ends which are connected to the internet
and which contain all the information items
.
•When a vehicle passes through a gateway
node, it downloads all the information from
the gateway node.
•When a vehicle is far away from a
gateway node and if it needs some
information, it tries to get the information
with the help of other vehicles. ( The other
vehicles act as the relays).
A Simple Scenario
•For example, in the figure shown, if
the violet car wants some information,
it is away from both the gateway
nodes. So, it broadcasts the query
message and other vehicles receive
this query message. If that vehicle
has the required information, it replies
with the required information. If it
dosen’t have, it also broadcasts the
query.
•So, in this example, blue, pink and
red vehicles receive the query from
violet car when it needs some
information. So, these cars act as
relays.
Requirements for these applications
Vehicles to be equipped with high bit rate radio
interface and gigabytes of storage supporting lots of
applications.
Sensible dissemination and caching policy is needed.
A set of information categories that users may be
interested in, and that they “pull” from the network.
Access points or gateway nodes feed passing cars the
information they require.
To maximize the chance of getting fresh information,
we assume that vehicles are capable of cooperating to
disseminate the information that was pulled from
gateways, in order to reach farther vehicles by forming
an ad hoc network.
INFOSHARE DETAILS
Infoshare
An application which is used to share multiple small
pieces of information between vehicles moving along
the road.
Infoshare works as follows:
A vehicle which requires some information sends a request
message.
This request message is broadcasted until a vehicle carrying
desired information is found.
The information is sent back following the same return path.
Then the vehicle stores this information for a certain period of
time and then discards it later.
Infoshare Query Message Format
A query message generated by a vehicle has the
following information:
Information ID : The identifier of the requested piece of
information, among the N available ones.
Sequence Number : current number of the request performed
by the application. This is incremented at each newly generated
query, and it is used by nodes receiving the query message to
distinguish among copies of the same query.
Source Address : The address of the node that generated the
query.
Next Hop Address: the address of the node that sent this query
message. when the query is generated first time, this is same as
the source address.
Time to live: field contains the maximum number of hops
allowed for the current message.
Infoshare Query Spreading
Query spreading is totally performed through
broadcast in a multihop fashion.
The query is broadcasted by the source vehicle.
The other vehicles that receive the query have a query
list.
Each query in the query list is described by:
Information ID
Sequence number
Next hop address : This is the address of the node from which
the query was received.
Status : PENDING or SOLVED.
Infoshare Query Spreading
If the application does not have the requested
information in its cache and the TTL field in the query
message is not zero, the vehicle acts as a relay,
forwarding the query.
Before retransmitting the query, the node replaces the
content of the next hop address field with its own
address.
It waits for a flooding.
query lag interval of time, prior to checking whether the
query status is still PENDING: thus it limits query
Infoshare Information Retrieval and
Transmission
When the query is received by a node which has the
information, then that node transmits this information
to the next hop indicated in the received query.
The next hop vehicle that receives this information
updates the status of the query to “solved” and then
transmits it to the next hop and this continues till the
information reaches the sender.
Simple Scenario to explain Infoshare
Car1 - Red
Car2 - Green
Car3 – Blue
Car4- Pink
Access points at each road ends - Black
Car3 (Blue) needs some information (ID = k).
It broadcasts the query message with Information ID =
k and next hop address= addr of car3, source addr =
addr of car3.
Assume car2 and car 4 are in range of car3. They
receive the query from car3. If they don’t have the
requested information in cache,
They check the TTL field. If it is not zero, then they act as relays.
It adds this query in the query list (with status pending)
They replace the Next hop addr with their own addr and they
broadcast the query again.
( for example in this secnario, car4 replaces next hop addr to addr
of car4 and broadcasts the query again).
This query from car4 will be received by the gateway
node.
So, it replies with the required information to node4
(using the next hop address in the query).
Car4 then updates the status of this query to SOLVED
in the query list and forwards this information to Car3
(using the next hop address in the query).
Car3 which is the source finally receives the required
information.
Problems with Infoshare
The information that is required is returned back to the
source using the same path as explained in the
previous slides ( Using next hop address). But since
the network formed is adhoc, a node(car) in the path
may not be present while the information is being
returned back to the source.
Since it does not use any routing, ( simple broadcast
mechanism is used) the network traffic will be very
high.
Why InfoGeo ?
To apply a geographical routing protocol such as
GeoRoute to a modified version of the Infoshare
application in order to maximize of information
retrieval, while limiting the flooding of information
queries.
Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
Protocol (GPSR)
A position based routing
GPSR
The algorithm consists of two methods for forwarding
packets:
Greedy forwarding, which is used wherever possible, and
Perimeter forwarding, which is used in the regions greedy
forwarding cannot be.
Greedy Forwarding
Under GPSR, packets are marked by their originator with their
destinations’ locations.
As a result, a forwarding node can make a locally optimal, greedy
choice in choosing a packet’s next hop.
Specifically, if a node knows its radio neighbors’ positions, the locally
optimal choice of next hop is the neighbor geographically closest to the
packet’s destination.
Forwarding in this regime follows successively closer geographic hops,
until the destination is reached.
Example
D
x
y
x forwards the Packet to y as distance between y and D is
less than any of x’s other neighbor. This forwarding repeats
until packet reaches D
Greedy forwarding Failure
x is closer to D than its neighbors w and y. Although there exist two paths (x-y-z-D) and
(x-w-v-D), but x will not choose to forward to w or y using greedy forwarding. x is a local
maximum in its proximity to D.
D
v
z
y
w x
Need for Perimeter Forwarding
Intersection of x's radio range and the circle about D of radius xD is empty of
neighbors. The shaded region without nodes is called void.
If x seeks to forward a packet to destination D beyond the edge of this void. Intuitively,
x seeks to route around the void, if a path to D exists from x.
Concept behind Perimeter Forwarding
Right hand rule
• It traverse the interior of a closed polygon region (a face) in clock
wise edge order
Example: x receives a packet from y forwards it to z
2.
x z
1. 3.
y
Perimeter Forwarding
Forwarding is shown only for exposition of perimeter mode
s t
Combining Greedy & Perimeter Forwarding (GPSR Algorithm)
All packets are forwarded in greedy mode
Forward packet to neighbor closest to Destination
If greedy fails, switch to perimeter mode
• Mark packet with current location
• Forward along successively closer faces by right-hand rule until reaching
Destination or
Reach a node closer to Destination than perimeter mode entry point
• Return to greedy forwarding mode
Traverse face closer to Destination (D) along xD (line joining
forwarding node x and D) by right-hand rule.
Limitation in GPSR
Looping
Moving away from destination (wrong direction), in
case of perimeter mode.
Many hops.
State Diagram for GPSR operation
INFOGEO DETAILS
InfoGeo
InfoGeo which is built upon infoshare makes use of
GeoRoute.
Consists of two phases:
Phase1: broadcast phase (Similar to InfoShare
application)
Phase2: makes use of GeoRoute routing algorithm.
NOTE:
1. It is assumed that every vehicle is equipped with
GPS (To know it’s own coordinates).
2. Whenever a vehicle passes through a gateway, it
gets the location of the next nearest gateway.
Georoute
Routing protocol to deliver the information packets to
destination “D” with known geographical coordinates
(Xd, Yd).
A transmitter node should know it’s own coordinates
and the coordinates of the destination node as well.
(Position aware routing protocol).
Georoute Header
Packet Identifier: local identifier of the packet.
Flow ID: Identifier of the flow message in the case
where the sender has more than one active message
flow.
Hop Counter
SNC, DNC,CSNC (source, destination, current node
coordinates).
Selection of relay nodes
Weighted progression factor G = f(Dp,Dc) where the
function G is defined as (Dp-Dc).
Dp-Distance between the previous hop node and the
destination.
Dc-Distance between the current hop node and the
destination.
Relaying
If the node realizes to be suitable as a relay, i.e., G >
0, it stores the following fields, PID, SNC, FID and
DNC in a small cache, used to avoid forwarding the
same packet more than once.
Then, the node, after a time interval inversely
proportional to the value of its progress factor,
forwards the data packet replacing in the packet
header the coordinates of the current transmitter node
(CSNC) with its own coordinates and increases the
hop counter (HC) by one.
Scenario to explain GeoRoute
Source – Car B
Destination – Car E
Assume Car A and Car C are in the range of Car B.
so, the query message from B will be received by A
and C.
At car A: Dp = 700,
Dc = 1000 (from fig)
Therefore G at car A = Dp-Dc = 700-1000 < 0.
So, according to Georoute, carA will cancel
relay(will not act as relay node).
At car C,
Dp = 700
Dc = 500 (from fig)
G = Dp-Dc = 700-500 = 200 > 0.
Therefore according to Georoute, Car C will act as relay.
InfoGeo (phase 1)
Phase 1 is called broadcast phase.
A node wishing to retrieve an information item generates
a query message and broadcasts the requests to its
neighbors, i.e., the nodes within its coverage range.
The query broadcast is performed using the same
mechanisms specified by the Infoshare application.
A query list is created at each node and the query status
is first set to PENDING
The TTL field is set to 1 so that only one hop is allowed.
A new flag, called BROADCAST is introduced, which is
set to 1
InfoGeo (phase 1)
If the query reaches a vehicle that owns the desired
information, this will immediately send back the
information.
If no reply is received within a given timeout, the node
requesting the information item enters the second
phase of the InfoGeo scheme.
InfoGeo (Phase2)
The second phase is performed when the Broadcast
phase fails, i.e., the timeout timer expires and the
query status at the requesting node is still PENDING
and the corresponding BROADCAST flag is set to 1.
The vehicle generates a new, unicast query, reporting
its own coordinates, the address of the nearest
gateway along the road as destination address, and
the gateway coordinates.
InfoGeo (Phase2)
The query will be routed towards the destination
gateway according to the GeoRoute policy.
When the gateway receives the query, it replies with
the desired information message sent through a
(possibly different) unicast path to the vehicle that
generated the query.

GPS, Manets 2

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GPS and Inter Vehicular communications

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

1.User wants to get a taxi from a Taxi service provider It is better

3.How can the aerial distance covered by a vehicle is

4. How do you compute the speed of a Vehicle ?

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a

As of April 2013, only the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning

Other planned GNSS are Galileo(EU), Beidou(China) and

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

FourSquare - Users ”Check in” at a certain location, enabling

Wikitude - Augmented reality application, adding information

Find Me Maybe – Sends geo-localised SMS to Facebook and

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

Applications: Point of Interest search, person

775000 in App Application stores:

Integration of Devices: smartphones,

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

Development of the GPS system

Full description is : NAVigation System with Timing And Ranging

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

Takes 11 hours and 58 minutes to orbits the

Launched at a height of 20,180 km .

Each satellite has up to four atomic clocks on

Losing a maximum of one second every 30,000

They send exact position & clock signals to

compare the arrival time of the satellite

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

space consists of an extra dimension

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

Need for synchronised clock.

Mathematics need 4 equations for 4 unknowns :

Therefore follows that in three-dimensional space four satellites are

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

Divided into three

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

Satellite time and synchronisation signals.

The time required to transmit all this information is 12.5 minutes.

L1 carrier transmission power must be 21.9W

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

The 50Hz data pulse.

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

Three ground control stations that transmit information to the satellites.

The most important tasks of the control segment are:

Observing the movement of the satellites and computing orbital data

Monitoring the satellite clocks and predicting their behaviour

Synchronising on board satellite time

Relaying precise orbital data received from satellites in communication

Relaying the approximate orbital data of all satellites (almanac)

Relaying further information, including satellite health, clock errors etc.

The signals transmitted by the satellites take approx. 67 milliseconds to

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

The navigation message is a continuous stream of

The navigation message is needed to calculate the

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV

The navigation message is a bit stream of ones and

Entire message is 25 frames.

Courtesy: Jean Marie Zogg – u-blox and uNAV