ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)

INTRODUCTION
EDM - process of machining conductive materials using sparks occur
b/w an electrode and a w/p in presence of a dielectric fluid.
Advantages are: accuracy, surface quality and fact that hardness and
stiffness of w/p material is not important for material removal.
EDM can cut small or odd-shaped angles, intricate contours or
cavities in extremely hard steel and exotic metals such as titanium,
hastelloy, kovar, inconel and carbide.

Principle Description:
Sparking:
At Closest
Point b/w
Electrode
And W/P
No physical contact b/w electrode and w/p. No tool force.
Sparking gap: must keep space b/w electrode and w/p
required for sparking, known as sparking gap.
Sparking frequency range from 2,000 to 500,000 sparks per
second, sparks occurring simultaneously.
Spark occurs b/w closest points of the electrode and w/p.
2

 Spark removes material from w/p, which increases distance

b/w electrode and w/p at that point.
This causes next spark to occur at next-closest points
3

 EDM is a thermal process; material is removed by heat,

Due to flow of electricity in the form of a spark.
Material at where spark originates and terminates, are
heated to the point of vaporization.
While electrode and w/p should never feel more than warm
in EDM, but the area where each spark occurs is very hot.
The area heated by each spark is very small so the dielectric
fluid quickly cools the vaporized material.

 At the points where fluid changes into an electrical conductor

is known as the ionization point.
When spark is turn off, the dielectric fluid deionizes and the
fluid returns to being an electrical insulator.
EDM spark occurring within an ionized column of the
dielectric fluid.

 When spark is turned off, the vaporized cloud solidifies

means each spark produce an EDM chip of w/p material.

Figures: spark produce vapor cloud and EDM chip remove from
sparking area by flowing dielectric
fluid through sparking gap.
6

 EDM is also refer as

spark machining, arc
machining.
EDM requires a very
precise
flow
of
electricity in the form
of a spark

COMPONENT
OF EDM

LIST OF COMPONENT
(1) Electrodes:
The basic desirable characters of tool material:
High electrical conductivity
High thermal conductivity
High melting temperature
Cheapness
Easier manufacturability

10

Electrode divided into two categories:

Infilrated Graphite graphite matrix mixed with
superfine copper particles
3. Combine Metallic and Non
metallic:
Copper- Graphite
4.Metallic coating as insulators:
Copper on molded plastic
Copper on ceramics

1. Metallic Materials
Electrolytic copper
Copper Tungsten
Silver Tungsten
Alloyed Aluminium
Brass
Tungsten
Steel
2. Non-Metallic Materials
Graphites :
11

(2) Dielectric fluid:

Dielectric has been dictated mainly by following Properties:
It should deionize rapidly after the spark discharge taken
place.
It should be chemically neutral so as not to attack the
electrode, w/p or working container.
It should not emit any toxic vapours or have unpleasant
odours.
It should maintain these properties under all working
conditions.
It should be easily available in the market at a reasonable
price.
12

Role of dielectric fluid:

Dielectric fluid serves as a spark conductor, concentrating
energy to very narrow region.
In addition it serves as a coolant to quench spark and cool
the electrodes.
As a flushing medium for disposal of the products of
machining.
Types of dielectric fluid:
Water - best insulator. But few drawbacks: First, it causes
rust. Second, electrical discharge separates the water into
pure hydrogen and pure oxygen, a very explosive pair.
Kerosene: No rust problem and no dangerous gasses are
produced with kerosene.
13

(3) Flushing: Is process of mobilizing die-electric around the

spark gap.
There are three types of flushing:
Pressurized Flushing:
The dielectric oil is forced through the spark gap and is
provided through flexible tubing located in work tank.
Suction Flushing:
The dielectric oil is sucked out of the gap instead of being
injected into the gap.
Side Flushing:
It is used when flushing holes cannot be drilled through
electrode or w/p due to size and shape restrictions. Side
flushing never be directed from both sides of the electrode
since the jets tend to strike against one another.
14

(4) Power generator:

Its primary function is to convert the alternative current
into pulse DC required to produce the spark discharge.
This has a rectifier to convert AC to DC and a pulse to
generate dc pulses or unipolar pulses.
This pulsing unit in practice is of four different types.
rotary impulse generator
relaxation generator
pulse generator
hybrid generator

15

(5) Servo Feed:

Servo system directly controlling the stability of machining
process.
Best results are obtained only when electrode is positioned
such that constant and uniform sparking is assured.
In EDM machines a servo feed pot is provided in order to
select the best possible working voltage between the
electrode and the work piece.
The servo feed is a function of the following factors.
Desired machining rate
The shape and dimensions of the work piece
Effective areas and wear ratios.
16

 Servo system is operate by taking feed back from gap

voltage sensor system. If sensor gives the feed back with
bridged the gap, servo system will react by reversing
direction un till gap clearance by flushing.
So, the selection of flushing technique has direct effect on
function of servo system bs if proper flushing will not occur
most of the time of servo system will consume for
maintaining gap.

17

Automatic Electrode Refeed Concept

18

Merits and Demerits of EDM

Advantages:
No cutting force
Burrless
High Aspects ratios
High accuracy
Complex shape can produce
Unaffected by material
hardness
Less HAZ

19

Disadvantages:
Low removal rate
Electrode consumable
Limited to conductive
material
Produce recast layer and
HAZ
Complex electrode require
time for fabrication
Lakes flexibility for quick
change in shapes

LASER BEAM MACHINING

LASER:- Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

In 1704, Newton characterized light as a stream of particles.

In 1803,Youngs interference experiment made the discovery of the polarity of
light convinced scientists of that time that light is wave.
In 1880,Maxwells electromagnetic theory, Light as rapid vibrations of
electromagnetic field due to the oscillation of charged particles.
In 1900, Plank introduced the "quantum" concept, Thus energy is not
continuous; it is discrete and can only be the multiples of a small unit.
In 1917, Einstein proposed the concept of "photon", Light is composed of
individual particles called photons which posses a discrete amount of energy or
quanta.
In 1920, Einstein also predicted, when there exist the population inversion
between the upper and lower energy levels among the atom systems, it was
possible to realize amplified stimulated radiation, i.e., laser light.
Now we think that light is composed of "particles" whose motion probability is
determined by its wavelike behavior.

LASER Principle: Energy Transition

To explain how laser light is generated, we need first to investigate
the energy transition phenomena in atoms or molecules.
These phenomena include:
1. Spontaneous Emission
2. Stimulated Emission
3. Stimulated absorption
4. Population inversion
5. Gain and Loss

1. Spontaneous Emission
According to quantum mechanics, The electron of atoms can take
different energy states, E1, E2, E3
With E1 < E2 < E3
Lower energy level is more stable then higher energy level, so
movement from higher to lower
So electrons at high energy levels tend to decay to low energy
levels, the energy difference between the two levels can be given out
as electromagnetic radiation.
This process is called Spontaneous Emission :
E2 E1 = ho
E2= Upper energy level, E1= Lower energy level, h = Planks
constant, o = Frequency of the radiated electromagnetic wave

Excited State

Electron

Ground State
Photon

Nucleus

Orbits

Electron is energized to the

excited state

Electron relaxes to ground

state and photon is produced

Photon Emission Model

2. Stimulated Emission
In a two level system, the particles are separated by photon energy,
hv0. When a particle in the upper state interacts with a photon
matching the energy, emitting another photon with the same phase
and frequency as the incident photon. This process is known as
Stimulated Emission.
Note: In spontaneous emission:
radiation all direction and random phase
In Stimulated Emission:
emitted waves are in same direction and
same phase with the incident waves.

3. Stimulated absorption
If the atom is initially at level E1, the atom will remain in this level
unless got excited. When an electromagnetic wave of frequency 0
is incident on the material, the atom will absorb the incident energy
and jump to energy level E2. This process is called Stimulated
Absorption.
Stimulated radiation/absorption, spontaneous emission and non
radiative decay are going on in the same time. Even if we ignore
the decay factors, stimulated absorption still dominates over
stimulated radiation.
Amplification of incident wave is possible only when the number
of upper level atoms is greater than that of lower level atoms.

4. Population inversion
A fundamental concept in lasers is the idea of a "population inversion".
In a laser we strive to create a "population inversion" where most or
all of the particles are in the excited state. This is achieved by adding
energy to the laser medium (usually from an electrical discharge or an
optical source such as flash lamp);
This process is called pumping.

5. Gain and Loss

Suppose we have laser medium with all the particles are in their exited
state. One of those particles now spontaneously decays back down its
ground state, emitting a photon (ho).
This photon is of right frequency to stimulate emission from another
excited state particle, which units another photon which can stimulate
another excited state particle, and so on.
In addition to stimulated emission, also stimulated absorption occurs of
witch ground state particle absorbs photons matching the energy gap and
jump to the excited state.
So, all above processes
together gives as the
Laser O/P.

Properties of Laser beam

1. Monochromaticity:
This property is due to the following two factors:
First, only an electromagnetic wave of frequency V0 can be
amplified called wavelength, this wavelength is decided by
homogeneous broadening factors and inhomogeneous broadening
factors, this resultant wavelength is very small compared with
normal lights.
Second, the laser cavity forms a resonant system, oscillation can
occur only at the resonance frequencies of this cavity. This leads to
the further narrowing of the laser wavelength. So laser light is
usually very pure in wavelength, we say it has the property of
monochromaticity.

2. Coherence:
For any electromagnetic wave, there are two kinds of coherence,
spatial and temporal coherence.
Consider a fixed point on the electromagnetic wave front. If at any
time the phase difference between time t and time t+dt remains the
same, where "dt" is the time delay period, we say that the
electromagnetic wave has temporal coherence over a time dt.
We emphasize here that spatial and temporal coherence are
independent. A partial temporal coherent wave can be perfect spatial
coherent. Laser light is highly coherent, and this property has been
widely used in measurement, holography, etc.

3. Divergence and Directionality:

Laser beam is highly directional, which implies laser light is of very
small divergence. Laser beam comes from the resonant cavity, and
only waves propagating along the optical axis can be sustained in the
cavity. The directionality is described by the light beam divergence
angle.
4. Brightness:
The brightness of a light source is defined as the power emitted per
unit surface area per unit solid angle. A laser beam of power P, with a
circular beam cross section of diameter D and a divergence angle and
the result emission solid angle is 2, then the brightness of laser beam
is:

B =

Laser Technology
A laser device is consisted of:
Laser medium like atoms, molecules, ions or semiconductor crystals;
Pumping process to excite these atoms (molecules, etc.) into higher
quantum-mechanical energy levels;
Suitable optical feedback elements that allow the beam of radiation to
either pass once through the laser medium (as in laser amplifier).

A laser is constructed from three principal parts:

1. An energy source (the pump or pump source),
2. A gain medium or laser medium, and
3. Two or more mirrors that form an optical resonator.
1). Pump source
The pump source is the part that provides energy to the laser system.
Examples of pump sources include electrical discharges, flashlamps,
arc lamps, light from another laser, chemical reactions and even
explosive devices.
The type of pump source used principally depends on the gain
medium. A helium-neon (HeNe) laser uses an electrical discharge in
the helium-neon gas mixture, a Nd:YAG laser uses a light focused
from a xenon flash lamp, and excimer lasers use a chemical reaction.

2). Gain medium

The gain medium is the major determining factor of the wavelength of
operation, and other properties, of the laser.
Examples of different gain media include:
Liquids, such as dye lasers. These are organic chemical solvents, such as
methanol, ethanol or ethylene glycol chemical dyes.
Gases, such as co2, argon, krypton and mixtures such as He-Ne. These
lasers are often pumped by electrical discharge.
Solids, such as crystals and glasses. The host are doped with an impurity
such as chromium, neodymium, erbium or titanium ions.
Semiconductors, a type of solid, in which the movement of electrons
between material with differing dopant levels can cause laser action.

3). Optical resonator

The optical resonator, is two parallel mirrors placed around the gain
medium which provide feedback of the light. The mirrors are given
optical coatings which determine their reflective properties. Typically
one will be a high reflector, and the other will be a partial reflector
called the output coupler, because it allows some of the light to leave
the cavity to produce the laser's output beam.
In complex lasers, four or more mirrors forming the cavity, the design
and alignment of the mirrors with respect to the medium is crucial. For
that other optical devices, such as spinning mirrors, modulators, filters
and absorbers may be placed within the optical resonator, to produce a
variety of effects on the laser output, such as altering the wavelength of
operation or the production of pulses of laser light.

Common Industrial Lasers

Lasers can classified according to the active medium used. All the
previous theory is valid for those different type of lasers. The only
difference between these various lasers is the technology
implemented for the active medium.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Gas Lasers
Solid state Lasers
Liquid Lasers
Semiconductors Lasers (Diode Laser)

1. Gas Lasers
Helium-Neon Laser (He-Ne):
Common wavelength 632.8 nm,
Power of He-Ne laser is below 50 mW,
Widely used in holography, scanning,
measurement, fiber communication,
It is the most popular visible light laser.
Carbon Dioxide Laser:
CO2 laser wavelength of 10.6 m,
Beam power ranges 25 kW to 100 kW,
CO2 laser is widely used in laser machining,
welding and surface treating.
The active medium of CO2 laser is a mixture
of CO2, helium (He) and nitrogen gases
(N2).

2. Solid State Lasers

In solid state laser, ions are suspended in crystalline
matrix to generate laser light.
Ruby Cr3+ Al2O3: wave length 694.3 nm,
Power 100 kW to 105 kW
Nd3+ Glass: Wave length 1060 nm,
Power 105 kW to 109 kW
Nd3+ YAG: Wave length 1640 nm,
Power 5 x 105 kW,
YAG (Y3Al5O12) Yttrium Aluminum Garnet,
Transferent and colorless

3. Liquid Lasers
Liquid Lasers use large organic dye as the active Lasing medium.
Spectral range of dyes covers infrared, visible and ultraviolet light.
These lasers are used in spectroscopic investigation and photochemical
experiments.
4. Semiconductor Lasers
They are compact, have the potential of mass production, can be easily
integrated, more powerful and efficient.
Top of the crystal is N-Doped, Bottom is P-Doped, Resulting in a large
flat P-N junction.
Dimentions 100 m X 200 m X 50 m, 0.5 W / diode power.
Used in CD player, Optical storage system, Laser printers and
communications.
When they are packed into arrays, They can generate power of several
KW.

Laser machining process

Pumping
Source

Laser
Material

100 %
Mirror

100%
Reflector
Partial
Mirror

Focusing
Lens

A: Laser head
B: Rotating mirror and Lens assembly
C: Rotating mirror
D: Work table

High energy point

Work

Table

Characteristic of Laser Machining

Sr
No.
1.

Special Characteristics of
Laser Beam
Can be focused to maximum
intensity
Can be moved rapidly on the
work

Cutting Process Characteristics

4.

When projected some distance

from the lens
Dedicated to an online process

Remote cutting over long stand-off

distance
No rerouting necessary

5.

Time shared between stations

Cut then weld using same beam use

for additional cutting stations

6.

Power shared on a job or

between stations

Two or more cuts simeltineously

2.
3.

High cutting speed, Narrow kerf,

Straight sides with little affect
Cutting of complex shapes, No tool /
work contact

Application of Laser Machining

Laser has wide range of machining applications

Material Removal: Drilling, Trimming and Evaporating
Material Shaping: Cutting, Scribing and Controlled fracturing
Welding:
Thermo kinetic Change: Annealing, Photo chemistry, grain size
controls, Diffusion, Zone melting etc.
Heat treatment, Ablation, Deposition, Etching, Lithography,
Micro electroforming, Focus beam milling

Advantages
There is no mechanical contact between the tool and the work.
Large mechanical forces are not exerted upon the work piece.
The laser operates in any transparent environment, including air,

inert gas, vacuum and even certain liquids.

The laser head need not be in close proximity for performing cutting
and drilling operations in locations of difficult accessibility.
Unlike other thermal machining devices, the laser can be used with
materials sensitive to heat shock such as ceramics.
Minimum heat affected zone.
Precise operation, High L / D holes.
High production rates, No consumable tools.
Process can be easily automated.
Hardness of the material does not affect the process.
Multiple holes or welds possible in one exposure.
Dissimilar materials can be welded.

Limitations
The machined area can be irregular due to off-axis modes that

may be generated during laser action.

Recast layer and Heat affected zone
High reflective material are difficult
Not applicable to blind machining of metals
Output energy from laser is difficult to control precisely.
The laser system is quite inefficient.
Pulse repetition rates are low.
High capital investment

Benefits of Laser Machining

1. Lasers can machine all industrial materials
(plastics, ceramics, silicon, metals, glasses)
2. Small holes and high packing densities give end user more
flexibility in design
3. Lasers can create any tool path on a workpiece using a
CAD/CAM interface
4. Laser drilling systems are safe, easy to operate with minimal
training and have minimal downtime
5. Future proof technology
6. Rapid turn around due to soft tooling

Ultrasonic Machining
Introduction:
Ultrasonic: A vibratory wave of a frequency above that of the upper frequency
limit of the human ear. The Ultrasonic waves are sound waves of frequency
higher than 16 kHz/sec.
Ultrasonic waves can be generated using mechanical, electromagnetic and
thermal energy sources.
They can be propagated in solids, liquids and gases and can travel at a high
velocity so that their wavelength is short in most media.
The electrical energy is converted into mechanical vibrations, and that
vibration is used to make material removal from some metals.

Figure: Sinking a hole in a workpiece by ultrasonic machining

Process principles:

USM: Material removal process used to erode cavities in hard work pieces by

using shaped tools, high-frequency mechanical motion and abrasive slurry.

Because the process is non-chemical and non thermal, materials are not altered

either chemically or metallurgically.

Ultrasonic machining is able to effectively machine all materials harder than

HRc40, whether or not the materials are an electrical conductor or an insulator.

The USM process begins with the conversion of low-frequency electrical energy

to a high-frequency electrical signal, which is then fed to a transducer.

The transducer is a device that converts the high frequency electrical signal to a

high frequency linear mechanical motion.

 The transducer is a device that converts the high frequency electrical signal to a

high frequency linear mechanical vibration motion (3 5 ).

The high frequency mechanical motion is transmitted to the tool via a mechanical

coupler known as a tool holder. The tool vibrates in a direction parallel to the axis
of the tool feed with in a few hundredths of a millimeter.

Resonance is achieved when the frequency of vibration matches the natural

frequency to generate a ultrasonic wave within the tool-tool holder assembly, thus
resulting in maximum vibrational amplitude.

The tool is shaped to desired cavity and positioned near, but not touching, the

surface of the work piece. The gap between the vibrating tool and work piece is
flooded with abrasive slurry comprising water and small abrasive particles.

Material removal occurs when the impact from the tool propels the abrasive

particles across the cutting gap causing them to strike the work piece with a force
up to 1, 50,000 times their weight.

 Each down stroke of the tool can simultaneously accelerate thousands of abrasive

particles; thus chips are removed from the work piece every second. That is why
the process is also known as ultrasonic impact grinding (UIG).

As material is removed, Feed mechanism, continuously advances the tool into

newly formed cavity to maintain a constant gap between the tool and the work
piece.

In USM MRR is low but the process remains economically because of its ability,

with a single pass of the tool, to generate complex cavities in w/p that are too
fragile to machine by another processes.

In addition to its manufacturing capabilities, USM is also quite possibly the safest

of all non traditional processes because it involves no high voltage, burning,

cutting, chemicals or dangerous mechanical motions, In fact, USM cannot even cut
skin because of the skin's ductility.

Equipments:
The machines for USM range from small table-top sized units to large-

capacity machine tools.

The power of a USM machine can range from 40W to 2400W. The material
removal rate is directly related to the power capability of the USM machine.
All USM machines share common subsystems regardless of the physical size
or power. The most important subsystems are:

Power supply
Transducer
Tool holder
Tool
Abrasives

 Power Supply:
The power supply used for USM is more accurately characterized as a high

power sine wave generator that offers user control over both the frequency
and power of the generated signal.
It converts low frequency (60Hz) electrical power to high frequency approx to
(20 KHz) electrical power.
The electrical signal is then supplied to the transducer for conversion into
mechanical motion.

 Transducer:
A transducer is a device that converts electrical energy to mechanical motion.
Two types of transducer used for USM, piezo-electric and magneto-strictive.

1) Piezo-Electric transducer:
Some materials like quartz or Lead-Zirconate-Titanate will generate a small

electric current when they compressed.

In reverse, when an electric current is applied to one of these materials, the
material increases minutely in size, when the current is removed the material
instantly returns to its original shape.
This characteristic is used to generate mechanical vibration in USM. Piezo electric
transducers, by nature exhibit an extremely high electro mechanical conversion
efficiency (up to 96%), which eliminates the need for water cooling of the
transducers.
These transducers are available with power capabilities up to 900W.

2) Magneto strictive transducer:

Magneto strictive transducers are usually constructed from a laminated

stack of Nickel Alloy sheets which, when influenced by a strong magnetic

field, will change length.

Magneto-strictive transducers are rugged but have electro mechanical

conversion efficiencies ranging from only 20 to 35 %.

The lower efficiency results in the need to water cool magneto strictive

devices to remove the waste heat.

The magneto strictive transducers are available with power capabilities

up to 2400 watts.

 Tool Holders:
The function of the tool holder is to attach and hold the tool to the transducer.

Additionally, the transducer also transmits the sonic energy to the tool, and in
some applications, also amplifies the length of the stroke at the tool.

With this capacity, the tool holder must be detachable, be constructed of

materials that have good acoustic properties, and be highly resistant to fatigue
cracking.

Tool Holders are attached to the transducer by means of a large, loose fitting

screw which has intentionally over size threads in the female portion and
under size threads in the male portion.

If this screw junction were tight fitting, an ultrasonic weld would permanently

bond the tool holder to the transducer.

 Tool holders are available in two configurations: Non amplifying and amplifying.

Non amplifying tool holders are cylindrical and result in the same stroke
amplitude at the output end as at the input end. Amplifying tool holders have a
modified cross section, and are designed to increase the amplitude of the tool
stroke as much as 600%.Amplifying tool holders increase tool motion through
stretching and relaxation of the tool holder material.

Because of the gain in tool stroke, amplifying tool holders are able to remove

material up to 10 times faster than the non amplifying types.

The disadvantages of using amplifying tool holders include increased cost to

fabricate, a reduction in surface finish quality, and the requirement of much

more frequent tuning to maintain resonance.

 TOOLS
To minimize tool wear tools should be constructed from relatively ductile

materials such as stainless steel, Brass, and Mild Steel. The harder the tool
material the faster its wear rate will be.
Depending upon the abrasive used the work piece material, and the tool
material, work piece/tool wear ratios can range from 1:1 to 100:1.
Both tools and tool holders should be free of scratches, nicks and heavy
machining marks, because these produce stress risers and lead to early fatigue
failure.
Because of the over cut that occurs with this process, allowances must be made
to use tools that are slightly smaller than the desired hole or cavity. For example,
to allow for over-cut, the diameter of the tubing used to drill holes should be
equal to the desired hole diameter - twice the abrasive particle size.
The most desirable methods of attaching the tool to the tool holder are by silver
brazing. This eliminates the fatigue problems associated with mechanical screw
attachment methods.

 Abrasives
Abrasives are available in various particle sizes for USM. The criteria for selection

of an abrasive include hardness, usable life, cost and particle size.

In order of hardness, Boron Carbide, Silicon Carbide, and Aluminum Oxide are the

most commonly used abrasives. The abrasive used for an application should be
harder than the material being machined; otherwise, the usable lifetime of the
abrasive would be substantially shortened.

Boron Carbide is selected when machining the hardest workpiece materials or the

highest material removal rates are desired. Although the cost is 5 to 10 times
greater then the next hardest abrasive Silicon Carbide, the usable life of Boron
Carbide is 200 machine-operating hours before cutting effectiveness is lost and
disposal is necessary.

The combination of high removal rates and extended lifetime justify the higher

cost of Boron Carbide.

 The size of the abrasive particles influences the removal rate and surface finish

obtained, abrasives are available in grit sizes ranging from 240 to 800. The
coarser grit exhibit the highest removal rates, they also result in the roughest
surface finishes and are therefore used only for roughing operations.
Conversely, 800 grit abrasives will result in fine surface finishes, but at a drastic
reduction in the removal rate.

The most popular abrasive size used, based on the above considerations is,

320- grit Boron Carbide.

The abrasive material is mixed with water to form the slurry. The most

common abrasive concentration is 50%by weight; however this can vary from
30 to 60%.

Once the abrasive has been selected and mixed with water, it is pumped to the

tool work piece interface by recirculating pumps at rates up to 26.5 L/min.

Materials that can be USMed

Hard materials like stainless steel, glass, ceramics, carbide, quatz and semi-conductors are
machined by this process.
It has been efficiently applied to machine glass, ceramics, precision minerals stones,
tungsten.
Limitations
Brittle materials

a.

Applications

b.
c.

Under ideal conditions, penetration rates of 5

mm/min can be obtained.
Power units are usually 500-1000 watt output.
Specific material removal rate on brittle materials is
0.018 mm cubic/Joule.
Normal hole tolerances are
0.007 mm and a
surface finish of 0.02 to 0.7 micro meters.

It is mainly used for

d.
(1) drilling
(2) grinding,
(3) Profiling
(4) coining
(5) piercing of dies
(6) welding operations on all materials
which can be treated suitably by abrasives.

Advantages of USM

Machining any materials regardless of their conductivity

USM apply to machining semi-conductor such as silicon, germanium etc.
USM is suitable to precise machining brittle material.
USM does not produce electric, thermal, chemical abnormal surface.
Can drill circular or non-circular holes in very hard materials
Less stress because of its non-thermal characteristics

Disadvantages of USM
USM has low material removal rate.
Tool wears fast in USM.
Machining area and depth is restraint in USM.

Water jet machining

Introduction

Process in which jet of water with high pressure and high velocity is
bombarded on the work piece to erode the material.

High pressure water jet has two properties, first its distraction power and
second its application as a precision cutting tool.

High velocity water jet when directed at a target in such a way that, its
velocity reduced to zero on striking the surface.

Practically most of the kinetic energy of jet is converted to very high

pressure. Infect at the initial phase (with in first few mili-seconds) the
transient pressure reaches several times greater then the normal stagnation
pressure.

This cause erosion if the local fluid pressure exceeds the strength of target
material on in other words, the water jet will make a hole in the material if
the pressure is high enough.

Operating Principle of WJM

The equipments consists of three main subsystems:
1. Pump along with an intensifier to generate very high pressure (110 KBar)
2. Cutting unit consisting nozzle and work table movement
3. Filtration unit to remove the debris from water after use.

Schematic Diagram of Water Jet Machining

In Water Jet Cutting (WJC) or Hydrodynamic machining

A small nozzle (made of sapphire, ruby or diamond) opening of
diameter (0.05 to 1 mm).
Pressure from 400 MPa to 1400 MPa.
Velocity from 520 to 914 m/s.
Water jet flow rate of 0.5 litres to 25 litres per minute.
A typical standoff distance is 3.2mm.
Feed rates between 5 mm/s to 500 mm/s depending on material and
thickness.

 Used to cut narrow slits in flat stock such as plastic, textiles,

composites, floor tile, carpet, leather, and cardboard
The maximum thickness of cut, for most practical purposes is in the
region of 25 mm.
Water jet machining is a very clean operation with no dust or odours
and very little noise, in fact the health and safety and environmental
implications are almost negligible.
To cut harder materials such as metal, abrasive particles such as
Garnet or Alumina are added to the water prior to entering the cutting
zone. This is known as Abrasive Water Jet Machining.

Intensifier (Pressure Generation System)

The pressure generation system must deliver a constant and
continuous flow of high pressure water at a prescribed pressure. This
means that both the volume and the pressure of the water must be
controlled.

Process Description:
At the heart of the unit is 15 37 Kw electric motor that drives an oil
pump.
In operation, oil is drown from reservoir and pumped to a device
known as intensifier. An intensifier uses low pressure oil to generate
extremely high pressure water.
Oil pressure is applied on the side of the large piston in the center of
the intensifier, causing a displacement of the small pistons.
During this motion, one small piston compresses the water in its
cylinder as the other piston sucks the water into its cylinder.
When the piston reaches the end of stroke, a valve reverse the direction
of oil flow and the function of two small pistons are exchanged, thus
allowing pumping action during both direction of the stroke.

 It increases pressure up to 40 times the relationship between pressure

and area is:

Pw = Po x Ao / Aw where, Pw = out put water pressure

Po = Oil pressure
Ao = Area of oil piston
Aw = Area of water piston

Accumulator:

This is also known as an attenuator, its purpose is to reduce the

variation in maximum to minimum pressure values.
The attenuator stores a volume of water at an elevated pressure which
it will release into the system as a decrease in pump pressure is sensed.
This then reduces the variations in system pressure.

Catchers:
Once the water jet is delivered to the work piece and has penetrated
through the material, it enters a catcher.
The purpose of catcher is to minimize the exposed length of the jet
for safety purpose and to minimize the process noise.
When the jet exists the nozzle, it is travelling at two to three times
the speed of sound. Water breaks up into mist and droplets at this
speed and into an open area can produce sound as loud as 130 DBA.
Therefore to minimize noise, either tube or slot type catcher is used
beneath the point of the cut.
Tube: 300 600 mm ling attached to a draining hose.

Water Jet Cutting Applications

The Pure Water Jet Cutting is particularly suitable for the following
materials:
Thin materials which are not metal, glass or stone:
e.g. rubber, foam plastic, cellular plastic, plywood, corrugated
pasteboard, cardboard, leather, fabrics, foodstuffs, etc
Plywood thickness < 6 mm
Hard plastic plates < 10 mm
Building boards
Shape plates and gasket materials especially those with intricate
holes, openings or tight radii

Due to the High speed (15 m/min) and

opportunity to fit several

nozzles, the Water Jet Cutters are especially suitable volume cutting
work

Advantages:
Materials of any hardness can be
cut with Smooth finish.
Cutting can be in any direction
and cheaper than most machining
options
3D cutting possible with CNC
nozzle control
No deburring is required
No thermal stresses in the work
piece
Cuts all sorts of material with a
single tool
Minimum
heat
generation,
material properties unaffected.

Disadvantages:
Limited nozzle life, particularly
when abrasive is used
High capital cost of equipment
Very noisy process because of
supersonic nozzle velocities
Tolerances
deteriorate
with
material hardness and thickness
Abrasive water jet nozzles are
subject to heavy wear hence
increasing the maintenance cost

Abrasive Jet Machining

This is a process of removal of materials by impact erosion through the action of a concentrated high
velocity stream of the grit abrasives entrapped in a high velocity gas stream.

The operating elements in AJM are abrasive, Carrier gas and Nozzle as schematically shown:

Process
Principle
Of AJM

Equipments in AJM

Schematic Diagram of AJM Set up

It consist of gas supply unit, Filter, Process regulator, Mixing chamber, Nozzle
assembly and Dust collecting chamber along with Work holding device

It consists of four major subsystems

1) Gas propulsion system
2) Metering System
3) Delivery system
4) Abrasive collection system
1) Gas propulsion system:
This subsystem provides steady supply of clean and dry gas used to propel abrasive
particles. Filters used to avoid water or oil contamination from the compressed air.
Common gases are N2, CO2 but never O2 because of chances of fire hazard.
2/3) Metering and Delivery System:
This subsystem is use to inject uniform and adjustable flow of abrasive particles
into the gas stream. This is to be done by powder hopper that feeds into a vibrating
chamber which in turn cause the powder to be metered uniformly into jet stream.
Powder flow rate is directly adjustable by varying the amplitude of the vibration.
4) Abrasive collection system:
This subsystem use to maintain the operators exposer to dust with in permissible
limits. A vacuum dust collector is used to draw the dust particles from the exhaust
chamber, if the toxic materials are being abraded.

Abrasives:
1. Type:

Grain Size, m

Abrasive

Operation

Al2O3, 1800 Hv

10 to 50

Cutting & Grooving

SiC, 2600 Hv

10 to 50

Sodium Bicarbonate

27

Light polishing below 50oC

Dolomite

66

Etching & Polishing

Glass beads, 500 Hv

0.6 to 1.3 mm

Light polishing and

-do-

Debarring
2. Size: 10 150 microns
3. Quantity:

1 5 g/min for fine work

5 10 g/min for usual cuts
10 20 g/min for heavier cuts

Carrier Gas:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Type: Dry air, CO2, N2, N2O and He (Do not Use O2)
Quantity: up to 28 Liter / Minute
Pressure: 30 190 Psi
Velocity: 15 335 m/sec

Nozzle:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Material: Tungsten Carbide (Life 30 Hrs), Sapphire (Life 100 Hrs)

Stand of Distance: 2.5 75 mm
Opening: 0.13 1.2 mm in Diameter
Operating angle: 60 90 degree to the surface

Applications
1.
2.
3.
4.

More economical as compared with etching and grinding in frosting glass.

Cleaning of metallic smears on ceramic, oxide on metals, resistive coating etc.
Cutting and machining of fragile materials like germanium, silicon etc.
Good method for debarring small hole like in hypodermic needles and for small
milled slots in hard metallic components.

Limitations

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

MRR is very law per stroke.

Elastomers or soft plastics are not influencing by AJM.
Accuracy of cutting is hampered by tapering effect.
Atmospheric pollution to cause health hazard.
Abrasive powders can not reuse.
Short SOD damages the nozzle.
Abrasive particles may be embedded in the work material some times.

Electrochemical Machining
Introduction
Electrochemical machining (ECM) has been developed to machine
hard to machine alloys.
ECM is an electrolytic process and its basis is the phenomenon of
electrolysis , widely used by automotive, offshore petroleum, and
medical engineering industries, as well as by aerospace firms.
Metal removal is achieved by electrochemical dissolution of an
anodically polarized w/p.
The tool used in the process does not wear, and therefore soft metals
can be used as tools to form shapes on harder w/p.
The process is used to smooth surfaces, drill holes, form complex
shapes, and remove fatigue cracks in steel structures.

Schematic diagram of ECM

Working principle of ECM

In ECM, w/p and tool are the anode and cathode of an electrolytic cell,
and a constant voltage difference is applied across them.
A electrolyte is pumped at a rate 3 to 30 liter /second, through the gap
to remove the products of machining.
As machining proceeds toward the anode, the gap width along the
electrode length will gradually tend to a steady-state value.
With this working principles of ECM, its advantages through
machining processes:
1. the rate of metal machining does not depend on the hardness of
the material,
2. complicated shapes can be machined on hard metals,
3. there is no tool wear.

ECM characteristics
1.Mechanics of material removal - electrolysis
2.Medium - conducting electrolyte
3.Tool material - Cu, brass, steel
4.Material/tool wear - infinite
5.Gap - 50 to 300 m
6.Maximum MRR - 15*103 mm3/min
7.Specific power consumption - 7W/mm3/min

8. Critical parameters - voltage, current, feed rate, electrolyte,

electrolyte conductivity
9. Materials application - all conducting metals and alloys
10. Shape application - blind complex cavities, curved surfaces,
through cutting, large through cavities.
11. Limitations - high specific energy consumption (about 150
times that required for conventional processes), not applicable
with electrically non-conducting materials and jobs with very
small dimensions, expensive machines.
12. Surface finishes down to 25 .

Rates of machining
Material removal rate is proportional to current passed through the
electrolyte and the time for that operation.
Other factors influence on MRR are electrolyte type, rate of electrolyte
flow, and process conditions.
For example
current efficiency decreases when current density is increased.
If flow rates kept too low, current efficiency of ECMed metal is
reduced.
Insufficient flow not allow the debris to flush from the gap.

83

Surface finish
Quality of surface finish depends on type of electrolytes used in
process. e.g. NaCl tends to produce matte finish with steels and nickel
alloys.
Sometimes formation of oxide film on w/p hinders efficient ECM and
leads to poor surface finish.
Occasionally, ECMed metals have a pitted (Honeycombed) surface
while the remaining area is polished or matte.
Process variables also affect surface finish. For example, as the current
density is raised, the finish becomes smoother on w/p.
A similar effect is achieved when the electrolyte velocity is increased.

84

Accuracy and dimensional control

In hole drilling, high current densities occur between the leading
edge of the drilling tool and the w/p.
In the side gap there is no direct movement between the tool and
w/p surface, so the gap widens and the current densities are lower.
Thus the over cut occurs in the side gap.

85

Design of ECM shaping are usually concerned with three distinct

problems:
The design of the cathode tool shape needed to produce a required
profile geometry of the anode w/p.
For a given cathode tool shape, prediction of the resultant anode w/p
geometry, for example, hole drilling by ECM.
Specification of the shape of the anode w/p, as machining proceeds
and for estimation of the machining times as the shape development
provides useful information about the process.

86

Advantages of ECM

Electrochemical Machining has many advantages when compared to

conventional machining.
The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical
stress
There is no tool wear during Electrochemical machining
Non-rigid and open work pieces can be machined easily as there is
no contact between the tool and w/p
Complex geometrical shapes can be machined repeatedly and
accurately

87

Electron Beam Machining

Introduction
In electron beam machining a powerful stream of electrons is
directed at a part. This bombardment with electrons causes the
material to locally heat up and vaporize.
Electrons are accelerated with voltages of approx. 150,000V to create
velocities over 200,000 km/sec. This produces velocities over 50% to
80% the speed of light.
This beam of fast moving electrons can be focused to 10 to 200 micro
m and a density of 6500 GW/mm2. Good for narrow holes and slots.
e.g. a hole in a sheet 1.25 mm thick up to 125 micro m diameter can
be cut almost instantly with a taper of 2 to 4 degrees
Electron beam machining is used for drilling and cutting, metals, nonmetals, ceramics, and composite materials.

 Electron beam machining is quite similar to laser-beam machining

and the major difference between them is EBM requires a vacuum
chamber which limiting the size of a part to be machined.
In a business where time and accuracy are absolutely critical,
electron beam machining can be the perfect solution to many
problems.
Typical uses for electron-beam machining are:
( Drilling
( Cutting
( Welding
( Annealing
( Metal removal

Working of Electron beam machining

An electron beam machine works in much the same way as a
cathode ray tube in a television.
1.
2.
3.

A cathode section generates an electron beam.

An anode section accelerates the beam.
The lens system converges and deflects the electron beam to
the desired position.

Schematic Diagram
EBM process

 In electron beam machining process, first a stream of electrons is

started by a voltage differential the cathode.
The concave shape of the cathode grid concentrates the stream
through the anode. Much like the way a concave mirror focuses a
light beam from a flashlight.
The anode applies a potential field that accelerates the electrons.
This stream of electrons is then forced through a valve in the
electron beam machine.
The valve is used for the purpose of controlling the beam and the
duration of a machining process.

 If the impulse of the electron beam is too great, part will over heat
and potentially destroy the machined piece by material cold-working
or tempering.
The beam is focused onto the surface of the work material by a series
of electromagnetic lens and deflector coils.
The entire process occurs in a vacuum chamber, reason is that air
molecules can adversely interact with the beam of electrons.
A collision between an electron and a air molecule causes the electron
to curve off, phenomenon is illustrated in figures (Electron Beam in
Vacuum and Air).
Stream of electrons is directed to w/p; on impact, the kinetic energy
of the electrons is converted into thermal energy that melts and
vaporizes the material to be removed, forming cuts.

 Figure displays that the intensity of the beam is compromised by the

collision with air molecules.
This erratic stream hitting the surface of the part makes it difficult to
calculate the time and/or beam intensity required to cut a part or drill a
hole.

Electron-Beam in a Vacuum

Electron Beam in Ambient Air

 The electron beam is shot through the vacuum toward the material.
The electrons often pass through the outer layer of the material and
then become trapped in the material.
This is shown in figure. The dark line shows the path of the electron.

Electron Trapped in Material

Uses of E-Beam Machining

Drilling small holes:
The electron-beam is used to vaporize material from a piece. Hole
on the order of a few nanometers can be drilled. Further E-beam
drilling can machine a desired hole taper.
Cutting:
The electron-beam basically drill a continuous series of hole. The
E-beam produces very crisp and accurate cuts. Additionally the Ebeam can be used to cut small slots.

 Welding:
The electron-beam is used to join to pieces of metal by raising
the temperature of two pieces to the melting temperature.
Annealing:
The electron-beam is used to raise the temperature of a
material and relax any residual stresses. This is often done in
conjunction with one of the other processes to reduce the number
of steps needed to complete a part.
EBM equipment is commonly used by the electronics industry to
aid in the etching of circuits in microprocessors.

Pros
Fast:
In a blink of the eye a tiny hole can be drilled into all materials.
The beam of electrons move at a very high velocity.
Accommodate small batches:
Current trends in manufacturing are for a lean process. In other words,
the fewer parts that have to be kept in the warehouse, the better
produce on demand machining.
Single step process:
In EBM, same tool can be used to anneal and/or weld it at the same
time, the tool can be used to reduce the steps necessary to produce a
finished part.
Reduced steps equals both cost and time savings.
Accurate and can be used on nearly all materials

Cons
Need of a vacuum chamber limits part size
Expensive if accuracy unnecessary
Laser beam machining often just as effective
High specific energy consumption and
expensive machine costs