BULLETIN

of the International Association of ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

de I'Association Internationale de GI~OLOGIE DE L'INGI~NIEUR

BASIC GEOTECHNICAL
PROPERTIES,
SOILS FROM S.W. NIGERIA

CHEMISTRY

N ~ 37

AND MINERALOGY

PROPRII~TI~S GI~OTECHNIQUES
FONDAMENTALES,
CHIMIE
QUES SOLS LATI~RITIQUES DU SUD OUEST DU NIGI~RIA

PARIS

OF SOME

ET MINI~RALOGIE

1988

LATERITE

DE QUEL-

O G U N S A N W O Olufemi*

Abstract
Laterite soils derived from four basement complex rocks and a sedimentary formation from Southwestern Nigeria are analysed for their basic
geotechnical properties, chemistry and mineralogy. Results obtained show that the granite gneiss derived and the sedimentary laterite soils are
good engineering materials. The amphibolite derived laterite soil has a linear shrinkage of 10 % and contains SO]- ions. The quartz schist derived
and the micaschist derived laterite soils contain rather high amounts of muscovite - 30 % and 25 % respectively.
The usability of the laterite soils and the implications of the presence of SO] ions and mica and the high linear shrinkage are discussed.
R4sum6
Les propriet~s geotechniques fondamentales, la chimie et la mineralogie de sols latdritiques derivds de quatre roches du socle et d'une formation
sedimentaire du sud-ouest du Nig6ria sont analys6es. Les resultats obtenus montrent que les sols lateritiques derivds de granite-gneiss et de
sddiments sont de bons materiaux geotechniques. Le sols latdritiques derives d'amphibolites ont un retrait lineaire de 10 % et contiennent des
ions SO~-. Les sols lat~ritiques d6rives de schistes quartzeux et de micaschistcs contiennent des taux de muscovite assez eleves, 30 % et 25 %
respectivement.
L'utilisation des sols lateritiques et les implications de la pr4sence d'ions SOl et de micas ainsi que le fort retrait lineaire sont discutds.

Introduction

horizons have b e e n studied by several workers

(Smyth a n d M o n t g o m e r y , 1962; Jackson, 1980;
M a l o m o et al., 1983 a n d O g u n s a n w o , 1986a).

Southwestern Nigeria lies in the h u m i d tropics where

the m e a n a n n u a l rainfall is often greater than 1200 mm.
This together with the temperatures ranging from a b o u t
20 ~ d u r i n g the H a r m a t t a n to over 35 ~ d u r i n g the hottest
period makes the area well suited for laterite-soil
f o r m a t i o n (Persons, 1970).

G r o u n d w a t e r when present is usually e n c o u n t e r e d

in these horizons.

3. The f o u n d a t i o n of heavy structures are b o r n e in

these horizons.

The geology of this area may be b r o a d l y divided into

b a s e m e n t complex rocks ( i g n e o u s / m e t a m o r p h i c ) which
are p r e - C a m b r i a n (570 M.y.) in age a n d the sedimentary rocks which are Cretaceous (136 M.y.) to Recent
in age. This area is said to be well d r a i n e d (Smyth a n d
M o n t g o m e r y , 1962).

4. Soils from these horizons are also useful as fills a n d

Laterite soils derived from both rock types are generally characterized by rather great thickness (Smyth a n d
M o n t g o m e r y , 1962; Jackson, 1980; a n d O g u n s a n w o ,
1986b). The laterite soils used for this study are all
taken from the pallid ( s a p r o l i t e ) / m o t t l e d horizons for
the following reasons :

Materials and methods

1. These horizons have b e e n f o u n d to be the most

extensive horizons ifi the soil profiles. The overlying

as s u b g r a d e materials in road construction. Samples

of the soil are a n a l y s e d for their chemical and
m i n e r a l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n . Their basic geotechnical
properties are also d e t e r m i n e d .

Laterite soils derived from a m p h i b o l i t e , granite, gneiss,

micaschist a n d quartz Schist (all from the b a s e m e n t
complex) a n d the Coastal Plain Sands (a lateral equivalent of the Benin sands) which is sedimentary, are used
for this study. S a m p l i n g s on the b a s e m e n t complex
derived laterite soils were along roadcuts. In order to

* Department of Geology, University of florin, PMB 1515, llorin, Nigeria

132
6OE

8~

I
i

\
I
I

Iteshcl
O

I
k

Ife

O
Ife',~arQ

o
OkegIgbo
Akure
o
Cndo

I
I
I
t

6~

Fig.

: Areas of study9

Chemical Analyses were carried out via X-ray fluorescence (XRF) using the Kaever type analyses on an
EG & G Ortec System 5000. SO]- and CI- ions were
tested for through gravimetric analyses. The mineralogy
of the bulk samples of the laterite soils as well as the
clay size fraction ( < 2 gm) was determined by means
of an X-Ray Diffractometer (xRD). For the clay size
fraction, the iron oxide present was removed using the
method of Mehra and Jackson (1960). The system was
however buffered with potassium chloride.

obtain fresh samples, horizontal trenches w e r e made

into the roadcut surface. Samples of the sedimentary
laterite soil were taken from the Ojota Quarry in
Maryland, Lagos. Areas of study are shown on Figure 1
and described in details on Table 1.
Colour descriptions (Table 1) are based on the
RAL 840HR (197t) colour chart. The basic index
properties were determined according to :
D I N 18123 (1984) for the grain size analyses.
D I N 18122/1 (1984) for the Atterberg consistency
limits.

It was necessary to remove the iron oxide as it was

found to coat and cement the minerals present and

Table I : Sampling localities and horizons of the laterite soils9

Symbol

Rock
Type

Sampling
Localities

Depth
Roadcut

Depth
of
Sampling

of

Colour on the
RAL 840HR (1971)
colour chart

Texture

Comments

ORD

Quartz
Schist

lfe-Ondo Road

6.5 m

5.5 m

3012 BEIGERED
1015 L I G H T IVORY

Sandy

Saprolitic
exhibits
schistosity

ILE

Mica
Schist

lfe-Akure Road

8.2 m

6.5 m

8001 O C H R E B R O W N
1015 L I G H T IVORY

Silty

Saprolitic
exhibits
schistosity

OJT

Coastal
Plain
sands
(Benin sands)

Ojota Quarry
Marryland, Lagos

7.5 m
(quarry)

6.5 m

8023 O R A N G E B R O W N

Sandy

UNI

Granite
Gneiss

Driveway
Dept. of Geology
Unife

3 m

8023
8001
1011
1014

ORANGEBROWN
OCHREBROWN
BROWNBEIGE
IVORY

Sandy

Mottled

8023 O R A N G E B R O W N

Clayey

Uniform
colour

IFW

Amphibolite

I fe-I fewara
Road

4.2 m

3.2 m

Uniform
colour

133
thereby make their detection difficult (Ogunsanwo,
1968a). Test conditions in the X R D :

they vary from medium plastic silt to medium plastic

clay. The linear shrinkages (L.S. of the laterite soils
range from 2.3 to 10.0 %, the natural densities (p) from
1682 to 1881 k g / m 3 and the specific gravities (P0 from
2707 to 2840 k g / m 3.

Tube -- Cu k(c0 radiation

Operating conditions -- 40 kV: 30 mA
Chart speed -- 2 cm/1~
Count r a t e - 1 x 104 cps
Time constant .... 5

Chemistry and Mineralogy

The laterite soils are characterized by high amounts of
SiO:, considerable amounts of AlzO3, rather low
amounts of Fe:O 3 and appreciable amounts of the
bases (K,O, CaO) (Table 3). With the exception of the
amphibolite derived soil, the soils have molecular silica
(S)/sesquioxide ratios (R) that are greater than 3.0.
SO4- ions were detected only in the amphibolite
derived soils. It was less than 0.05 % (500 ppm). No CI
ions was detected in all the soils.

Results
Basic Geotechnical Properties
According to the grain size distribution curves (Fig. 2),
the fractional percentages and textures of the laterite
soils are in Table 2. They vary from silty sand to silty
clay.

The mineralogies of the clay-size fraction and the bulk

samples are as on Tables 4a and 4b. The removal of
iron oxide from the clay size fraction enabled the other

The plots of the laterite soils on the Plasticity Diagram

after DIN 18196 (1984) (Fig. 3 and Table 2) show that

Table 2 : Chemical analyses (%) of the bulk samples of the laterite soils.

SYMBOL

P
( k g / m ~)

Ps
(kg/m')

ORD

1682

2840

G R A I N SIZE
FRACTIONS (%)

l
SOIL
GROUP

Gravel

Sand

Silt

Cla~

46

40

12

A T T E R B E R G CONSISTENCY
LIMITS (%)

SIUFY SAND

Wk

Wp

Ip

1_,S.

35.2

23.6

I 1.6

3.2

LOSS 03,
IGNITION
(850 ~

PLOT ON
PI.ASTICITY
DIAGRAM
UM : Medium

plastic silt
ILE

1881

2760

35

60

OJT

1730

2707

48

15

UNI

1781

2730

12

35

IPN

1723

2723

23

7.0

SANDY SILT

42.2

35.7

6.5

2.3

UM : Medium

35

CI.AVEY SAND

49.5

21,1

28.4

6.9

TM : Medium

plastic day

7.0

24

29

CLAYEY SAND

47.9

19.7

28.2

6,3

TM : Medium
plastic clay

7. I

36

38

SILTY CLAY

55.5

25.4

30.1 I 10.0

plastic silt

TM : Medium

~LAY

Fine

IMedium
SILT

Eoorse I Fine

IMedium
SA,NO!Coarse

4.2

plastic clay

10.5

IFine !Medium
GRAVEL..
ILoarse
100

II
1

o;

0.001 0.002

...> /
I

0.006

0.02

..3>rI ii ii I

./.i. "" {

. . . .
0.06

0-2

Fig. 2 : G r a i n size distribution curves of the laterite soils 9

I! !

QuArTz scHIsT

0.63

--t. 1-1;
2-0

6.3

20
d (ram)

I!.
50

63 100

134

60-

| QuaRz Schist derived

50-

o Mica Schist derived

9 Coastal Plain Sands derived
x
Granite Gneiss derived
m Amphibotite derived

./

TA

L
I
I
J

i
I
i

30.
I
I
I

20.

Ii / ,

TL
7
t~

!]

TM x . , /

Ij

ST ~ [ I
]L-#" IUL Ii

. . . . .

i--

SU

9OtUMlJ
0

II

20

10

30

OT

55

~0

50

60

70

90

80

100

WEt*/.)
Fig. 3: Plots of the laterite soils on the Plasticity Diagram (DIN 18196, 1984).

Table 3 : Basic geotechnical properties of the laterite soils.

ORD

ILE

OJT

UNI

SiO,

62.59

68.83

67. I I

62.37

51.41

AI:O,

25.40

19.30

21.21

23.93

25.82

2.36

IFW

Fe:O,

3,87

5,87

5.30

12.52

TiO,

0.47

0.64

0.90

0.64

0.81

0.49

0.62

0.32

0.17

0.57

0.43

2.62

0.22

MgO

minerals present be recognized. The minerals are

quartz, kaolinite, muscovite, feldspar with traces of
halloysite (Table 4a).
These minerals with the exception of halloysite are also
present in the bulk samples. In addition, sillimanite was
detected in the quartz schist derived laterite soil (Table
4b).

0.19

CaO
Na,O

--

K,O

0,11

0.13

1.63

4.10

Cu

Table 4a : Mineralogy (%) of the clay size fraction ( < 2 gm) of the
laterite soils (after r e m o v a l of iron oxide).

0.01

H:O'

5,30

4,08

3,47

4,72

3,85

H:O-

0.70

0.38

0.57

1.01

0.37

ORD

--

30

Total

99,25

98,83

99,67

99,88

99,78

ILE

--

75

15

3,85

5.75

4.68

4.00

2.61

QJT

--

--

100

0,05

UNI

30

60

IFW

90

(S)/(R)

so~-

Symbols

CI-

Feldspar

Quartz

Kaolinite Muscovite Halloysite

60

10

traces

10

traces

traces

traces

traces

traces

traces

Table 4b : Mineralogy (%) of the bulk samples of the laterite soils.

Symbols

Feldspar

Quartz

Kaolinite

Muscovite

G oe t hi t e

Others

traces

Sillimanite
5

ORD
lie

--

40

25

30

traces

60

10

25

--

OJT

--

50

35

--

15

--

UNI

50

30

10

--

10

--

I FW

30

traces

55

10

--

135

Discussions
The laterite soils studied are from an area which has
been said to be well drained. It is therefore not
surprising that minerals such as those of the smectite
group which cause soils to possess undesirable geotechnical properties are absent. Even the halloysite
present in the clay fraction of the soils is only in traces.
Also these soils possess natural densities (1962 to 1881
kg/m 3) which are much higher than the 20 to
70 lb/cu.ft. (320 to 1121 kg/m 3) ascribed to problem
laterites (Gidigasu, 1973).
According to the Engineering Use Chart for Soils (after
Wagner, 1957) and based on the plots of the soils on
the Plasticity Diagram (DIM 18196, 1984), the soils
should be good engineering construction materials
when compacted. In the compacted state, they are
expected to
(i)
be impervious in terms of permeability
(ii) possess fair shearing strengths when saturated
(iii) possess medium compressibilities when saturated
and
(iv) have good to fair workabilities as construction
materials.
The amphibolite derived and the granite gneiss derived
as well as the sedimentary laterite soils are however
rated best for use as homogeneous embankments and
cores in rolled earth dams on the same chart. However,
the linear shrinkage of 10% obtained for the amphibolite derived laterite soil makes it unfavourable as this
may cause field compaction problems (Gidigasu, 1973).
The values of Fe,O3 for some of the soils are very low
while the values of SiO 2 are high. This could be due
to the presence of primary minerals such as muscovite,
feldspar and sillimanite. In this hot environment of
intense leaching, secondary minerals such as oxides of
iron (hematite, goethite) and of aluminium (gibbsite,
boehmite) with kaolinite are the expected minerals in
the soil (Loughnan, 1969). As feldspar, muscovite and
sillimanite breakdown, the silica released may be
leached away. This causes depletion in the SiO, values
which will then enhance the values of Al_,O3 and Fe2Oj.
The muscovite, a mica, present in the quartz schist and
the mica schist derived laterite soils (30% and 25 %
respectively) may cause field compaction problems
(Gidigasu, 1973).
The presence of SO]- ions ( < 0,05 %) in the amphibolite derived laterite soils poses some problems. Pyrite
and chalcopyrite mineralization in the amphibolite
rock from which this soil has been derived had been
reported by Olade and Elueze (1979). With the breakdown of the pyrite and chalcopyrite in this oxidising
environment, SO]- ions are quickly formed. The World
Health Organisation (WHO, 1971) permits a maximum
of 0,04 % (400 ppm) of SO]- ions in drinking water.
Also, the presence of SO]- ions tends to aid the
corrosion of certain construction materials.

good engineering construction materials by consideration of their basic geotechnical properties, chemistry
and mineralogy. The high linear shrinkage obtained for
the amphibolite derived laterite soil and the high mica
contents of the quartz schist and the mica schist derived
laterite soils makes them unfavourable as these might
cause field compaction problems. However, specialized
tests will need to be performed in order to ascertain
where each soil is best suited,
The presence of sulphate ions in the amphibo[ite
derived [aterite soil causes some concern. They could
make groundwater contained in them rather unsafe for
human consumption and may hasten the corrosion of
construction materials such as iron, steel and even
concrete.

References
DIN t8122/1, 1984, Baugrund; U n t e r s u c h u n g von Bodenproben:
Zustandsgrenzen (Konsistenzgrenzen) Bestimmung der Fliess
-- und Ausrollgrenze. Deutsches Institut fiir N o r m u n g e.V.
DIN

18123, 1984. Baugrund, U n t e r s u c h u n g yon Bodenproben

Korngrrssenverteilung. Deutsches lnstitut f/ir N o r m u n g e.V.

DIN 18196, 1984. Erdbau; Bodenklassifikation fiir bautechnische

Zwecke und Methoden zum Erkennen yon Bodengruppen.
Deutsches Institut ffir N o r m u n g e.V.
G I D I G A S U M.D., 1973. Review of identification of problem laterite
soils in highway engineering. Transp. Res. Board. Wash., Rec.,
497 : 96-111.
J A C K S O N J.O., 1980. The failure of foundations in coastal plain
sands. 7th Reg. Conf. for Africa SMFE, Accra, I : 261-268.
L O U C H N A N F.C., 1969. Chemical Weathering of the Silicate
Minerals. Elsevier, New York, N.Y., 154 pp.
M A L O M O S., OBADEMI M.O., O D E D I N A P.O. and ADEBO,
O.A,, 1983. An investigation of the peculiar characteristics of
laterite soils from Southern Nigeria. Bull IAEG, 28 : 197-206.
M E H R A O.P. and J A C K S O N M.L., t960. Iron oxide removal from
soils and clays by a dithionite citrate system buffered with
sodium bicarbonate. Proc. 7th Nat. Conf. Clays and Clay
Miner. : 317-327.
O G U N S A N W O O, 1986a. Basic index properties, mineralogy and
microstructure of an amphibolite derived laterite soil. Bull.
IAEG, 33 : 19-25.
O G U N S A N W O O., 1986b. Influence of angle of inclination of
schistosity planes on the geotechnical properties of a schist
saprolite. Eng. Geol. 23 : 13%143.
O L A D E M.A. and ELUEZE A.A., 1979. Petrochemistry of the llesha
amphibolites and precambrian crustal evolution in the
Pan-African domain of S.W. Nigeria. Precamb. Res., 8:
303-318.
PERSONS B.S., 1970. Laterite: Genesis, Location, Use. Plenum
Press, New York, N.Y., 103 pp.
RAL, 1971. Farberegister RAL 840 HR. Ausschuss f~r Lieferbedigungen und Giitesicherung beim DNA, Frankfurt am Main.
SMY-rH A.J. and M O N T G O M E R Y R.F,, 1962. Soils and Land Use
in Central Western Nigeria. The G o v e r n m e n t of Western
Nigrria, lbadan, 265 pp.

Conclusion

W A G N E R A.A., 1957. The use of the unified soil classification

system by the Bureau of Reclamation. Proc. 4th ICSMFE,
London, 1 : 125.

Of the five laterite soils considered, only the granite

gneiss derived and the sedimentary laterite qualify as

WHO,

1971. International standards for drinking water. World

Health Organisation, Geneva.