1040

PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JULY

1973

REFERENCES

111 H. Iwasaki. K. Sugii. T. Yamada. and N. Niijeki, "5PbO.3GeO2 crystal; a new

ferroelectric.' Appl. Phys. Leu.. vol. 18. pp. 444-445, May 15, 1971.
121 S. Nanamatsu. H. Sugiyama, IC. Doi, and Y. Kondo. 'Ferroelectricity in
PbGerOn," I. Phys. SOC.Japan. vol. 31, p. 616, Aug. 1971.
[3] H. 1-ki
and K. Sugii, "Optical activity of ferroelectric 5 P b 0 . 3 M single
crystals." Appl. Phys. L c f f . , vol. 19, pp. 92-93, Aug. 15. 1971.
141 T. Yameda. H. Iwasaki. and N. Niijeki. 'Elastic andpiezoelectric properties
of ferroelectric 5Pb0.3Geoz Crystals.' I. Appl. Phys.. vol. 42. pp. 171-775,
Mar. 1972.
[q J. P.Dougherty, E. S a w a m c h i . and L. E. Cross, 'Ferroelectric optical rotation
domains in s i n g l e u ~ s t a lP ~ G ~ O ~AM.
I , " Phys. Lcu., vd. 20, pp. 364-365.
May 1. 1972.
[6l S. E. Cummins and T. E. Luke, 'A new method of o p t i y y reading domains in
bismuth titanate for display and memory applications. I E E E Tram-. Ekdrox
D c o i w , VOL ED-18, pp. 761-768. Sept. 1971.

Hologram Matrix and Its Application to a

Novel Radar

Fig.

HISANAO OGUFU AND K E I G O IIZUKA

Abstract-Thehologrammatrix,which
is a more elementary
quantity than a conventional microwave hologram and
contains much
more information, is defined. Its applicationtoamicrowave holographicradar is described. This radar determines the distance by
the spatialdistribution of the scattered waveanddiffersfrom
all
other radars which determine the distance
by the lapseof time.
Some promising results were obtained
from the computer simulation of such a radar.
The hologram matrix was defined and its versatility was demonstrated byshowing its application to a holographic radar.
In microwave or acoustic holography it is easy to record both the
phase and amplitudeof the field relative to thereference, namely, the
real and imaginary parts of the complex field, by means of a phase
comparator and store them in the computer bank [ l 1. I t may be
worthwhile pointing outthatthere
is a difference between this
mapping and the intensity mapping of the sum of the object and
reference beams normally made in an optical hologram. For instance,
in the former only one image, real or virtual, can he reconstructed,
while in the latter both real and virtual images are present.
Consider that a number of transmitting and receiving antennas
exist along a line. Now, only the mth antennais switched on, illuminating theobject, and thecomplex scattered field H,. is recorded by
the nth receiver. Ifwe record the complex scattered field for every
combination of the transmitting and receiving antennas an N X N
matrix H , , can be completed, where N is the total number of receivbe called the 'hologram
ing or transmitting antennas. Let Hmnmatrix." This is actually an "S matrix" of the object associated with
the antenna array. Itgoes without saying that the hologram matrix
is a more elementary quantitythanthe
hologram made by the
simultaneous illumination of all the transmitting antenna elements,
and containsmuch more information.
Notice an advantageover the intensitymapping hologram in that
once the hologram matrix is recorded, the linear transformation of
H,, with respect to m can generate a hologram of any arbitrary
mode of illumination

respect to the two indices of the matrices. At this point it should be

pointed out that the spatialfrequency of the scattered-fieldat some
distance where the evanescent wave hardly reaches, is band limited
and the inverse of the free-space wavelength is the highest spatial
frequency. Hence the sampling theorem is applicable to therecording
of a hologram. This is an advantage in the digital recording and
processing of such a hologram.
We will describe briefly an application to a microwave h o b
graphic radar which is being developed by us. Fig. 1 shows the
geometry of the transmitting and receiving antenna arrays of the
holographic radar. The purpose of the radar is t o measure the distance y = Ebetween the radar and the target. Let both transmitting
and receiving antenna arrays have N elements and length L. For a
moment we assume the phases of the elements of the transmitting
antenna are adjusted to emit
a narrow beam, and measure along
the x axis the field h(xn) which is the sumof the scatteredfield from a
series of scattering centers St located along the yt axis

Noting that by transforming the variable x.* into X , (3) can be

made into a form of discrete Fourier transform (DFT), and once it
becomes a form of DFT, theprocessing becomes extremely simplified
and the distribution sk of the scattering centers can be obtained by
inverse D F T of h(x,,). The transformation at xrz to X , is achieved by
spacing the antennaelements quadratically, namely, equally spacing
in x1 and I* as shown in Fig. 1. Denote the position of the mth transmitting antenna by Z,, m = l , 2, 3, * * , N and the nth receiving
antenna by X,, n = 1,2,3,
, N . Then

The inverse DFT of the sampled hologram h(X,,) thus obtained

gives the spectrum St of the scattering intensity distribution

h. = CfXL

(1)

I-I

f,,, being a set of complex numbers associated with the mode of

illumination.
The processing of the hologram, such as the reconstruction of the,
image, is another linear transformation of h, with respect to n
N

It

CC
-1

gtmfmHmn

(2)

where k corresponds to thedistance

L'
k=;0,1,2,..*,N-l
2M
where X is the wavelength.
Next, h, is expressed by the hologram matrix Hmm.
The focusing
of the beam of the transmitting antenna array is achieved by SUCcessively delaying the phase of the excitation of its elements
Y~=---P

m-1

k being the image coordinate and gt,, the complex numbers aciatedwith the processing. Thus the processing of the hologram
matrix generally consists of the double linear transformation with
Manuscript received January 26. 1973. This work wassupported by the De
partment of Energy, Mines, and Resources of Canada under a Research Contract.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering.University of
Toronto. Toronto, Ont.Canada

when the transmitter is focused at y t . Note that (6) is againa form of

DFT.
Inserting (6) into (S),

1041

The Use of the Smith Chart in Classical Frequency

Response Analysis of Control Systems-

TARQT

HARRY A. SHUBERT

Abstract-Because they are conformal maps of applicable equations, and because of the geometric properties of those maps, Smith
charts can be used to represent the complex-valued plota of the frequency response of both the open- and closed-loop gains of a singleinput singleoutput systemon the same graph, inside the unit circle.
The plots thus obtained may be used, often better than polar plots or
Nichols charts, in any classical frequency response design or analysis
procedure of which the author is aware, and present m a n y advantages.

20

Classical control system design and analysis using frequency response techniques, such as the Nyquist plot method, may be viewed
as employing conformal mapping [l, pp. 411413,425-430, 4591, but
the applicability and usefulness of the Smith chartin these methods,
pointed out in this letter, is not apparently known to control engineers. Smith charts are used in cases which are similar mathematically, as graphical tools for transmissionline and antennacalculations
and data [2 3. They are atleast as available as Nichols charts, and are
applicable to the Same type of control problems as Nichols and polar
plot charts. In this service they possess several advantages to be
shown below. A Smith chartis illustrated in Fig. 1.
Nyquist analysis is used for systems such as the one whose block
diagram is shown in Fig. 2. The open-loop gain function of the system is given by KG(S), andthe closed-loop gain, G(S), bythe
formula

USTAM H METER5

Fig. 2.Computer

simulation of the radar.

(For details of Nyquist analysis and design by conventional means

with k =0, 1, 2,
* , N - 1. Thus the distribution of the scattering
centers is given in terms of the diagonal components of the double
D F T of the hologram matrix.
The factors A , and B, are complex numbers which are to be
used for either correcting the nonuniformity of the amplitude and
phase of each antenna element channel due to imperfect construction, or designing unequally driven antenna arrays. This is another
advantage of the computer processing because it eliminates the need
of the trimming phase shifters and the laborious task of their adjustment. The physical meaning of (7) is the simultaneous focusing
of the transmitting and receiving arrays to the point yk, and this
promises a high resolving power of the radar.
Fig. 2 shows the results of the computer simulation of the radar.
A flat perfectly conducting wall was used as a target. The distance
between the radar and the wall is to be determined by this radar.
The intensity of the scattering centers 1 .%I * was plottedin the
vertical axis and the inverse of the distance 1/yk in the horizontal
axis. A sharp peak of the curve is obtained at the position corresponding to thelocation of the wall.
A radar which operates on the preceding principle has been under
construction for the purpose of measuring the thickness of ice layers.
In the case of a conventional radar, time is the key factor in determining the distance. On the other hand, with the present radar,
the spatial distribution of the scattered wave is the one which determines the distance to the target. Thisis the point where this radar
differs from all other conventionalradars. Because of this unique
principle of operation, this radar is expected to achieve superior performance in theshort range to that of any of the conventional
radars. This radar takesfull advantage of the capabilityof the computer to extract the information, and hence the construction of the
machine is substantially simpler than that of conventional radars.
ACKNOWLEDGYEXT
The authors wish to thank Prof. J. L. Yen of the University of
Toronto for his fruitful discussions, J. R. Ueedmark for performing
the computer simulation, and Dr. L. W. Morley of the Department
of Energy, Mines, and Resources of Canada for his.enthusiastic support.
REFERENCE
111 G.A. Deschamps. *Some remark on radio-frequency holography, Pmc. I E E E
(Lett.), vol. 55. pp. 570-571. Apr. 1967.

see [3].) One can do many tnings, such as: 1) apply the Nyquist cri-

terion to theopen-loop gain plot to test for stability of the closed loop
system; 2) draw Mcircles and N circles to getinformation on the
gain and phase of the closed-loop system and the approximate damping factor, f , of the most significant roots; 3) observe the effects of
various compensation networks on the system; 4) draw an inverse
gain plot, and use it to do anyof steps 1) through 3), or others not
listed. All these operations can be performed easily on a Smith chart.
Most cannot be illustrated here, however, for lack of space.
The Smith chart is a map, on the complex W plane, of the complex Z plane, where W and Z are related by the bilinear transformation:

I t is well known [ l , pp. 425-4301 that (2) represents a conformal

map of the G plane on to theG plane. To see how a Smith chart may
be used to exploit this, rewrite (1) as

This is seen to be in the same form as (2).with W=G and

Z

= 2KG(jw)

+ 1.

(4)

Therefore, if one then obtains KG, and thus Z, in rectangular form,

and plots Z on the orthogonal Smith chart coordinates, the resultant
map is directly a polar plot of the closed-loop gain, while retaining
most of the features of the open-loop gain, as is discussed in the following. Thus both open- and closed-loop gain are represented on the
same plot. This is one of the advantages of the use of Smith charts.
The most important facets of this mapping are: 1) The Mcircles
all map intocircles centered about the origin, which can be drawn easily
with a compass, and their radii (directly proportional to closed-loop
gain magnitude I G 1 ) can be directly read off the Smith chart scale.
users of Nichols charts should apThis is an important advantage, as
preciate. 2) N circles all map into straightlines through the origin,
and theangles N can be read directly in degrees or radians from the
Smith chart scales. 3) Encirclements of given points, such as the - 1
point, by the Nyquist plot, are preserved between the mapped locus
Manuscript received January 26. 1973.
The author is with the Department of Engineering Sciences. Louisiana State
University in New Orleans, New Orleans. La. 70122.