Familiarization of Observation

Instruments use in Astronomy

Figure 1

Familiarization of
Astronomical Observation
Instruments

Telescope
Telescope is an optical instrument designed to make distant objects appear nearer
and bigger. Telescope magnifies the image of distant objects through an
arrangement of lenses, or of curved mirrors and lenses, by which rays of light are
collected and focused to a point.
In modern definition, a telescope is an instrument that aids in the observation of
remote / distant objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation. The
word telescope now refers to a wide range of instruments detecting different regions
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Depending upon detecting capability a telescope
can be radio, infrared, x-ray or optical telescope.
The word "telescope" comes from the Greek word
, tele "far" and , skopein "to look or
see"; ,teleskopos "far-seeing" was coined
in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni
Demisiani for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments
presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei.
In the Starry Messenger, Galileo had used the term
"perspicillum".

History of Optical Telescope:

he earliest known working telescopes appeared in 1608 and are credited
to Hans
Lippershey.
The
design
of
these
early refracting
telescopes consisted
of
a
convex objective lens
and
a
concave eyepiece. Galileo used this design the following year. In
1611, Johannes Kepler described how a telescope could be made with a convex
objective lens and a convex eyepiece lens and by 1655 astronomers such as
Christiaan Huygens were building powerful but unwieldy Keplerian telescopes with
compound eyepieces. Hans Lippershey is the earliest person documented to have
applied for a patent for the device.

Isaac Newton is credited with building the first practical

reflector in 1668 with a design that incorporated a small
flat diagonal mirror to reflect the light to an eyepiece
mounted on the side of the telescope. Laurent
Cassegrain in 1672 described the design of a reflector
with a small convex secondary mirror to reflect light
through a central hole in the main mirror.
The achromatic lens, which greatly reduced color
aberrations in objective lenses and allowed for shorter
and more functional telescopes, first appeared in a 1733
telescope made by Chester Moore Hall, who did not
publicize it. John Dollond learned of Hall's invention and
began producing telescopes using it in commercial
quantities, starting in 1758.

Important developments in reflecting telescopes

were John
Hadley's
production
of
larger paraboloidal mirrors in 1721; the process
of silvering glass
mirrors
introduced
by Lon
Foucault in 1857, and the adoption of long lasting
aluminized coatings on reflector mirrors in 1932.
Almost all of the large optical research telescopes
used today are reflectors.

Brief History of Radio Telescope:

he era of radio telescopes (along with radio astronomy) was born

with Karl Guthe Jansky's unanticipated discovery of an astronomical
radio source in 1931. Karl Jansky was an engineer with Bell Telephone
Laboratories, in 1932. Jansky was assigned the job of identifying sources

of static that might interfere with radio telephone service. Jansky's antenna was an
array of dipoles and reflectors designed to receive short wave radio signals
(20.5 MHz & = 14.6 mtr). It was mounted on a turntable that allowed it to rotate
in any direction. By rotating the antenna on a set of four Ford Model-T tires, the
direction of the received interfering radio source (static) could be pinpointed. A
small shed to the side of the antenna housed an analog pen-and-paper recording
system. After recording signals from all directions for several months, Jansky
eventually categorized them into three types of static: nearby thunderstorms,
distant thunderstorms, and a faint steady hiss of unknown origin. Jansky finally
determined that the "faint hiss" repeated on a cycle of 23 hours and 56 minutes.
This period is the length of an astronomical sidereal day, the time it takes any
"fixed" object located on the celestial sphere to come back to the same location in
the sky. Thus Jansky suspected that the hiss originated well beyond the Earth's
atmosphere, and by comparing his observations with optical astronomical maps,
Jansky concluded that the radiation was coming from the Milky Way Galaxy and
was strongest in the direction of the center of the galaxy, in
the constellation of Sagittarius.
Many types of radio telescopes were developed in the 20th century for a wide range
of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays.

Classification of Optical Telescope

Optical telescopes can be classified mainly in three primary optical designs,
known as refractor, reflector, or Compound.
Refractors (Dioptrics) have a lens at
the front of the tube it's the type
you're probably most familiar with.
While generally low maintenance,
they quickly get expensive as the
aperture increases.

Reflectors
(Catoptrics) gather
light
using a mirror at the rear of the main
tube. For a given aperture, these are
generally the least expensive type, but
you'll need to adjust the optical
alignment periodically especially if you
bump it around a lot.

Compound (or catadioptric)

telescopes, use a combination of
lenses and mirrors, offer compact
tubes and relatively light weight; two
popular designs are called SchmidtCassegrains
and
MaksutovCassegrains.

Telescopes can also be classified according to the task it performed as:

a)
b
)
c)
d
)
e)
f)
g)

Astrograph
Astronomical optical interferometry

h) Robotic telescope
i) Solar telescope

Comet seeker
GoTo telescopes

j) Space telescope
k) Spotting scope

Graphic telescope
Infrared telescope
Meridian circle

l) Sun Gun Telescope

m) Zenith telescope

Magnification (Power) of a Telescope:

he objective's focal length (F or FL) is the key to determining the
telescope's magnification ("power"). This is simply the objective's focal
length divided by that of the eyepiece, which you'll find on its barrel. For
example, if a telescope has a focal length of 500 mm and a 25-mm
eyepiece, the magnification is 500/25, or 20x. Most types of telescopes come
supplied with one or two eyepieces; observer can change the magnification by
switching eyepieces with different focal lengths.

Telescope Mounts
The best telescope in the world is useless unless it's on a solid, stable, smoothlyworking mount, one that permits it to be directed to the desired part of the sky and
to follow a celestial object smoothly and precisely as the Earth turns beneath it.

In realistic terms, a "stable"

mount is one that, when
using a moderate to high
power, will not vibrate for
more than a second or so
after rap the tube. In
particular, the view can't
wiggle so much when we
hold the focus knob that we
can't see when we've found
the sharpest focus. And
when we let go, the aim must
not jump to one side. This
completely eliminates the
typical
"department-store"
semi-toy
telescope
from
consideration.
While there are variations on
a theme, we will encounter
two
types
of
mount: altitude-azimuth (or
"alt-az") and equatorial.

An
alt-az
mount
operates like a tripod's
pan-and-tilt
head,
moving the scope updown (in altitude) and
left-right (in azimuth).
Equatorial mounts also
possess two axes, but
they're tilted so that
one can be aligned with
the rotational axis of
the Earth.
If we are intending to use a small telescope for casual sky viewing or daytime use
(say, bird watching), the alt-az mount preferable. Well engineered mounts of this
type will have finely threaded slow-motion controls that enable the scope to be
moved smoothly by tiny amounts, especially important when using high powers.
The value of such refinements will be all too apparent when tracking a star or
planet at high magnification.

The Dobsonian is a form of alt-az mount. Inexpensive materials such as

particleboard and Teflon figure in its construction, resulting in a low-cost, lowcenter-of-gravity mount that (ideally) glides smoothly about both axes with fingertip
control. A Newtonian reflector mounted in this fashion is not only extremely easy to
set up and intuitive to use, but very good value, too.

An equatorial mount
makes the tracking of
celestial objects easier as
the Earth turns. Once
correctly set up, the
scope need only be
turned about one axis to
follow an object across
the sky and a drive
motor
can
do
this
automatically.
An
equatorial is mandatory
for
most
astrophotography.

For a telescope intended for astronomy,

and for which photography is a future
prospect, consideration should be given
to some form of equatorial mount that
automatically
counteracts
Earth's
rotation. It's far easier to track a celestial
object with a scope mounted this way,
since observer need only to turning the
scope about one axis not two
simultaneously, as in the alt-az. When
an equatorial mount is properly set up,
turning the slow-motion control of
its polar axis is all that's required to
keep an object in view.

More sophisticated mounts, including modern high-tech alt-az mounts, have builtin electric motor drives to do this, freeing observer to concentrate on observing.
So is one type of mount better than the other? Not really, since each has its
strengths. For the casual observer who wants a highly portable scope that can be
quickly set up in a variety of locations, an alt-az is preferable especially a
Dobsonian. An equatorial, while virtually mandatory for most forms of
astrophotography and critical observations of the Moon and planets at high power,
needs to have its polar axis aligned with the rotational axis of the Earth. While
polar alignment is not particularly difficult and becomes routine with practice, it

can take a little time at the start of your observing session if you want to do it
really precisely (necessary for photography but not for just looking).

Internet Reference: http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-equipment/types-oftelescopes/

Astronomical
Binoculars

Binoculars
Binoculars (also known as field glasses or binocular telescopes) are a pair of
identical or mirror-symmetrical telescopes mounted side-by-side and aligned to
point accurately in the same direction, allowing the viewer to use both eyes
(binocular vision) when viewing distant objects.
Binoculars have long held a prominent place in amateur astronomy, with many
observers having them as part of their observing kit. Binoculars are simply two
small telescopes mounted side by side. The best glasses for general astronomy are
7x50s or 10x50s. However, any size can work as an astronomical instrument. What
size one chooses depends largely on their budget and needs.

Two basic terms are magnification and aperture. You often see them as numbers,
such as 7x50 or 8x30. The first number is the magnification, or "power," telling
how many times an object is magnified or how much larger it will appear. The
second number is the aperture, the diameter of each of the front (or "objective")
lenses in millimeters. Therefore, 8x30 binoculars (spoken as "8 by 30") will make
objects appear eight times larger than with the unaided eye and have objective
lenses 30 mm in diameter. The larger the objective lenses, the greater the light
grasp, and the brighter the object will appear at a given magnification.

In astronomy, most targets glow only dimly in the darkest depths of night, so a
large aperture becomes much more important than it is for daytime use.

Therefore 7x50 binoculars will show many more stars and deep-sky objects than
7x35s because, though both units magnify everything to the same apparent size,
the 7x50s collect about twice as much light, thereby making stars appear twice as
bright.
Field of view is the
area of land or sky the
glasses present to your
eyes.
Makers
of
binoculars often state
this as width in feet at
1,000
yards.
For
example, engraved on
7x50 binoculars might
be the phrase "372 feet
at 1,000 yards."
This is the binocular's linear field of view. But astronomers are used to fields of
view being expressed in degrees. The conversion is easy divide the linear field by
52.4. So the 7x50s mentioned above have an angular field of view of slightly more
than 7. Remember that the higher the power of your binoculars, the smaller the
field of view will be.

The exit pupil

The exit pupil is the disk of light you see apparently floating in the eyepiece when
the instrument is held a foot or so from your eyes. This little disk must be equal to
or smaller than the pupil of your eye if you want the full light-collecting benefit of
the instrument's aperture. You can measure the exit pupil directly with a
millimeter ruler or just divide the aperture by the magnification. So both 7x35 and
10x50 binoculars have exit pupils 5 mm wide.

Young people's eyes have pupils

that open to about 7 mm in the
dark. So a 7-mm exit pupil is
generally taken to be the largest you
can use if you want all the light
collected by the binoculars to enter
your eye. But it's important to
remember that our eyes dilate less
as we age, so a 5-mm exit pupil is a
better guideline for middle-aged and
older people.
Eye relief indicates how far the
binoculars can be held from your
eyes and still allow you to see the
full field of view. Long eye relief is
especially useful for people who
must wear glasses while observing
in order to correct for astigmatism.
If you're merely nearsighted or
farsighted, you can take off your
glasses and refocus the binoculars
to compensate.

Mechanical Arrangement:
Most binocular bodies come in one of three styles : (1) The roof-prism, or "H" style,
(2) The Zeiss, or "German" style, and (3) The Bausch & Lomb, or "American," style.
The latter two are Porro-prism designs and often look similar, but they differ quite
a bit in concept and structural integrity.
The
Zeiss-style
binocular
is
characterized on the outside by its twopiece body. The housing for the objective
screws into the main body, or prism
housing, which is divided in two, with a
Porro prism in each half held in place by
a steel spring clip.
This construction leaves the binoculars
more susceptible to being knocked out of
alignment than the American-style, onepiece body in which the prisms are
mounted together on a "shelf."

Roof prisms vs. Porro prisms.

We often hear people say roof-prism binoculars are better than the more familiar
Porro-prism design. For astronomy, this is not true. Roof prisms allow binoculars
to be made small and light a great advantage for hikers and other active users.
But in roof-prism binoculars the light beam is split into two parts, then
recombined. The tolerances for doing this successfully are extremely tight, so roofprism binoculars are expensive to manufacture and test. Moreover, due to the wave
nature of light, the beams are "phase shifted" when they recombine, leading to a
loss of contrast. Some manufacturers are now coating their roof prisms with
"phase coatings" to increase contrast and close the quality gap with Porro-prism
binoculars. Still, there's no reason for astronomers to depart from binoculars with
Porro prisms.

Porro prisms

Roof prisms

Interior of a roof binocular

Center focus vs. individual focus.

Center focus
Most people opt for a centerfocus model, in which turning a
small
wheel
between
the
eyepieces focuses both of them
at once but only after
correcting for any difference in
nearsightedness
or
farsightedness between your
eyes. This is done by first
focusing for the left eye (using
the center wheel) and then
bringing the right-eye view into
focus by adjusting the right
eyepiece focuser. This isn't the
best choice for astronomers.
After all, celestial objects don't
change their distance, and so
frequent
refocusing
isn't
required.

Individual focus

Individually focused eyepieces

are simpler, more rugged, and
less
prone
to
moisture
infiltration. Best of all, they
won't tilt back and forth when
you turn the focus in and out or
rock side to side when you press
unequally against the eyepieces.

Anti-reflection Coatings.
Few features are touted more in binocular ads than the quality of antireflection
optical coatings. In the best binoculars all air-to-glass surfaces are multicoated,

which not only improves light transmission but also minimizes internal reflections
and ghosting. Modern multi-coatings are better than single-layer magnesium
fluoride (MgF) coatings, but a lot depends on how well any coating is applied.

On
many
inexpensive
instruments,
internal
surfaces
are
left
uncoated. "Fully coated"
ought to mean all air-toglass surfaces are coated,
but in practice it can
mean almost anything. As
for
comparing
multicoatings by two reputable
manufacturers, you might
as well try to split hairs
with an ax there's just
not much difference.

One crude in-store test of antireflective

coatings is to place your hand over the
eyepiece and look down at the objective
lens. In glasses with simple magnesium
fluoride on the objectives, you'll
probably see your face quite well. In a
multicoated lens you'll see a noticeably
dimmer reflection. And contrary to
urban legend, you can't reliably judge
the quality of coatings by their color.
However, a totally white reflection may
indicate an optical surface that is not
coated at all.
For the last few years, some companies have sold binoculars with so-called "ruby"
coatings that increase the contrast between brown and green objects. This feature
is fine for nature lovers trying to distinguish a deer or other brown-toned animal
against the green background of foliage, but sky-gazers don't find many brown

bears free-floating in space! In addition, if you look at the objectives you'll see your
face very well much better than with multicoated or MgF-coated lenses. This
reflection means you're seeing light that should be going the other way through
the instrument to your eyes. With the coating reflecting so much light, the
binocular's light grasp is significantly reduced. Thus, users of ruby-coated
binoculars are trading image brightness for a slight improvement in contrast a
tradeoff that amateur astronomers should avoid.

Baffling.
The presence of shielding against stray light and internal reflections mustn't be
taken for granted. Aim the binoculars at a bright surface or scene. The field of view
should be surrounded by a black or very dark background and not be affected by
shiny reflections from internal parts or the improper placement of field stops.
Anything less will result in a loss of contrast.

Glass Types.

Another binocular feature often oversold is the type of glass used in the prisms.
For most designs, prisms made of barium light crown glass (Bak4) are preferred
over the industry-standard borosilicate crown glass (Bk7). Bak4 has a higher
refractive index, which allows the exit pupil to be fully illuminated. The lessexpensive Bk7 prisms put squarish, gray edges on the exit pupils. In practice, most
people will not notice the slight loss of image brightness from Bk7 prisms,
particularly if the binoculars have a large exit pupil.

Collimation.

Since binoculars may be thought of as a pair of telescopes mounted side by side,

an error in collimation (alignment of the two telescopes) can significantly reduce
the performance of even the best binoculars. In "true" collimation, the two barrels
remain aligned with each other no matter what the interpupillary distance the
gap between the pupils of observers eyes. When binoculars are aligned for only one
particular interpupillary distance, they're not really collimated. Inexperienced
technicians often use this "conditional alignment" when aligning or realigning
binoculars. As binoculars age and get bumped around, their collimation will
gradually drift. Insisting on good-quality mechanics when buying a binoculars
ensures that they will last longer before collimation errors become a problem.

Waterproofing.

The most common reason binoculars need repair, aside from getting knocked out
of collimation, is moisture stains or fungus on the prisms and lenses. Repeated
changes in temperature and humidity allow condensation to damage internal parts
and cloud optical surfaces. (Dunking binoculars in the lake doesn't help, either.) To
"just clean" binoculars actually means an expensive disassembly, reassembly, and
complete recollimation. By comparison, a premium, waterproof, dry-nitrogen-filled
instrument begins to look economical.

Holding Binoculars Steady

Holding 7-power binoculars steady is not a chore for most people. But use a higher
power, or point binoculars skyward, and body tremors cause the image to bounce
and shake. This motion compromises observers view of the night sky and robs the
image of fine detail. The traditional (and inexpensive) solution to the jitters is to
attach the binoculars to a tripod. Most binoculars come with a threaded mounting
hole. An L-shaped adapter screws into this hole and onto a camera tripod. Also
available are binocular mounts specifically designed for astronomical use.
A different approach to the problem came in 1980 when Fujinon introduced the
Stabiscope a gyro-stabilized binocular. So good is this unit that a 14-power
image can be stabilized enough for use from a helicopter or fast-moving boat or
automobile. But its high price tag kept the unit from catching on with casual
observers. Fortunately, image stabilization (IS) for astronomers has arrived. Canon
is offering a whole family of lightweight, handheld IS binoculars, and other
companies (Fujinon included) are entering the fray.

Pressing a button on the top of the binocular housing activates the imagestabilization system. But this new technology comes with a price most IS
binoculars are several times more expensive than their non-stabilized equivalents.
While most people don't really need help holding low-power binoculars steady, the
higher-power units are real astronomical workhorses. Stabilization allows you to
view objects fainter than you might think possible, and it helps reveal far more
detail than would be visible in equivalent non-IS binoculars. Binoculars offer
novice stargazers an intuitive way to explore the sky. Veterans often regard
binocular observing as an activity distinct from telescopic viewing. Regardless of
your experience, quality binoculars belong in every observer's kit.

Advanced Optical
Telescopes

Advanced Optical
Telescopes

Cassegrain reflector telescopes

The Cassegrain reflector is a combination of a primary concave mirror and a
secondary convex mirror, often used in optical telescopes and radio antennas.
In a symmetrical Cassegrain both mirrors are aligned about the optical axis, and
the primary mirror usually contains a hole in the centre thus permitting the light
to reach an eyepiece, a camera, or a light detector. Alternatively, as in many radio
telescopes, the final focus may be in front of the primary. In an asymmetrical
Cassegrain, the mirror(s) may be tilted to avoid obscuration of the primary or the
need for a hole in the primary mirror (or both).

The classic Cassegrain configuration uses a parabolic reflector as the primary

while the secondary mirror is hyperbolic.[1]Modern variants often have a hyperbolic
primary for increased performance( for example, the RitcheyChrtien design), or
the primary and/or secondary are spherical or elliptical for ease of manufacturing.

The Cassegrain reflector is named after a published reflecting telescope design that
appeared in the April 25, 1672 Journal des savans which has been attributed
to Laurent Cassegrain. Similar designs using convex secondaries have been found
in
the Bonaventura
Cavalieri's
1632
writings
describing
burning
mirrors and Marin Mersenne's 1636 writings describing telescope designs. James
Gregory's 1662 attempts to create a reflecting telescope included a Cassegrain
configuration, judging by a convex secondary mirror found among his experiments.
The Cassegrain design is also used in catadioptric systems
The SchmidtCassegrain is
a
catadioptric
telescope that combines a Cassegrain reflector's
optical path with a Schmidt corrector plate to
make a compact astronomical instrument that
uses simple spherical surfaces.
The first optical element is a Schmidt corrector
plate. The plate is figured by placing a vacuum on
one side, and grinding the exact correction
required
to
correct
the spherical
aberration caused by the primary mirror.
Schmidt-Cassegrains are popular with amateur
astronomers. An early Schmidt-Cassegrain
camera
was
patented
in
1946
by
artist/architect/physicist Roger
Hayward, with
the film holder placed outside the telescope.
The Maksutov-Cassegrain is a variation of
the Maksutov
telescope named
after
the Soviet / Russian optician and
astronomer Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov.
It starts with an optically transparent
corrector lens that is a section of a hollow
sphere. It has a spherical primary mirror,
and a spherical secondary that in this
application is usually a mirrored section
of the corrector lens.

In the Argunov-Cassegrain telescope all

optics are spherical, and the classical
Cassegrain secondary mirror is replaced by
a sub-aperture corrector consisting of three
air spaced lens elements. The element
farthest from the primary mirror is
a Mangin mirror, in which the element acts
as a second surface mirror, having a
reflective coating applied to the surface
facing the sky.

The
Klevtsov-Cassegrain,
like
the
ArgunovCassegrain, uses a sub-aperture corrector. It
consisting of a small meniscus lens and Mangin
mirror as its "secondary mirror".

Applications
The SchmidtCassegrain design is very popular with consumer telescope
manufacturers because it combines easy to manufacture spherical optical surfaces
to create an instrument with the long focal length of a refracting telescope with the
lower cost per aperture of a reflecting telescope. The compact design makes it very
portable for its given aperture, which adds to its marketability. Their high f-ratio
means they are not a wide field telescope like their Schmidt camera predecessor
but they are good for more narrow field deep sky and planetary viewing.

Rrr

Main Parts of
a Telescope

Primary Mirror :

Secondary Mirror:

Mirror Support:

Clamps:

TriPod:

Mirror Adjusting Mechanism:

Eyepiece
An eyepiece (Ocular Lens) is a type of lens that is attached to a telescope. It is so
named because it is usually the lens that is closest to the eye when someone looks
through the device. The objective lens or mirror collects light and brings it to focus
creating an image. The eyepiece is placed near the focal point of the objective to
magnify this image. The amount of magnification depends on the focal length of the
eyepiece.
An eyepiece consists of several "lens elements" in a housing, with a "barrel" on one
end. The barrel is shaped to fit in a special opening of the instrument to which it is
attached. The image can be focused by moving the eyepiece nearer and further

from the objective. Most instruments have a focusing mechanism to allow

movement of the shaft in which the eyepiece is mounted, without needing to
manipulate the eyepiece directly.
In telescopes eyepieces are usually interchangeable. By switching the eyepiece, the
user can adjust what is viewed. For instance, eyepieces will often be interchanged
to increase or decrease the magnification of a telescope. Eyepieces also offer
varying fields of view, and differing degrees of eye relief for the person who looks
through them.
Eyepieces determine the magnification and field of view of a telescope. Different
eyepieces are used to view different objects. Some objects, such as nebulae and
star clusters, appear quite large and are best viewed at low magnifications (which
give a wider field of view), whereas planets appear very small and are normally
viewed with high-magnification eyepieces.
One of the most common
misconceptions in amateur astronomy is that magnification is the most important
aspect of a telescope. In reality, the diameter (aperture) of a telescope determines
its power and different eyepieces are used to get the best view of a given object.
Often the best view is at a low magnification.
Why are eyepieces even necessary?
A telescope is an optical system that creates an image, just like a camera lens
creates an image on film. In fact, placing a camera at the focus of a telescope will
also capture an image, since the telescope becomes the camera lens. But, placing
your eye at the focus point of a telescope does not produce an image. Why not?
Because your eye is also an optical system. Your eye focuses light just like a
telescope does, and it cannot focus on a real image such as that created by a
telescope. It requires a virtual image, which is what an eyepiece creates.
Take a look at the diagram. It
shows that both a telescope
and your eye focus light to a
point. Placing an eyepiece at
the focal point of a telescope
then creates a light beam
which is neither converging nor
diverging. Your eye can then
focus the light beam exiting the
eyepiece.

Aspects relevant to choice of Eyepiece

Magnification

The most important eyepiece characteristic is focal length. This is the number, in
millimeters, written on the side of every eyepiece. It allows you to determine the
magnification an eyepiece gives in combination with a given telescope.
Magnification is determined simply by dividing the focal length of the
telescope by the focal length of the eyepiece.

This means that a smaller number on an eyepiece gives a higher magnification. A

10 mm eyepiece would provide twice as much magnification as a 20mm eyepiece.
It also means that the same eyepiece gives different magnifications on different
scopes. A 10 mm eyepiece would be low power on a short-focal-length scope but
high power on a long-focal-length scope. For example, on an 80 mm short-focallength refractor, a 10mm might only provide 40x magnification, but the same
eyepiece on a 10" Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope would give 300x.
A typical eyepiece collection would include 3 eyepieces: one low power, one
medium power, and one high power. The usual magnification range depends on
the telescope, but for most scopes the normal range might be from 50x to 250x.

Increasing the magnification makes the image larger, but the

image gets dimmer and the field of view gets smaller.
Eye Relief
This is an important aspect of many eyepieces. Eye relief is the distance from the
eyepiece to the observer's eye. The shorter this distance, the more difficult it can
be to observe. Also, if the observer must wear eyeglasses, short-eye-relief eyepieces
can be very difficult or impossible to use. Long-focal-length eyepieces (usually low
power) inherently have long eye relief, so they do not need to be specially designed
to increase eye relief. Short-focal-length eyepieces (usually high power), on the
other hand, do not inherently have long eye relief and must be specially designed to
make them easier to use.

Two short focal length eyepieces, one

with normal eye relief and one specially
designed with long eye relief. Note the
difference in the size of the eye lens.
The eye relief of an eyepiece is the
distance from the top lens in the
eyepiece to the observer's eye

Field of View
The amount of sky seen through an eyepiece (called the true field of view) is
determined by both the magnification and the eyepiece's apparent field of view.
Apparent field of view is a design characteristic of an eyepiece design. Some
eyepieces have narrow apparent fields and some have wide apparent fields. If the
magnification is kept the same (i.e., the eyepieces have the same focal length), an
eyepiece with a wider apparent field will have a wider true field.

Changing the apparent field but not the magnification

changes the field of view but not the object size.

Observer can also change field of view by simply changing magnification. If the
apparent field is kept the same, a lower power eyepiece will give a wider field of
view. To view very large objects such as the Andromeda Galaxy or Pleiades star
cluster, observer need a very large field of view and hence a very low
magnification. Field of view is very important for getting the best view.

Increasing the magnification may not always result in a better

view, especially if the object being viewed is very large.

Eyepiece Sizes
There are two standard sizes of telescope eyepieces. The sizes are determined by
the diameter of the eyepiece barrel that fits into the telescope. The two standard
sizes are 1.25" and 2". A third size, 0.965", is a smaller standard that is usually
best to avoid (see below).
1.25" Eyepieces

Almost all telescopes are designed to be used with 1.25" diameter eyepieces. Most
telescopes will include at least one 1.25" eyepiece. Accessories such as Barlow
lenses and filters are designed to thread into the barrel of these eyepieces, so such
accessories are also distinguished by size. Good 1.25" eyepieces typically cost $40200, although there are more and less expensive models.
2" Eyepieces
The second standard size is the larger 2" diameter. Many telescopes will accept
these eyepieces, though some telescopes will require an optional adapter. Not all
telescopes work with 2" eyepieces. 2" eyepieces are wide-field, low-power eyepieces.
Above a certain magnification (which depends on the design), 2" diameter barrels
are not required, so not all wide-field eyepieces are 2"--some will still be 1.25" and
this is not a disadvantage, just a function of the design. This is a common
misconception. Accessories such as filters and Barlow lenses are designed for 2"
eyepieces as well. 2" eyepieces typically cost $200-400, with some of the largest
and highest quality eyepieces costing around $600. Some inexpensive models are
also available for around $100, though these will obviously not have the features or
quality of the more expensive eyepieces.

Above: A 2" wide-field eyepiece compared to a standard 1.25" eyepiece. Both are 26mm eyepieces.

0.965" Eyepieces

The final eyepiece size is the one to avoid. 0.965" eyepieces are the standard size
for "department store" telescopes. These inexpensive telescopes often frustrate new
stargazers, and one of the primary reasons is that viewing through 0.965"
eyepieces is all but impossible. Also, standard accessories such as Barlow lenses
and filters are not normally available for these eyepieces. And you are usually
stuck with the eyepieces that come with the scope since 0.965" eyepieces are rarely
sold separately. The difference between a scope with 1.25" eyepieces and one with
0.965" eyepieces is usually the difference between a scope that ends up in the yard
showing you the wonders of the universe and one that ends up in the closet
collecting dust.

Common Telescope Eyepiece Designs

(Including the Brandon, Erfle, Huyghens, Kellner, Konig,
Modified Achromat, Monocentric, Orthoscopic, Plossl,
Ramsden, RKE, Tele Vue/Nagler and TMB Planetary
designs)
By Chuck Hawks

Brandon eyepieces. Illustration courtesy of Vernonscope & Company.

This article deals only with fixed focal length eyepieces. The top zoom eyepieces are
described in detail in the article, Comparison: 8-24mm Zoom Eyepieces from
Celestron, Meade, Tele Vue and Vixen.
There are many different designs, or optical formulas, for oculars. Many are named
for their original designer, famous opticians with last names such as Huyghens,
Ramsden, Kellner, Plossl, Konig, Erfle, Branden and Nagler.
Like camera lenses, inside of every ocular you will find a group or groups of
individual lens elements. Oculars usually consist of two or more elements. Simple
two element eyepiece designs are plagued by lateral color error (color fringing).
Probably the best known two element optical formulas are the Ramsden and
Huyghens, which date back to the 17th and 18th Centuries respectively. Two
element oculars should be avoided.
Achromatic oculars, such as the original three element Kellner design that uses a
cemented, achromatic doublet eye lens, focus the long and short wavelengths of
visible light, red and blue, to a common plane, but green light is not properly
focused and typically creates a noticeable fringe of color around bright objects.
Nevertheless, the Kellner design is much better corrected than the Ramsden or
Huyghens. Similar in function to the Kellner design are the Modified Achromat
(MA) and Super Modified Achromat (SMA) eyepieces from Meade.
In practice, a fourth lens element is usually required to "bring it all together" and
produce sharp views without intrusive lateral color and other aberrations. (All
ocular designs have some residual aberrations, though.) The best eyepieces today

incorporate a minimum of four elements in at least two groups in their design.

Four element oculars are common and generally perform well. Orthoscopic and
Plossl oculars are the most popular four element designs, while wide view Erfle
type oculars use five elements.
Some modern oculars incorporate more elements (up to eight) than the traditional
designs for improved correction of aberrations, increased eye relief and a wider
apparent field of view (AFOV). Often these eyepieces incorporate elements made of
extra low dispersion (ED) glasses. The upscale Burgess/TMB Planetary (60-degree
AFOV), Celestron Axiom LX (81-degree AFOV), Celestron Ultima LX (70-degree
AFOV), Celestron X-Cel (55-degree AFOV), Meade Ultra Wide (84-degree AFOV),
Orion Stratus (68-degree AFOV), Orion MegaView (82-degree AFOV), Tele Vue Ethos
(100-degree AFOV), Tele Vue Nagler (82-degree AFOV), Tele Vue Panoptic (68-degree
AFOV), Tele Vue Radian (60-degree AFOV) and Vixen Lanthanum-LVW (65-degree
AFOV) ocular lines, to name a few of the better known brands, are examples of
such eyepieces. These are priced higher than standard designs and they are
available in a variety of focal lengths in both 1.25" and 2" size.
However, more elements are not necessarily better in terms of brightness,
sharpness and contrast. The more glass photons of light have to travel through on
their way to your eye, the more light is absorbed, scattered and lost, decreasing
brightness and contrast. Optical design is always a balancing act, an attempt to
minimize flaws (aberrations and distortion) and maximize certain desirable
characteristics, such as sharpness from center to edge, brightness, contrast, eye
relief and a flat field.
Different eyepiece designs do better in some areas than others and no design is
perfect in all respects, so you have to choose the design that is most suitable for
your intended purpose. The quality, care and precision of manufacture is also
extremely important. Online specialty retailers, such as Optics Planet
(www.opticsplanet.com), offer extensive eyepiece selections at a wide range of
prices. Following, in alphabetical order, is a brief description of the most common
eyepiece designs encountered today.
Brandon
Brandon eyepieces are manufactured by Vernonscope and sold directly, as well as
by Questar. Questar supplies house brand Brandon oculars with its telescopes.
Vernonscope offers 1.25" Brandon eyepieces in 8mm, 12mm, 16mm, 24mm and
32mm focal lengths. (These are pictured in the color photo at the top of this page.)
The Brandon uses four elements in two groups. It is a symmetrical design similar
to the Plossl with a 50-degree AFOV, but its optical properties are intended to
mimic those of an Orthoscopic ocular. Brandons are sharp, flat field, highly
corrected eyepieces with very low distortion and exceptionally high contrast. Like
Plossls and Orthos, however, short focal length Brandons are lacking in eye relief.
Interestingly, unlike other premium eyepieces, Vernonscope Brandon oculars are
not multi-coated, although they are fully coated. The stated reason for this is to
reduce narrow angle light scatter; multi-coatings increase narrow angle light

scatter, which interferes with low contrast detail. Vernonscope has tried seven layer
multi-coatings and their single layer anti-reflection coating works as well or better.
Erfle
Heinrich Erfle invented this design during the First World War. The basic Erfle uses
five elements in three groups and delivers a wide apparent field of view of about 60degrees. Erfle variations are also made with six elements in three groups, as in the
diagram below. Erfles have a nice, flat field from edge to edge, although sharpness
and contrast is slightly inferior to the Orthoscopic and Plossl designs. They also
feature long eye relief, especially important for eyeglass wearers.

Erfle eyepiece diagram. Illustation courtesy of Wickipedia Commons.

This combination of features makes these oculars excellent for wide sky viewing of
open clusters, star fields, etc. They are usually found in focal lengths in the 18mm
to 32mm range. I have used 1.25" Erfles in 24mm and 32mm focal lengths, where
they give a greater field of view than Plossl type oculars.
Erfle type oculars make excellent medium to low magnification eyepieces and today
are often sold under proprietary names that do not credit Heinrich Erfle. Erfles are
available in 1.25" and 2" size. Meade QX 1.25 and 2" oculars are probably the best
known Erfles. 1.25" QX eyepieces are available in 15mm and 20mm focal lengths.
Offering a similar apparent field in both sizes are the premium, 6-element designs
called Super Wide Angle by the Meade Instrument Company, which fulfill the same
role as traditional five element Erfles. In 1.25" diameter, the Meade Super Wide
Angle oculars are available in focal lengths from 13.8mm to 24.5mm.

Huyghens
In the 1660's, Dutch astronomer Christian Huyghens designed a simple, two
element eyepiece using a large, planoconvex field lens placed before the focus point
of the telescope and a small planoconvex eye lens, separated by about half the sum
of their focal lengths. The plain side of both elements faces the observer's eye and
the image is formed between the two elements, making this a negative ocular.

Huyghens eyepiece diagram. Illustation courtesy of Wickipedia Commons.

Huyghenian eyepieces have a restricted AFOV and there isn't a lot of eye relief. The
small eye lens makes peering through high magnification Huyghenian oculars
rather like looking through a pin hole. This design served its purpose in the 17th
and 18th Centuries, but is obsolete today. Because they are inexpensive to make,
Huyghens eyepieces are still sometimes provided with cheap, department store
telescopes.
Kellner (Achromat)
Carl Kellner designed the first achromatic ocular in 1850. (Some sources report the
date as 1863.) Along with the similar Meade Modified Achromat (MA), these are the
least expensive practical oculars and are offered in focal lengths from about 6mm
to 40mm. Kellners use three elements in two groups to minimize color fringing.
However, some lateral color error is apparent when looking at bright subjects, such
as Jupiter or Venus, against a dark sky.

Kellner eyepiece diagram. Illustation courtesy of Wickipedia Commons.

The design uses a planoconvex, two cemented-element eye lens and a large convex
field lens. Kellner type oculars generally have an apparent field of view of about 40degrees, with moderate eye relief. They have good center sharpness, but exhibit
some field curvature and astigmatism. Edge sharpness is only so-so, as is the
apparent field of view. They are most useful in medium and longer focal lengths for
terrestrial, planetary and lunar viewing.
Kellners are better than two element achromats, but clearly inferior to four element
Ortho and Plossl oculars. They can, however, provide decent views with small
telescopes. I have found the moderate 16mm to 25mm focal lengths to be the most
useful among the Kellner oculars I have owned. Kellner and other three-element
ocular designs are available in .96", 1.25" and 2" diameter oculars. Celestron used
to supply Kellner oculars with their least expensive telescopes and still may.
Konig

Designed in 1915 by Albert Konig, the Konig eyepiece is similar to an Orthoscopic

with a doublet field lens in place of the triplet. The original design allows for high
magnification with excellent eye relief, the most eye relief proportional to focal
length of any design prior to the introduction of Al Nagler's high magnification
eyepieces. The Konig's apparent field of view is about 55-degrees.

Konig eyepiece diagram. Illustation courtesy of Wickipedia Commons.

Modern versions of Konigs usually use lower dispersion glasses than were available
to Albert during WW I and sometimes add more elements. The most common
change is to add a positive, concave-convex element before the cemented doublet
field lens, with the convex surface facing the doublet. These modernized Konigs
offer 60 to 70-degree AFOV's and are usually sold under proprietary names that do
not credit Konig as the original designer.
Modified Achromat
A three element ocular design used by Meade for the oculars they supply with their
least expensive telescopes. Functionally similar to a Kellner ocular. Some chromatic
aberration is apparent when looking at very bright subjects, such as Jupiter or
Venus. They have a narrow apparent field of view of about 40 degrees and limited
eye relief in the shorter focal lengths, which makes them difficult to look through.
MA's are adequate starter oculars in medium and longer focal lengths, but it is best
to replace MA's with Ortho, Plossl or other more sophisticated ocular designs when
the opportunity arises.
Monocentric
Designed by Adolf Steinheil in 1883, this unusual eyepiece design uses three thick
elements that are segments of concentric circles. The two outer elements are crown
glass cemented to a flint glass center element. The result is a solid eyepiece with
only two air to glass surfaces (the front and back). The Monocentric exhibits
excellent brightness, contrast and freedom from ghost images. Unfortunately, the
apparent field of view is very limited, about 25-degrees. However, this is not too
much of a drawback when the Monocentric ocular is used for its intended purpose,
which is viewing planetary and lunar details at high magnification.

Monocentric eyepiece diagram. Illustation courtesy of Wickipedia Commons.

The modern optician Thomas M. Back did considerable work improving
Monocentric eyepieces by tweaking the design, using ED glass and low scatter antireflection coatings, ultimately creating the TMB Super Monocentric oculars for
telescopes with focal ratios slower than f/6. This was intended to squeeze the
absolute maximum contrast and sharpness possible from an eyepiece and Back
was willing to sacrifice eye relief, AFOV and correction for off-axis astigmatism to
achieve his goal. The result was a line of eyepieces beloved by serious planetary
observers, but ignored by nearly everyone else. TMB Super Monocentric focal
lengths included 4mm, 5mm, 6mm, 7mm, 8mm, 9mm, 10mm, 12mm, 14mm and
16mm. The AFOV was 32-degrees. The Super Monocentric eyepiece line was
subsequently replaced by the current Burgess/TMB Planetary line, based on a
totaly different design.
Orthoscopic (Ortho)
An apochromatic ocular design by Ernst Abbe' that uses four elements
asymmetrically spaced in two groups with (unlike Plossl, Branden and Erfle
oculars) crown glass elements outside of the flint glass elements. There is a single
eye lens and the field lens is a three element cemented group.

Orthoscopic eyepiece diagram. Illustation courtesy of Wickipedia Commons.

Well designed and manufactured Orthos are sharp, well corrected, flat field
eyepieces. The Ortho was designed for very low pincushion and barrel distortion
and it is a good design for viewing bright objects with a lot of detail. It is excellent
for planetary and lunar viewing. Orthos typically have very good center sharpness
with only a small amount of field curvature and astigmatism. Orthos with 1.25"
diameter mounting barrels are usually available in focal lengths from about 4mm
to 25mm.
The drawbacks to Orthoscopic eyepieces are an AFOV of around 40 to 45-degrees
and limited eye relief. Due to their restricted eye relief, Orthos are difficult for
eyeglass wearers to use in focal lengths shorter than about 25mm and difficult for

everyone in focal lengths shorter than about 10mm, unless you don't mind your
eyelashes brushing the ocular lens. Despite their limited eye relief, I have enjoyed
the tack sharp views provided by the Orthos I have owned.
Perhaps because of its asymmetrical design, an Ortho is less susceptible to
internal reflections (ghost images) than Plossl oculars. On the other hand, the 50degree AFOV of Plossl oculars makes them a better choice for deep sky and allaround viewing.
Plossl
Designed by Georg Simon Plossl in 1860, the Plossl design has become the
mainstay of the modern ocular business and probably represents the best value in
terms of performance and price, especially in medium and long focal lengths.
Celestron (Omni), Meade (Series 4000), Orion (Highlight), Tele Vue, Vixen (NPL) and
others offer high quality Plossl oculars. Good Plossls are expensive to manufacture,
because they require good optical glass and precisely matched concave and convex
doublet surfaces to prevent internal reflections. All Plossl oculars are not created
equal.

Plossl eyepiece diagram. Illustation courtesy of Wickipedia Commons.

The Plossl optical formula uses four elements in two symmetrical, cemented pairs.
Unfortunately, as alluded to in the paragraph above, this symmetry makes Plossl
oculars susceptible to internal reflections when viewing bright objects at high
magnification, so an internally blackened lens barrel with thread baffles is
important, as are blackened lens edges and sophisticated anti-reflection multicoatings. Inexpensive Plossls lacking these features deliver noticeably inferior views
and are not a good value.
If well made, Plossls are bright, contrasty, with a flat field, and excellent sharpness.
Plossls are usually well corrected and offer about a 50-degree apparent field of
view. This apparent field is wider than an Ortho or a Kellner, but not as wide as an
Erfle or Radian. Their eye relief is limited to about 70-80% of their focal length.
Plossls are available from many suppliers in a wide range of focal lengths in 1.25"
and 2" sizes.
The focal length range for 1.25" Plossls is about 6mm to 45mm. Plossl oculars are
usually parfocal within a given manufacturer's line, which means that when one is
in focus, they are all (at least approximately) in focus. Plossls provide adequate eye
relief for eyeglass wearers in focal lengths of about 25mm and longer. Non-eyeglass

wearers can usually tolerate Plossls as short as about 10-12mm before their
eyelashes start brushing the ocular lens.
Plossls are useful for most purposes, from short focal lengths designed for
planetary views and splitting double stars, to long focal lengths designed for
spectacular deep sky views. A 50-56mm Plossl in 2" diameter is spectacular for
wide field, deep sky viewing. Telescope companies such as Celestron, Meade, Orion,
Sky View, Stellarvue, Tele Vue and Vixen generally supply a 1.25" Plossl eyepiece
with their better telescope packages. There are full length articles about Celestron
Omni, Meade Series 4000 and Tele Vue Plossl eyepieces on the Astronomy and
Photography Online home page.
Ramsden
Created by and named for the English mathematician Jesse Ramsden in the
1700's, this is a symmetrical two element design using two planoconvex elements
(eye lens and field lens). The plain side of both elements faces outward and the
image is formed between the eye element and the observer's eye, making the
Ramsden design a positive ocular.

Ramsden eyepiece diagram. Illustation courtesy of Wickipedia Commons.

Both elements are made of crown glass and the Ramsden design was once popular
with those who made their own eyepieces. Subject to lateral color error and
substantial loss of sharpness at the edge of the field of view. Restricted AFOV, but
longer eye relief than the Huyghens and Kellner designs.
Reversed Kellner (RKE)
Designed for Edmund Scientific in the late 1960's by David Rand, the RKE is a
three element eyepiece that provides a somewhat greater AFOV than the traditional
Kellner. It is known as a Reversed Kellner, because the configuration of the
elements is reversed from that of the Kellner.

RKE eyepiece diagram. Illustation courtesy of Wickipedia Commons.

The RKE uses a single convex eye lens and a concave/convex cemented doublet
field lens with the concave element facing the light source. A diagram of the RKE
looks like a Konig with the two groups spaced farther apart.
Tele Vue Nagler, Radian, Panoptic and Ethos
Tele Vue's resident head optician is Al Nagler, one of the best known optical
designers in the world today. These popular premium oculars incorporate various
types of ED glass elements in their multi-element designs. The Tele Vue proprietary
eyepieces include the Nagler, Radian, Panoptic and Ethos lines, all of which use
more than four elements.
Al Nagler formulated a short focal length eyepiece design that incorporates a pair of
elements that essentially serve as a permanent, built-in Barlow lens (note the two
elements that constitute the field group at the far left in the diagram below) and
achieved an incredible 82-degree apparent field of view coupled with comfortable
eye relief (12mm-19mm, depending on focal length, in current Nagler eyepieces).
The Nagler eyepiece design has evolved over the years with the result that Nagler
Type 4, 5 and 6 are the current versions. The Nagler Types 1, 2 and 3 have been
discontinued.

Nagler 2 eyepiece diagram. Illustation courtesy of Wickipedia Commons.

Nagler oculars are generally big and heavy and therefore often are not appropriate
for small or compact telescopes. They contain six to eight elements in four or five
groups. Introduced by Tele Vue in 1982, Naglers have become the "gold standard"
for short oculars, especially in the 2" diameter mounting barrel size.
Nagler ultra-wide designs are primarily used for short focal length (high
magnification) applications, because short focal length necessitates short eye relief
and tiny eye lenses in most conventional ocular designs. The Nagler design
eliminates both of these drawbacks. Nagler Types 4, 5 and 6 are more compact
than the original (hand grenade size!) Naglers and retain the 82-degree apparent
field of the earlier types. Focal lengths run from 4.8mm to 16mm in 1.25"
mounting barrels. There are also a couple of very short focal length Nagler zoom
oculars, a 2-4mm and a 3-6mm.
The Radian design incorporates six elements in four groups in focal lengths above
8mm and seven elements in five groups in the 6mm and shorter focal lengths.
Radians have a uniform 60-degree apparent field of view and 20mm eye relief,

regardless of focal length. They range in focal length from 3mm to 18mm, in 1.25"
size only, and are primarily intended for medium to high magnification
applications. Radian oculars offer full field sharpness with true orthoscopic
linearity, high contrast and relatively compact size. They are a good choice for
eyeglass wearers and are physically smaller than Tele Vue Nagler oculars. There is
a full length article about Tele Vue Radian oculars on the Astronomy and
Photography Online home page.
Tele Vue's premium Panoptic oculars have a 68-degree apparent field, generous
eye relief and are available in both 2" and 1.25" barrel diameters. Their optical
design uses six elements in four groups. The Panoptic 41mm delivers the widest 2"
AFOV possible. There are three focal lengths in the 1.25" size: 15mm, 19mm,
22mm and 24mm. The latter has the widest 1.25" actual FOV possible, equal to
that of a 32mm Plossl with, of course, considerably greater magnification (but less
brightness). Eye relief is approximately 70% of focal length.
The Ethos line is the work of lead designer Paul Dellechiaie and has the widest
apparent field of view among Tele Vue eyepieces, 100-degrees. It is also the most
expensive. Ethos oculars feature low distortion, high contrast and very good center
sharpness. They are intended for high magnification planetary observing. There are
21mm and 17mm Ethos eyepieces in 2" mounting barrels and 6mm, 8mm, 10mm
and 13mm focal lengths in dual purpose 2"/1.25" mounting barrels. Eye relief is a
constant 15mm for all Ethos oculars. These are very large oculars, weighing from
about one pound to 2.25 pounds for the massive 2", 21mm Ethos.
TMB Planetary II (Burgess/TMB Planetary)
Designed by the late Thomas M. Back and marketed by both TMB Optical and
Burgess Optical, these are apochromatic, flat field, low distortion, short focal
length eyepieces with many of the advantages of an Orthoscopic ocular, but
without the disadvantages. This was achieved by using modern design techniques
and optical glasses.
Contrast and sharpness are superb. The eye lens is sizeable and easy to look
through and the eye relief is a comfortable 16mm for all focal lengths. The AFOV is
a generous 60-degrees. The 9mm Planetary uses six elements, all other focal
lengths use five elements.
Here is an explanation of the reason for the Planetary eyepiece from Burgess
Optical: "A planetary eyepiece is optimized to view bright objects while showing
maximum detail and definition. It is an eyepiece with very high light transmission,
very high contrast, minimal lateral color and minimal light scatter. For Dobsonian
users and others without tracking drives, lateral color and other aberrations are
minimized to allow the planet to drift across the field of view while still being sharp
and having high contrast. Also, because lunar and planetary observers seek to see
as much detail as possible, planetary eyepieces typically have a short focal length
for high magnification."

I replaced all of my short focal length Plossl and Ortho oculars with Burgess/TMB
Planetary eyepieces and have never looked back. The available focal lengths are
2.5mm, 3mm, 4mm, 5mm, 6mm, 7mm, 8mm and 9mm. All are supplied with
twist-up eyecups.

Finder Scope
A finderscope is an aiming device used in astronomy, typically a small
auxiliary telescope mounted on the main astronomical telescope along the
same line of sight. The finderscope usually has a smaller magnification than the
main telescope, providing a much larger field of view, useful for manually aiming
(also called "slewing") a telescope and locating a desired astronomical object. Some
finderscopes have crosshairs to aid in accurately pointing the telescope system at a
target.